Energy Sources, Part A, 29:631648, 2007

Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1556-7036 print/1556-7230 online
DOI: 10.1080/009083190957775

Exhumation Study in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins,

Australia and the Implications for
Hydrocarbon Exploration
A. MAVROMATIDIS
Petroleum Development Oman
Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Abstract The Cooper-Eromanga Basins of South Australia and Queensland are not
at their maximum burial-depth due to Late Cretaceous-Tertiary and Late TriassicEarly Jurassic exhumation. The main tool used for estimating the exhumation is the
available vitrinite reflectance data. Exhumation studies using compaction analysis
have also been compiled in order that exhumation is better constrained. The results suggest that Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation increases eastwards from the
South Australia to the Queensland sector of the basins. This study has major implications for hydrocarbon exploration. Predicted maturation of source rocks will be
greater for any given geothermal history if exhumation is incorporated in maturation
modeling.
Keywords compaction analysis, source rock maturity, vitrinite reflectance

Introduction
The Cooper and Eromanga Basins are Australias largest onshore petroleum province,
and are located in central and eastern Australia (Figure 1). The sediments of the Cooper
Basin were deposited during Late Carboniferous-Permian and Triassic times in predominantly fluvial and lacustrine environments (Thornton, 1979). After the deposition of the
Cooper Basin, in Late Triassic-Early Jurassic times, an exhumational event took place
that resulted in the basin wide Nappamerri unconformity (Thorton, 1979; Kuang, 1985)
(Figure 1). Subsequently, the Eromanga Basin sediments were deposited in Jurassic and
Cretaceous times in mainly fluvial-lacustrine and shallow marine environments (Bowering, 1982). The Eromanga Basin is the larger of the two and completely overlies the
Cooper Basin. After the deposition of the Eromanga Basin, major sedimentation ceased
and over the last 90 Myr, the basin has been characterized by periods of exhumation and
minor sedimentation (Moore and Pitt, 1984; Shaw, 1991; Mavromatidis 1997; Mavromatidis and Hillis, 2005) (Figure 1). The aims of this study are to:
Determine the magnitude of Late Cretaceous-Tertiary and Late Triassic-Early
Jurassic exhumation, using vitrinite reflectance data from 21 released wells;
Address correspondence to Angelos Mavromatidis, Petroleum Development Oman LLC, P.O.
Box 81, Muscat 113, Sultanate of Oman. E-mail: angelos97@hotmail.com

631

632

A. Mavromatidis

Figure 1. (a) Location map for the Cooper-Eromanga Basins; (b) Cooper-Eromanga Basins stratigraphic nomenclature (FM = formation, GRP = group, MBR = member, SST = sandstone)
(modified after Moore, 1986); and (c) location of wells used in vitrinite reflectance modeling,
major tectonic elements and fields are also shown (GMI = Gidgealpa-Merrimelia-Innamincka, J =
Jackson Field, M = Moomba Field, NM = Nappacoongee-Murteree, Patch = Patchawarra, PNJ =
Pepita-Naccowlah-Jackson South, RW = Roseneath-Wolgolla, S = Strzelecki).

Present previous studies of exhumation based on compaction analysis and compare

the exhumation estimates of these studies with the exhumation estimates in this
study; and
Discuss the implications of exhumation results with respect to thermal maturity
of source rocks.

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

633

The term exhumation (as opposed to erosion or uplift) is used here in the sense of England
and Molnar (1990) to describe displacement of rocks with respect to the surface.

Method
Quantifying Exhumation Using Vitrinite Reflectance
Vitrinite reflectance-depth data from 21 wells were taken from well completion reports.
The selected wells provide regional coverage (Figure 1) and the vitrinite reflectancedepth profile of each well is representative of the area in which it is located. Present
geothermal gradients were calculated using bottom hole temperatures (corrected for time
since circulation of drilling muds) and temperatures determined from drill stem tests.
Cao et al. (1988) and Russell and Baillie (1989) suggest that such values provide the
most reliable formation temperatures. It is argued that the baseline temperature to which
the most meaningful overall thermal gradient is drawn is not the temperature at ground
surface, which is subject to diurnal and seasonal variations, but the rock temperature
some meters or tens of meters below the ground. This temperature is probably 18
20 C in the region under discussion (Pitt, 1986). A surface temperature of 20 C was
used in this study. In modeling, the available software MATOILs default thermal conductivities and compaction/decompaction parameters for given lithologies were used.
The two most important variables that govern the modeling of vitrinite reflectance are:
(a) burial/exhumation history and (b) palaeogeothermal gradients. Hence, three different assumed palaeogeothermal histories were used and the palaeogeothermal gradients
during the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic unconformity, and that during the Late CretaceousTertiary unconformity were varied in order that the modeled vitrinite reflectance gave the
best fit to observed vitrinite reflectance.
Following the principle of Occams razor (i.e., the simplest hypothesis that fits the
data is the best hypothesis), vitrinite reflectance was first modeled assuming that palaeogeothermal gradients were constant and equal to the present geothermal gradients (Figure 2). Exhumation values associated with the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic unconformity
were extremely high and exhumation for the late Cretaceous-Tertiary unconformity could
not be estimated since reflectances predicted by this geothermal history are higher than
those observed for the Eromanga Basin. This indicates that the present high geothermal gradients are a relatively recent phenomenon with which vitrinite reflectance has
not fully equilibrated. Since the first geothermal history proved unsatisfactory, a second
geothermal history was used. In this, the palaeogeothermal gradients increase over the
last 90 Ma from lower values to the present gradients (Figure 2). The assumed increases
in geothermal gradients the last 90 Ma were as follows:
Present Geothermal Gradient

Increase in Geothermal Gradient

from 90 Ma to Present Day

35 C/km
3644 C/km
3644 C/km

5 C/km
10 C/km
15 C/km

The second geothermal history implies extremely high, similar to the first geothermal
history, in the order of thousands, and probably unreasonable, exhumation values associated with the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic unconformity for the majority of the examined
wells. As a consequence, vitrinite reflectance modeling was undertaken using a third

634

A. Mavromatidis

Figure 2. Summary of geothermal gradient histories in the three types of maturity modeling.
Gradients value at any point in time reflects average gradient of existing basinal section. Details
for each well are given in Table 1 (Gt = geothermal gradient).

and preferred geothermal history. In an attempt to match the vitrinite reflectance trends
of the Cooper Basin without invoking extreme Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation
as required by previous geothermal histories, modeling was undertaken using the third
geothermal history. In this third attempt to model the vitrinite reflectances, geothermal
gradients during the deposition of the Eromanga Basin were the same as in the second geothermal history (i.e., increasing over the last 90 Ma), but the gradients during
the deposition of the Cooper Basin were taken to be 5 C/km higher than the present
geothermal gradients (Figure 2). The effect of increasing the geothermal gradients during
the deposition of the Cooper Basin is to reduce the amount of exhumation required at
the time of Late Triassic-Early Jurassic unconformity (i.e., between the deposition of the
Cooper and Eromanga Basins). The precise geothermal histories used for each well in
each of the three scenarios are summarized in Table 1.
One of the objectives of this study was to compare the exhumation values of this study
with the exhumation estimates based on the compaction analysis of the Eromanga Basin
(Mavromatidis and Hillis, 2005). In compaction analysis, the terms apparent exhumation
and total exhumation have been estimated and the same terms have been adopted and
used herein. In general, total exhumation at the time the rocks were being elevated (ET )

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

635

Table 1
Present and palaeogeothermal gradients that best fit vitrinite reflectance data
assuming different geothermal histories
First geothermal history

Well
Alkina-1

Baryulah-1

Battunga-1

Beanbush-1

Bungee-1

Burley-2

Copai-1

Curalle-1

Innamincka-4

Jackson-1

Lycium-1

Second geothermal history

Third geothermal history

Age,
Ma

Geothermal gradient,
C/km

Age,
Ma

Geothermal gradient,
C/km

Age,
Ma

Geothermal gradient,
C/km

0
91
198
286
0
91
208
286
0
10
91
183
286
0
91
225
286
0
88
193
286
0
91
193
286
0
91
193
0
91
198
250
0
91
193
258
0
10
91
193
286
0
10
91
193
268

45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
40
40
40
40
40
37
37
37
37
44
44
44
44
55
55
55
55
45
45
45
48
48
48
48
47
47
47
47
44
44
44
44
44
38
38
38
38
38

0
91
198
286
0
91
208
286
0
10
91
183
286
0
91
225
286
0
88
193
286
0
91
193
286
0
91
193
0
91
198
250
0
91
193
258
0
10
91
193
286
0
10
91
193
268

45
30
30
30
45
30
30
30
40
30
30
30
30
37
27
27
27
44
34
34
34
55
40
40
40
45
30
30
48
33
33
33
47
32
32
32
44
34
34
34
34
38
28
28
28
28

0
91
198
286
0
91
208
286
0
10
91
183
286
0
91
225
286
0
88
193
286
0
91
193
286
0
91
193
0
91
198
250
0
91
193
258
0
10
91
193
286
0
10
91
193
268

45
30
30
50
45
30
30
50
40
30
30
30
45
37
27
27
42
44
34
34
49
55
40
40
60
45
30
30
48
33
33
53
47
32
32
52
44
34
34
34
49
38
28
28
28
43

(continued)

636

A. Mavromatidis
Table 1
(Continued)
First geothermal history

Well
Macadama-1

Mackillop-1

Nulla-1

Okotoko-1

Putamurdie-1

Russel-1

Tirrawarra
North-1

Ullenbury-1

Wareena-1

Warnie East-1

Second geothermal history

Third geothermal history

Age,
Ma

Geothermal gradient,
C/km

Age,
Ma

Geothermal gradient,
C/km

Age,
Ma

Geothermal gradient,
C/km

0
91
183
286
0
91
193
258
0
90
193
286
0
91
193
286
0
90
193
0
10
91
258
0
91
193
286
0
91
204
245
0
91
198
253
0
10
91
193
286

44
44
44
44
45
45
45
45
37
37
37
37
41
41
41
41
40
40
40
42
42
42
42
35
35
35
35
42
42
42
42
43
43
43
43
52
52
52
52
52

0
91
183
286
0
91
193
258
0
90
193
286
0
91
193
286
0
90
193
0
10
91
258
0
91
193
286
0
91
204
245
0
91
198
253
0
10
91
193
286

44
34
34
34
45
30
30
30
37
27
27
27
41
31
31
31
40
30
30
42
32
32
32
35
30
30
30
42
32
32
32
43
33
33
33
52
37
37
37
37

0
91
183
286
0
91
193
258
0
97
193
286
0
91
193
286
0
90
193
0
10
91
258
0
91
193
286
0
91
204
245
0
91
198
253
0
10
91
193
286

44
34
34
49
45
30
30
50
37
27
27
42
41
31
31
46
40
30
30
42
32
32
47
35
30
30
40
42
32
32
47
43
33
33
48
52
37
37
37
57

is the sum of apparent exhumation (EA ) and post-exhumational burial (BE ):

ET = EA + BE .

(1)

Maximum burial-depth (BT ) is constrained by the apparent exhumation (EA ) and not the
amount of exhumation at the time the rocks were being exhumed (ET ). It is given by

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

637

the sum of the present burial-depth (BP ) and apparent exhumation (EA ):
BT = EA + BP .

(2)

In this study, the total exhumation was firstly determined and then for comparison purposes the apparent exhumation was estimated and used for comparisons with compaction
analysis study.

Results and Discussion

Assuming the third geothermal history, there are no wells where vitrinite reflectance
is best modeled with no exhumation associated with both the Late Cretaceous-Tertiary
and Late Triassic-Early Jurassic unconformities (Figure 3). The best fit to the observed
vitrinite reflectance data, implies no Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation at: Beanbush-1,
Bungee-1, Innamincka-4, and Tirrawarra North-1. In the rest of the wells, Late CretaceousTertiary exhumation is inferred, but Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation is higher.
Figure 4 shows apparent exhumation inferred from Cooper Basin vitrinite reflectance
crossplotted against apparent exhumation inferred from Eromanga Basin vitrinite reflectance.
The results suggest that Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation from maximum burialdepth increases from approximately 200 m in the south and west of the Nappamerri
Trough to 800 m in the northeastern/Queensland part of the Nappamerri Trough (Figure 5). This supports the evidence of Shaw (1991) based on stratigraphic estimates that
exhumation increases eastwards. Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation reaches maximum
values of approximately 600 m in the Wareena Anticline (north of the Jackson-Naccowlah
area) and of approximately 700 m in the Naryilco Anticline (south of the JacksonNaccowlah area). The other area of maximum exhumation, which reaches approximately
800 m, is near the northeastern boundary of South Australia, in the vicinity of the
Curalle-1 well.
The change of gradient in the vitrinite reflectance/depth profiles between the Cooper
and Eromanga Basins is characteristic of the majority of the wells studied. This change
occurs at the unconformity between the Cooper and the Eromanga Basins. Observed
vitrinite reflectances were difficult to model consistently. The data points from the Eromanga Basin were lower than expected at shallow levels and those from the Cooper
Basin higher than expected at deeper levels. A key feature of the observed vitrinite reflectance data from the Cooper-Eromanga Basins is that measured vitrinite reflectances
are lower than would be expected from present temperatures, particularly in the Eromanga Basin. This demonstrates that the present high geothermal gradients in the area,
typically 4050 C/km, are a relatively recent phenomenon. The cause of this increase in
geothermal gradient is unclear. The results of the compaction analysis indicate significant exhumation over the area (Mavromatidis and Hillis, 2005). Hence, it is tempting
to suggest that advective transfer of heat to the surface associated with exhumation may
have been responsible for the increase in geothermal gradient. However, if this was so,
vitrinite reflectances should be consistent with present temperatures. Alternatively, as
suggested by Stuart et al. (1993), there may have been significant heat transport through
groundwater movement in aquifers. The Eromanga Basin is, of course, part of the Great
Artesian Basin, and thus subject to groundwater movement through its aquifers. Furthermore, there is significant contemporary hot spring activity in the Flinders Ranges (e.g.,
Paralana Hot Springs) to the south of the Cooper-Eromanga Basins (Foster et al., 1994),

638

A. Mavromatidis

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

639

Figure 3. Plots of observed (black dots) and modeled (broken line) vitrinite reflectance Ro (%) vs.
depth (in km). Modeling assumes that burial/exhumational events took place in Late Triassic-Early
Jurassic times, after the deposition of the Cooper Basin, and in Late Cretaceous-Tertiary times,
after the deposition of the Eromanga Basin. Apparent exhumation (EA ) and total exhumation (ET )
values (in meters) used in the modeling are also shown ( IM = interval missing).

640

A. Mavromatidis

Figure 4. Crossplot of apparent exhumation (in meters) from Eromanga Basin units against apparent exhumation (in meters) from Cooper Basin units. The line illustrating the 1:1 relationship
between apparent exhumation values from each pair of units analyzed is shown.

where the presumed basement of the area outcrops. The role played by the basement
granites in producing the high geothermal gradients is discussed later in this section.
The most striking feature of the observed vitrinite reflectance data from the CooperEromanga Basins is the increase in vitrinite reflectance/depth gradient from the Eromanga
Basin sequence to the Cooper Basin sequence. This increase in gradient reflects exhumation during Late Triassic-Early Jurassic times, and/or higher palaeogeothermal gradients
during the deposition of the Cooper Basin sequence, prior to Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation. The balance of exhumation and/or palaeogeothermal gradient used to
model the observed vitrinite reflectance trends is inherently a non-unique one. Indeed,
it is clear from this study that there almost as many different estimates of exhumation
and palaeogeothermal gradients as there are vitrinite reflectance modeling studies in the
area. High geothermal gradients during the deposition of the Cooper Basin sequence are
likely to be the consequence of Carboniferous tectonic activity and associated igneous
intrusion. Granites have been widely postulated to play a role in both high present and
high palaeogeothermal gradients in the area (e.g., Pitt, 1986; Gallagher, 1988). Kantsler
et al. (1983) suggested that the high geothermal gradients could have existed for 300 Myr
with even higher gradients in the Permo-Triassic, on the basis that the early high gradients were associated with granite intrusion. Much of the Nappamerri Trough is underlain
by granites (Gatehouse, 1986). The granites encountered in wells in the area are dated
radiometrically at about 305360 Ma (Gatehouse, 1986), which implies that the elevated
geothermal gradients may have existed for up to 50 Myr before the onset of sediment
deposition in the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian. The distribution of granites must be
considered, laterally, more extensive underneath the basement lithologies than the represented by intersection wells (Gallagher, 1988). Present-day high geothermal gradients
in the Nappamerri Trough are considered to reflect the fact that the area is underlain by
hot granitic basement (Russell and Bone, 1989). In contrast, lower geothermal gradients

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

641

Figure 5. Apparent exhumation (in meters) based on vitrinite reflectance in Eromanga Basin
stratigraphic units. Well control points and tectonic elements are also shown (GMI = GidgealpaMerrimelia-Innamincka, NM = Nappacoongee-Murteree, Patch = Patchawarra, PNJ = PepitaNaccowlah-Jackson South, RW = Roseneath-Wolgolla).

in the Patchawarra Trough may reflect the fact that this area is underlain by older, mid
Palaeozoic (meta-) sediments of the Warburton Basin (Kantsler et al., 1983; Gallagher,
1988). The GMI trend appears to represent a thermal hinge between the Patchawarra
and Nappamerri Troughs. The period of lower geothermal gradients during the deposition of Eromanga Basin sediments may have been anomalous if the basement granites
of the area are responsible for the long term high geothermal gradients. Lower geothermal gradients at this time may have been associated with thermal blanketing due to rapid
Jurassic-Early Cretaceous sedimentation. Alternatively, the high heat flow associated with
granites may have decayed during Jurassic-Early Cretaceous times and the recent increase

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A. Mavromatidis

may have a different origin. It is significant that in areas such as Strzelecki and Jackson,
where there is no evidence of granites, that there is a present thermal high (Pitt, 1986),
suggesting that the more recent increase in geothermal gradients is not everywhere associated with the granites and that it may be related to groundwater movement (Stuart
et al., 1993). Clearly granite intrusion prior to the onset of Cooper Basin sedimentation
cannot alone account for high geothermal gradients during the deposition of the Cooper
Basin and the recent increase in geothermal gradients. Exhumation estimates in Late
Triassic-Early Jurassic times are not considered to be representative due to this complex
palaeogeothermal environment and hence only indications can be deduced.

Quantification of Exhumation Using the Compaction Analysis

Mavromatidis and Hillis (2005) have been estimated the exhumation in the Eromanga
Basin using the compaction method. Their study showed that exhumation increases eastwards from the Patchawarra Trough, through the GMI Trend and Nappamerri Trough into
Queensland, with values of approximately 600 m in the Jackson-Naccowlah area. The
other area of maximum exhumation, which also reaches approximately 1 km, lies near
the extreme northeastern boundary of South Australia, in the vicinity of the Curalle-1
well. The study was based on the use of sonic log in 210 wells from 7 units in the Eromanga Basin. The similarity of exhumation values from different units and the extensive
dataset make these estimates to be a robust reference for comparison with this study and
for other exhumation studies.

Comparison of Exhumation Estimates from the Two Different Methods

The exhumation values derived from vitrinite reflectance modeling for the Eromanga
Basin sequence are comparable with, or less than, those derived from compaction analysis
(Table 2). The differences between exhumation values for the two techniques are less
than 350 m except at Innamincka-4, Jackson-1, and Warnie East-1, where the differences
are 650, 370, and 480 m, respectively. Both methods suggest lower Late CretaceousTertiary exhumation values in the Patchawarra Trough and the Nappamerri Trough and
an increase in exhumation in the Jackson-Naccowlah area (to approximately 600 m) and
the Curalle anticline (to approximately 1000 m) (Figure 5 in this study and Figure 7 in
Mavromatidis and Hillis (2005) study). However, the tendency for exhumation values,
from compaction analysis, to increase from the Patchawarra to Nappamerri Trough, is
not born out by the vitrinite reflectance modeling. This may simply be because less
wells were analyzed in the vitrinite reflectance modeling than in the compaction analysis
(210 wells). The other area of maximum Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation, inferred
from vitrinite reflectance modeling, which reaches approximately 800 m, is near the
northeastern boundary of South Australia, in the vicinity of the Curalle-1 well. These
results are consistent with those based on compaction analysis, and with the fact that the
Tertiary is absent or very thin over these areas.

Influence of Exhumation on Source Rock Maturity

The source rock thermal history required to model observed maturity is generally determined from burial history and palaeogeothermal gradients or palaeo-heatflow/thermal

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

643

Table 2
Apparent exhumation estimatesa in Eromanga Basin
(Late Cretaceous-Tertiary times)

Well

Apparent exhumation
(in meters) based on
vitrinite reflectance

Alkina-1
Baryulah-1
Battunga-1
Beanbush-1
Bogala-1
Bungee-1
Burley-2
Copai-1
Challum-1
Curalle-1
Innamincka-4
Jackson-1
Lycium-1
Macadama-1
Mackillop-1
Morney-1
Nulla-1
Okotoko-1
Pepita-2
Putamurdie-1
Russel-1
Tirrawarra North-1
Ullenbury-1
Wareena-1
Warnie East-1
Watson-1

200
600
250
0
0
200
300
800
0
400
150
300
350
300
350
230
350
0
520
800
60

Apparent exhumation
(in meters) based on
compaction analysis
(after Mavromatidis
and Hillis, 2005)
529
366
302
67
578
278
385
531
389
996
666
775
250
336
446
824
230
517
431
542
337
185
453
871
542
613

a Wells without apparent exhumation values means that no data have been collected

(i.e., in vitrinite reflectance).

conductivity (e.g., Falvey and Deighton, 1982; Bray et al., 1992). To assess the influence
of Late Triassic-Early Jurassic and Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation on source rock
maturity, vitrinite reflectance levels have been modeled in Jackson-1. The palaeogeothermal gradients used in modeling were those of in geothermal history according to third
scenario (Table 1). Source rock maturity has been modeled (in terms of vitrinite reflectance) for the following three scenarios:
without considering exhumation;

644

A. Mavromatidis
considering exhumation only in Late Cretaceous-Tertiary times;
considering exhumation in Late Triassic-Early Jurassic; and
Late Cretaceous-Tertiary times (Figure 6).

Modeling was undertaken using the BasinModTM software in which vitrinite reflectance is
calculated using the kinetics of Sweeney and Burnham (1990). The major potential source
rocks for liquid hydrocarbon generation are the Patchawarra and Toolachee Formations in
the Cooper Basin (Jenkins, 1989), and the Basal Jurassic (Hawkins et al., 1989), Birkhead
Formation (Jenkins, 1989), and Murta Member (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 1989) in the
Eromanga Basin. In modeling, without allowance for burial/exhumation, the Patchawarra
Formation reaches a vitrinite reflectance level of 0.5%Ro , equivalent to early maturity
for oil generation during Late Cretaceous times and the rest of the source rocks during
Tertiary times. Without allowance for exhumation no source rocks reach mid-maturity
(0.71.0%Ro ) (Figure 6a). However, with the incorporation of Late Cretaceous-Tertiary
exhumation, all source rocks reach a vitrinite reflectance of 0.5%Ro , during Late Cretaceous times and the Patchawarra Formation reaches a vitrinite reflectance of 0.7%Ro ,
equivalent to mid maturity for oil generation during Tertiary times (Figure 6b). When maturation modeling incorporates Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation the Patchawarra
and Toolachee Formations pass through early oil generation during mid-Triassic times and
the Patchawarra Formation reaches mid mature during Late Triassic times (Figure 6c).
Considering Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation, the Toolachee Formation reaches
mid-mature oil generation at around the Late Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Robinson
(1982) quoted observed reflectances in the Jackson-1 well, which include 0.56% at
1.1 km in the Murta Member, 0.58% at 1.4 km in the Birkhead Formation, 0.74% at
1.5 km in the Toolachee Formation and 0.87% at 1.6 km in the Patchawarra Formation.
Hence, the only maturation modeling that is consistent with the observed reflectances
in the Jackson-1 well is that which incorporates Late Triassic-Early Jurassic and Late
Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation. More broadly, incorporating Late Triassic-Early Jurassic
and Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation in maturation modeling is consistent with the
sourcing of the oil fields of the Jackson-Naccowlah area, in southwestern Queensland,
from the above source rocks (Vincent et al., 1985).
In summary, the combination of any given palaeogeothermal gradients with a burial
history plot for a potential hydrocarbon source that allows for exhumation indicates
earlier and higher levels of organic maturity than the same palaeogeothermal gradients
combined with a burial history plot that does not allow for exhumation. This is more
discernible when Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation is incorporated in maturation
modeling. Thus, estimates of exhumation, such as those presented, should be incorporated
in maturation modeling of wells not at their maximum burial-depth.

Figure 6. Burial/exhumation and maturity histories for the Jackson-1 well: (a) without allowance
for exhumation; (b) with allowance for Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation; and (c) with allowance
for Late Cretaceous-Tertiary and Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation. Modeling was undertaken
using the kinetics of Sweeney and Burnham (1990) BasinModTM software. All burial/exhumation
histories were decompacted using the methodology of Sclater and Christie (1980) with allowance
for the effect of exhumational event. Ages were taken from the operators composite logs and
geochronologically calibrated after the time scale of Harland et al. (1989). The apparent exhumation
value (in meters) is shown (Pch = Patchawarra Formation, Tlc = Toolachee Formation, BJr =
Basal Jurassic, Brk = Birkhead, Mrt = Murta Member, BGL = below ground level).

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

Figure 6. (Figure caption on page 644.)

645

646

A. Mavromatidis

Discussion
It is worth noting that in Jackson-1 (Figure 6) the excess of Late Triassic-Early Jurassic
exhumation over subsequent burial is relatively small, and greater maturities are attained
by Cooper Basin source rocks in Tertiary times than were attained in Late Triassic-Early
Jurassic times. Hence, hydrocarbons generated by Cooper Basin source rocks could have
charged reservoirs in these areas in Tertiary times. Thus, in areas where the excess of
Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation over subsequent burial is relatively small, Cooper
Basin sourced oils could have directly charged Eromanga Basin reservoirs and/or Cooper
Basin reservoirs may have been charged with Cooper Basin sourced oils in Late Tertiary
times, and such oils need not have been preserved in reservoirs since Late Triassic-Early
Jurassic times. However, where the excess of Late Triassic-Early Jurassic exhumation
over subsequent burial is large (in excess of at least 400 m), it is considered unlikely that
Cooper Basin sources could have filled Eromanga Basin reservoirs. Indeed geochemical
work (Michaelsen and McKirdy, 1989) has suggested that Eromanga Basin sourced oils
form a significant component of Eromanga Basin reservoired oils. There are not yet
sufficient geochemical data to compare geochemically-based determinations of source
rock with the exhumation values determined herein.

Conclusion and Recommendations for Further Research

This study has shown that exhumation in Late Cretaceous-Tertiary times increases towards the Queesnland sector of the Cooper-Eromanga Basins. The exhumation estimates
are similar between this study and the compaction analysis study. However, the results for
Late Triassic-Early Jurassic times are not reliable due to uncertainties in palaeogeothermal history of the area. It is clear from this study that the Cooper-Eromanga Basin with
its complex thermal history is not an ideal area in which to investigate whether exhumation values yielded by modeling vitrinite reflectance are consistent with those from the
compaction methodology. Nevertheless, previous research has generally paid little attention to exhumation in these basins and its consequences. In particular the significance of
Late Triassic-Early Jurassic times has not been widely recognized. It is not surprising
that maturation studies which have not incorporated the effects of exhumation have failed
to produce satisfactory models (Kantsler et al., 1983; Middleton, 1979; McKirdy, 1982;
Pitt, 1986; Russell and Bone, 1989; Stuart et al., 1993). Quantification of exhumation
in Late Triassic-Early Jurassic times can be estimated using the available porosity data
from the Cooper Basin units and apply the compaction analysis in a similar way that
Mavromatidis and Hillis (2005) have been quantified the exhumation in Late CretaceousTertiary times. Vitrinie reflectance modeling exhumation results can then be tested with
more confidence and maybe determine better palaeogeothermal gradients for modeling
purposes.
Similar age unconformities to those in Cooper-Eromanga Basins, are observed in
the other basins of eastern Australia. Due to the availability of vitrinite reflectance and
porosity data and the low cost of the techniques, it is suggested that vitrinite reflectance
modeling and compaction analysis could be used to quantify the amount of Late TriassicEarly Jurassic exhumation between the Galilee and Eromanga Basins, between the Bowen
and Surat Basins, and between the Esk Trough and Moreton Basins. These techniques
could also be applied to determine Late Cretaceous-Tertiary exhumation in the Surat and
Moreton Basins. Accurate knowledge of exhumation in the eastern part of the Australian
continent will be a useful to petroleum exploration in these areas to applying a regional

Exhumation in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia

647

tectonic model for the formation and evolution of the eastern part of the continent and
its sedimentary basins.

Acknowledgment
The present work has been made possible thanks to Santos Ltd. for providing the data
and the well completion reports. I warmly thank Prof. R. Hillis and Dr. P. Tingate,
University of Adelaide, Australia, for their critical reviews; P. Siffleet and G. Jacquier
for fruitful discussions; and D. Warner and M. Zwigulis of Santos Ltd. for suggestions
of improvement of this research.

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