Communications

Networking Protocols
Professor Izhak Rubin
Electrical Engineering Department
UCLA
rubin@ee.ucla.edu

2014-2015 by Professor Izhak Rubin

Layered Communications
Networking Protocol Structure

Each layer provides a well defined targeted

service
Ordering: a layer provides a service to the
layer above it and receives a service from the
layer below it
Intelligent message operations/processing
between layer-i peer entities

(c) Prof. Izhak Rubin

PDUs and SDUs

Protocol Data Unit (PDU) a message unit as it is

intelligently processed (and understood) by peer
layer entities

Layer i PDU is intelligently understood and processed by

layer i entities

Service Data Unit (SDU) a message entities,

accompanied by primitives (directives) that is
transacted between neighboring layers

Such transactions can involve an acknowledging

handshake

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Layer Services and Interfaces

N service
User

N service
User
N-service access points (SAPs)

N service
Entity

N-service protocol

N service
Entity

(N-1)- service provider

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N-service provider

Interlayer Communications
Primitives for Confirmed Services
Requesting user

Accepting user

Service request
Service indication
time
Service confirmation

Service response

Confirmed services
consist of four primitives
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The Open Systems Interconnect

(OSI) Reference Model
Notes (and service
examples):

L7 Application

Application

L6 Presentation

Presentation Ex: compression.

encryption, conversion

Session

Session

L4 Transport

Transport

L5

User

L3

Network

Network

Network

Network

L2

Link

Link

Link

Link

L1

Physical

Physical

Physical

Physical

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Ex: connection dialogue

rules and sync.
ETE Multiplexing, error
And flow controls

L3 Packet,
routing
Frame, link level
Error and flow control
Symbol,
Signal; mechanical
and electrical Ifs and6
Transmission Comm

Layer 7: Application layer

The application layer is the seventh level of the seven-layer OSI model.
It interfaces directly to and performs common application services for
the application processes; it also issues requests to the presentation
layer. Note carefully that this layer provides services to user-defined
application processes, and not to the end user. For example, it defines
a file transfer protocol, but the end user must go through an application
process to invoke file transfer. The OSI model does not include human
interfaces.
The common application services sublayer provides functional
elements including the Remote Operations Service Element
(comparable to Internet Remote Procedure Call), Association Control,
and Transaction Processing (according to the ACID requirements).
Above the common application service sublayer are functions
meaningful to user application programs, such as messaging (X.400),
directory (X.500), file transfer (FTAM), virtual terminal (VTAM), and
batch job manipulation (JTAM).

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Layer 6: Presentation layer

The Presentation layer transforms the data to

provide a standard interface for the
Application layer. MIME encoding, data
encryption and similar manipulation of the
presentation are done at this layer to present
the data as a service or protocol developer
sees fit. Examples of this layer are converting
an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded
file, or serializing objects and other data
structures into and out of XML.
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Layer 5: Session layer

The Session layer controls the

dialogues/connections (sessions) between
computers. It establishes, manages and terminates
the connections between the local and remote
application. It provides for either full-duplex or halfduplex operation, and establishes checkpointing,
adjournment, termination, and restart procedures.
The OSI model made this layer responsible for
"graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of
TCP, and also for session checkpointing and
recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet
protocols suite.
(c) Prof. Izhak Rubin

Layer 4: Transport layer

The Transport layer provides transparent

transfer of data between end users,
providing reliable data transfer services to
the upper layers.
The transport layer controls the reliability
of a given link through flow control,
segmentation/desegmentation, and error
control.
Some protocols are state and connection
oriented. This means that the transport
layer can keep track of the segments and
Prof. Izhak
Rubin
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retransmit those(c)that
fail.

Transport layer (Cont.)

The best known example of a layer 4 protocol

is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
The transport layer is the layer that converts
messages into TCP segments or User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc. packets.
Perhaps an easy way to visualize the
Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post
Office, which deals with the dispatch and
classification of mail and parcels sent.
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Transport layer (Cont.)

Do remember, however, that a post office

manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher
layers may have the equivalent of double
envelopes, such as cryptographic Presentation
services that can be read by the addressee only.
Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at
the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP
protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an
IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec.
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Layer 3: Network layer

The Network layer provides the functional and

procedural means of transferring variable length
data sequences from a source to a destination via
one or more networks while maintaining the quality
of service requested by the Transport layer.
The Network layer performs network routing
functions, and might also perform fragmentation and
reassembly, and report delivery errors.
Routers operate at this layersending data
throughout the extended network and making the
Internet possible.
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Network layer (Cont.)

This is a logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the

network engineer.
The addressing scheme is hierarchical.
The best known example of a layer 3 protocol is the Internet
Protocol (IP).
Perhaps it's easier to visualize this layer as managing the
sequence of human carriers taking a letter from the sender to the
local post office, trucks that carry sacks of mail to other post
offices or airports, airplanes that carry airmail between major
cities, trucks that distribute mail sacks in a city, and carriers that
take a letter to its destinations.
Think of fragmentation as splitting a large document into smaller
envelopes for shipping, or, in the case of the network layer,
splitting an application or transport record into packets.
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Layer 2: Data Link layer

The Data Link layer provides the functional and

procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and to detect and possibly
correct errors that may occur in the Physical
layer.
The best known example of this is Ethernet.
This layer manages the interaction of devices
with a shared medium. (MAC sub-layer)
Other examples of data link protocols are HDLC
and ADCCP for point-to-point or packet-switched
networks and Aloha for local area networks.
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Data Link layer (Cont.)

On IEEE 802 local area networks, and
some non-IEEE 802 networks such as
FDDI, this layer may be split into a
Media Access Control (MAC) layer and
the IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control
(LLC) layer.
It arranges bits from the physical layer
into logical chunks of data, known as
frames.

(c) Prof. Izhak Rubin

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Data Link layer (Cont.)

This is the layer at which the bridges
and switches operate.
Connectivity is provided only among
locally attached network nodes
forming layer 2 domains for unicast or
broadcast forwarding.

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Data Link layer (Cont.)

The data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control
and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of
frames;
that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC
such as LAPB and LAPD.
Only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is
present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP),
On local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is often not
used for most protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area
networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are
rarely used.
Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the
transport layers by protocols such as TCP.
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Layer 1: Physical layer

The Physical layer defines all the electrical

and physical specifications for devices.
In particular, it defines the relationship
between a device and a physical medium.
This includes the layout of pins, voltages,
and cable specifications.
Hubs, repeaters, network adapters and
Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage
Area Networks) are physical-layer devices.
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Physical layer (Cont.)

To understand the function of the physical layer in

contrast to the functions of the data link layer, think
of the physical layer as concerned primarily with the
interaction of a single device with a medium, where
the data link layer is concerned more with the
interactions of multiple devices (i.e., at least two)
with a shared medium.
The physical layer will tell one device how to
transmit to the medium, and another device how to
receive from it, but not, with modern protocols, how
to gain access to the medium.
Older physical layer standards such as RS-232 do
use physical wires to control access to the medium.
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Physical layer (Cont.)

The major functions and services performed by the physical layer

are:

* Establishment and termination of a connection to a

communications medium.

* Participation in the process whereby the

communication resources are effectively shared among
multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow
control.

* Modulation, or conversion between the representation

of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding
signals transmitted over a communications channel. These
are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as
copper and fiber optic) or over a radio link.
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Physical layer (Cont.)

Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer,

although it must be remembered that the
logical SCSI protocol is a transport-layer
protocol that runs over this bus.
Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the
data-link layer.
The same applies to other local-area
networks, such as Token ring, FDDI, and
IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area
networks such as Bluetooth.
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Information Flow in a Layered system in a

datagram packet switching network
L7

L7 PDU

L7 PDU

L6

L6 PDU

L6 PDU

L5

L5 PDU

L5 PDU

L4

H4

H4

L3

H3 H4 M

L2
L1

H2 H3 H4 M T2

Physical

H3 H4 M

H3 H4 M

H3 H4 M

H2 H3 H4 M T2

H2 H3 H4 M T2

H2 H3 H4 M T2

Physical

Physical

(c) Prof. Izhak Rubin

Physical

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X.21 Digital Interface

T (Transport)

C (Control)
R (Receive)
DTE

I (Indication)
S (Signal, Bit Timing)

DCE

B (Byte Timing, Optional)

GA (DTE Common Return)
G (Ground)
Specification for DTE to DCE call setup and clearance (1976)
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Data Link Control Protocols

Link layer communications

Typical services: SAP, Error control, flow
control, sequencing
Protocol types:

Asynchronous (e.g., teletype, RS232C)

Synchronous character oriented (e.g., BSC)
Synchronous bit oriented (e.g., SDLC, HDLC,
X.25, LAP, LAPB and other)

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Full Duplex Data Link Control

such as: SDLC, HDLC, LAP

Frame types (e.g., SDLC)

Information frame
Supervisory command frame
Non-sequenced format frame

Illustrative Information Frame format:

Flag
8 bits

Address Control
8 bits

8 bits

Text (payload)
variable
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Check Seq. Flag

8,16,32 bits

8 bits
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DLCP: Control Field

ARQ (Go Back N) Error control oriented

control field:

Send count (3 bits) = sequence number for

sent frame
Receive count (3 bits) = sequence number
of next frame expected to receive

Piggyback batch ACK

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Network Layer Services:

Datagram vs. Virtual Circuit

Initial Setup:

Destination address:

Datagram: None
VCS: Employed
Datagram: Required in every packet
VCS: used during connection setup phase

Error handling:

Datagram: Performed by host

VCS: Performed by network; transparent to host
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Datagram vs. Virtual Circuit

(Cont.)

End-to-end flow control:

Datagram: Not provided by network

VCS: Provided by network

Packet Sequencing:

Datagram: messages passed to host in order of

arrival
VCS: messages delivered to host in order sent

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Datagram vs. Virtual Circuit

(Cont.)

Datagram service features: rapidly adaptive

dynamic inter-networking across multiple
sub-network types; fast packet re-routing in
reacting to changes
VCS features: traffic engineering, QoS
guarantees to flows across connections,
dynamic network management through flow
admission control
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X.25 DTE-DCE Interface

X.25: DTE-DCE interface with public packet

switching networks
Specifications at layers 1, 2 and 3
Principal layer 3 service: Virtual circuit
switching

Signaling system for establishment of Logical

Channel connections (LCI)
Secondary service: fast select datagram.

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X.25 PDUs
DLC Frame
Flag

N(R)

N(S)

Control

ADDR

Data Packet

FSC

Flag

0 1 LCGN

LCN

P(R)

Data Packet
Authorization

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Izhak Rubin
DATA
PACKET

P(S)

DATA

Data Packet
Seq. #

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X.25: Signaling

Connection establishment phase:

Call request packet (at calling DTE/DCE interface)

Incoming call packet (at called DTE/DCE interface)
Call accepted packet (at called DTE/DCE interface)
Call connected packet (at calling DTE/DCE interface)

Disconnect phase:

Clear request packet (at interface A)

Clear indication packet (at interface B)
Clear confirmation packet (at interface B)
Clear confirmation packet (at interface A)

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Call Request Packet

Call request packet fields include:

Logical channel ID
Type = call request
Calling DTE Address Length
Called DTE Address Length
DTE Address
Facility field length
Facility field
User data

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Local Area Networks

Features

Single organization
Broadband communications
Initially: data based
Simplified switching and routing based on topological layout
regularity
Star topology

Central switch; switched Ethernet; shared medium switch (backend

bus system); shared memory; space switching

Bus medium and topology; passive connection to shared

medium; physical layer broadcast
Ring medium; active RIU insertions; point-to-point connections of
RIUs

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LAN topologies

Bus Topology

Star Topology

Ring Topology
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LAN Communications Layers

Network

Logical Link Control (LLC)

Link
Medium Access Control (MAC)

PHY
Physical
PMD

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Ethernet Frame

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Ethernet frame types

Ethernet frame types and the EtherType field

There are several types of Ethernet frames:

The Ethernet Version 2 or Ethernet II frame, the so-called DIX frame (named after DEC, Intel, and Xerox);
this is the most common today, as it is often used directly by the Internet Protocol.
Novell's homegrown variation of IEEE 802.3 ("raw 802.3 frame") without IEEE 802.2 LLC
IEEE 802.2 LLC frame
IEEE 802.2 LLC/SNAP frame
In addition, Ethernet frames may optionally contain a IEEE 802.1Q tag to identify what VLAN it belongs to
and its IEEE 802.1p priority (quality of service). This doubles the potential number of frame types.
The different frame types have different formats and MTU values, but can coexist on the same physical
medium.

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The most common Ethernet Frame

format: type II

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Internet Architecture and

Protocols
TELNET, FTP, TFTP, BOOTP, HTTP, SNMP, SMTP

Port Number

BGP
IGPs

EGP

TCP

UDP

RIP

ICMP

IGMP

Upper
Layer
Transport
Layer

(OSPF)

Protocol Number
ARP

RARP

IP

Internet
Layer

Type Code
IEEE 802.2, PPP, LAPB, Ethernet, RS232, 802.3, 802.5
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Physical/
Link Layer
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Connectionless Datagram
Networking: The IP Datagram
Datagram Header
0

Data

VERS LEN

16
TYPE OF SERVICE
IDENT

TIME

31
TOTAL LENGTH
FLAGS

PROTO

FRAGMENT OFFSET
HEADER CHECKSUM

SOURCE IP ADDRESS
DESTINATION IP ADDRESS

OPTIONS

PADDING

DATA . . .
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IPv6: The Header

Ver. Prio.
Payload Length

Flow Label
Next Header

Hop Limit

Source Address
Source Address
Source Address
Source Address
Destination Address

Destination Address
Destination Address
Destination Address
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TCP Segment Format

0

16

SOURCE PORT

31
DESTINATION PORT

SEQUENCE NUMBER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT NUMBER
OFF.

RES.

CODE

...

CHECKSUM

WINDOW

URGENT POINTER
OPTIONS

PADDING

DATA . . .
DATA . . .
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