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Abstract
Robot is a system that contains sensors, control systems, manipulators, power supplies and software
all working together to perform a task. Designing, building, programming and testing a robot is a
combination of physics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, structural engineering, mathematics
and computing. In some cases biology, medicine, chemistry might also be involved.
Obstacle Detecting Robot is a machine that detects any obstacle present in its way and if found,
changes its direction automatically. Sensing the obstacle and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while
constantly correcting wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet effective closed loop
system.
The system contains PIR sensor that can detect the obstacle in any direction. If the vehicle encounters
the obstacle in the forward direction, the robot changes it direction to left. If there is an obstacle even in the
left, it moves to right and if the robot detects an obstacle in the right direction, the vehicle stops.
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one or a few
dedicated functions, often with real-time computing constraints. It is usually embedded as part of a complete
device including hardware and mechanical parts. In contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal
computer, can do many different tasks depending on programming. Embedded systems control many of the
common devices in use today .Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can
optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product, or increasing the reliability and performance. Some
embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from scale. Physically, embedded systems range from
portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights,
factory controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a
single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large
chassis or enclosure.
In general, "embedded system" is not an exactly defined term, as many systems have some element
of programmability. For example, Handheld computers share some elements with embedded systems such
as the operating systems and microprocessors which power them but are not truly embedded systems,
because they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Embedded systems
span all aspects of modern life and there are many examples of their use. Telecommunications systems
employ numerous embedded systems from telephone switches for the network to mobile phones at the enduser. Computer networking uses dedicated routers and network bridges to route data.
1.1 Characteristics:
1
Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose computer
for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met, for reasons
such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the
system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.
Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist of small,
computerized parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For example, the
Gibson Robot Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of
the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an embedded system in an automobile
provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself.
3
The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware, and is usually stored in readonly memory or Flash memory chips rather than a disk drive. It often runs with limited computer
hardware resources: small or no keyboard, screen, and little memory.
1.4 Peripherals:
Embedded Systems talk with the outside world via peripherals, such as
Synchronous Serial Communication Interface: I2C, JTAG, SPI, SSC and ESSI
10
1.5 Tools:
As for other software, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and debuggers to develop
embedded. However, they may also use some more specific tools:
Utilities to add a checksum or CRC to a program, so the embedded system can check if the program
is valid.
For systems using digital signal processing, developers may use a math workbench such as
MATLAB, Simulink, MathCAD, or Mathematica to simulate the mathematics. They might also use
libraries for both the host and target which eliminates developing DSP routines as done in DSP nano
RTOS and Unison Operating System.
Custom compilers and linkers may be used to improve optimization for the particular hardware.
An embedded system may have its own special language or design tool, or add enhancements to an
existing language such as Forth or Basic.
Another alternative is to add a Real-time operating system or Embedded operating system, which
may have DSP capabilities like DSP nano RTOS.
11
Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded processor is a
close relative to a common PC processor
As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating systems are
migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cell phones, personal digital assistants and
other consumer computers often need significant software that is purchased or provided by a person other
than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these systems, an open programming environment such as Linux,
NetBSD, OSGI or Embedded Java is required so that the third-party software provider can sell to a large
market.
CHAPTER-2
OVERVIEW:
Obstacle Detecting Robot is a machine that detects any obstacle present in its way and if found,
changes its direction automatically. Sensing the obstacle and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while
constantly correcting wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet effective closed loop
system.
The system contains PIR sensor that can detect the obstacle in any direction. If the vehicle encounters
the obstacle in the forward direction, the robot changes it direction to left. If there is an obstacle even in the
left, it moves to right and if the robot detects an obstacle in the right direction, the vehicle stops.
Block Diagram:
12
WORKING:
The system contains three IR sensors that can detect the obstacle in any direction. If the vehicle
encounters the obstacle in the forward direction, the robot changes it direction to left. If there is an
obstacle even in the left, it moves to right and if the robot detects an obstacle in the right direction,
the vehicle stops.
Obstacle Detecting Robot is a machine that detects any obstacle present in its way and if
found, changes its direction automatically. Sensing the obstacle and maneuvering the robot to stay
on course, while constantly correcting wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet
effective closed loop system.
13
CHAPTER 3
14
AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER
3.1 AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER:
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer
with 4 Kbytes of Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM).
The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density non-volatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and
pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system
or by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit
CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful
microcomputer, which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many
embedded control applications.
3.1.1 FEATURES OF MICROCONTROLLER:
Compatible with MCS-51TM Products
4 Kbytes of In-System Reprogram able Flash Memory- Endurance:
1,00Write/Erase Cycles
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
Three-Level Program Memory Lock
128 Bytes Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters
Eight Interrupt Sources
Programmable Serial Channel
Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes
15
16
17
FF
FFFF
64K
BYTES
EXTERN
AL
SFRS DIRECT
ADDRESSING
ONLY
80
7F
AND
DIRECT
ADDRESSING
ONLY
B B0000
18
FFFF
60k
Bytes
External
64k
Bytes
External
1000
FFF
4k Bytes
Internal
0000
0000
3.4.4 FLAGS:
They are 1bit register provided to store the results of certain program
instructions. Other instructions can test the conditions of the flags and make the
decisions accordingly. To conveniently address, they are grouped inside the PSW
and PCON.
The micro controller has 4 main flags: carry(c), auxiliary carry (AC),
over flow (OV), parity (P) and 3 general-purpose flagsF0, GF0 and GF1.
3.4.5 PORTS:
All ports are bi-directional; each consists of a latch, an output driver and an
input buffer. P0, P1, P2 and P3 are the SFR latches ports 0, 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
The main functions of each port are mentioned below.
Port0: input/output bus port, address output port and data input/output port.
Port1: Quasi-bi-directional input/output port.
Port2: Quasi-bi-directional input/output port and address output port.
Port3: Quasi-bi-directional input/output port and control input/output pin.
3.5.3 RESET:
The reset switch is the RST pin of the microcontroller, which is the input to
a Schmitt trigger. It is accomplished by holding the RST pin HIGH for at least two
machine cycles while the oscillator frequency is running the CPU responds by
generating an internal reset.
3.5.4 TIMERS/COUNTERS:
A micro controller has two 16- bit Timer/Counter register T0 and T1
configured to operate either as timers or event counters. There are no restrictions on
the duty cycle of the external input signal, but it should be for at least one full
machine to ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes.
Timers 0 and 1 have four operating modes: 13-bit mode, 16 bit mode, 8 bit autoreload mode. Control bits C/t in TMOD SFR select the timer or counter function.
MODE 0:
Both timers in MODE0 are counters with a divide by 32 pre-scalar. The
timer register is configured as a 13 bit register with all 8 bits of TH1 and the lower
5-bit of TL1.The upper 3 bits of TL1 are in determinate and should be ignored.
Setting the run flags (TR1) doesnt clear the register or the registers.
MODE 1:
Mode 1 is same as mode 0, except that the timer register is run with all 16
bits. The clock is applied to the combined high and low timer registers. An overflow
occurs on the overflow flag. The timer continues to count.
MODE 2:
This mode configures the timer register as an 8 bit counter (TL1/0) with
automatic reload. Overflow from TL1/0 not only sets TF1/0, but also reloads TL1/0
with the contents of TH1/0, which is preset by software. The reload leaves
unchanged.
MODE 3:
Mode 3 is used for application that requires an extra 8 bit timer or counter.
Timer 1 in mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is same as setting TR0. Timer
0 its mode 3 establishes TL0 and TL1 as two separate counters. TL0 uses the timer0
control bits C/T, GATE, TR0, INT0 and TF0. TH0 is locked into a timer function
and over the use of TR1 and TR2 from timer 1. Thus TH0 controls the timer 1
interrupts.
3.6 INTERRUPTS:
The micro controller provides 6 interrupt sources, 2 external interrupts, 2
timer interrupts and a serial port interrupt and a reset. The external interrupts (INT0
& INT1) can each be either level activated or transition activated depending on bits
IT0 and IT1 in register TCON. The flags that actually generate these interrupts are
IE0 & IE1 bits in TCON.
TF0 and TF1 generate the timer 0 & 1 interrupts, which are set by a roll over
in their respective timer/counter registers. When a timer interrupt is generated the
on-chip hardware clears the flag that generated it when the service routine is
vectored to.
The serial port interrupt is generated by logical OR of R1 & T1. Neither of
these flags is cleared by hardware when service routine is vectored to. In fact, the
service routine itself determines whether R1 & T1 generated the interrupt, and the
bit is cleared in the software.
Upon reset, all interrupts are disabled, meaning that none will be responded
to by the micro controller if they are activated. The interrupts must be enabled by
software in order for the micro controller to respond to them.
MODE 0:
In this mode of operation the serial data enters and exists through
RXD.TXD outputs the shift clock. Eight data bits are transmitted/ received, with the
LSB first, the baud rate is fixed at 1/12 of the oscillator frequency. Reception is
initialized by the condition RI-0 and REN=1.
MODE 1:
In this mode 10 bits (a start bit 0, 8 data bits with LSB first and a stop bit are
transmitted through TXD port received through RXD. At the receiving end the stop
bits goes into RB8 in the SFR SCON. The baud rate is variable.
MODE 2:
In the 2, 16 bits (a start bit 0, 8 data bits (LSDB first), a programmable 9th
data bit and a stop bit) are transmitted through TXD or received through RXD.The
baud rate is programmable to either 1/32 or 1/64 of the oscillator frequency
MODE 3:
The function of mode 3 is same as mode 2 except that the baud rate is
variable. Reception is initialized by the incoming start bit if REN=1.
CHAPTER 4
IMPLEMENTATION OF HARDWARE
indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies
corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with
infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made
possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of
colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type
layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many
commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Bar graph
Seven segment
Star burst
Dot matrix
4.3.1Miniature LEDs
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-size packages:
surface mount
2 mm
3 mm (T1)
5 mm (T1)
10 mm
The encapsulation may also be clear or semi opaque to improve contrast and viewing angle.
There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:
Standard 20 mA LEDs at around 2 V (approximately 40 mW) for red, orange, yellow & green,
and 20 mA at 45 V (approximately 100 mW) for blue, violet and white.
4.4 Applications:
Automotive applications with LEDS:
Instrument Panels & Switches, Courtesy Lighting, CHMSL, Rear Stop/Turn/Tai,
Retrofits, New Turn/Tail/Marker Lights.
SWITCHES:
Introduction:
A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect an electric circuit at will.
Switches cover a wide range of types, from subminiature up to industrial plant switching
megawatts of power on high voltage distribution lines.
In applications where multiple switching options are required (e.g., a telephone service),
mechanical switches have long been replaced by electronic switching devices which can be
automated and intelligently controlled.
The switch is referred to as a "gate" when abstracted to mathematical form. In the
philosophy of logic, operational arguments are represented as logic gates. The use of electronic
gates to function as a system of logical gates is the fundamental basis for the computer i.e. a
computer is a system of electronic switches which function as logical gates. A railroad switch is
not electrical, but a mechanical device to divert a train from one track to another.
This PIR Sensor Switch Can Detect the Infrared Rays released by Human Body Motion within
the detection Area (14 Meters), and Start the Load - Light Automatically. This Unit is Suitable for
Outdoor use (Corridor, Staircase, Courtyard etc.)
Electricity:
It has been estimated that a single unit of energy saved at the end use point is equal to 2.3 units
of energy produced.
If energy efficient methods are implemented properly about 25000mw equivalent capacity of
power can be created through promotion of energy efficient measures.
PIR Sensor:
A PIR Sensor is a Passive Infrared Sensor which controls the switching on/off of the
lighting load when it detects a moving target.
O The built in sensor turns on/off the connected lighting load when it detects motion in the
coverage area. It has different working principle during the day time and the night time.
O During the day, the built in photocell sensor saves electricity by deactivating the lighting load
connected to the sensor.
O During the night the connected lighting load is turned on by adjusting the luminosity knob
O An adjustable time knob lets you select how long the light stays on after activation.
Working Principle: O The PIR Sensor senses the motion of a human body by the change in surrounding ambient
temperature when a human body passes across.
Applications:
O Common toilets, for lights & exhaust fans
O Common staircases
O For parking lights
O For garden lights
O For changing rooms in shops
O For corridors & many more
Cost Effectiveness :
In just Rs. 750 you save the most precious form of energy, electricity.
Pin diagram:
Description:
On the L293, external high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive
transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to
minimize device power dissipation. The L293and L293D is characterized for operation from 0 oC
to 70oC.
Block diagram:
Logic diagram:
Applications:
Audio
Automotive
Broadband
Digital control
Military
Optical networking
Security
Telephony
Wire less
POWER SUPPLY:
Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that
supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often
to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.
This power supply section is required to convert AC signal to DC signal and also to
reduce the amplitude of the signal. The available voltage signal from the mains is 230V/50Hz
which is an AC voltage, but the required is DC voltage (no frequency) with the amplitude of +5V
and +12V for various applications.
In this section we have Transformer, Bridge rectifier, are connected serially and voltage
regulators for +5V and +12V (7805 and 7812) via a capacitor (1000F) in parallel are connected
parallel as shown in the circuit diagram below. Each voltage regulator output is again is
connected to the capacitors of values (100F, 10F, 1 F, 0.1 F) are connected parallel through
which the corresponding output (+5V or +12V) are taken into consideration.
Circuit Explanation:
1) Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first circuit (the
primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing
voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can
make current flow in the transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other.
The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP
by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:
Basic principle:
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of
wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). By changing the
current in the primary coil, it changes the strength of its magnetic field; since the changing
magnetic field extends into the secondary coil, a voltage is induced across the secondary.
A simplified transformer design is shown below. A current passing through the primary
coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very
high magnetic permeability, such as iron; this ensures that most of the magnetic field lines
produced by the primary current are within the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well
as the primary coil.
Induction law:
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:
Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil
and equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic field strength B
and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area
of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation
of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals
Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for stepping
up or stepping down the voltage
If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS > VP), then the current is decreased (stepped
down) (IS < IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable
approximation.
If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS > VP), then the current is decreased (stepped
down) (IS < IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable
approximation.
The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example,
if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the
primary circuit to have an impedance of
This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance ZP of the primary circuit appears to
the secondary to be
Detailed operation:
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the
primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field
due to current in the secondary circuit.
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two
windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current
flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core. The current required to create the flux
is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero
Reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the
magnetic field.
The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding.
Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the
voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding
EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes
termed the "back EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would
always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.
1) Bridge Rectifier
A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge
configuration that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity of input voltage.
When used in its most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into
direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave
rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a
center-tapped transformer design, but has two diode drops rather than one, thus exhibiting
reduced efficiency over a center-tapped design for the same output voltage.
Basic Operation:
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with respect to the
one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along the upper colored path to
the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower one.
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current flows along
the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower right one.
Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces DC power when
supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity
protection". That is, it permits normal functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC
input-power supply wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against
damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always
constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component
containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial
component and is now available with various voltage and current ratings.
because the bridge alone supplies an output voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude
(see diagram above).
The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (aka smoothing capacitor)
is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the
bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the
AC component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the
resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge
tends to be cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor.
This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of load
current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of
voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in
output voltage / current. Also see rectifier output smoothing.
The simplified circuit shown has a well deserved reputation for being dangerous,
because, in some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power source
is removed. If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable way to
safely discharge the capacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function,
perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder resistor connected as
close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor should consume a current large enough to
discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough to avoid unnecessary power
waste.
Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit, defined as
percentage voltage change from minimum to maximum load, is improved. However in many
cases the improvement is of insignificant magnitude.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where C and R
are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough
so that this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the above
configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage across the load.
In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing
can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs, often done only for
sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.
The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the
load on the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage
and the current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed, as described
above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input voltage is greater
than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load draws an average current of n Amps, and the
diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the average diode current during conduction must be 10n
Amps. This non-sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in the
AC supply.
In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output of a bridge, the
bridge diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs when the power is turned
on at the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes a small series
resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most applications the
power supply transformer's resistance is already sufficient.
Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choke tends to
keep the current (rather than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relatively high cost of an
effective choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in modern equipment.
Some early console radios created the speaker's constant field with the current from the
high voltage ("B +") power supply, which was then routed to the consuming circuits, (permanent
magnets were considered too weak for good performance) to create the speaker's constant
magnetic field. The speaker field coil thus performed 2 jobs in one: it acted as a choke, filtering
the power supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the speaker.
2) Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level.
The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family of selfcontained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is a very popular
choice for many electronic circuits which require a regulated power supply, due to their ease of
use and relative cheapness. When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced
with a two-digit number, which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to
provide (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx
line is positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to produce a voltage that is
positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are
complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to
provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit, if necessary.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220 form factor,
although smaller surface-mount and larger TrO3 packages are also available from some
manufacturers. These devices typically support an input voltage which can be anywhere from a
couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and can
typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps of current (though smaller or larger packages may
have a lower or higher current rating).
CHAPTER 5
SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION
Keil Software:
On most computers, the CD will auto run, and you will see the Keil installation menu.
If the menu does not appear, manually double click on the Setup icon, in the root
directory: you will then see the Keil menu.
On the Keil menu, please select Install Evaluation Software. (You will not require a
license number to install this software).
These files are stored on the CD in a directory /Pont. The files are arranged by chapter: for
example, the project discussed in Chapter 3 is in the directory /Pont/Ch03_00-Hello.
Rather than using the projects on the CD (where changes cannot be saved), please copy the files
from CD onto an appropriate directory on your hard disk.
Note: You will need to change the file properties after copying: file transferred from the CD will
be read only.
Go to Project Open Project and browse for Hello in Ch03_00 in Pont and open it.
Having successfully built the target, we are now ready to start the debug session and run
the simulator.
The flashing LED we will view will be connected to Port 1. We therefore want to observe the
activity on this port
To ensure that the port activity is visible, we need to start the periodic window update flag
Go to Debug - Go
While the simulation is running, view the performance analyzer to check the delay durations.
CHAPTER 6
RESULT ANALYSYS
When a obstacle comes the Robot changes its direction
REFERENCES
1. Microprocessors and Microcontroller by A.K.RAY
2. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems by MUHAMMAD ALI
MAZIDI
3. Fundamentals of Embedded Software by DANIEL W LEWIS
4. Programing and Customize the Microcontroller by MYKE PREBKO
5. Programing and Customize the AVR by DHANANJAY and V.GADRE
6. www.electronicsforu.com
7. www.futurelec.com
8. www.uctros.com