Black Magic: Witchcraft, Race, and Resistance in Colonial New England

Author(s): Timothy J. McMillan

Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 25, No. 1 (Sep., 1994), pp. 99-117
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
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BLACK MAGIC:
Race,and Resistance
Witchcraft,
in ColonialNewEngland
TIMOTHY J.McMILLAN
StateUniversity
Humboldt

inNewEngWhitesaccusedBlacks1ofthecrimeofwitchcraft
As Blacks
from
theseaccusations.
resulted
landbutnoexecutions
tosurvive
ability
thesociety,
their
rungwithin
occupied
thelowest
something
ofthe
itself
indicates
trials
theordeals
ofthewitchcraft
Thesurvival
oftheaccusation
of
powertheypossessed.
perceived
intheeyesof
Blacks'insignificance
witchcraft
alsodemonstrates
incategorizing
Blacksas both
Thiscontradiction
theEuropeans.
toempower
Blacksinthe
served
actually
andpowerful
powerless
ofcolonialNewEngland.
society
have examinedNew Englandwitchcraft
Social scientists
and
folkculture,
gender,
tension,
analysesofeconomic
through
interms
ofraceandethnicity.2
Anthropologists
butrarely
politics,
ThislacunainscholarSalemwitchcraft.
havegenerally
ignored
in historical
lackofinterest
shipmaybe a resultofthegeneral
moreexoticarenasthanPuritan
orthedesiretoexplore
research
NewEngland.
ofnorthern
Caliresearch
amongtheYurok
ThomasBuckley's
on racearid
a clue forthedearthof research
forniaprovides
based
modelsofsociety
inNewEngland:
witchcraft
preconceived
Eurocentric
Buckley
(1982)examines
experience.
on20th-century
andreinterprets
earlier
inYurok
society
power
theissueofwomen's
a
and
as
misinterpretaindicating
onmenstruationdanger
research
Yurok
menstruating
tionof women'sstatus.In theliterature,
to
as uncleananddangerous.
According
womenare portrayed
not
Buckley,
theyareso fullofpowerthattheyarethreatening,
199499-117
OF BLACKSTUDES, Vol.25No.1,September
JOURNAL
? 1994SagePublications,
Inc.

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99

100

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

to men.Buckleychallengesthebias ofmaleinformants
polluting,
Native
ofcontemporary
andthediscounting
andmaleresearchers
Americanpointsofview.
Much thesame is trueof thestudyof colonialNew England
via thewritinterpretations
Eurocentric
whichis viewedthrough
the
within
Withaneyetothebiasesinherent
ingsofWhiteauthors.
archivalrecordsofcolonialNew England,a morecompleteanalyinthissocietyis possible.
sis oftheroleofraceandwitchcraft

INTRODUCTION

governedtherelationsbetweenBlacks
The logicofwitchcraft
andWhitesincolonialNewEngland.Itwas a logicthatinpractice
Blacksas witchesbecauseofthe
Whitesfromexecuting
prevented
retribution.
Also, it was a logic that
possibilityof supernatural
theirphysical
and
to destroy
Blacks
to
execute
Whites
prompted
ofBlacksmovedoutofthe
witchcraft
remainswhentheinherent
thatEuropeansbrought
controlcf Whites.The presuppositions
thenatureofAfricanpeopleand
fromtheOld Worldconcerning
to whichthe
thecolorblack,combinedwiththenovelsituations
EuropeansadaptedintheNewWorld,causedthemtocastenslaved
andfreeBlackswithintherealmofthesatanic.Thisprovedto be
to theBlacksofcolonialNew
andempowering
bothburdensome
England.
ofthepopulation
Blacksmadeup a verysmallportion
Although
of earlycolonialNew England(perhaps1% forall ofNew Engin Massachusetts
land), witha somewhatgreaterconcentration
position
2% in 1715)3,theyheld an important
(approximately
intheMassaBlacks4whoarrived
Whiteideology.Thefirst
within
chusetts
colonybetween1624and16385cameas enslavedpeoples
The firstEnglishsettlersarrivedat Plyservants.
or indentured
ofBlackandWhitesubculmouthin 1620.Thusthedevelopment
tureswithinNew Englandbeganat roughlythesame time.The
unabatedforover100years.6
demandforslavelaborcontinued
inBarbados
inNewEnglandoriginated
MostenslavedAfricans
in thelater
and otherEnglishcoloniesin theCaribbean,although

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McMillan/BLACK MAGIC

101

colonialperiodsome tradersbroughtenslavedpeoplesdirectly
andnotforindigenous
desireforAfricans,
fromAfrica.Thestrong
in
is wellillustrated
NativeAmericans,
dangerous)
(butpotentially
the colonialrecord.Adultmale NativeAmericanscapturedin
forBlacks
inreturn
plantations
wouldbe soldtoCaribbean
warfare
and
Africans
dispossessed
tocontrol
orCaribs.Itwasmuchsimpler
localnativepeoples.
Caribbeansthanknowledgeable,
United
fromthesouthern
As is clearfromanalysesofmaterial
remnants
oftheirAfrican
brought
States,manyenslavedAfricans
people
theAfrican
withthemtotheNewWorld.Although
cultures
and modifiedtheirculturesto deal withthe new
transformed
nonemuchpersisted
andcultures
theyencountered,
environments
are often
and accommodation
theless.The rolesof assimilation
colonies.The
in analysesofthenorthern
particularly
overstated,
andfunerary
pracvoodoo,marriage
CreoleandGullahlanguages,
practicesareall
anddivining
andconjuring
tices,folkmedicines,
in the
wellknownfromtheenslavedandfreeBlackcommunities
over
control
had
little
direct
"master
class"
the
In
South.7 particular,
oftheenslavedAfricans.
thereligiousbeliefs,ifnotthepractices,
beliefsto
theirAfrican
theNewWorldmodified
Blacksthroughout
deal withthe novel and generallyoppressivesituationswhich
of Catholicismand West
The syncretism
themselves.
presented
invoodoois perhapsthebestknown
beliefwhichresulted
African
of Africanreligionin theface of New
of thesetransformations
Worldpressure.
Thereis strongevidencethatelementsof Africanreligions
and
Witchcraft,
in theNew EnglandBlack population.
persisted
ofdissimagicalbeliefsin general,areknownto servefunctions
which
patingsocialtensionandof gainingcontroloversituations
In
means.
America,
direct
more
physical
controllable
by
not
are
theseaspectsof culturewereemphasizedand elaboratedabove
othereconomic,political,andsocialformsthattheenslavedAfritothecultures
brought
canswerepowerlesstoexploit.In addition
cultures
with
of
these
European
and
the
syncretism
fromAfrica
religoftheEuropeansaboutAfrican
thepreconceptions
cultures,
Certainly
mustbe considered.
themselves
ion and aboutAfricans
theseopinionsvariedfromEuropeantoEuropean,andtherewere

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102

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

theearliest
among
reformers
andreligious
exploiters
bothreligious
consensus
a certain
however,
ofAngloNewEngland;
settlers
White
andtheir
oftheseearlycolonists
inthewritings
manifest
becomes
descendants.
METHOD

isa confluence
thisresearch
modelthatinforms
Theconceptual
syssymbolic
overlapping
severalmutually
between
andconflict
folkreligion,
andEuropean
Christianity
ofEuropean
tems-those
beliefs(particularly,
African
religious
andthoseofthenumerous
Forboththe
beliefs8).
WestAfrican
religious
butnotexclusively,
America
was
enslaved
and
the
Africans,
Europeanimmigrants
intoa position
peopleswereforced
African
indeeda NewWorld.
atleastinits
werenot-thatofassimilating,
thatmostEuropeans
theWhites,
a newcultural
Alongwith
system.
formal
aspects-into
of
environment
and
physical
the
new
social
to
Blacksalsoadapted
America.
AngloNorth
and
theattitudes
existsconcerning
documentation
Muchdirect
empowered
(at leastthewealthier,
of theEuropeans
practices
written
Ontheother
hand,
ifnottheindentured
Europeans).
Whites
ofWhites
arethemajorsourceofdataabouttheattitudes
records
misinteroften
Blacks.TheEuropeans
ofenslaved
andpractices
of
Analysis
thecultures
oftheAfricans.
andundervalued
preted
of
thepreconceptions
musttakeintoaccount
theseinterpretations
aboutBlacks.
Whites
ANALYSIS

availableon colonialNew
material
archival
The voluminous
foranalysisin this
material
the
basic
provides
society
England
othercourt
trials,
ofthewitchcraft
Thetranscripts
investigation.
of
and thewritings
thelegalcode of Massachusetts,
records,
for
havebeenmined
andsocialanalysts
theologians
contemporary
ofanalotoraceandwitchcraft.
Exploration
information
relating

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McMillan/BLACK MAGIC

103

of Black Americanreligionin
gous materialon thedevelopment
data.Analysesandreincoloniesprovidesadditional
thesouthern
source
important
material
areanother
ofthehistorical
terpretations
nonas theseoftenreferto obscureor currently
of information
existent
archivalmaterials.
in New Englandis a highly
The studyof race and witchcraft
complexendeavorin thatthereare severalthreadsof beliefand
and magicby
actionto untangle:(a) thepracticeof witchcraft
Whites
against
by
of
brought
witchcraft
the
accusations
(b)
Blacks;
Blacks; and (c) theuse by Blacks of theEuropeanbeliefsof the
satanicnatureofBlackstoobtainrelieffromeconomic
inherently
is againsubdivided
ofthesefactors
Thefirst
andsocialoppression.
and magicwithan originin
into(a) thepracticeof witchcraft
andmagicwithan
Africancultures;(b) thepracticeofwitchcraft
form
and(c) thepracticeofa syncretic
origininEuropeancultures;
and magic.Thereis direct
of Europeanand Africanwitchcraft
accusationofBlacks,directevidencefor
evidenceforwitchcraft
evidence
byBlacks,andcircumstantial
theuseofmagicalpractices
ofwitchcraft
amongBlacks.
practiced
fortheothercategories
AFRICAN BELIEFS IN NEW ENGLAND

providesa wealthof material

Piersen's(1988) Black Yankees9
ofBlackpeopleincolonialNewEngland.
onthemagicalpractices
thesepractices.
BothAfricanand Europeanideologiesinformed
tendedto highlydespisethemagicalbeliefsand
Whiteobservers
between
activitiesof Blacks. A mostnotoriouspointof friction
valuesis foundinthefunerary
practices
beliefsandPuritan
African
oftheBlacksofBoston.Piersen(1988) notes:
thenumber
ofbellsthat
limited
In 1721. .. Boston'sselectmen
tocutdownon
tooneinorder
couldbe tolledforNegrofunerals
tostopwendthefuneral
ordered
andthey
processions
attendance;
routetothe
wayallovertownandtotakethemostdirect
ingtheir
grave.(p.78)
funeralrites,theuse of magicaltalismansand
African-inspired
charmsof protection,divining,and belief in ghosts are all

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104

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

1988,
illustratedinthedocumentsofNewEnglandhistory(Piersen,
pp.74-86).
demonofAfricanisms
wellintothe18thcentury
The retention
thesignificance
thesebeliefsandpracticeshadin thelives
strates
of New England'sBlack populationand the inabilityof Euroof theAfricansandtheir
Americansocietyto makefullconverts
andbeliefsmeshedvery
descendants.
practices
ManyoftheAfrican
beliefsarose,
wellwiththoseofEuropeanda newsetofsyncretic
intheareaofmagicandwitchcraft.
particularly
BLACKS AS WITCHES

thereis evidenceoftheaccuIn theavailablearchivalmaterial,

and satanic
sationof Black peopleforthecrimesof witchcraft"0
possessionincolonialNew England.Despitethesmallproportion
of the populationthatwas Black and despitethe low statusof
EuroBlacksvis-a-vistheEuropeanpopulation-evenindentured
pean servantshad highersocial ranking-Blacksappearedin a
either
thatinvolvedwitchcraft
numberof criminalproceedings
As earlyas 1656,Old Ham,an enslaved
orbyimplication.
directly
inStrawberry
Bank,New
Africanman,was accusedofwitchcraft
(Piersen,1988,p. 80).
Hampshire
In theSalemwitchtrials,threeoftheaccusedwereBlack:Mary
Black, Candy,and Old Pharaoh.Piersen(1988) statesthatOld
Pharaohwas "accusedofbeingoneofthosewhocametotorment
andenticeMercyLewis duringthetrials"(p. 80). The fateofOld
Pharaohis notknown.11
MaryBlack refusedto confessto having
in the
demonstrated
despitethe afflictions
practicedwitchcraft
and
Lewis
courtroom
by MaryWalcot,AbigailWilliams, Mercy
Herpunishment
(theaccusinggirls)at thetimeof hertestimony.
hadblownoverin 1693,
Afterthewitchfrenzy
was imprisonment.
fromthegovernor
Maryobtainedherfreedomby proclamation
ofwitchcraft
of
the
Whites
accused
(Upham,1971,p. 137). Most
tothecrimeof
gainedreleaseatthistimeas well.Candyconfessed
and producedas evidenceof hermagicalpractices"a
witchcraft
severalknotsweretied,ragsofcloth,a piece
wherein
handkerchief
of cheese,and a piece of grass"(Hansen,1969,pp. 70-71). This

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McMillan
/BLACKMAGIC 105

physicalevidence,indialongwiththecorroborating
confession,
ofsomesort."
"witchcraft
practicing
catedthatCandywas actively
came fromher
Candy statedthatherknowledgeof witchcraft
inSalemandnotfromherhomein Barbados.
experience
The magicalitemspossessedbyCandybearcloseranalysisand
to Africanor Afroprovideevidencefora possibleconnection
was obviouslya doll
handkerchief
Caribbeanbeliefs.The knotted
painon others.The piecesof
to stickwithpinsortorendto inflict
the
clothwerepossiblyshredsof clothingto be used to identify
sympathetic
in
the
common
victim,as is
dolls witha particular
and
magicwhichmakesuppartofvoodoobelief.Moreinteresting,
of Salem,arethecheeseand
to manyhistorians
moreperplexing
areasuchas SalemVillage,magicalharm
grass.In an agricultural
of
oftenextendsbeyondhumanvictimsto includethedestruction
essentialcrops and livestock.In the case of Wonn(presented
betweena witch(Bridget
below),thereis an explicitconnection
Bishop) and cattleand hay.Again,in the case of Candy,the
possessionof cheese (curdledmilk) and grasscan be seen as
towarddestroymagic,thistimeoriented
evidenceofsympathetic
ingthelivelihoodofSalemas wellas itsinhabitants.
twist,Candytestified
In an unusualbutno doubtempowering
She statedthatshehadlearnedwitchcraft
againstherownmistress.
HawksandhadbeenmadetowriteinthenotorifromMarguerett
ous book (thecovenantwithSatan) (Upham,1971,p. 215). The
courtjailed bothCandyandMrs.Hawkswhiletheyawaitedtrial,
freedbothin 1693despiteCandy'sconfession.
butthegovernor
THE BURNINGOF BLACKS

enslavedAfricanwoman,was indicted
Maria,a less fortunate
in 1681. Her
Massachusetts
forburninga buildingin Roxbury,
at the
one ofexecutionbyburning
sentencewas theextraordinary
which
a
to
was
fate
immolation
stake(Noble,1901,p. 198).Judicial
no convictedwitchwas subjectedinNew England.
Even moretellingwas thefateof "Jack,negroservantto Mr.
SamuelWoolcotone"(Noble, 1901,p. 198) also accusedof arson

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106

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

Thesentence
against
Jackwas"that
pronounced
bythesamecourt.
heCame& there
thebarrtotheplacewhence
heshouldgoefrom
down& burnt
to
behangdbythenecktillhebedead& thentaken
Marianegro"
(Noble,1901,p. 199).
Ashesinthefierw[i]th
forthosepossessedby Satan;
was thepunishment
Burning
inEurope)wasseenas a civil
inNewEngland
witchcraft
(unlike
of
washanging.
Theburning
crimeandtheultimate
punishment
ofexecution
wasa common
thevictim
after
someothermethod
inEurope.Theuseofthismethod
ofdisposing
ofwitches
method
thebodyofa criminal
suggests
thatwitchcraft
strongly
todestroy
andnotarsonwastheactualcrime.
Anumber
ofBlacksinNewYorkmetthesamefateasMariaand
four
tofearsofa conspiracy,
Whites
and
Jack.In 1741,inresponse
In
addition
to
the
inNewYorkCity.
more
18Blackswerehanged
atthestakewasthefateof11
ofexecution,
burning
usualmethod
otherBlacks(Upham,1971,p. 437). Theuse ofthistraditional
ofthe
ofexecution
demonstrates
thefearamongWhites
method
the
need
to
cleanse
their
Blacks
and
satanicpowerpossessed
by
theunderlying
Chase(1983)explored
tensions
society
ofthethreat.
that
a great
dealofAfrican
inNewYorkCityin1741andconcluded
The
werelookedon suspiciously
byWhites.
religious
practices
whentheypresented
notonlya
ofBlacksoccurred
immolation
threat:
Allofthesecasesinvolved
butalsoa physical
moralthreat
violenceagainst
Whites.
Eachof
orpotential
violence,
physical
symbolic
thesecaseswasmetwiththemostpowerful
European
topurgeSatan.
reaction
burning
possible:
BLACKSAS ACCUSERS

butonseveral
accuseBlacksofwitchcraft,
NotonlydidWhites
ofthiscrime.
BlacksalsoaccusedWhites
Candyimplioccasions
In 1679,a BlackmannamedWonn
as a witch.
catedhermistress
He stated
thatOliverharOliver"2
ofwitchcraft.
accusedBridget
drovehishorseaway,anddisturbed
assedhimwithapparitions,
indicated
that
the
himinthehayhouse
(Konig,1979,p. 151).Wonn
himfromdoinghis agricultural
harassment
prevented
spectral

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/BLACKMAGIC 107
McMillan

chores.In bothoftheseinstancestheslaveswereable to express

ofWhitesin a sociallyacceptableformand also
theirresentment
to escapepunishment.
THE SATANICBLACKS

In additionto evidenceofmagicalpracticesamongBlacksand
accusationsbetweenBlacks and Whites,another
of witchcraft
aboutBlacks thatare
sourceof data is the attitudes
significant
andlaypeople.Theclearest
oftheologians
inthewritings
manifest
aboutthereligiousmakeupofBlacks
ofWhiteattitudes
statement
CottonMather's(1706) work
comesfromnotedBostonminister
TheNegroChristianizaed:
hath
hemaydevour,
whom
Lionwhogoesaboutseeking
A roaring
ofthem
dowith
many
ofthem[Blackslaves].Very
madea seizure
a magical
Devils,or maintain
worship
DevillishRitesactually
aremoreslavestoSatan
withDevils.Andallofthem
conversation
a FaithintheSonofGodhasmadethem
aretoYou,until
thanthey
outoftheJawsof
topluckthem
Willyoudo nothing
freeindeed.
(pp.14-15)
SatantheDevourer?
landrampant
andheathen
Africawasa strange
To manyWhites,
withdemonsand devilswho weretheobjectsof worshipby its
ofthecolonistsand
Devils wereofteninthethoughts
inhabitants.
were foundat almosteveryturn.The beliefthatBlacks were
connectedto the worshipof satanicforcesno doubt
inherently
to suspectthemof
manyWhitesautomatically
greatlyinfluenced
ofthe
to
theefficacy
fear
Thebeliefalso causedWhites
witchcraft.
Blacks' controlof the familiardemonicforces.Not onlywere
withSatan in Africaand in New England,
Blacks consorting
but
ofmanyEuropeans,
tothefearsandmisconceptions
according
Satan'simageas well.
also mirrored
Africans
TheDevil in theShape ofa Woman(Karlsen,1987) is thetitle
inNewEnglandbutmoreappropriate
ofa recent
bookonwitchcraft
inNew Englandcourtsis the
admitted
evidence
spectral
the
from
devil's imagein the shape of a Black man.WilliamBarkerof
"GodhavingcalledmetoConfessmysinand
Andoverconfessed,

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108

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

overmeappearing
inthat
theDeviladvantage
fallingiving
Apostasy
1914,p. 419)."Theblackman,"is the
tomelikea Black"(Burr,
in
ofmanyoftheaccusers
ofSataninthetestimonies
description
described
anIndianwoman,
EvenTituba,
theSalemwitchtrials.
Peoples
interms
ofthecolorblack.'3
animals
Satanandhisfamiliar
and
actually
devils
with
to
traffic
considered
were
origin
ofAfrican
Satanhimself.'4
resembled
Europeansymbolicsystemsencodedblackness,sacrifice,
ways
fate,andmagic(tonamebuta few)inverydifferent
prayer,
however,
systems,
The
two
systems.
symbolic
fromtheAfrican
Theformal
andpossession.
intheareasofwitchcraft
overlapped
meanings
butthemythical-ritual
ofthesemaybe similar
structure
I argue
Africans
that
divergent.
arehighly
thesesystems
underlying
White
butthey
culture,
of
structure
adoptedmuchoftheformal
totheir
ownbenefit.
thissystem
thentransformed
A ZUNI EXAMPLE

ofreligious
beliefsat
exampleoftheconfluence
Anexcellent
toSalem"in
levelcanbe seeninthe"Zunivisitation
theformal
fordiscovlaudedtheSalemtownspeople
whichtheZunivisitors
thatwereseentobe evil,
ofwitches
themselves
eringandridding
(Proper,
and disposablein bothreligioussystems
destructive,
oftheZuniand
andideologies
cosmologies
1968).Theunderlying
butthebeliefin
divergent,
ofSalemwerehighly
theinhabitants
thecultures.
Much
between
a nodeofconnection
witches
provided
inNewEngland.
theBlacksandWhites
between
thesameoccurred
BLACK RELIGION IN THE SOUTH

oftheEuroandprejudices
TheusebyBlacksofthehierarchy
of
focus
this
research.
is
the
central
themselves
Americans
against
andindenAfricans
ofenslaved
theresponses
between
Analogies
to the
in New Englandare seenin comparison
turedservants
ofBlacksenslaved
ofthebetter-documented
experiences
responses
device
heuristic
Sates.Thisis animportant
United
inthesouthern

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McMillan
/BLACKMAGIC 109

ofthedeveloping
religiouslifeofa Black
thatallowsinterpretation
New Englandcultureinthecontext
ofcolonialAmericanculture.
Blacks in the South used variedreligiousformsto protect
themselvesfromthe ire of theirmasters,to make theiroften
andtocreatea cultural
breathing
precarious
livesmorepredictable
and huspace in whichtheycouldasserttheirownindividuality
including
ThepracticeofbothChristian
andfolktraditions
manity.
werecommon
voodoo,herbalmagic,and witchcraft
divination,
theSouthandoftenwerenotmutually
exclusive.Neithroughout
thertheAfricannortheEuropeanculturalelementsweremaininbothoccurred
inresponseto
tainedwithout
change.Adaptations
The use of spiritualsas a
the changingculturalenvironment.
of African
methodof secularcommunication,
thetransformation
and thebeliefin the
mythsintoeducationalstoriesforchildren,
comingof a Moses to sethispeoplefreeare all indicativeofthe
thesouthern
slave
thatcharacterized
typesofculturalelaboration
community.
ofGabrielProsserinRichmond,
uprisings
Thewell-documented
SouthCarolina
Virginia(1800) andDenmarkVeseyinCharleston,
and folkbeliefs,parby Christianity
(1822) werebothinformed
thosefolkbeliefsoftheGullahpeopleoftheSea Islands
ticularly
of South Carolina. The Nat Turneruprisingin Southampton
in 1831,although
focusedonChrisverystrongly
County,
Virginia
theabilityofenslavedAfricans
totransform
demonstrates
tianity,
tomeettheirownuniqueneeds."5
Italso demonstrates
Christianity
thefeargeneratedin Whitesby theactionsof theirsupposedly
of theNat Turnerrevoltwas widedocile slaves.The aftermath
andcallsforincreasing
spreadpanicamongtheWhitesofVirginia
of 11
controloverthereligionpracticedby Blacks.The burning
thesametypesofWhite
Blacksin New YorkCityacknowledges
fears.The expressionof thesefearswas an anxietyoversatanic
Nat
possessionratherthanthe Christianbeliefsthatinformed
Turner'srevolt.
Black experience,it wouldbe
By analogywiththe southern
faciletoassumethatNewEnglandBlackseither
fullyacceptedthe
tothembytheWhitesorfullymaintained
their
religionpresented
did
Africa.
It
is
clear
their
southern
beliefsfrom
thatthey(as
kin)

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110 JOURNAL
OF BLACKSTUDIES/SEPTEMBER1994

developed
religious
thathelpedthemcopemoreeffecsystems
tivelywiththerigors
oflifein servitude.
Mostsouthern
Blacks,
bothenslaved
andfree,
couldmaintain
andcreate
cultural
forms
in
thecompany
ofotherBlacksdueto thelargepercentage
ofthe
population
thatwasofAfrican
origin.
Blacksinthenorth
hadtobe
intheir
muchmorecovert
attempts
atreligious
transformation.
The
differences
between
theMethodist
andBaptistSouthandNew
England
puritanism
alsoarehighly
significant.
Itis likely
thatany
possiblelinkbetween
thebeliefsoftheBlacksandthoseofthe
wasemphasized;
Whites
thusthesignificance
of"witchcraft"
and
"folkmagic,"categories
thattranscended
theethnicandracial
barrier
BlacksandWhites.
separating
THE NEWENGLANDBLACK EXPERIENCE

NewEngland
differed
from
theother
areasofAnglo
markedly
NorthAmericain theacknowledgment
of thelegalrightsof
whileinsisting
on theutterlegitimacy
Blacks"6
of theslavery
Thedesireforenslaved
Africans
theeconomic
exceeded
system.
usefulness
ofa slaveeconomy.
NativeAmerican
andEuropean
enslavement
existedsidebysidewithAfrican
but
enslavement,
norexplained
inthesameway.17
thesewereneither
Blacks
justified
also brought
muchhigher
or Native
pricesthandidEuropeans
Americans
duetotheir
totallegalandpolitical
Under
the
bondage.
in
New
Blacks
fared
much
better
did
law,
than their
England
enslaved
brothers
andsisters
tothesouth.
thesocial
Nonetheless,
inwhich
andmoral
world
northern
Blackslivedwasoneofoppressionandprejudice,
someofitfounded
onNewEngland
Puritan
beliefs.
Whites
denied
church
religious
toBlacks
membership
stillstressed
thatBlacksadheretothe
andtomanyWhites-but
Puritan
codeofbehavior.
ofthepreexisting
beliefsofEuropeans
Oneresult
concerning
ofAfrican
nature
wasthatsome
thesupernatural
religious
practice
descent
envicouldcreatea morecomfortable
peoplesofAfrican
theoppression
ofNewEngland
inwhich
toescapeorresist
ronment
in severaldifferent
was manifest
society.This attitude
ways:

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McMillan/BLACK MAGIC

111

the
through
thepracticeof Africanreligioustraditions,
through
fortune(particularly
traditions
practiceofEuropeanfolkreligious
moredirectmeanssuchas arsonorattempted
telling),andthrough
againsttheWhitepowerstructure.
uprisings
Racial oppressionhas been a majorpartof Black lifein the
UnitedStatessincetheearlycolonialperiod.Responsesto this
but
tookmanyforms,
socialandpoliticaldiscrimination
consistent
a culturalbreathing
in creating
effective
religionwas particularly
inthe
factor
overlooked
entirely
andheretofore
space.A significant
of
a
syncretic
was
development
the
of Black power
development
This view
view of Europeanand Africanconceptsof witchcraft.
Blacksinthatitgavethema degreeofcontroloverthe
empowered
practiceand accusationthattheEuropeans
systemof witchcraft
nevercould.

CONCLUSION
trialsof Salem,
It has been 300 years since the witchcraft
toconsiderthelackofinterest
Itis thusappropriate
Massachusetts.
thathas
thewellofinformation
inplumbing
amonganthropologists
of
documenThe
wealth
beenso popularintheworksofhistorians.
incolonialNew England,
taryevidenceavailableaboutwitchcraft
shouldmakethisa
concernsof anthropology
and thetheoretical
arenaforresearch.A recentreviewof bibliographies
productive
Thewealth
makesitclearthatthisareahasbeenalmostuntouched.
for
ground
proving
dataprovidesanexcellent
ofsocialandcultural
theoriesand modelsand needsto be more
manyanthropological
accusationsthat
generallyexploited.The patternof witchcraft
fitswell into
boiledup in 1692 and thensubsidedpermanently,
in social
Carneiro's(1982) theoryof successivereequilibration
elementsthatcame
evolution.The analysisofthemyriadcultural
in New Englandwitchcraft
providesmuchinformation
together
and reversecolonization(the acquiringof
about enculturation
by thecolonizersinsteadofthecolonized).Deculturalpatterns
on gender,religion,colorand social
tailedsymbolicinformation
on earlyNew Englandsocietyand
records
the
statusexistswithin

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112

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

in themannerof Claude
interpretations
wouldallow fascinating
Geertz,orVictorTurner.
Clifford
Levi-Strauss,
is thatontheories
however,
The areaholdingthemostpromise,
social
orexpressing
ofreducing
andmagicas methods
ofwitchcraft
socialtensionexistedbetweenEuropean
tension.Becauseextreme
itis reasonandNativeAmericans,
enslavedAfricans,
immigrants,
therolesplayedbyrace in theaccusationsof
able to investigate
and in the legal and social consequencesof these
witchcraft
accusations.
BlacksinNew EnglandwereviewedbyWhitesas truewitches
evilcreatures,
sense-theywereinherently
in theanthropological
In conto satanicwickedness.
unableto controltheirconnection
WhiteswereviewedbyotherWhitesas morelikesorcererstrast,
people who had to undergocertainrites-in thiscase, signing
was low-levelevil,playSatan'sbook-to becomeevil.Conjuring
was
ingwithsatanicmagicbutnotplayingwithSatan.Witchcraft
to Whites,ifBlackscould
ofSatan.According
theinternalization
notbecomeWhitetheycould notbe curedof theirevil,butthe
tonotethat
oftheirevilwas possible.It is interesting
containment
althoughBlacks could notbecomeWhite,Whiteswho wereafflictedby witchesoftenturnedblackand blue fromsupernatural
andprodding.
pinching
and
IncolonialNewEngland,Blackswereaccusedofwitchcraft
theywerebasicallypowerlesswithinthatsocialorder.Therewas
duetothefear
tensionbetweenWhitesandnon-Whites
mounting
White
over
apprehension
of Native Americanaggressionand
(Konig,1979,p. 167).Why
byenslavedAfricans
planneduprisings
exactedon Blacks forthe crimeof
thenwas the punishment
witchcraftless severe than the punishmentsgiven to some
than
Whites-a groupmuchmorelegallyandsociallyempowered
whenthese
Blacks?Whywereso fewBlacksaccusedofwitchcraft
tensionandfear?
wereovertactsexpressing
underlying
accusations
executedin
WhywereBlackswhowerenotaccusedofwitchcraft
withtheexecutionofwitches?
consistent
a manner
thepeoplesofAfricanorigin
Severalfactorsworkedto protect
Blackswerevaluaccusations.
inNew Englandagainstwitchcraft
was costly.The expenses
andthustheirdestruction
able property

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McMillan/BLACK MAGIC

113

Whiteswerebornebytheirownestates;if
ofjailingandexecuting
notonlywerethecostsdifficult
wereexecuted,
enslavedAfricans
torecoverbutalso theirownerslostexpensivecapitalinvestments.
In theeconomically
timesofthecolonialperiod,thiswas a
trying
notto accusean enslavedAfricanofwitchcraft
strongmotivation
(accusationsagainstenslavedpeoples by theirownersdid not
occur).
ofWhitesaboutBlacksalso servedtoproThe preconceptions
Blackswereseenas morally
extraction.
tectthepeoplesofAfrican
did notexpectthesame
Europeans
Whites;
therefore,
to
inferior
Thus,even
standards
fromAfricansas theydidfromthemselves.
and
tothecrimeofwitchcraft
confessed
whenan enslavedAfrican
thecourtdid not
demonstrated
his or hermagicalparaphernalia,
punishhimorherseverely.
thepeoples
factorwhichservedtoprotect
The mostsignificant
ofwitchofAfricanoriginfromtheaccusationsandpunishments
wasthatWhitesfearedthebelievedmagicalpowers
however,
craft,
ofone Blackwomanand
ofBlacks.The executionbyimmolation
remainsinthefireis a strong
ofhercodefendant's
thedestruction
ofthefearwhichBlack violenceagainstWhitescould
indication
inspire.The expressionof thisfearwas throughthe symbolic
systemof Puritanwitchbeliefs.The courtstreatedsome Black
as associatesofSatananddealtwiththemappropriately.
criminals
norwas itused
forWhitearsonists,
was nota punishment
Burning
in uprisings
againsttheenslaveagainstWhiteswhoparticipated
of
suchas theoneinNew York.Thepunishment
mentofAfricans,
fortheso-calledsatanicBlacks.
was reserved
immolation
andculturally
Blacksweremorphologically
In Whiteideology,
between
contact
the
New
World
Even
before
with
Satan.
associated
andEuropeans,
EuropeansconceivedofSatanas a Black
Africans
thisimagestrengthculture
developed,
man.As theEuro-American
ened.A tantalizing
piece ofnegativeevidenceis thatSatannever
himselfas a NativeAmerican.NativeAmericanswere
presented
ofNew Englanddue
to manyoftheWhiteinhabitants
frightening
warfare
betweenthem.Infacttherehasbeen
tothealmostconstant
outbreaks
occurredwhenthere
some speculationthatwitchcraft
fromintense
Whites
resulting
was a greatdeal of anxietyamong

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114

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

raidsbyNativeAmericans(Kences,1984).In spiteofthis,Satan
remaineda Black man. If Satan was testingthe mettleof the
ofcolonialNew England,andBlackswerehisclosest
inhabitants
to accusethemor to execute
kin,it wouldhave been imprudent
amplecause lesttheywreaktheirunholyrevenge.
themwithout

NOTES
willbe referred
originandtheirdescendants
device,peoplesofAfrican
1. As a heuristic
origins.
of theirculturaland geographical
to as Blacksin thisarticledespitethediversity
toas Whites(onceagain
willbe referred
PeoplesofEuropeanoriginandtheirdescendants
in thispopulation).
andclassdifferences
themanycultural
ignoring
the
ofNew Englandwitchcraft,
reinterpretations
2. Amongtheplethoraof historical
(1974),SalemPossessed,JohnDemos's(1982)
areBoyerandNissenbaum's
mostinfluential
at Salem,and Carol Karlsen's
Satan,ChadwickHansen's(1969) Witchcraft
Entertaining
concepts
All oftheseworksuseanthropological
(1987) TheDevilintheShapeofa Woman.
thesocietyofcolonialNewEnglandbutall fallsquarely
tointerpret
andculture
ofwitchcraft
scholarship.
withintherealmofhistorical
ofcolonialAmerica
thepopulation
in ascertaining
3. Fora discussionoftheproblems
and thebestfiguresavailableof theBlack populationin New England,see Greeneand
PopulationBeforetheFederalCensusof1790.
(1932) American
Harrington's
ofslavery
as thedefinition
4. The statusoftheseearlyBlacksis legallyindeterminate
By 1641,however,
servitude.
fromthatofindentured
had notyetbeenfullydifferentiated
ofMassachutheInhabitants
Concerning
in TheBookoftheGeneralLawes andLibertyes
ofbondslaveryis tobe found:
description
setts(see Barnes,1975),thefollowing
thatthereshallneveranybondtherof,
It is orderedby thisCourtand authoritie
us; unlessitbe lawfullcaptives,takeninjust
amongst
villenageorcaptivite
slavery,
oraresoldtous: andsuchshall
sellthemselves,
as willingly
wars,andsuchstrangers
in Israel
usageswhichthelaw ofGod established
and christian
havetheLibertyes
suchpersonsdothmorallyrequire,providedthisexemptsnonefrom
concerning
(1648,p. 4)
byAuthoritie.
whoshallbejudgedthereto
servitude
ofAfricans
(as
tobejustwarsandthustheenslavement
ThewarsinAfricawereconsidered
intoslavery)
well as NativeAmericanscapturedin warand Whiteswho sold themselves
was legallydefined.
bondspeople
arrivalofAfrican
evidenceforthedateofthefirst
5. Thereis conflicting
dateat thistimeis 1638,theyearthatthe
themostconvincing
in New England;however,
fromtheWestIndies.Fora discussionoftheorigin
toMassachusetts
ship,Desire,returned
inNew England,see Greene(1942,pp. 16-17).
oftheBlackpopulation
clearas the
is notentirely
6. Exactlywhytherewas anydesireforenslavedAfricans
Whites.The low
by freeand indentured
economyof New Englandwas amplysupported
thatanyBlackswereputintoslaveryin New England
numberofBlacksis notsurprising;
intoNew Englandwerethosenotsalablein
imported
theenslavedAfricans
is. Generally,

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McMillan/BLACK MAGIC

115

work.However,thereis
to be unfitforplantation
theCaribbean,thosewhowerethought
evidencethat,fromtimeto time,specialordersweremade for"firstquality"enslaved
peoplesfromeithertheCaribbeanorfromAfrica.
beliefsin NorthAmericanBlack
oftheroleofAfrican
7. Fora detailedinvestigation
culture,see Puckett's(1969) The Magic and Folk Beliefsof the SouthernNegroand
inAmericanCulture.
Holloway's(1990) Africanisms
peoples.Many
8. NewEnglandwas unusualincolonialAmericainitssourceofAfrican
fromtheCaribbean(andoftenas
forsale in New Englandweretransported
oftheAfricans
from
slavery)andnotdirectly
unfitfortherigorsofplantation
rejectedpeoplesseemingly
To circumvent
AfricaduetothecontroloftheAfricanportsbySpanishandDutchtraders.
Madagascar,to
particularly
manyNewEnglandslaverswenttoEasternAfrica,
thiscontrol,
in East Africamayexplainsomeof
ThissourceofenslavedAfricans
obtainbondspeople.
inNewEnglandas opposedtothoseintheSouthwhere
inAfrican
retentions
thedifferences
origin.
mostoftheenslavedwereofWestAfrican
9. Piersen'sworkis an admirabledescendantof LorenzoGreene'sThe Negroin
inthisbookrelating
element
is onedisturbing
ColonialNewEngland(1942). However,there
Piersen(1988) notesthat"themostfamousoftheaccusedwas the
toBlacksandwitchcraft.
itis
slavefromBarbados"(p. 81). In an endnote,
Tituba,an Afro-Carib
muchromanticized
believeTitubato havebeena Caribpersonwithno African
thatseveralauthors
mentioned
ofTituba,orWhy
roots.In fact,Hansen(1974) in hisseminalarticle"TheMetamorphosis
clearlythat
Can'tTellan IndianWitchFroma Negro"demonstrates
AmericanIntellectuals
buta Caribwoman.
no evidencetobelieveTitubatohavebeenanything
thereis absolutely
was a shortbut
in Massachusetts
ofthecapitalcrimeof witchcraft
10. The definition
witha familiar
pointedone:"Ifanymanorwomanbe a WITCH,thatis,hathorconsulteth
theyshallbe puttodeath."Exod. 22.18,Lev. 20.27,Deut. 18.10-11.
spirit,
11.Thenamesofthesetwoaccusedmalewitches,Old Ham andOld Pharaoh,demand
withAfrica-Ham,thecursed
connection
Bothnameshavea strong
investigation.
further
byGodtobe servants.
werecondemned
sonofNoah,whosesonCanaanandhisdescendants
ofCanaanmovedto Africaandwereburned
It hadbeenbelievedthatthecursedchildren
blackas a markoftheirservilestatus.Pharaoh,ofcourse,is thetitleofa rulerofEgypt.As
to
namesof theera,it wouldbe interesting
mostBlacks boremoreorthodoxChristian
discoverif thesenamesindicateda moreovertlyexpressedpagannatureeitherto their
bearersortotheWhitesinthecommunity.
12. BridgetOliverwas BridgetBishop in 1692 whenshe was again chargedwith
andthistimewas executedfortheoffense.
witchcraft
betweenWhites,Blacks,andNativeAmericans,
tensions
13. In termsoftheunderlying
suchas
shedescribedsatanicapparitions
tonotethatin Tituba'sconfession
itis significant
rats-one redand
twotalking
a talking
blackdog,a bestialhairyman,andmostinteresting,
1969,pp. 43-48).
one black(Woodward,
of the
14. For a complete,thoughsomewhatdated,discussionof the development
ofthevalues
oftheconnection
meaningofthecolorblackin Americaandthedevelopment
seeWinthrop
Jordan's
(1968)
origin,
associatedwiththecolorblackwithpeoplesofAfrican
TowardtheNegro,1550-1812.
Attitudes
WhiteOverBlack:American
SlaveRevoltof1831 providesa wealthof
15. HenryTragle's(1973) TheSouthampton
which
thesocialandeconomictensions
rebellion,
particularly
ontheNatTurner
information
themesarefullyexplored.
Theunderlying
Christian
BlacksandWhitesintoconflict.
brought
is includedas well.
The completetextofNatTurner'sconfessions

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116

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /SEPTEMBER 1994

ofBlacksunderthelaw incolonialAmerica,see
16. Fora fullaccountofthetreatment
(1978) In theMatterofColor:Race & theAmericanLegal Process:The
Higginbotham's
ColonialPeriod.
thatjustifiedthekeepingofenslavedBlackswere:The
theories
17. Severalprevailing
peoplesofAfricawereoftenseenas theproductofthecurseofHam (see note11),Black
andBlackswerethought
peoplewereoftenviewedas satanicin appearanceandcharacter,
tohave
tosurviveand,perhaps,
toneedthecareofWhitemasters
bymanyEuro-Americans
soulssaved.
theirimmortal

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ofNorthCarolinaat
J.McMillanreceivedhis Ph.D. fromtheUniversity
Timothy
"Resistanceto Colonial
His dissertation
fieldwork,
ChapelHill in anthropology.
inKenya.He is
" was conducted
ChangeinHighlandKenya:TheKipsigisOrgoiik,
StateUniversity.
inanthropology
andethnicstudiesatHumboldt
a lecturer
currently

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