ChE 101: Fuels and Combustion

Combustion

Most commonly employed method for heat generation

Rapid oxidation of fuel with oxygen (usually from air)

The economy of combustion is primarily determined from efficiencies of fuel consumption and the subsequent transfer
of heat generated from the reaction. Inefficient utilization of fuel arises from loss of combustible material in the process,
and also from incomplete combustion. Analyses of furnace refuse (residue) and flue gases allow process engineers to
determine the magnitude of inefficiency and provide insight to possible improvements.
Streams around a combustion chamber of furnace are usually the following:
Air: taken as 79% N2 (inert, does not combust) and 21% O2; usually dry
Fuel: contains varying amounts of C, H, O, N, S and inerts (ash or gangue)
Flue gases: CO2, H2O, excess air (O2, N2), excess fuel, CO (during incomplete combustion) and NOx or SOx
depending on the type of fuel used
Refuse: remaining solid material, usually inerts from solid fuels and uncombusted material

Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas: mixture of hydrocarbon vapors, which may contain traces of N and S
Found in porous rocks, usually with accumulations of crude oil or coal
Dry if it contains less than 0.013 L/m3 of gasoline or other liquid fuel components
Usually stored and transported as liquefied natural gas (LNG)
Producer gas: obtained by passing air over a hot bed of biomass; consists of CO, H2, N2 and some CO2
Water gas: obtained similarly as producer gas but blown with steam
Carbureted water gas: water gas sprayed with oil
Liquid Fuels
Mixture of hydrocarbons with small amounts of N and O
Petroleum oil: obtained from refining crude oil through fractional distillation, cracking, reforming, and other
similar processes (e.g. bunker fuel, gasoline, diesel)
Sweet oil contains minimal (<0.5%) sulfur content (otherwise, it is called sour)
Non-petroleum liquid fuels: tar sands, oil shale, coal-tar fuels
Relevant physical and chemical properties
1. Relative density measured by specialized hydrometers, unit is degree API (from American Petroleum Inst.)
2. Flash point min temperature where an ignitable vapor can form over the liquid
3. Pour point min temperature at which the fluid can flow
4. Cloud point max temperature where all soluble solids are dissolved
5. Kinematic viscosity ratio of absolute (dynamic) viscosity to density
6. Thermal expansion volume change per unit volume of fuel per degree temperature
Solid Fuels
Naturally occurring solid fuels: wood, biomass, coal
Coal: heterogeneous material consisting of C, H and O with traces of N and S
Relevant physical properties
1. Free-swelling index (FSI) measure of tendency to swell when burned or gasified
2. Hardgrove grindability index (HGI) indicates ease of grinding coal
3. Bulk density affects volume of coal when piled
4. Size stability ability to withstand breakage during handling and shipping
5. Heating or calorific value heat produced at constant volume by complete combustion
Stages of coal formation
1. Peat: partially decomposed vegetation in almost complete absence of air; burns with smoky flame; low
heat content and high moisture content
2. Lignite: brown coal developed when thick masses of vegetation are buried and subjected to high pressure
and temperature; burns with smoky flame; high moisture content
3. Sub-bituminous coal: could be used for industrial heating; high C content
4. Bituminous coal: black/soft coal; used for home and industrial heating; can be used to make coke and coal
by-products
5. Anthracite: hard/stone coal; highest C content and heating value; least amount of volatiles
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Destructive distillation: heating of solid fuels in a closed system without air

Coal coal gas, coke, ammonia, coal tar
Wood wood alcohol (methanol), charcoal
Coke: solid, cellular, infusible material remaining after carbonization of certain carbonaceous materials
Carbonization: involves both physical (softening, devolatilization, etc.) and chemical (cracking,
depolymerization, etc.) changes
High-temperature coke: coal-derived coke at 1173-1423K, usually used for metallurgical applications
Low/Medium-temperature coke: coal-derived coke at 773-1023K, used as source of hydrocarbon liquids/gases
Petroleum coke: derived from petroleum, primarily used as fuel but also has uses in metalworking industries

Coal Conversion

Fuel Analysis

Proximate Analysis
1. Sample is heated for 1 hour at 104-114oC. Mass lost is moisture.
2. Sample is then heated in a covered crucible for 7 minutes at 950 oC. Mass lost is volatile combustible matter
(VCM), which is substantially H, O, N and S with a large amount of C.
3. Sample is then burned in air at 725oC. Mass lost is fixed carbon (FC) and residue is ash.
Ultimate Analysis: results are given per element on a mass basis

Flue Gas Analysis

Orsat Analysis: most common method

Gas is saturated with water vapor but analysis is reported on a dry basis
Components in the mixture are selectively absorbed in sequence
1. CO2 on caustic potash or soda
2. O2 on alkaline pyrogallol
3. CO on cuprous chloride

References
Lewis, W.K., A.H. Radasch, H.C. Lewis. Industrial Stoichiometry (1954)
Green, D.W. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook (2007)
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Problems
1. If moist hydrogen gas containing 4% of water by volume is burnt completely in a furnace with 32% excess air,
calculate the Orsat analysis of the flue gas from the furnace?
Ans: 6% O2, 94% N2
2. Calculate the Orsat analysis resulting from the complete combustion with 100% excess air of
a. Ethane (C2H6)
Ans: 6.3% CO2, 11% O2, 82.7% N2
b. Naphthalene (C10H8)
Ans: 8.9% CO2, 10.7% O2, 80.4% N2
3. Natural gas, containing 92% CH4, 6.5% C2H6 and 1.5% C3H8 is combusted with 40% excess air. Calculate the
composition of the dry flue gas assuming complete combustion. Ans: 8.3% CO2, 6.5% O2, 85.2% N2
4. Fuel oil containing 88.2% C and 11.8% H, when burnt with 20% excess air, converts all the hydrogen to water and 95%
of the carbon to CO2 and the rest to CO. Calculate the composition of the dry flue gas.
Ans: 12.4% CO2, 0.7% CO, 4% O2, 82.9% N2
5. A theoretical water gas of equimolar composition of CO and H2 burning with 30% excess air results to 90% of the CO
converted to CO2 and 95% of the H2 to H2O. What is the amount and composition of exit gas per mole of water gas
fed to the combustion?
Ans: 3.64mols, 14.2% CO2, 1.6% CO, 0.8% H2, 5.9% O2, 77.5% N2
6. A billet-preheating furnace uses a coal containing 74% C, 4.8% H, 9.4% ash and negligible S and N. this furnace is to
be fired with 50% excess air.
a. Calculate the flue-gas analysis on the assumption of complete combustion.
Ans: 12.5% CO2, 7.1% O2, 80.4% N2
b. Repeat on the assumption that 10% of the carbon burns to CO only. Ans: 11.25% CO2, 1.25% CO, 7.7% O2, 79.8% N2
7. One hundred pounds of lignite pitch, containing 80% C, 10.8% H, 8.2% O, 1% N and traces of sulfur, is burned with
60% excess air. Identify the combustion products and their amount.
Ans: 6.66mol CO2, 5.36mol H2O, 5.45mol O2, 54.74mol N2
8. A flue gas is analyzed to contain 11.3% CO2, 1.2% CO, 7.7% O2 and 79.8% N2. Find the percent excess air. Ans: 50.3%
9. A pure hydrocarbon gas at 70oF is burnt in a furnace giving a flue gas containing 10.8% CO2, 3.8% O2 and the rest
nitrogen and inerts.
a. Calculate the H/C ratio and from this the formula of the fuel.
Ans: 3, C2H6
b. If the combustion gases leave the furnace at normal pressure and 800oF, calculate the volumetric ratio of
combustion gas to fuel gas.
Ans: 51.1
c. If the furnace burns 200lb of fuel per hour, calculate the volume of combustion gases in cubic feet per minute.
Ans: 2200 cu.ft./min
10. The exhaust from a Diesel engine, using a high-grade hydrocarbon fuel oil, shows 10.2% CO2, 7.9% O2 and the rest
inerts. From these data, calculate
a. The weight ratio H/C in the fuel oil
Ans: 0.121
b. The %wt of C in the oil
Ans: 89.2%
c. The lb dry air used per lb oil burnt in the engine
Ans: 21.9
d. The mols of exhaust gas discharged per lb of fuel oil burnt
Ans: 0.783 mol/lb
11. A producer gas contains 9.2% CO2, 0.4% C2H4, 20.9% CO, 15.6% H2, 1.9% CH4 and 52% N2. When it is burnt, the
products of combustion are found to contain 10.8% CO2, 0.4% CO, 9.2% O2 and 79.6% N2. Compute
a. Cubic feet of air used in combustion of 1 cu.ft of producer gas, both at the same T and P
Ans: 2.29
b. Percent excess air used in combustion
Ans: 121%
c. Percent of the N2 in the products which came from the producer gas
Ans: 22.3%
12. The following data are obtained on the operation of a boiler furnace fired with a mixture of blast-furnace gas and
coke-oven gas.
Volume %
CO2
O2
CO
CH4
H2
N2
Coke-oven gas
2.4
2.0
7.2
30.8
51.3
6.3
Blast-furnace gas
13.4
0.2
24.2
0.0
3.0
59.2
Flue gas
13.5
6.9
0.4
0.0
0.0
79.2
Calculate
a. The ratio of blast-furnace gas to coke-oven gas
Ans: 5.03
b. The percent excess air used
Ans: 71%
13. A furnace uses coal with ultimate analysis of 57.22% C, 5.64% H, 1.41% N, 5.06% S and 14.67% ash. The combustible
matter left in the ash from the furnace is negligible. The ash of this particular coal is found to contain 9.62% S.
Assuming that this furnace secures complete combustion using 80% excess air, and all the sulfur in the combustion
gases appearing as SO2, compute for the SO2-free Orsat analysis of the flue gas. Ans: 9.9% CO2, 9.5% O2, 80.6% N2

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