HYD

ROS
PHE
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TIDES
WATER PURIFICATION
WATER POLLUTION

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TIDES
NATURE AND DEFINITION OF TIDES
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the
gravitational forces exerted by the Moon, Earth and the Sun. Tides vary on timescales
ranging from hours to years due to numerous influences. To make accurate records,
tide gauges at fixed stations measure the water level over time. Gauges ignore
variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are
compared to the reference (or datum) level usually called mean sea level.
While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations, sea
levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes,
resulting in storm surges, especially in shallow seas and near coasts.
Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems
whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present. For example, the
solid part of the Earth is affected by tides, though this is not as easily seen as the water
tidal movements.
KINDS OF TIDES
Tides are the rhythmic rise and fall of ocean or sea water caused by the
combined effects of the rotation of the Earth and the gravitational forces exerted by the
Moon and the Sun.
Though the suns mass, and its gravitational pull, is greater than the moons, the
moon is closer and so wields twice the gravitational pull on Earths oceans. The moon
revolves around Earth every 23 hours and 53 minutes, or the time of a tidal day, but
because the moon and earth have elliptical orbits, a full tidal cycle actually takes 19
years. Variations in the distance and alignment of the sun and moon to the Earth result
in several different types of tides.
The notion of 'tides per day' is actually not quite accurate. Since the moon's day
is about 24 hours and 50 minutes, the tides actually occur a little later each day. As this
continues over the course of a month there will be times where there is only one high or
low tide in a 24 hour period.
Tidal Variations
The moons gravity affects each object on and in the Earth. When gravitational
forces act on the Earth, objects distort, including water and the Earth itself. Oceans
distort in the form of two tidal bulges. Oceans on the side of the Earth closest to the
moon exhibit a large tidal bulge. Oceans on the opposite side of the planet also exhibit a
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smaller tidal bulge, as the moons gravitational pull moves the Earth toward the moon
and away from the water. As the Earth rotates under these two bulges, any coastline on
the planets surface generally experiences two high tides and two low tides during each
full rotation. Of course, there are exceptions to this simplistic model.
Astronomical Tides
The key to understanding how the tides work is understanding the relationship
between the motion of our planet and the moon and Sun. As the Earth spins on its own
axis, ocean water is kept at equal levels around the planet by the Earth's gravity pulling
inward and centrifugal force pushing outward. However, the Moons gravitational forces
are strong enough to disrupt this balance by accelerating the water towards the Moon.
This causes the water to 'bulge.' As the Moon orbits our planet and as the Earth rotates,
the bulge also moves. The areas of the Earth where the bulging occurs experience high
tide, and the other areas are subject to a low tide.

The following diagram shows how the moon causes tides on Earth:
In this diagram, you can see that the moon's gravitational force pulls on water in
the oceans so that there are "bulges" in the ocean on both sides of the planet. The
moon pulls water toward it, and this causes the bulge toward the moon. The bulge on
the side of the Earth opposite the moon is caused by the moon "pulling the Earth away"
from the water on that side.
If you are on the coast and the moon is directly overhead, you should experience
a high tide. If the moon is directly overhead on the opposite side of the planet, you
should also experience a high tide.

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Based on the number of high and low tides and their relative heights each tidal day,
tides are described as semi-diurnal, mixed, or diurnal. These are examples of
astronomical tides, meaning they are influenced by gravitational actions of the sun,
moon and Earth.
Diurnal Tides
A single high and a single low tide occur each day. They tend to occur in certain areas
when the moon is at its furthest from the equator. A diurnal tide has one episode of high
water and one episode of low water each day. These tides usually occur in locations
when the moon is farthest from the equator. In the United States, you'll find diurnal tides
along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Diurnal tides create 24-hour, 50-minute tidal
periods. Oceans in partially enclosed basins, such as the Caribbean and the Gulf Coast
of the U.S. often experience diurnal tides.

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Semi-diurnal Tides
Two high and two low waters occur daily and are of relatively similar ranges. This
type is more likely to occur when the moon is over the equator. Semidiurnal tides are
observed at the equator at all times. A semi-diurnal tide has two episodes of equal high
water and two episodes of low equal water each day. The second high tide rises to the
same level it did in the first high tide and the second low tide falls to the same level it did
in the first low tide. Semi-diurnal tides tend to occur when the moon is directly over the
equator. This is the most common type of tidal pattern. You'll see semi-diurnal tides
along the U.S. Atlantic coast. Semi-diurnal tidal periods are 12 hour and 25 minutes
long. Most coastlines experience semi-diurnal tides.

Mixed Tides
These tides also tend to occur as the moon moves furthest north or south of the
equator. They are typified by large variances in tidal ranges during the two daily tides.
Mixed tides, like the semi-diurnal tide, can have two episodes of high water and two
episodes of low water per day. However, unlike a semi-diurnal tide, mixed tides are
unequal, meaning they do not rise and fall to the same levels. Mixed tides can either
include both sets of unequal high and low waters, or only one set of unequal high or low
waters. Mixed tides will occur when the moon is extremely far north or extremely far
south of the equator. View mixed tides along the U.S. Pacific coast. For mixed tides, it is
helpful to purchase a tide book to know when the high and low tides will occur. Mixed
tides consist of two high tides and two low tides of varied heights during a lunar day.
Most open coastlines, such as the west coast of the U.S., experience mixed tides.
Some bodies of water, including most of North America thats in contact with the Pacific
Basin, have mixed tides, where a single low tide follows two high tides.

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The configuration of Earth, moon, and sun that is responsible for (A) spring tides,
and (B) neap tides. When the sun and moon are aligned, there are exceptionally strong
gravitational forces, causing very high and very low tides which are called spring tides.
When the sun and moon are not aligned, the gravitational forces cancel each other out,
and the tides are not as dramatically high and low. These are called neap tides.
Spring Tides
One complicating factor that creates different types of tides is the suns
gravitational pull. When the moon is in its new and full phases, the Earth, moon and sun
are aligned in a formation that adds the suns gravitational pull to the moons
gravitational pull. This phenomenon, known as spring tide, results in higher-than-normal
high tides and lower-than-normal low tides. When the moon is full or new, the
gravitational pull of the moon and sun are combined. At these times, the high tides are
very high and the low tides are very low. This is known as a spring high tide. Spring
tides are especially strong tides (they do not have anything to do with the season
Spring). They occur when the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon are in a line. The
gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun both contribute to the tides. Spring tides
occur during the full moon and the new moon.

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When the Moon, Earth, and Sun fall in a straight line, which we call syzygy (sizeh-gee), we notice the greatest difference between high and low tide water levels.
These spring tides occur twice each month, during the full and new Moon. If the Moon is
at perigee, the closest it approaches Earth in its orbit, the tides are especially high and
low.

Neap Tides
When the moon is in its first and third quarters, the sun and moon are aligned at
right angles to the Earth. Because the suns gravitational pull works against the moons
pull in this alignment, both high tides and low tides are weaker. This phenomenon is
known as neap tide. Spring tides and neap tides alternate at 1-week intervals. During
the moon's quarter phases the sun and moon work at right angles, causing the bulges
to cancel each other. The result is a smaller difference between high and low tides and
is known as a neap tide. Neap tides are especially weak tides. They occur when the
gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to one another (with
respect to the Earth). Neap tides occur during quarter moons.

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When the Sun and Moon form a right angle, as when we see a half moon, their
gravitational pulls fight each other and we notice a smaller difference between high and
low tides. These are called neap tides.
Proxigean Spring Tide
The Proxigean Spring Tide is a rare, unusually high tide. This very high tide
occurs when the moon is both unusually close to the Earth (at its closest perigee, called
the proxigee) and in the New Moon phase (when the Moon is between the Sun and the
Earth). The proxigean spring tide occurs at most once every 1.5 years.

Bore Tide
A tidal bore (or simply bore in context, or also aegir, eagre, or eygre) is a tidal
phenomenon in which the leading edge of the incoming tide forms a wave (or waves) of
water that travels up a river or narrow bay against the direction of the river or bay's
current.

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TIDAL CONSTITUENTS
Tidal constituents are the net result of multiple influences impacting tidal changes over
certain periods of time.
Primary constituents:
1. Earth's rotation
2. Position of the Moon
3. Sun, relative to the Earth
4. Moon's altitude (Lunar Altitude)
5. Bathymetry measurement of water depth at various places in a body of
water; is the study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors

Harmonic constituents - variations with periods of less than half a day

Long period constituents variations involving cycles of days, months, or years

Principal lunar semi-diurnal constituent

is the largest constituent , also known as the M2 (or M2) tidal constituent

Its period is about 12 hours and 25.2 minutes

Semi-diurnal range differences

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When there are two high tides each day with different heights or two low
tides also of different heights, the pattern is called a mixed semi-diurnal
tide.

WATER PURIFICATION
DEFINITION
The process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants,
suspended solids and gases from contaminated water.
The goal of this process is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is
disinfected for human consumption. But, water purification may also be designed for a
variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical,
pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications.
In general the methods used include physical processes such as:
filtration,
sedimentation,
distillation,
Other methods used include biological processes such as

slow sand filters or biologically active carbon,

Chemical processes such as

flocculation

chlorination and

the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

The purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate

matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria,algae, viruses, fungi; and a
range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the surfaces that water may
have made contact with after falling as rain.
WAYS OF WATER PURIFICATION
Water Treatment
Water treatment is, collectively, the industrial-scale processes that
makes water more acceptable for an end-use, which may be drinking, industry, or
medicine. Water treatment is unlike small-scale water sterilization that campers and
other people in wilderness areas practice. Water treatment should remove existing

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water contaminants or so reduce their concentration that their water becomes fit for its
desired end-use, which may be safely returning used water to the environment.
For most people, the term "water treatment" refers to potable water production
from raw water, whereas "wastewater treatment" refers to the treatment of polluted
water, where the pollution could be from human waste, industry, agricultural waste or
other sources of pollution.
A combination selected from the following processes is used for municipal drinking
water treatment worldwide:

Pre-chlorination - for algae control and arresting any biological growth

Aeration - along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and

manganese

Coagulation - for flocculation

Coagulant aids, also known as polyelectrolytes - to improve coagulation and for

thicker floc formation

Sedimentation - for solids separation, that is, removal of suspended solids

trapped in the floc

Filtration - removing particles from water

Desalination - Process of removing salt from the water

Disinfection - for killing bacteria.

Technologies for potable water treatment are well developed, and generalized
designs are available that are used by many water utilities(public or private). In addition,
a number of private companies provide patented technological solutions. Automation of
water and waste-water treatment is common in the developed world. Capital costs,
operating costs available quality monitoring technologies, locally available skills typically
dictate the level of automation adopted.
Water Treatment: Disinfectants and others
Disinfectants: ozone, as a very strong oxidant, is one of the main disinfectants used to
purify water. As ozone breaks down in the water, a complex chain reaction mechanism
occurs under the effect of the various solutes in the water are released during
purification treatment. Its ability to inactivate living cells can be extended to the point of
provoking their lysis.
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Ultraviolet light (UV) is produced using ultraviolet lamps with quartz covers. UV
produces a minimum of by-products when treating the water.
Other: an advanced oxidation process (AOP) is a system to purify water by chemical
oxidation to deactivate residual organic pollutants. AOPs are capable of generating a
more powerful and less selective secondary oxidant in the reaction medium by
activating an available primary oxidant. AOP has been only gradually used in the water
treatment industry. One of the many AOP systems, the combined O 3/H2O2, is the most
widely used one especially for the purpose of destroying pesticides in order to produce
water for human consumption.
Filtration
Filtration is the primary procedure in purifying water by removal of suspended
particles. The solid particles are left behind using an ordinary sand filter. The water is
then collected in a large basin where alum is added. The alum forms sticky globs that
collect the fine solids together and make them settle. In large-scale water purification,
large beds of sand are used to filter out undissolved materials. Very fine dirt particles
sometimes go through the filter. When water contains small amounts of substances that
are poisonous or when it has a bad taster or smell, activated charcoal can be used to
eliminate them. Filtration cannot effectively remove bacteria and viruses because they
are too small.
Chlorination
Water is chemically treated with chlorine to kill harmful bacteria. Chlorination is
done by adding chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl or calcium hypochlorite
CA(OCl)2 to kill microorganisms in water.

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WATER POLLUTION
NATURE AND DEFINITION
Water pollution is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical,
physical, radioactive orpathogenic microbial substances. Adverse alteration of water
quality presently produces large scale illness and deaths, accounting for approximately
50 million deaths per year worldwide, most of these deaths occurring in Africa and Asia.
In China, for example, about 75 percent of the population (or 1.1 billion people) are
without access to unpolluted drinking water, according to China's own standards.
[1] Widespread consequences of water pollution upon ecosystems include species
mortality, biodiversity reduction and loss of ecosystem services. Some consider that
water pollution may occur from natural causes such as sedimentation from severe
rainfall events; however, natural causes, including volcanic eruptions and algae blooms
from natural causes constitute a minute amount of the instances of world water
pollution. The most problematic of water pollutants are microbes that induce disease,
since their sources may be construed as natural, but a preponderance of these
instances result from human intervention in the environment orhuman
overpopulation phenomena.
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans,
aquifers and groundwater). This form of environmental degradation occurs when
pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate
treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Water pollution affects the entire biosphere plants and organisms living in these
bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species
and population, but also to the natural biological communities.
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic
chemicals and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our
environment. They contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates
and many other harmful chemicals. Many industries do not have proper waste
management system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers,
canals and later in to sea. The toxic chemicals have the capability to change the color
of water, increase the amount of minerals, also known as Eutrophication, change the
temperature of water and pose serious hazard to water organisms.

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2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each
household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage
water carries harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems.
Pathogens are known as a common water pollutant; The sewers of cities house several
pathogens and thereby diseases. Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of
some very deadly diseases and become the breeding grounds for other creatures that
act like carriers. These carriers inflict these diseases via various forms of contact onto
an individual. A very common example of this process would be Malaria.
3. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and
other minerals from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form
contains harmful chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed
up with water which may result in health problems. Mining activities emit several metal
waste and sulphides from the rocks and is harmful for the water.
4. Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper,
aluminum, rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited into the sea in some
countries. These items take from 2 weeks to 200 years to decompose. When such
items enters the sea, they not only cause water pollution but also harm animals in the
sea.
5. Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters
into the sea and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine
wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters. For e.g.: a ship carrying large quantity of oil
may spill oil if met with an accident and can cause varying damage to species in the
ocean depending on the quantity of oil spill, size of ocean, toxicity of pollutant.
6. Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial
amount of ash in the atmosphere. The particles which contain toxic chemicals when
mixed with water vapor result in acid rain. Also, carbon dioxide is released from burning
of fossil fuels which result in global warming.
7. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by
farmers to protect crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants
growth. However, when these chemicals are mixed up with water produce harmful for
plants and animals. Also, when it rains, the chemicals mixes up with rainwater and flow
down into rivers and canals which pose serious damages for aquatic animals.
8. Radioactive waste: Nuclear energy is produced using nuclear fission or fusion. The
element that is used in production of nuclear energy is Uranium which is highly toxic
chemical. The nuclear waste that is produced by radioactive material needs to be
disposed off to prevent any nuclear accident. Nuclear waste can have serious
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environmental hazards if not disposed off properly. Few major accidents have already
taken place in Russia and Japan.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

Aquatic Animals

Animals are poisoned by pollutants in bodies of water.

Pollution can also cause stress in the animals because of change in their habitat.

Aside from toxic waste and trash thrown into the bodies of water, oil spills also
cause death in aquatic animals

Since bodies of water are mostly connected, the algae from one place may flow
to another, thus, affecting all the places it flows into.

Mainly, it is the algae growth that affects the ecosystem.

It absorbs oxygen intended for other aquatic animals. And it clogs fish gills. (Fish
kill)

Food-chains
Pollutants may be eaten by animals, which would later on be consumed by
humans.
Human Health
As mentioned earlier, humans might consume poisoned seafood.
This causes disease to be passed on to those who consume contaminated
animals.
Parasites and microorganisms may be transported by water and subsequently
consumed by humans.
In places where potable water is scarce, residents may catch diseases from
drinking the contaminated water.
Common waterborne diseases include typhoid, intestinal parasites, and diarrhea.
Economic cost

There are industries that are based on the bodies of water.

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One is fishing, when a body of water is polluted, chances are the fishes there are
also not safe for consumption.

Another one is tourism.

PREVENTION OF WATER POLLUTION

Use fewer chemicals to clean your home. It's an easy switch that makes a big
difference. Using toxic chemicals like bleach and ammonia to clean your home is
not only bad for the water supply, it's not necessary. Natural cleaners are just as
effective at getting the house clean, and you don't have to worry that you're
contributing to water pollution when you use them.
Common household supplies like white vinegar and baking soda
can be used for everything from washing windows to scrubbing
bathroom tiles, and they're completely nontoxic.

Dispose of waste properly. Never pour something that isn't biodegradable down
the drain. When it is necessary to use something that's toxic to the water supply,
such as paint or ammonia, take care to dispose of it properly. If you're not sure
how to get rid of something, check your local government's website or contact
your sanitation department to find out how toxic waste should be disposed of in
your community. The following materials should never be poured down the drain:
Paint
Motor oil
Cleaning solvents
Ammonia
Pool chemicals

Don't flush medication. Medication is made with a variety of substances that can
be detrimental to the water supply. If you have leftover medication, look into local
"take back" programs that allow you to turn in medication so it can be disposed of
properly.[2] That way it won't end up back in the drinking water, where it can harm
people and animals.
You can also help by using cloth diapers, recycled toilet paper and
biodegradable tampons, which reduces the number of items that
end up in the landfill.

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Don't flush trash. Flushing items that don't break down, like diapers, wet wipes,
and plastic tampon applicators can cause problems in the sewer system. These
items will eventually end up in local streams, rivers and other bodies of water,
where they can harm fish and other wildlife. Instead of flushing them down the
toilet, throw them away.

Conserve as much water as possible. Conservation is an important way to help

preserve water as a global resource. Treating water so it's clean enough to drink
and use around the house requires a lot of energy, so it's important to conserve
as much as possible, especially in areas where droughts are occurring. Adopt the
following habits to conserve more water around your house:
Take showers instead of baths, since baths require more water.
Turn off your faucets when you aren't using water, such as when
you're brushing your teeth.
Don't overwater your lawn. Make sure lawn sprinklers are turned off
when it rains.

Avoid using plastic. Since it isn't biodegradable, plastic often ends up collecting in
rivers, lakes, and oceans when it has nowhere else to go. The Great Pacific
Garbage Patch, for example, is a huge vortex of trash, mainly plastic, that has
collected in the ocean since it has nowhere else to go. This trash endangers
marine life and affects humans as well. Whenever possible, use glass or cloth
containers instead of plastic.

Prevent soil erosion from occurring. When soil gets eroded and ends up in
streams, rivers and other waterways, chemicals that exist in soil mix with the
water and create problems for plant and animal life. For example, when
phosphorus levels get too high in a body of water, they lead to algae blooms that
can kill fish populations. The best way to prevent erosion is to keep the soil in
place by planting plenty of native trees, shrubs, grasses and groundcover. The
plants' roots hold the soil in place and keep it from falling into the water.

Help clean up litter in water-filled areas. If you live near a local body of water,
there's a lot you can do to help reduce pollution there. See if there's a group
working to clean up local beaches, lakes, rivers or oceans. Many cities host
clean-up days during which volunteers can come help clean up trash to purify
local waterways.

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Keep your car in good repair. If your car leaks oil and other chemicals, they can
leach into the groundwater beneath the soil. Get your car regularly tuned up and
make sure to repair any leaks as soon as they occur.

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