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PURPOSES
Technical writing can accomplish many purposes, and is often determined by audience, which
then affects the tone of the correspondence. Let's say that you're writing a memo, and your
purpose is to get action. Who is your audience and what tone is required? If it is for the
manager, the tone for a request or proposal is positive, and polite. If it is to a subordinate, the
tone might be more authoritative.
CLARITY
The ultimate goal of good technical writing is clarity. If you write a memo, letter, or report
which is unclear to your readers, which your readers can't understand, then what have you
accomplished? You've wasted time. First, your readers don't understand your point or can't
follow your train of thought. They must write to follow-up enquiry to determine your needs.
This wastes their time. Once you receive the inquiry, you must rewrite your correspondence,
trying to clarify your initial intentions. You've now written twice to accomplish the same goal.
This wastes your time.
To avoid these time-consuming endeavors, write for clarity. But how do you do this?
Provide Specific Detail
One way to achieve clarity is by supplying specific, quantified information. If you write using
vague, abstract adjectives or adverbs, such as some or recently, your readers will interpret
these words in different ways. The adverb recently will mean thirty minutes ago to one reader,
yesterday to another, and last week to a third reader. This adverb, therefore, is not clear. The
same applies to an adjective like some. You write, "I need some information about the
budget." Your readers can only guess at what you mean by some. Do you want the desired
Budget Increase for 1992, the budget expenditures for 1990, the allotted budget increase for
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1991, the guidelines for implementing a budget increase, the budgeted allotment for travel, or
the explanation for the budget decrease for training?
Look at the following example of vague writing caused by imprecise, unclear
adjectives. (Vague word usage is underlined. The flawed example is then followed by
improvements whereby the writing states specific dates and specifications.
ACTIVITY REPORT DRAFT
Our latest attempt at molding perform protectors has led to some positive result. We spent
several hours in Dept.15 trying different machine setting and techniques. Several good
parts were molded using two different sheet thicknesses. Here's a summary of the
findings.
First, we tried the thick sheet material. At 240F, this thickness worked well.
Next, we tried the thinner sheet material. The thinner material is less forgiving, but after a
few adjustments we were making good parts. Still, the thin material caused the most
handling problems.
The engineer who wrote this report realized that it was unclear. To solve the problem, she
rewrote the report, quantifying the vague adjectives.
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The following rules are to be used when determining whether or not to duplicate
message:
Do not duplicate non-duplicatable messages.
A message is considered non-duplicatable if it has already been duplicated.
Your job duties will be to assure that distributed application modifications will execute
without abnormal termination through the creation of production JCL system testing.
It's hard to believe, but these examples were written by business people who were trying to
communicate something. However, the examples are filled with unintelligible, uptight, oldfashioned, long-winded, stiff, bureaucratic, obtuse, musty, cobwebbed words which no one
should use in this century. The words are too difficult to understand.
The following is a list of difficult, out-of-date terms and their modern alternatives.
Obscure words
aforementioned
initial
In lieu of
Accede
As per your request
issuance
This is to advise you
subsequent In
as much as
Ascertain
Pursuant to
forward
cognizant
Endeavor
remittance
disclose
Attached herewith
Pertain to
Supersede Obtain
Easy words
already discussed
first
instead of
agree
as you requested
Send
I'd like you to know
Later
Because
Find out
After
Mail
know
try
Pay
Show
Attached
About
Replace
get
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such cases, provide a pronunciation key when you first use the acronym by itself, as in
this example.
A small computer system interface (SCSI, pronounced "skuzzy") cable
connects the disk drive to the SCSI port.
Punctuating Abbreviations and Acronyms
While you usually do not have to add punctuation to abbreviations and acronyms,
following list provides a few exceptions:
Use periods in abbreviations that look like words.
U.S. for United States
No. for number
Use punctuation marks other than a period in abbreviations or acronyms when
punctuation is standard form.
I/0 for input/output
3-D for three-dimensional
Add an "s" and no apostrophe to form the plural of abbreviations or acronyms
contain no periods.
PCs
ISVs
GUIs
Add an apostrophe and "s" to form the plural of abbreviations or acronyms that
internal periods.
M.S.'s
Ph.D.'s
the
that
that
use
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Another common problem with passive voice construction concerns prepositions, look at the
following example:
Overtime is favored by hourly workers. (6 words)
Passive voice
Again, this sentence, written in the passive voice, uses a helping verb (is), has the subject
(hourly workers) acted on rather than initiating the action, but also includes a preposition (by).
The sentences are wordy. The revised sentence read as follow:
Hourly workers favor overtime. (4 words)
Active voice
We have omitted the helping verb 'is', we have deleted the prepositions 'by', and the subject,
'hourly workers', whom initiates the action. The sentence is less wordy and clearer.
CONCISENESS
After clarity, your second major goal in technical writing is conciseness. Conciseness is
important for at least two reasons.
First, remember how time consuming technical writing may be in the work
environment? American workers spend approximately eight hours per week writing, and
additional time reading and revising others' writing. Conciseness in writing can help reduce
some of this time. If you write concisely, providing thorough detail in fewer words, you can
save yourself time and take up less of your readers' time.
Second, concise writing can aid comprehension. If you dump an enormous number of
words on your readers, they might give up before up before finishing your correspondence or
skip and skim so much that they miss a key concept. Wordy writing will lead your readers to
think. "Oh no! I'll never be able to finish that. Maybe I can skim through it. I'll probably get
enough information that way." Conciseness, on the other hand, makes your writing more
appealing to your reader, they'll think, "oh, that's not too bad: I can read it easily." If they can
read your correspondence easily, they will read it with greater interest and involvement. This,
of course, will aid their comprehension.
Let's look at some poor writing-writing which is wordy, time consuming to read, and not easily
comprehensible.
Please prepare to supply readout your findings and recommendations to the officer of
the Southwest Group at the completion of your study period. As we discussed, the
undertaking of this project implies no currently know incidences of impropriety in the
Southwest Group, nor is it designed specifically to find any. Rather it is assure
ourselves of sufficient caution, control, and impartiality when dealing with areas such
potential vulnerability. I am confident that we will be better served as a company as a
result of this effort.
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Is that paragraph (pg 6) easy to understand? No, it's not. Why? What gets in your way? Do
you have difficulty following it because you are an outsider and are not aware of the situation
that generated it? That's only one of the problems. The reason you have difficulty
understanding this paragraph is because it's poorly written. It causes difficulty for two reasons:
(a) the paragraph is too long, and (b) the words and sentences in the paragraphs are too long.
Limit Paragraph Length
The number of lines per paragraph compared to the number of words per paragraph is
arbitrary. Obviously, as the writer, you must decide what's best. Some paragraphs, due to the
complexity of the subjects matter, might require more development. Other paragraphs
requiring less development can be shorter.
Nonetheless, an excessively long paragraph is ineffective. In a long paragraph, you
force your reader to go through many words and digest large amounts of information. This
hinders comprehension. In contrast, short, manageable paragraphs invite reading and help
your reader understand your content.
As a rule of thumb, a paragraph in a memo, letter, or short report should consist of (a)
no more than seven-typed lines, and (b) no more than sixty words. Sometimes you can
accomplish these goals by cutting your paragraph in half: find a logical place to stop a
paragraph and then start a new one. Even the next difficult example can be improved in this
way.
Please prepare to supply readout to your findings and recommendations to the
officer to the Southwest Group at the completion of your study period. As we discussed
the undertaking of this project implies no currently know incidences of impropriety in the
Southwest Group nor is it designed specifically to find any.
Rather, it is to assure ourselves of sufficient caution, control, and impartiality
when dealing with an area laden with such potential vulnerability. I am confident that
we will be better served as a company as a result of this effort.
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) Now count the number of long words within the sentences you've just reviewed. Long
words are those with three or more syllables. You can't count (a) proper names, like
Leonardo Da Vinci, Christopher Columbus, or Alexander DeToqueville: (b)long words
that are created by combining shorter words, such as chairperson or policeperson; or
(c) three-syllable verbs created by ed or es endings, such as united or arranges. ( a
good example of a multisyllabic word is the word mul-ti-syl-lab-ic-)
) Finally, to determine the fog quotient, add the number of words per sentences and the
number of long words. Then multiply your total by 0.4.
Given this system, let's see how the original difficult paragraph scores. The paragraph is
composed of ninety-two words in four sentences. Thus, the average number of words
sentence is twenty-three. The paragraph contains sixteen multisyllabic words
(recommendation, officer, completion, period, undertaking, currently, incidences,
impropriety, specifically, sufficient, impartiality, area, potential, vulnerability, confident, and
company.)
23 (words per sentence)
+ 16 (multisyllabic words)
39 (Total)
39 (Total)
X .4 (fog factor)
15.6 (fog index level)
What does 15.6 mean? Look at the following fog index reading level:
Fog index Reading Level
Danger line
Fog Index
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
Fog Index
17
16
15
14
13
By Grade
college graduate
College senior
College junior
College sophomore
College freshman
By Grade
High school senior
High school junior
High school sophomore
High school freshman
Eighth grade
Seventh grade
Sixth grade
By Magazine
No popular magazine
Score this high.
By Magazine
Atlantic monthly
Time and Newsweek
Reader's Digest
Saturday Evening Post
Ladies' home journal
Modern romances
Comics
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The paragraph is written at a level midway between college junior and senior, definitely above
the danger line.
Why is this level of writing considered dangerous? A fog index of 15.6 enters the
danger zone for two reasons:
) Approximately eighteen percent of Americans graduate from college. Thus if you're
writing at a college level, you're alienating approximately eighty-two percent of your
audience.
) Studies show that college graduates read at approximately a tenth grade level. Thus,
even if you are writing to college graduates, you can't assume their reading skills are
proficient.
Given these facts, many businesses ask their employees to write at a sixth-to-eight-grade
level. To accomplish this, you would have to strive for an average of approximately fifteen
words per sentence and no more than five multisyllabic words per one hundred.
15
+5
20
20
x.4
8.0
(Total)
(fog factor)
(fog index level)
You can't always avoid multisyllabic words. Scientists would find it impossible to write
if they could never use words like electromagnetism, nitroglyc-erine, telemetry, or
trinitrotolulene. The purpose of a fog index is to make you aware that long words and
sentence create reading problems. Therefore, although you can't always avoid long words,
you should be careful when using them.
Here are ways to lower a potentially high fog index.
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If we use the meat cleaver approach, we can make this sentence more concise and easier to
understand.
Version 2
Please submit a GBC-16 Respirator Request and Issue Record for each
requester respirator. We then can maintain proper respirator and canister element
stock balances. We also can identify physical limitations which may negate an
individual's previous fit-test.
This sentence, now cut into a third, is more digestible. Because we have less to swallow
whole, we can understand the content more easily.
Avoid Shun Words
In the preceding examples, the original sentence contains forty-four words: the revised version
is composed of three sentences, totaling thirty-eight words.
Where did those missing six words go?
One way to write more concisely is to shun words ending in-tion or-sion- words ending
in a shun sound. For example, the original sentence reads "to ensure the identification of
physical limitations." To revise this, we simply wrote "identify physical limitations. "That's three
words versus six in the original version. Deleting three words in this case reduces wordiness
by fifty percent. Shun words are almost always unnecessarily wordy.
Let's try another example. Instead of writing "I want you to take into consideration the
following," you could write "consider the following." That's nine words versus three, a 66.6%
savings toward conciseness.
Look at the following shun words and their concise versions:
Shun Word
Came to the conclusion
With the exception of
Make revisions
Investigation of the
Consider implementation
Utilization of
Concise Version
Concluded (or decided)
Except for
Revise
Investigate
Implement
Use
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Camouflaged words are common. Here are some examples and their concise
versions:
Camouflaged Word
Make an amendment to
Make an adjustment of
Have a meeting
Thanking you in advance
For the purpose of discussing
Arrive at an agreement
At a later moment
Concise Version
Amend
Adjust
Meet
Thank you
Discuss
Agree
Later
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Concise Revision
To purchase
Rapidly (or state the exact speed)
Evidently
Regarding
First
Often (or state the number of times)
Although
Thinks
Because
Received
Enclosed is
By 11:30 A.M.
According to
Soon
Now
If
Broken
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ACCESSIBILITY
Another primary objective of effective technical writing is accessibility-placing data on the
page in such a way that your readers can easily absorb it. If you give your readers
excessively long paragraphs, pages full of wall-to-wall words, your readers either will give up
before they've begun or be unable to remember what they've read. In either instance, you fail
to communicate technical information effectively.
For example, look at the inaccessible presentation of the meeting minutes in Figure 1.
These minutes are neither concise nor clear. You are given so much data in such an
unappealing format that your first response upon seeing the correspondence probably is to
say, "Ughh! That's ugly. I don't want to read that."
Good technical writing doesn't just string together sentences. It presents information in a
manner that is accessible and that invites the reader into the correspondence-it is reader
friendly.
MINUTES
The meeting at the Carriage Club was attended by thirty members and guests. After the
dinner, Ray Clemmons introduced the guest speaker, university chancellor George Smith, and
noted his accomplishments and experience prior to education-U.S. Navy commander, Oak
Ridge Laboratory researcher, and politician.
Dr. Smith's topic, Industry and Education
Collaboration, was very interesting and included a history of special projects enjoyed by both
academics and corporate heads. Dr. Smith suggested that we engineers could work with
education to (1) to provide training seminars, (2) help in urban development, and (3) provide
intern opportunities.
Recent industry/education collaboration includes training seminars in
computers fiber optics, and human resource options. The chancellor's primary thrust was a
request for financial aid from industry for urban development. He said money had already
been donated by a large realty firm. Our support would take him over the top. Finally, the
chancellor also noted that industry could help itself, as well as the community, by providing
intern programs for university undergraduate majors. These internships could be half-or fullday "shadowing" sessions where students worked with engineers to get a feel for their future
job responsibilities. The chancellor stated that these internships not only would add to the
students' theoretical knowledge would make them better engineers when we hired them.
Everyone would benefit.
After the speech, our VP introduced new business, calling for
nominations for next year's officers, gave us the agenda for our next meeting, and adjourned
the meeting.
FIGURE 1: Inaccessible Meeting Minutes
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How can you make these minutes more inviting? How can you break up the wall-towall words and make key points jump off the page? To achieve accessibility, you need to
reformat using any of the following highlighting techniques:
1. White space: Achieved by indenting or double/triple spacing between lines, words,
or even letters within words.
2. Numbering: Enumeration creates itemized lists which can show sequence or
importance and which allow for future easy reference. The first item listed is either
the first in a sequence or the most important point in a list.
3. *Bullets: Bullets are created by using asterisks, dashes, a lowercase o, degree sign,
open boxes, etc.
4. Alphabetization: This is another way to create itemized lists. The only negative
aspect is that you'll run out at twenty-six. If you have twenty-seven points, then what
do you do?
5. Boldface: Created on a computer or typewriter by double striking.
6. All caps: this is the low-tech answer to boldfacing. Whereas you need computer
technology to boldface, you can highlight with all caps even if you're using an antique
typewriter.
7. Underlining: underlining and all caps are similar in that you must use both carefully.
If you underline too frequently or place frequently or place too much information in all
caps, none of your information will be emphatics. You must choose carefully what you
want to emphasize.
8. Italics: italics and underlining are similar highlighting techniques.
9. Heading: heading are an excellent way to break up the monotony of wall-to-wall
words and to achieve clarity. When you use heading (one to three words, preferable
underlined, set in boldface, and/or set apart from the text to create white space), you
tell the reader in just a few words what is to come in the subsequent paragraph(s).
This gives the reader a running start and helps clarify your intent.
10. Windowing: if you indent your key points and enclose them in a box, you're
windowing. Here's an example:
Note: be sure to hand-tighten the nuts at this point. Once you've completed
the installation, then go back and securely tighten all nuts.
Windowing draws your reader's attentions to an idea, thus making it more emphatic.
You can also use underlining and boldface in the box, as we have in the preceding
example.
11. Emphatics words: in the preceding window, we preface our comments with the
emphatics word Note. Other such emphatics words are caution, danger, and warning.
12. Color: another way to make emphatic words leap off the page is to color them.
Danger would be red, for instance, caution yellow, and warning orange. You can
emphasize key ideas within a memo or letter by using a highlighter.
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MINUTES
The meeting at the Carriage club was attended by thirty members and guests. After
the dinner, Ray Clemmons introduced the guest speaker, University chancellor
George Smith, and noted his accomplishment and experience prior to education:
o U.S Navy commander
o Oak Ridge Laboratory researcher
o Politician
Dr. Smith's topic, Industry and Education Collaboration, was very interesting and
included a history of special projects enjoyed by both academics and corporate
heads. Dr.Smith suggested that we engineers could work with education in the
following three ways:
1. Provide training seminars: recent industry/education training collaborations
include sessions on computers, fiber optics, and human resource options.
2. Provide intern opportunities: industry could help itself and the community
through internship for university students. This internship could be half or full*Bullet points and enumerated lists
day "shadowing" where student's worker with engineers to acquire hand-on
experience to balance their theoretical knowledge gained in college. This
would make the students better engineers when we hired them.
3. Help with urban development: this was Dr. Smith's primary thrust. He needed
financial aid from industry. A large donation had already been received from a
realty firm. Our support would push him over the top.
After the speech, our VP introduces new business, calling for nominations for next
year's officers, gave us the agenda for our next meeting, and adjourned the meeting.
FIGURE 2: Accessible Meeting Minutes
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should be used to introduce the list. For example, the following paragraph is a mess because
the writer is trying to make what is clearly a list into one paragraph:
Getting to university on time for a 9.00am lecture involves following a number of
steps. First of all, you have to set your alarm - you will need to do this before
you go to bed the previous night. When the alarm goes off you will need to get
out of bed. You should next take a shower and then get yourself dressed. After
getting dressed you should have some breakfast. After breakfast you have to
walk to the tube station, and then buy a ticket when you get there. Once you
have your ticket you can catch the next train to Stepney Green. When the train
arrives at Stepney Green you should get off and then finally walk to the
University.
The following is much simpler and clearer:
To get to university for a 9.00am lecture:
1. Set alarm before going to bed the previous night
2. Get out of bed when the alarm goes off
3. Take a shower
4. Get dressed
5. Have some breakfast
6. Walk to the tube station
7. Buy ticket
8. Catch next train to Stepney Green
9. Get out at Stepney Green
10. Walk to the University
The simple rule of thumb is: if what you are describing is a list, then you should always display
it as a list.
The above is an example of an enumerated list. The items need to be shown in numbered
order. If there is no specific ordering of the items in the list, then you should use bullet points
instead. For example, consider the following paragraph:
Good software engineering is based on a number of key principles. One such
principle is getting a good understanding of the customer requirements
(possibly by prototyping). It is also important to deliver in regular increments,
involving the customer/user as much as possible. Another principle is that it is
necessary to do testing throughout, with unit testing being especially crucial. In
addition to the previous principles, you need to be able to maintain good
communication within the project team (and also with the customer).
The paragraph is much better when rewritten using bullet points:
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ACCURACY
Clarity, conciseness, and accessibility are primary objectives of technical writing.
However, if your writing is clear, concise, and accessible but incorrect-grammatically or
textually-then you've wasted your time and destroyed your credibility. To be effective, your
technical writing must be accurate.
Accuracy in technical writing requires that you proofread your text. The examples of
inaccurate technical writing on page 17 are caused by poor proof-reading (we've underlined
the errors to highlight them).
First City Federal Saving and Loan
1223 Main
Oak Park, Montana
October 12, 1991
Mr, and Mrs David Harper
2447N. Purdom
Oak Park, Montana
Note that the First City Federal Savings and Loan incorrectly put the customer's street as the
last name.
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National Bank
1800 Commerce Street
Houston,TX
September 9, 1991
Adler's Dog and Oat Shop
8893 Southside
Bellaire, TX
Dear Sr:
In response to your request, your account with us has been close out.
We are summated a check in the amount of $468.72 (your existing balance). If
you have any questions, please fill free to contact us.
In additional to all the other errors, it should be "Dog and Cat Shop," of course. All the errors
make the writer look incompetent.
To ensure accurate writing, use the following proofreading tips:
1.
Let someone else read it. We miss errors in our own writing for two reasons. First, we
make the error because we don't know any better. Second, we read what we think we
wrote, not what we actually wrote. Another reader might help you catch errors.
2.
Use the gestation approaches. Let your correspondence sit for a while. Then, when you
read it, you'll be more objective.
3.
Read backwards. You should only read backwards to slow yourself down and to focus
on one word at a time to catch typographical errors.
4.
Read one line at a time. Use a ruler or scroll down your PC to isolate one line of text.
Again, this slows you down for proofing.
5.
Read long words syllable by syllable. Do you see that the word responsibility is
misspelled? You can catch this error if you read it one syllable at a time (re-spon-si-bi-lity)
6.
Use technology. Computer spell checks are useful for catching more errors. They might
miss proper names, homonyms (their, they're, or there) or incorrectly used words such
as device to mean devise.
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7.
Check figures, scientific and technical equations, and abbreviations. If you mean
$400,000, don't write $ 40,000. Double check any numbers or calculations. If you mean
to may say HCI (hydrochloric acid), don't write HC (a hydro-carbon).
8.
Read it out loud. Sometimes we can hear errors that we can't see. For example, we
know that an outline is incorrect. It just sounds wrong. An out-line sounds better and is
correct.
9.
Try scattershot proofing. Let your eyes roam around the page at random. Sometimes
errors look wrong at a glance. If you wander around the page randomly reading, you
often can isolate an error just by stumbling upon it.
10.
Use a dictionary. If you're uncertain. Look it up. If you commit errors in your technical
writing, your readers will think one of two things about you and your company: (a) They'll
either conclude that you are stupid, or (b) you're lazy, in either situation, you lose. Errors
create a negative impression at best; at worst, a typographical error relaying false
figures, calculations, amounts, equations, or scientific/medical data can be disastrous.
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Passive (indirect)
Active (direct)
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PASSIVE (unclear)
ACTIVE (clear)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking Seeking to lay off workers without taking
the blame, consultants were hired to break the blame, the CEO hired consultants to
the bad news. (who was seeking to lay off break the bad news.
workers?)
2. PARALLEL STRUCTURE
Parallel structure is the presentation of related information in a sentence in a consistent,
balanced manner, thereby contributing to writing clarity.
Parallel structure is particularly
important in sentences containing conjunctions, such as and, but, or, eitheror,
neithernor, not onlybut also.
Balancing Items in a Series
NOT PARALLEL
Don enjoys swimming, tennis, and to work
in his garden.
PARALLEL
Don enjoys swimming, tennis, and
working in his garden OR
Don enjoys swimming, tennis, and
gardening.
The parallel sentences are clearer than the non-parallel one because the items in the
series are balanced grammatically; that is, they are all NOUNS.
Jason had to vacuum the carpets, to wash Jason has to vacuum the carpets, to wash
the
windows,
and
emptying
the the windows, and to empty the wastepaper
wastepaper baskets before he leaves work baskets before he goes home.
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because the items in the
series all begin with an infinitive phrase. (An infinitive phrase is 'to' followed by a verb;
this combination forms a noun)
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PARALLEL
My sister's dog is frisky but obedient.
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because the related
information has been balanced grammatically; that is frisky and obedient are both
adjectives.
Howard promised to attend the party and
he would bring refreshments.
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because of their grammatical
consistency, that is through infinitive phrases (the first parallel sentence) and dependent
clauses (the second parallel sentence).
PARALLEL
Lindsay likes small discussion classes Lindsay likes small discussion classes
better.
better than huge lecture courses.
The parallel sentences are clearer than the non-parallel one because it indicates what is
being contrasted with small discussion classes.
Not only is Dr. Libby a fine dentist but also
an outstanding guitarist.
The parallel sentence is clearer than the non-parallel one because the information
following the correlative conjunctions (not only, but also) is balanced grammatically, that
is, by two adjectives and one noun.
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Parallelism
How do you write parallel subheading?
Headings and subheadings that set off specific sections of your report also need to be
parallel. For example, if you use a two-word adjective/noun combination to introduce one
section of your report (i.e. Program Advantages), then use the same grammatical structure to
introduce the next section (i.e. Anticipated Problems).
Look at the following example outlines:
WRONG
BUT
I. Modifying a Graph
A. Data selection updating
B. To add or delete columns
C. How to change colors
D. Titles and legends
I. Modifying a Graph
A. Changing the data
B. Adding or deleting columns
C. Changing the colors
D. Adding titles and legends
I.
II.
III.
I.
II.
III.
It is not necessary for all your headings to be parallel with all your subheadings, but headings
should be parallel with each other and subheadings should be parallel with each other.
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Sequence I Order
Time
Example
Emphasis
Place I Position
Cause and effect
Additional support or
evidence
Conclusion I Summary
TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION
Also, in the same way, just as.so too, likewise,
similarly
But, however, in spite of, on the one hand.on the
other hand, nevertheless, notwithstanding, in contrast,
on the contrary, still, yet
First, second, third,.next, then, finally
After, afterward, at last, before, currently, during,
earlier, immediately, later, meanwhile, now, recently,
simultaneously, subsequently, then
For example, for instance, namely, specifically, to
illustrate
Even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly
Above, adjacent, below beyond, here, in front, nearby,
there
Accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus
Additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally
important, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover,
then
finally, in a word, in brief, in conclusion, in the end, in
the final analysis, on the whole, thus, to conclude, to
summarize, in sum, in summary
Morale
Unusual
Role
It's
Sight
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Residence
Stationary
Effect
Among
Principals
Implied
Oral
Personnel
Accept
Different
Complement
Contributed
respectively
Residents
Stationery
Affect
Between
Principles
Inferred
Verbal
Personal
Except
Difference
Compliment
Attributed
respectfully
Rule
Spell out numbers nine and
under; use figures for higher
numbers.
Example
The auditor found 13 discrepancies in the stock
records.
The auditor found nine discrepancies in the stock
records.
Seventy-three bonds and six boxes were destroyed.
Three boys were drowned in that river.
We managed to salvage three lathes, one drill, and
thirteen welding machines.
Sales increases over last year were 9 percent on
automotive parts, 14 percent on hardware, and 23
percent on appliances.
Three salespersons exceeded $1,500, fourteen
exceeded $1,000, and thirty-one exceeded $500.
July 3, 2004
I shall be there on the 13th.
Ms Mimi signed the contract on the seventh of July.
Sales have declined since the 14th of August.
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6. NON-SEXIST LANGUAGE
These are techniques for shifting from sexist to nonsexist language. However, not all
strategies suit all writing styles. So, only use the ones that work best for the writing.
Technique 1 : Avoid Personal Pronouns Altogether
One easy way to avoid sexist language is to delete or replace unnecessary pronouns.
Example:
Sexist language
During his first day on the job, any new
employee in the toxic-waste laboratory
must report to the company doctor for his
employment physical.
Nonsexist language
During the first day on the job, each new
employee in the toxic-waste laboratory
must report to the company doctor for a
physical.
Nonsexist language
1) All geologists should submit their time
sheets on the Thursday before checks are
issued.
2) Nurses should make every effort to
complete their rounds each hour.
Technique 3 : Use Forms Like "He or She", "Hers or His", and "Him or Her"
This solution requires the writer to include pronouns for both genders. However, this stylist
language may bother some readers because they tend to feel the structure "her or his" is
wordy and awkward. Many readers are bothered even more by the slash formations
"he/she", "his/her" and "her/him". Avoid this usage.
Example :
Sexist language
The president made it clear that each
McDuff
branch
manager
will be
responsible for the balance sheet of his
respective office.
Nonsexist language
The president made it clear that each
McDuff
branch
manager
will
be
responsible for the balance sheet of his or
her respective office.
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Nonsexist language
Submit your paperwork to the Human
Resources Department after selecting
your insurance option in the benefit
plan.
Example:
Sexist language
Nonsexist language
1) Dear Miss Finnegan: (to a single 1) Dear Ms. Finnegan:
woman for whom you can determine no
title preference)
2) Attention: Admissions Committee
2) Dear Sir: or Gentlemen:
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In spatial organization, transitions, or bridge words, are used to help the reader
locate various parts. Example of transitional words include below, next to, overhead,
behind, adjacent to, and above. Visuals are particularly helpful when you're using a spatial
organization; they can help your audience see the physical relationships between parts.
processes, or policies are similar, you are comparing. When you explain how items are
different, you are contrasting. Investigative reports that discuss two or more items often
use the comparison-and-contrast arrangement.
Cars that run on steam are fast and easy to start. However, the water tank has to
be refilled every 50 miles, and you have to wait 20 minutes after lighting the boiler
before you can drive. Cars that run on electricity are quiet and clean. They require
little servicing, and the motor starts easily. However, an electric car has a limited
driving range and is slower than other types of car.
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When information is arranged according to the factors and the results of those factors, a
cause-and-effect order is used. Many scientific reports use this type of organization. The
scientist begins by collecting data to support an unproven hypothesis. After the data is
organized and studied, the scientist reaches a conclusion. Common transition words used
in a cause-and-effect order are therefore, consequently, based on, because of, due to, as
a result, and ifthen.
Outlining
Outlining is a key part of your prewriting process. In order for your audience to grasp
your meaning, your thoughts must be organized and your understanding of what you want
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to convey must be absolutely clear. A well-organized outline can help you achieve this
goal.
Numbering systems.
headings of different levels. These headings are called level heads. Two level-head
numbering systems, the alphanumeric system and the decimal system, are shown in
Figure 1.1 below. In the alphanumeric system, the level 2, level 3, and level 4 heads may
use parentheses, as shown in the figure, or they may use periods after the introductory
letter or number.
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Organizing Data for an Outline. : Imagine that you need to report your day's
activities and that the list of activities in Figure 1.2 below is the data you have compiled.
How you translate the data into useful information for a report will depend on the answers
to the content, message, audience, purpose, product (CMAPP) questions you devise.
Drafting an Outline.
marketing instructor has asked you for an update on your project. You decide that your
product will be a memo and that you will concentrate on three main topics:
Marketing project itself
Other courses that have a bearing on the project
Related activities
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You conclude that many of the items in Figure 1.2 might be relevant. The others will not
translate into useful information, so you ignore them. Your next step is to organize under
appropriate headings the data elements you have kept, along with the introductory information
your instructor will expect to see in the memo. This stage is often complicated by the fact that
some data items may appear to fit under more than one topic, so you have to make content
decisions as well. Completion of these tasks will result in a first draft of a formal multilevel
outline similar to the one shown in Figure 1.3 below
Finalizing an outline.
headings, you should refine your outline. This stage in the process of translating data into
useful information is a painstaking one, particularly if you are working with an outline for a
longer, more complex document. Three principles - subordination, division, and
parallelism - are central in revising and finalizing your outline.
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1. Subordination. The principle of subordination says that every item that appears under
a particular level head must logically be a part of the subject matter of that level head.
Conversely, the item must not deal with a different issue and must not be equivalent or
greater importance or scope.
Your CMAPP analysis will allow you to determine what is appropriate in your
circumstance. When you find an entry that violates the principle of subordination, you may
decide to change the sequence of items, to create another separate level head, or to
change the wording of a level head so that it reflects what you really mean.
2. Division. The principle of division states that you cannot subdivide the content of any
level head into fewer than two parts. For example, if you have a 'I.A' head, you must have
at least a 'I.B' head.
How you fix a division problem also depends on the results of your CMAPP analysis.
You might decide to remove an item, to add an item (taking care not to contradict the
principle of subordination), or to make the item a higher level head. What you do depends
on what you decide you really mean.
3. Parallelism.
The principle of parallelism requires that all level 1 heads exhibit the
same grammatical structure, that all level 2 heads exhibit the same grammatical structure,
and so on. Note that the structure of level 1 heads may be different from the structure of
level 2 heads, which may be different from the structure of level 3 heads, and so on.
The solution to a parallelism problem is to reword items until each of the same-level
heads exhibits the same grammatical structure. When applying the principle of parallelism,
you may find the easiest grammatical structure to work with is a noun or noun phrase.
The principle of parallelism applies not only to outlines, but also to bulleted and
numbered lists in a document. Each item in a list must have the same grammatical
structure.
Figure 1.4 offers a possible completed outline that is finalized from the initial multilevel
outline shown in Figure 1.3. There is no single correct version because you may have
several possible ways to fix any subordination, division, or parallelism problems. The final
version of your outline should always be based on your CMAPP analysis.
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Drafting
After you have finalized your outline, you can begin to develop your ideas. As you write your
draft, remember to use words that promote goodwill and encourage your receiver to accept
your message.
It is best to try to write your draft in one sitting. Keep your outline and pre writing notes
nearby. If you find that you need more information, don't stop to do research. Instead, write
yourself a note and move on to the next idea in your message. The whole point of drafting
is to develop your ideas. You are not yet concerned with typographical errors, grammar, or
spelling. You do, however, want to achieve the appropriate tone, or voice, for the
message.
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While you can always change things later, include as many specific details in your
draft as possible. Chose your words carefully because the words you use help shape the
tone and style in your message. However, try not to spend a lot of time at any particular
word or phrase. Make a note to go back and check a thesaurus or dictionary later.
Revising
To revise is to make changes. Many writers spend as much or more time revising as they
do creating their first draft. It is in the revision stage that a writer makes sure the message
says exactly what it should.
Before you revise a draft, put it aside for at least a few hours, if possible. You'll come
back to the document with a fresh perspective. To begin the revision process, read your
draft all the way through, focusing on your original CMAPP analysis. Try to step back and
put yourself in the place of the receiver. Is the message focused? Do you see gaps in
logic? Do the paragraphs flow well? Have you included all the vital information? Did you
stray from your point? Reorganize sentences or paragraphs as needed and read the draft
again.
The ABC
As you revise your message, keep the ABCs of communication - accuracy, brevity, and
clarity - in mind. These elements are always essential parts of your CMAPP analysis.
Accuracy.
When composing and revising your message, ask yourself the following
questions:
Have I chosen the right facts for this situation? In other words, are all my facts
pertinent to my context, my audience, and my purpose?
Is all my data correct? (Have I checked?)
Remember that your audience "needs" your information. But your audience does not
need data that will muddy the issue. Recall as well that your message represents you to
your audience, and thus your reputation hangs on it. Imagine the consequences if your
audience were to find an error in your information: Your message would lose credibility, as
would you, the "messenger" . Once lost, your credibility with the audience may be hard to
regain.
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Brevity.
A practical definition of brevity might be "Say what you need to say and
then stop." If you include material in your document or presentation that is not relevant to
your context, message, audience, and purpose, your audience may be confused, irritated,
and/or bored - and all your efforts will have been wasted. Consider the following
examples:
Poor
Better
During the month of June, employees During June, employees can read the
can preview the full and complete complete 20-Annual Report before it is
Annual Report for the year 20-before it distributed
is distributed to stockholders
When you present complex information,
you need to ask yourself if a graphic
illustration would make it easier to
understand.
To cut down on wordiness, use the active voice rather than the passive voice. When
you write in the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb.
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. Consider the following example:
Passive: The best idea was submitted by Vernon.
Active:
Clarity
Clarity is a function of the words and grammatical structures you use, the organization of
your information, the logic and cohesion of your arguments, and the way you present your
message to your audience. When examining your message for clarity, ask yourself the
following questions:
Is everything as clear as I can make it?
Can I safely assume that my message will be as understandable to my audiences as it
is to me?
For the majority of people who compromise our society, money is perceived in
but two states of tangible matter, either as currency or as coins.
Better:
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Bias-Free Words
In today's diverse workplace, it is particularly important that you do not offend your audience
by showing biases. Bias-free words are free of prejudice, or unfair assumptions, and do not
influence the audience in any particular or unfair direction. Courteous communications are
sensitive to stereotypes and biases that involve gender, race, age, and disability.
Gender Bias. In today's workplace, women work as pilots, air traffic controllers, police
officers, and construction workers. Men work as nurses, administrative assistants, and
kindergarten teachers. The words used for today's workers should be free of gender bias to
reflect these realities. Note the difference between the gender-biased words and the neutral
words in the following list.
Gender-Biased Words
Foreman
Waiter/waitress
Stewardess
Salesman
Policeman
Fireman
Manmade
Executives and their wives
Neutral Words
Foreperson, supervisor
Server
Flight attendant
Salesperson
Police officer
Fire fighter
Manufactured
Executives and their spouses
Race and Age Bias. A simple way to avoid biases of race and age is to avoid
mentioning these factors at all unless they are essential to your meaning. The following
sentences are examples of avoiding race and age bias
Biased Words
We hired an Asian lawyer.
Have you met the little old man?
Disability Bias.
Unbiased Words
We hired a lawyer.
Have you met the man?
you must mention the condition, use unbiased words, as shown in the following examples.
Biased Words
Unbiased Words
Has
Condition
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Proofreading is the process of reviewing and correcting the final draft of your message. As
you proofread your document, look for general content errors as well as mechanical errors,
such as incorrect spacing, misspelled words, incorrect capitalization or incorrect punctuation.
Nearly all word-processing software programs include a spell checker and a grammar
checker. These programs are helpful, but do not assume that they will replace the editing and
proofreading process. Spell checkers will not help you with most proper nouns or with word
substitutions. Your spell checker won't know that you meant to key in 'being' instead of 'begin'.
Only careful proofreading can detect errors like this one.
Checklist
Effective Editing
Read your document aloud and listen for awkward sentences. If you stumble over a
phrase, chances are it needs editing.
Check sentence types and lengths. Are all your sentences about the same length? If
so, create some variety. Are any sentences long or complicated? Consider splitting
them into two sentences.
Look at sentence beginnings. If many sentences start with the same word, add some
variety. Avoid starting sentences with I, my, it is, and there is.
Use language appropriate for your audience. Avoid the slang, jargon, and informal
language commonly used in everyday speech.
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Watch for overused words. Be original. Replace overused words and phrases with
fresh, vivid language.
Check for clarity, completeness and tone. Look at your message from your
receiver's viewpoint. Is the message clear? Will the receiver know exactly what to do
or how to respond? Does the tone promote goodwill?
1. Scroll the screen. Move the cursor down the screen of the computer as you proofread
each line.
2. Read aloud. Read aloud to slow down and examine words more carefully.
3. Compare drafts. Check the final draft against the previous edited copy.
4. Proofread the hard copy. Proofread the printed document even if you've already
edited it on the screen.
5. Proofread backwards.
Read each line from the right to left, or start at the end of the
6. Use two proofreaders. One proof reader reads aloud from the previous edited copy,
while the other proof reader checks the final copy.
Publishing
When your proofreading process is complete, you're ready to prepare and publish the final
document. To publish your message is to deliver it to the receiver or make it available to
the public. Before publishing, evaluate your message from a visual viewpoint. Your
finished product should not only sound good when your receiver reads it, it should look
good too. Effective visual presentation of material in your technical communication is
critical to your success.
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TYPES OF REPORTS
At one time or another, you'll be asked to write a report.
Generally, a shorter report (approximately one to five pages) will be formatted differently than
a longer report (more than five pages long). Your report will satisfy one or all of the following
needs :
Supply a record of work accomplished
Record and clarify complex information for future reference
Present information to a large number of people
Record problems encountered
Document schedules, timetables and milestones
Recommend future action
Document current status
Record procedures
What happened, how did it happen, when did it happen, why did
it happen, who was involved
Feasibility reports
Inventory reports
Progress
reports What is our status? What have been accomplished and what
(weekly,
monthly, needs to be done?
quarterly, annually)
Construction of an urban storm-water drainage system
Installation of an industrial heating and air-conditioning
system
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Travel reports
Lab reports
Performance
reports
appraisal
Incident reports
Proposal reports
Inspection reports
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All reports share certain generic similarities in format, development and style.
FORMAT
Every report should contain four basic units: heading, introduction, discussion, and
conclusion/recommendations.
1) Heading
The heading includes the date on which the report is written, the name(s) of the people to
whom the report is written, the name(s) of the people from whom the report is sent, and the
subject of the report (subject line should contain a topic and a focus).
DATE
TO
FROM
SUBJECT
:
:
:
:
2) Introduction
The introduction supplies an overview of the report. It can include three optional subdivisions :
Purpose - a topic sentence (s) explaining why you are submitting the report (rationale,
justification, objectives) and exactly what the report's subject matter is.
Personnel - names of others involved in reporting activity.
Dates - what period of time the report covers.
Sample Report Introduction
Some business people omit the introductory comments in writing reports and begin
with the discussion.
These assumptions are false for several reasons. First, it is false to assume that readers will
know why you're writing the report, when the activities occurred, and who was involved.
Perhaps if you are writing only to your immediate supervisor, there's no reason for introductory
overviews. However, even in this situation you might have an unanticipated reader because:
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Immediate supervisors change - they are promoted, fired, retired, or go to work for
another company.
Immediate supervisors aren't always available - they are sick for the day, on vacation,
or off site for some reason.
Second, avoiding introductory overviews assumes that your readers will remember the
report's subject matter. This is false because reports are written not just for the present, when
the topic is current, but for the future, when the topic is past history. Reports go on file - and
return at a later date. At that later date,
You won't remember the particulars of the reported subject matter.
Your colleagues, many of whom weren't present when the report was originally written,
won't be familiar with the subject.
You might have outside; lay readers who need additional detail to understand the
report.
An introduction - which seemingly states the obvious - is needed to satisfy multiple readers,
readers other than those initially familiar with the subject matter, and future readers who are
unaware of the original report.
3) Discussion
The discussion of the report summarizes your activities and the problems you encountered.
This is the largest section of the report and involves development, organization, and style.
4) Conclusions/Recommendations
The conclusion allows you to sum up, to relate what you've learnt, or to state what decisions
you have made regarding the activities reported. The recommendations allow you to suggest
future action, to state what you believe you and/or your company should do next.
CONCLUSIONS/ RECOMMENDATIONS:
The conference was beneficial. It not only taught me how the computer can save us time
and money, but also I received hands-on training. Because the computer can assist our
billing and inventory control, let's buy and install three terminals in bookkeeping before our
next quarter.
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DEVELOPMENT
Now that you know what subdivisions are traditional in reports, your next question is,
"What do I say in each section? How do I develop my ideas ?"
Second, when providing the foregoing information, quantify! Don't hedge or be vague or
imprecise. Specify to the best of your abilities with photographic detail.
The following justification is an example of vague, imprecise writing.
Installation of the machinery is needed to replace a piece of equipment
deemed unsatisfactory by an Equipment Engineering Review.
Which machine are we purchasing? Which piece of equipment will it replace? Why is the
equipment unsatisfactory (too old, too expensive, too slow)? When does it need to be
installed? Why is the installation important?
Instead,
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STYLE
Style includes conciseness, simplicity, and highlighting techniques. As already discussed,
you achieve conciseness by eliminating wordy phrases. Say consider rather than take into
consideration; say now rather than at this present time. You achieve simplicity by avoiding
old-fashioned words : utilize becomes use, initiate becomes begin, supersedes
becomes
replaces.
Besides highlighting and headings, graphics can also be used to help communicate
content, as evident in the following example. A recent demographic study of Kansas City
predicted growth patterns for Johnson Country (a large county south of Kansas City):
Johnson County is expected to add 157,605 persons to its 1980 population of 270, 269 by the
year 2010.
households the county had in 1980. The addition of 131,026 jobs also is forecast for Johnson
County by 2010, more than doubling its employment opportunity.
TABLE 10.1
Households
Employment
1980
270 269
96 925
127 836
2010
427 874
192 123
258 862
% change
+ 58.3 %
+ 98.2 %
+ 102%
This report is difficult to access readily. We are overloaded with too much data. Luckily, the
report provided a table (Table 10.1) for easier access to the data.
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Use the following short-report criteria checklist to help you in writing your short report.
Does your subject line contain a topic and a focus? If you only write:
Subject : Trip Report or
merely presents the focus of your correspondence. But what's the topic? To provide
both topic and focus, you need to write :
Subject: Trip Report on Solvent Training Course, Arco Corporation - 15/3/2005
Subject: Feasibility Report on Company Expansion to Bolker Blvd
Does the introduction explain the purpose of the report, document the
personnel involved, and/or state when and where the activities occurred?
When you write the discussion section of the report, do you quantify what
occurred? In this section, you must clarify precisely. Supply accurate dates, times,
calculations, and problems encountered.
Is the discussion accessible?
subordinate,
colleague)
and written
accordingly?
Is your report accurate? Correct grammar and calculations make a difference. If
you've made errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, or mathematics, you will look
unprofessional.
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CONDUCTING A FEASIBILITY
STUDY
CONDUCTING A RESEARCH
Review Literature
Analyze data
Draw conclusion
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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b.
Do some reading about the topic to give you a bigger picture of the whole
situation
c.
d.
Issue:
Problem Statement
The number of staff and students who smoke on campus is increasing. Different
measures and actions taken to reduce the number of smokers on campus have failed.
For example, there was a campaign to declare the campus a smoke-free area. To stop
them from smoking is difficult because they cannot kick the habit, while some smokers
claimed that they look macho and would like to join their peers. What are the opinions of
the staff and students about the campaign? What are the effects of smoking on the
environment?
2.
Once you have determined the purpose of the research, you are ready to write a statement of
purpose. Use action verbs to convey your ideas in your statement of purpose, for example to
evaluate, to decide, to investigate, to compare, to assess, to describe, to determine, and
so on.
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4.
Since the purpose of doing the feasibility studies and writing proposal is to investigate and
recommend solutions to a problem the most important process in conducting a research is
searching and collecting data. Without the data, there will be no proposal. You will need to
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identify the kinds of date required to support your investigation such as stated below:
a. Primary data
Once you know what you want for the research, you are ready to think about the instruments
or tools to be used to collect the relevant data.
5.
Analyzing Data
After you have collected data for your research, you must try to sort and make sense out of
them. The data collected can be in the form of:
Primary data
interview transcripts
observation checklists
Unprocessed data will not become meaningful unless you process them through:
examining
sorting
categorizing
analyzing
interpreting
drawing conclusion
You will also need to examine each item by itself as well as making connections with other
data. Your focus is on meanings, relationships and answers to the questions you have asked.
All data must be:
recorded
analyzed
interpreted
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Name of Product/System
2.
3.
Statement of Problem
4.
Purpose/Objective of Study
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5.
Significance of Study
6.
Scope of Study
7.
Findings/Result
Analysis of Findings/Results
Problems Encountered and Countermeasures
Conclusion and Recommendations
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pieces of information collected in a study. Data may be divided in two categories: Primary
and Secondary Data. Below are examples of different sources of secondary data:
Books
Journals
Periodicals
Newspapers
Electronic resources
e-journal
internet
websites
online materials
CD-rom databases
DVDs
CD-books
Microfiche/microfilms
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What is a 'Sample'?
A sample is a group of individuals who are involved as respondents who provide the
information, facts or opinions in a research.
What is a 'Population'?
A population, on the other hand, is the bigger target group of the study to which the results of
the research are applicable. Refer to Figure 3.1 below
Types of Sampling
There are 2 categories of sampling techniques:
1.
Random sampling
The process of selecting sample that would be representative of the population of
interest. In this case, every member of the population has an equal probability to
be chosen to participate in the research.
2.
Non-random sampling
The respondents are selected based on certain criteria. In contrast, non-random
sampling does not provide an equal chance for every member of the population to
be selected.
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Observation
Interview
Experiment
What is a 'Questionnaire'?
telephone
internet
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Open-ended
2.
Closed-ended
1.
Open-ended questions
Open-ended questions expect the respondents to give opinions, ideas, suggestions
and comments.
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2.
Closed-ended questions
Closed-ended questions require the respondents to provide opinions, ideas or
comments based on the options provided in the same questionnaire.
Below are
Scale questions
d.
Ranking questions
b.
Listing/choice questions
e.
Category questions
c.
Yes/No questions
a. Scale Questions
The most commonly used scale question is the Likert-scale questions.
Likert-scale
questions may use quantifiers such as Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.
b. Listing/Choice Questions
Listing or choice questions provide items or choices for the respondents to choose. Listing
questions will assist the respondents to choose the answer.
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c. Yes/No Questions
Yes/No questions require the respondents to tick the appropriate box either Yes or No. This is
the simplest form of closed-ended questions.
d.
Ranking Questions
e.
Category Questions
Category questions ask respondents to identify the response provide in different categories,
for example, age range, monthly income, etc.
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Sample Questionnaire
A sample questionnaire
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What is an 'Interview'?
An interview is a two-way communication which permits an exchange of ideas and
information. It has some advantages compared to methods such as:
The interviewer can ..
identify and ask only the information that he want
further elaborate or rephrase the question whenever the interviewee misinterprets or does
not understand the question
assess whether the interviewee is sincere in his or her response
Types of Interviews
They are rigidly standardized and follow a list of previously prepared questions.
Semi-structured
-
They are more impromptu. The interviewers ask some previously prepared questions as
As an interviewer, you are the one who initiate the interview. Therefore, you need to pay
special attention to the conduct during the interview.
establish rapport with the interviewee.
bring the discussions closer to the topic of your research. At the beginning of the interview, it
is important that you explain the need to ask various questions about the topic. Phrase your
questions clearly and friendly. Do not demand the answer, as well as argue your point of
view. Your purpose is to ask and get the response from the interviewees, not to project your
ideas.
schedule and responsibilities. Before you end, as a courtesy for the time they have given you,
end the interview politely and graciously with thank you.
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Observation
If you want to use observation as your primary data collection technique, you must prepare an
observation guide sheet (refer to the sample below).
specifically what you hope to observe and the duration of the observation. In addition, you
must take not of everything you observe within the observation period.
Experimentation
In using experiments in your research, the following items need to be discussed in detail:
What is the design of the experiment?
On what subject or materials in the experiment performed?
How will the subjects be selected?
What machinery and equipment are used in the experiment?
What sequence of events will you follow?
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DATA ANALYSIS
The purpose of analyzing data is to obtain usable and useful information. The analysis,
irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or quantitative, may:
describe and summarize the data
identify relationships between variables
compare variables
identify the difference between variables
forecast outcomes
Before we look at the various ways of analyzing, presenting and discussing data, we need to
clarify the differences between qualitative research, quantitative research, qualitative data
and quantitative data. They are both the PRIMARY SOURCES.
Earlier, we distinguished
between qualitative research and quantitative research. It is highly unlikely that your research
will be purely one or the other - it will probably be a mixture of the two approaches. For
instance, you may have taken a small sample (normally associated with qualitative research)
but then conducted a structured interview or used a questionnaire (normally associated with
quantitative research) to determine people's attitudes to a particular phenomenon (qualitative
research). It is therefore likely that your 'mixed' approach will take a qualitative approach
some of the time and a quantitative approach at others. It depends on where you are in the
research process.
MISCONCEPTIONS
1.
It is believed that qualitative research generates just qualitative data (text, words,
opinions, etc) and that quantitative research generates just quantitative data
(numbers). Sometimes this is the case, but both types of data can be generated by
each approach. For instance, a postal questionnaire or structured 'interview
(quantitative research) will often gather factual information, for example, age, salary,
length of service (quantitative data) - but may also seek opinions and attitudes
(qualitative data).
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2.
It is believed that statistical techniques are only applicable for quantitative data. Once
again, this is not so. There are many statistical techniques that can be applied to
qualitative data, such as ratings scales, that has been generated by a quantitative
research approach.
3.
It is believed that qualitative data analysis is easy. There are many ways of conducting
qualitative research and thus many ways of analyzing the resulting (qualitative) data.
For example, having conducted an interview, transcription and organization of data are
the first stages of analysis. This would then be continued by systematically analyzing
the transcripts, grouping together comments on similar themes and attempting to
interpret them and draw conclusions.
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Example
Interview transcript
Respondent:
Margaret Smith
Date:
19.7.00
Place:
MS:
SC:
MS:
And so on.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Analysis of qualitative data is not simple, and although it does not require complicated
statistical techniques of quantitative analysis, it is nonetheless difficult to handle the usually
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large amounts of data in a thorough, systematic and relevant manner. Marshall and Rossman
offer this graphic description:
"Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected
data. It is a messy, ambiguous, time-consuming, creative, and fascinating process. It does not
proceed in a linear fashion; it is not neat. Qualitative data analysis is a search for general
statements about relationships among categories of data."
Marshall and Rossman, 1990:111
How do you analyze the contents?
1. Read and re-read the transcripts
2. Look for similarities and differences
3. Find themes and develop categories
Coding paragraphs - This is where you mark each paragraph with a topic/theme/category
with an appropriate word in the margin.
Example
The following is part of the transcript. The topic of the interview "The barriers to women
progressing in management".
Sickness,
childcare,
promotion,
vertical
segregation,
pay
Partner's
contribution
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Childcare
provision,
partner's
contribution
Childcare
provision
SC: Absolutely.
Employers
giving
childcare vouchers is all very well
but what we really want is our
children nearby so that if there's a
problem it can be quickly sorted
out.
Partner's
contribution,
career/home
conflict
Partner's
contribution
Highlighting paragraphs/sentences/phrases
Use highlighter pens of different colors or different colored pens to mark bits about the
different themes. Using the example above, you could mark the bits relating to childcare and
those relating to pay in a different color, and so on.
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Example
Let's think back to the last transcript - about problems facing women in management. It is
likely that you would write up under various headings such as childcare, pay, promotion etc.
Let's take childcare and do a brief section on how you might write up the views expressed and
how you could illustrate the text with quotes. (Obviously the transcript would be much longer
in a real situation and imagine also that there was a focus group of partners and one of
employers as well.)
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Are you
Male ( )
2.
Female ( ) 2
3.
(
(
(
)
)
)
1
2
3
OK
2
Boring
3
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4.
The data sheet for the questionnaire on restaurant staff attitude is given below.
Respondent Question
1
Question
2
Question
3
Question
4
Question
5
22
28
39
23
32
24
20
30
21
10
18
11
43
12
26
13
31
14
27
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15
20
16
41
17
29
18
37
19
30
20
25
21
28
22
33
23
36
24
22
25
35
26
24
27
38
28
28
29
38
30
19
31
29
32
31
33
34
34
30
35
35
36
32
37
28
38
26
39
29
40
27
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Response: 2 = female.
Response: 2 = average.
Response: 3 = OK.
Question 4 (salary)
Question 5 (age)
Summary Questionnaire
Attitudes of Restaurant Workers
Based on 40 questionnaires returned from a random sample of 100 workers in
14 restaurants in the London Borough of Ealing in February, 1999.
1. Are you:
Male
19
47.5%
Female
21
52.5%
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11
27.5%
Average
14
35.0%
Poor
15
37.5%
At the top of this sheet, there is a statement that tells us how many
questionnaires were returned, how many were issued, the sampling
method, when the data was collected and the geographical area that was
surveyed.
A count has been made of the responses for Questions 1 and 2 and
written opposite each response, together with the percentage equivalents.
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TYPES OF PROPOSAL
Internal or external
a. Internal (informal)
Example:
A training officer proposes to the Human Resource Department of company the need
to do need analysis for the staff to decide the kind of training needed.
b. external (formal)
Example:
An independent consultant proposes the latest computer processing system for
another firm.
2.
Solicited or unsolicited
a. Solicited
Example:
A firm request for proposals through the mail or publish in the media.
b. Unsolicited
designed not based on any request by the recipient but to convince the recipient
that there is a problem to be addressed
Example:
A party proposes a new computerized system to replace an old manually operated
one being used by a company.
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Short reports merely require that you use headings such as "introduction," "Discussion," and
"Conclusion/Recommendation" to guide your readers through the correspondence. Long
reports, however, place a greater demand on readers. Your audience will be overwhelmed
with numerous pages of information. A few headings won't be enough to help your readers
wade through the data. To guide your readers through a proposal, you'll need to provide the
following:
Cover letter
Title page
Table of contents
List of illustrations
Abstract (or executive summary)
Introduction
Discussion ( the body of the long report)
Conclusion/Recommendation)
Glossary
Works cited page (if you're documenting research)
Appendix
COVER LETTER
Your cover letter prefaces the long report and provides the reader an overview of what is to
follow. It tells the reader.
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TITLE PAGE
The title page serves several purposes. A title page acts as a dust cover or jacket keeping the
report clean and neat. It should include the following:
Title of your report (thereby providing clarity if intent)
Name of the company, writer, or writers submitting the report
Date on which the report was completed.
For external proposal - include on the title page the audience to whom the report is
addressed.
For internal proposal - include a routing list of individuals who must sign off and or approve the
report. (Figure 1 - Sample to title page)
PROPOSED CABLE TRANSMISSION NETWORK
FROM CHEYENNE, WY
TO HARTFORD, CT
Prepared by:
-----------------------
Date:
Pete Niosi
Network Planner
Prepared by:
-----------------------
Date:
Leah Workman
Manager, Capital Planning
Recommended by:
-----------------------
Date:
Gerg Foss
Manager, Facilities
Recommended by:
-----------------------
Date:
Shirley Chandley
Director, Implementation Planning
Approved by:
-----------------------
Date:
Ralph Houston
Vice President, Network Planning
Figure 1
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For
Acme Products, Inc.
2121 New Tech Avenue
Bangor, ME
Submitted by Thomas
Brasher Engineering
Technician
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A table of contents is designed to help readers find the sections of the report which interest
them. It should be a complete and accurate listing of the main and minor topics covered in the
repost. The following table of contents is organized poorly.
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
iv
v
1
3
10
11
15
Figure 3
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By providing a through table of contents, you'll save your readers time and help them find the
information they want and need. Figure 4 is an example of a successful table of content.
Table of Contents
1
List of illustrations.............................
iv
Abstract................................
Introduction................................ 1
A. Purpose ................................ 1
B. Problem................................
i.Profit Loss..............................
ii.Fuel Cost...............................
iii.Repair Cost..............................
iv.Indirect Cost............................
A. Proposal ...............................
B. Management..............................
10
i.Personnel Requirements..........................
11
ii.Method of Delivery..........................
11
12
C. Cost..................................
12
i.Cost Analysis.............................
12
ii.Payment Schedules..........................
13
iii.Payback Analysis...........................
13
Conclusion................................
14
A. Major Concerns...........................
14
B. Credentials............................
14
Recommendations...........................
15
Glossary.................................
16
Figure 4
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A list illustration is needed when a report contains several tables and/or figures. This list can
be included below your table of contents, if there is room on the page, or on a separate page.
Like the table of contents, your list of illustrations must be clear and informative. Don't waste
your time and especially your reader's time by providing a poor list of illustrations like the
following:
List of illustrations
Fig.l.................................
Fig.2.................................
Fig.3..................................
Fig.4..................................
Fig.5...................................
2
4
5
5
9
Table l................................
Table 2................................
3
6
List of illustrations
Figurel
Figure.2
Figure.3
Figure.4
Figure.5
2
4
5
5
9
Table l
Table 2
Mechanism Specifications.................
Cost: Expenditures, Saving, Profit..............
3
6
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INTRODUCTION
Your introduction should include two primary sections:
a) Purpose
b) Problem
Purpose
In one or two sentences, tell your readers exactly the purpose of your long report. This
purpose statement informs your readers why you are writing and/or what you hope to
achieve. This statement repeats your abstract to a certain extent. However, it's not redundant;
it's reiteration.
The purpose statement is another way to ensure that your readers understand your intent.
Your purpose statement is similar to a paragraph's topic sentence or the introductory
paragraph in your short report. The following is an effective purpose statement.
Purpose: The purpose of this report is to propose the immediate installation of the
102473
Numerical Control Optical Scanner. These installations ensure continued
quality checks and allow us to meet agency specifications.
Problem
Your discussion of the problem must be much more detailed. Your introduction's focus on the
problem is important for two reasons:
1. It highlights the importance of your long report and it also emphasizes for your readers
the report's priority. In this problem section, you persuade your readers that a problem
truly exists and needs immediate attention.
2. it reveals your knowledge of the situation. Your audience will be able to recognize the
severity of the problem and trust you to solve it after reading the introduction section.
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DISCUSSION
The discussion section of your proposal constitutes its body. It represents the major portion of
the proposal, perhaps 85% of the text. There's no strict format of what to be include in this
section, but it can contain any or all of the following:
) Analyses
Existing situation
Solutions
Benefits
) Technical descriptions of mechanisms, tools, facilities, and/or products
) Technical instructions
) Options
Approaches/methodologies
Purchase option
) Managerial chains of command (organizational chart)
) Biographical sketches of personnel
) Corporate and/or employee credentials
Years in business
Satisfied clients
Certifications
Previous accomplishments
) Schedules
Implementation schedules
Reporting intervals
Maintenance schedules
Delivery schedules
Completion dates
Payment schedules
Projects milestone (forecasts)
) Cost chart
In addition, you should also enhance your discussion with figures and table for clarity,
conciseness, and cosmetic appeal.
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CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION
As with short reports, you must sum up your proposal, providing your readers with a sense
of closure. The conclusion can restate the problem, your solutions, and the benefits to be
derived. In doing so, remember to quantify. Be specific - state percentages and
amounts.
Your recommendation will suggest the next course of action. Specify when this action
will or should occur and why that date is important. This section can be made accessible
through
highlighting
techniques,
including
headings,
subheadings,
underlining,
INTRODUCTION
A. Purpose
This is a proposal for a storm sewer survey for Yakima, WA. First the survey will identify
storm sewers Needing repair and renovation. Then the survey will recommend public
works projects that would control Residential basement flooding in Yakima.
B. Problem
1) Increased flooding
2) Property Damage
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b. Dryers
c. Freezers
d. Furniture's
e. Furnaces
Major appliances cannot be repaired after water damage. Flooding can also result in
expensive foundation repair.
3) Indirect costs
4) Special-interest Groups
Citizens over 55 years old represent 40% of the Yakima, WA, population. In city
council; meetings, senior citizens with limited incomes expressed their distress over
property damage. Residents are unable to obtain federal flood insurances and must
bear the financial burden of replacing flood-damaged personal and real property.
Senior citizens (and other Yakima residents) look to city officials to resolve this
financial dilemma.
C. Benefits
Storm sewer surveys are the most cost-effective approach to sewer repairs. You will
have an accurate assessment of damages. You will know the extent of damages. A
survey will allow you to repair the most critical areas first. City officials can plan other
repairs based on priority and budget considerations.
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GLOSSARY
glossary
is
an
alphabetized
list
of
high-tech
terminology
placed
after
your
*This and subsequent terms followed by an asterisk are defined on page - of the
glossary.
Subsequent high-tech term should be followed by an asterisk, but you don't have to place the
footnote at the bottom of each page.
GLOSSARY
BSCE:
Drainage Studies:
Gb:
Interface:
POP:
Smoke Test:
Video Scanner:
Water Parting:
Watershed Area:
Figure 9 : Glossary
WORKS CITED
If you've used research to write your proposal, you will need to include a works cited page.
This page documents the sources (books, periodicals, interview, computer software, etc.)
you've researched and quoted or paraphrased.
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APPENDIX
Appendices allow you to include any additional information (survey result, tables,
figures, previous report findings, relevant letter and/or memos, etc. which you have not
built into your proposal's main text.
The contents of your appendix should not be of primary importance. Any truly important
information should be incorporated within the report's main text. Valuable data (poof,
substantiation, or information which clarifies a point) should appear in the text where it is
easily accessible. Information provided within an appendix is buried, simple because of its
placement at the end of the report. You don't want to bury key ideas.
An appendix is a perfect place to file data which is not essential but which provides
documentation for future reference.
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PROPOSAL
1. Front Matter
a. Letter of Transmittal
This one page document identifies the proposal, given highlights and general
overview, expresses interest in doing the work and refers to the circumstances that
gave rise to the proposal.
b. Title Page
Provide an identification of the proposal which includes the following:
i.
Title of the proposal
Full Name, Title and Address of the person or organization for whom the
ii.
proposal is written
Date of Submission
iii.
Name, Title and Address of the person organization submitting the
iv.
proposal
c. Abstract or Summary of the Proposal
This should be a short paragraph summarizing the main contents of the report. It
should include a short statement of the main task, the methods used,
conclusions reached and recommendations, if any. The abstract or summary
should be concise, informative and independent of the report. Write this section
last after you have written the whole report. It should be written in only a
paragraph or two - usually not longer than a page.
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e. List of Table/Figure/Illustration
If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in the report, these should be listed
separately together with the page numbers on which they appear.
2. Body
1.0
Introduction
This section gives your readers to preview of the problem at hand. It provides
necessary information to the readers so that they will be able to understand the
discussion of the findings related to the problem in the body of the report. As
such, the introduction section varies from report to report focuses on a specific
problem.
1.1
Project Background
A brief introduction to the history of the problem will help your readers
understand your report. Project background should include:
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
1.2
Problem Statement
Short summary of the research problem you have identified. The most
important aspect is the clarity of the problem statement itself. You
should choose a topic which can be investigated through appropriate
and valid methods and for which research material is available.
1.3
1.4
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many objectives in your investigation, then you must state all of them.
The objectives of your report can be written in one of the following
ways:
i.
ii.
2.0
In an infinitive phrase
In the form of question.
METHODOLOGY
In this section, you should state the how and where you obtained the
information that your report contains.
2.1
Feasibility Study
You should let them know the methods that you use to obtain data, e.g
via survey, interview, experiment or observation. By explaining how you
gathered information or date, you also need to mention the sources
from where you obtained the information.
2.1.1
Types of Sources
This is the sections where you determine the methods of your
investigation. Bear in mind, to have a good proposal, you need
to obtain data from primary and secondary sources.
In primary sources, you can collect data or information through
survey, interview, experiment or observation. Information gained
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2.1.2
Table
Graphs
Charts
Diagrams
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2.2
3.0
Schedule
Provide a schedule, timeline or list of the project milestone. You should
use Gantt chart (Microsoft Project) to determine your project
management.
2.2.1
Task Distribution
You need to clarify the position and also the responsibility of
your group members in this section. This will help to determine
the roles of your group members.
2.2.2
Gantt Chart
Gantt chart from Microsoft Project should be used so that you
can utilize the Gantt chart to make your timeline clearer.
Discussion
You can analyze and interpret your results drawing from the information which
you have collected, explaining its significance.
3.1
Product Design/Layout
The product drawing and the reasons why the product is designed in
such way is highlighted in section.
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3.2
Project Costing
Calculate quantity and tabulate the cost of the entire project. This
includes material components, instruments and equipment used in the
construction of the project.
3.3
Advantages
Discuss the benefits of doing the project.
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4.0
3.
End Matter
a. References
This is also known as bibliography and/or works cited. Please refer to the
American Psychological Association (APA) style of writing. Details should include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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b. Appendices
An appendix contains additional informational information related to the report but
which is not essential to the main findings. You should include details of the
interview questions, copy of the questionnaire used, statistical data, a glossary of
terms or other information which may be useful for the reader.
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