Closure problem

Closure problem and turbulence modeling

Because turbulence consists of random fluctuations of the various flow
properties, we use a statistical approach.
Our purposes are best served by using the procedure introduced by
Reynolds (1895) in which all quantities are expressed as the sum of mean
and fluctuating parts(Reynolds decomposition). We then form the time
average of the continuity and Navier-Stokes equations. The result of using
the Reynolds decomposition in the NS equations is called the RANS or
Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes Equations. Upon substitution of the
Reynolds decomposition (for each variable, we substitute the corresponding
decomposition) we obtain the following RANS equations :

The nonlinearity of the Navier-Stokes equation leads to theappearance of

momentum fluxes that act as apparent stresses throughout the flow which

ui u j
called Reynolds stress tensors
unknown a priori.

uv
uw
uu

vv
vw
w h ere ; R j = uiu j= vu

wv
ww
wu

These momentum fluxes are

If R j is symmetric, then R j=R ji and there are six independent

components, instead of nine

[ ]

uw
uu

vu
w h ere ; R j = vv

wv

ww

Then we need a model for uiu j to close the equation system. This is called
the closure problem: the number of unknowns (ten: three velocity
components, pressure, six stresses) is larger than the number of equation
(four: the continuity equation and three components of the Navier stokes
equations).
This illustrates the issue of closure which establishinga sufficient number of
equations for all of the unknowns.
One of the methods to solve the closure problem is the use of turbulence
models.
Turbulence modeling

 A turbulence model is a computational procedure to close the system

of mean flow equations.
Define the Reynolds stresses in terms on known (averaged) quantities
For most engineering applications it is unnecessary to resolve the
details of the turbulent fluctuations.
Turbulence models allow the calculation of the mean flow without first
calculating the full time-dependent flow field.
We only need to know how turbulence affected the mean flow.
In particular we need expressions for the Reynolds stresses.
For a turbulence model to be useful in a general purpose CFD code it
must have wide applicability, be accurate, simple and economical to
run.
The most common turbulence models are classified here;
Classification of turbulent models
Nowadays turbulent flows may be computed using several different
approaches. Either by solving the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
equationswith suitable models for turbulent quantities or by computing
them directly. The main approaches are summarized below.
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Models
Eddy-viscosity models (EVM)
One assumes that the turbulent stress is proportional to the mean rate of
strain. Furthermore eddy viscosity is derived from turbulent transport
equations (usually k + one other quantity).
Non-linear eddy-viscosity models (NLEVM)
Turbulent stress is modeled as a non-linear function of mean velocity
gradients. Turbulent scales are determined by solving transport equations
(usually k + one other quantity). Model is set to mimic response of
turbulence to certain important types of strain.
Differential stress models (DSM)
This category consists of Reynolds-stress transport models (RSTM) or
second-order closure models (SOC).
One is required to solve transport equations for all turbulent stresses
u 2 , v 2 , w 2 , u v , u w , vw
,and this will increase the number of equations
to solve by six.
Computation of fluctuating quantities
Large-eddy simulation (LES)
Based on space-filtered equations. Time dependent calculations are
performed. Large eddies are explicitly calculated. For small eddies, their
effect on the flow pattern is taken into account with a sub-grid model of
which many styles are available.
Direct numerical simulation (DNS)

No modeling what so ever is applied. One is required to resolve the smallest

scales of the flow as well.
Extend of modeling for
certain CFD approach is
illustrated in the
following figure. It is
clearly seen, that
models computing
fluctuation quantities
resolve shorter length
scales than models
solving RANS equations.
Hence they have the
ability to provide better results. However they have a demand of much
greater computer power than those models applying RANS methods.
Brief History of Turbulence Modeling
The origin of the time-averaged Navier-Stokes equations dates back to the
late nineteenth centurywhenReynolds (1895)published results from his
research on turbulence.
The earliest attempts at developing a mathematical description of the
turbulent stresses, which is the core of the closure problem, were performed
by Boussinesq (1877) with the introduction of the eddy viscosityconcept.
Neither of these authors, however, attempted to solve the time-averaged
Navier-Stokes equations in any kind of systematic manner.
More information regarding the physics of viscous flow was still required,
until Prandtl's discovery of the boundary layer in 1904.Prandtl (1925)
later introduced the concept of the mixing-length model, which prescribed
an algebraic relation for the turbulent stresses.
This early development was the cornerstone for nearly all turbulence
modeling efforts for the next twenty years. The mixing length model is now
known as an algebraic or zero-equation model.
To develop a more realistic mathematical model of the turbulent stresses,
Prandtl (1945) introduced the first one-equation model by proposing that
the eddy viscosity depends on the turbulent kinetic energy, k, solving a
differential equation to approximate the exact equation for k.
This one equation model improved the turbulence predictions by taking into
account the effects of flow history.
The problem of specifying a turbulence length scale still remained. This
information, which can be thought of as a characteristic scale of the
turbulent eddies, changes for different flows, and thus is required for a more
complete description of the turbulence.

A more complete model would be one that can be applied to a given

turbulent flow by prescribing boundary and/or initial conditions.
Kolmogorov (1942) introduced the first complete turbulence model, by
modeling the turbulent kinetic energy k, and introducing a second
parameter that he referred to as the rate of dissipation of energy per
unit volume and time.
This two-equation model, termed the k- model, used the reciprocal of

0.5

k
as the turbulence time scale, while the quantity

served as a

turbulence length scale, solving a differential equation for similar to

the solution method for k.
Because of the complexity of the mathematics, which required the solution
of nonlinear differential equations, it went virtually without application for
many years, before the availability of computers.
Rotta (1951) pioneered the use of the Boussinesq approximation in
turbulence models to solve for the Reynolds stresses. This approach is
called a second-order or second-moment closure.
Such models naturally incorporate non-local and history effects, such as
streamline curvature andbody forces. The previous eddy viscosity models
failed to account for such effects.
For a three dimensional flow, these second-order closure models introduce
seven equations, one for aturbulence length scale, and six for the Reynolds
stresses. As with Kolmogorov's k- model, the
Complex nature of this model awaited adequate computer resources.
Thus, by the early 1950's, four main categories of turbulence
models had developed:
(1) Algebraic (Zero-Equation) Models
(2) One-Equation Models
(3) Two-Equation Models
(4) Second-Order Closure Models
With increased computer capabilities beginning in the 1960's, further
development of all four ofthese classes of turbulence models has occurred.
The most important modern developments aregiven below for each class:
Algebraic (Zero-Equation) Models
Van Driest (1956) devised a viscous damping correction for the mixinglength model. This correction is still in use in most modern turbulence
models.
Cebeci and Smith (1974) refined theeddy viscosity/mixing-length concept
for better use with attached boundary layers.

Baldwin andLomax (1978) proposed an alternative algebraic model to

eliminate some of the difficulty indefining a turbulence length scale from
the shear-layer thickness.
One-Equation Models
While employing a much simpler approach than two-equation or secondorder closure models one-equation models have been somewhat unpopular
and have not showed a great deal ofsuccess.
One notable exception was the model formulated by Bradshaw, Ferris,
and Atwell(1967), whose model was tested against the best experimental
data of the day at the 1968Stanford Conference on Computation and
Turbulent Boundary Layers.
There has been somerenewed interest in the last several years due to the
ease with which one-equation models can beSolved numerically, relative to
more complex two-equation or second-order closure models.
Two-Equation Models
While Kolmogorov's k- model was the first two-equation model, the
most extensive work hasbeen done by Daly and Harlow (1970)and
Launder and Spalding (1972). Launder's k- model is the most widely
used two-equation turbulence model;
here is the dissipation rate of
turbulentkinetic energy. Independently
of Kolmogorov, Saffman (1970)
developed a k- model thatshows
advantages to the more well-known k
model, especially for integrating
through theviscous sub-layer and in
flows with adverse pressure gradients.
Due to the increased complexity of
this class of turbulence models,
second-order closure modelsdo not
share the same wide use as the more popular two-equation or algebraic
models. The mostnoteworthy efforts in the development of this class of
models was performed by Donaldson andRosenbaum (1968), Daly and
Harlow (1970), and Launder, Reece, and Rodi (1975). The latterhas
become the baseline second-order closure model, with more recent
contributions made byLumley (1978), Speziale (1985), Reynolds
(1987), and many other thereafter, who haveadded mathematical rigor to
the model formulation.
While the present study is not intended to be a complete catalogue of all
turbulence models
Common turbulence models

The turbulent models are as follows, in order of increasing complexity:

1. Algebraic Zero equation model: mixing length model.
2. One equation model: Spalart-Almaras k model, tmodel
3. Two equation models: k- style models (standard, RNG, realizable), k-
model.
4. Algebraic stress models: ASM (second order model)
5. Seven equation model: Reynolds stress model(RSM) .
The number of equations denotes the number of additional PDEs that
are being solved.
FIRST ORDER MODELS
First order models are based on the analogy between laminar and turbulent
flow. They are also called Eddy Viscosity Models (EVM). The idea is that
there exists an analogy between the action of viscous stresses ij and

Reynolds stresses u ' i u ' j on the mean flow.

Both stresses appear on the right hand side of the momentum equation and
in Newton's law of viscosity the viscous stresses are taken to be
proportional to the rate of deformation of fluid elements (e ij ) .
For an incompressible fluid this gives

ij = e ij =(

u i u j
+
)
x j xi

In order to simplify the notation using the suffix notation where i, j, and k
denote the x, y, and z directions respectively, viscous stresses are given by:
ij = e ij =

ui u j
u v
+
=(
+ )
x j xi
y x

It is experimentally observed that turbulence decays unless there is shear

inisothermal incompressible flows. Furthermore, turbulent stresses are
found to increase as the mean rate of deformation increases. It was
proposed by Boussinesq in 1877 that Reynolds stresses could be linked to
mean rates of deformation. Using thesuffix notation we get
U i U j
ij = u' iu' j =t (
+
)
X j Xi

The right hand side is analogous to this formula

xy= yx =(

u v
+ )
y x Except for the appearance of the turbulent or eddy

viscosity t (dimensions Pa s). There is also a kinematic turbulent or eddy

viscosity denoted by

t =

m2
with dimensions s .

The turbulent viscosity is not homogeneous, it varies in space It is, however

assumed to be isotropic, in other words that the ratio between Reynolds

stress and mean rate ofdeformation is the same in all directions. This
assumption is valid for many flows, but not for all (e.g. flows with strong
separation or swirl).
ZERO EQUATION MODELS
In zero equation models, as the name designates, we have no PDE that
describes the transport of the turbulent stresses and fluxes. A simple
algebraic relation is used to close the problem. Based on the mixing length
theory, which is the length conceptually analogous to the concept of mean
free path in thermodynamics: a fluid parcel will conserve its properties for a
characteristic length, l , before mixing with the surrounding fluid.
On dimensional grounds we assume that the kinematic turbulent viscosity
t

whichhas dimensions

m
s

can be expressed as a product of a turbulent

velocity scale (m/s) and a length scale l (m). If one velocity scale and
one length scale suffice to describe the effects of turbulence dimensional
s
m /

t
2

analysis yields

we then assume that the velocity scale is proportional to the length scale
and the gradients in the velocity (shear rate, which has dimension 1/s):
l

|Uy |
| |

2 U
we can derive Prandtls (1925) mixing length model: t =l m y

where lm is determined experimentally .

Algebraic expressions exist for the mixing length for simple twodimensionalflows, such as pipe and channel flow.
Mixing length model assessment
Advantages:
Easy to implement.
Fast calculation times.
Good predictions for simple flows where experimental correlations
for the mixing length exist.
Disadvantages:
Completely incapable of describing flows where the turbulent
length scale varies: anything with separation or circulation.

 Only calculates mean flow properties and turbulent shear stress.

Use:
Sometimes used for simple external aero flows.
Pretty much completely ignored in commercial CFD programs
today.
Much better models are available.
ONE EQUATION MODELS
In one equation models a transport equation (PDE )is often solved for the
turbulent kinetic energ (per unit mass) k.The unknown turbulent length
scale must be given. This length scale is, for example, taken as proportional
to the thickness of the boundary layer, the width of a jet or a wake.And the
unknowns (turbulent viscosity) are expressed as a function of the turbulent
kinetic energy as:
1
k = ( u2 + v2+ w 2 )
2

The instantaneous kinetic energy k(t) of a turbulent flow is the sum of mean
kinetic energy K and turbulent kinetic energy k :
K t =K +k
1
K= (U 2 +V 2+ W 2)
2

We also make use of the fact that t l but in this case , the velocity scale
is proportional to the square root of the kinetic energy
(unlike the above case where was proportional to the gradient of velocity). Therefore, we have: t =l m k
Now that the turbulent viscosity is expressed in terms of the turbulent
kinetic energy (therefore the turbulent stresses is functions of the kinetic
energy), a PDE is developed for the mean kinetic energy.
K
div ( KU ) div PU 2 UEij Uui ' u j ' 2 Eij .Eij ( ui ' u j '.Eij )
t
(I )
II
( III ) ( IV )
(V )
(VI )
(VII )

Where;
Eij is the mean rate of deformation tensor.
And This equation can be read as:
(I) the rate of change of K, plus
(II) transport of K by convection, equals
(III) transport of K by pressure, plus
(IV) transport of K by viscous stresses, plus

 (V) transport of K by Reynolds stresses, minus

(VI) rate of dissipation of K( k ), minus
(VII) Turbulence production.
And the PDE for Turbulent kinetic energyis as follows:

k
div ( kU) div p' u' 2 u' eij ' 12 ui '.u i ' u j ' 2 eij '.eij ' ( u i ' u j '.Eij )
t
II
(I )
( III ) ( IV )
(V )
(VI )
(VII )

Where eij is fluctuating component of rate of deformation tensor.

On the other hand, this equation introduces two new unknown correlations;
the turbulent and pressure diffusions ( D k ) and the dissipation rates ( k )
which need to be modeled.
Where:
Dk =

Finally, we end up with the following:

The Prandtl number k connects the diffusivity of k to the eddy viscosity.

Typically a value of 1.0 is used.
Where;

t=

t
t

t is the turbulent diffusivity.

The turbulent diffusivity is calculated from the turbulent viscosity, using a
model constant called the turbulent Schmidt number.
Two Equation Models The k- model
In the two equation models, we develop two PDEs: one for the turbulent
kinetic energy and one for the turbulent dissipation rate.
The PDE for the turbulent kinetic energy is already given by the PDE for
Turbulent kinetic energy, however, the expression for the turbulent or eddy
viscosity is different. So, the idea is to express the turbulent viscosity as a
function of K and and then derive PDEs for K and .

The equation for the model equation for k is commonly used is repeated
here for convenience

2 eij '.eij '

The equations look quite similar; however, the k equation mainly

contains primed quantities, indicating that changes in k are mainly
governed by turbulent interactions.
2 eij '.eij '

Furthermore, term (VII)

is equal in both equations. But it
is actually negative in themean kinetic energyequation (destruction) and
positive in the turbulent kinetic energy k equation (energy transfers from
the mean flow to the turbulence).The viscous dissipation term (VI) in the k
equation describes the dissipation of k because of the work done by the
smallest eddies against the viscous stresses.
So the rate of dissipation per unit mass as:
Now instead of modeling , we shall develop an independent PDE for its
transport. Model equation for is derived by multiplying the k equation by
(/k) and introducing model constants.
The following (simplified) model equation for is commonly used.

The Prandtl number connects the diffusivity of to the eddy viscosity.

Typically a value of 1.30 is used.Typically values for the model constants C 1
and C2 of 1.44 and 1.92 are used.
To compute the Reynolds stresses with the k- model an extended

Boussinesq relationship is used

The turbulent viscosity is calculated from:

The Reynolds stresses are then calculated as follows:

Where ;(2/3)kij term ensures that the normal stresses sum to k.

Thek- model leads to all normal stresses being equal, which is usually
inaccurate.
k- model assessment
Advantages:
Relatively simple to implement.
Leads to stable calculations that converge relatively easily.
Reasonable predictions for many flows.
Disadvantages:
Poor predictions for:swirling and rotating flows, flows with strong
separation, axisymmetric jets.
Valid only for fully turbulent flows.
Simplistic equation.
There is many attempts have been made to develop two-equation models
that improve on the standard k- model such as :
k- RNG model.
k- realizable model.
k- model.
The k- RNG(Renormalization Group Method) model
k-equations are derived from the application of a rigorous statistical
technique to the instantaneous Navier-Stokes equations.
Similar in form to the standard k- equations but includes:
- Additional term in equation for interaction between turbulence
dissipation and mean shear.
- The effect of swirl on turbulence.
- Analytical formula for turbulent Prandtl number.
- Differential formula for effective viscosity.
RNG k- equations
RNG k- Equations written for steady, incompressible flow without body
forces.
Turbulent kinetic energy:

Dissipation rate:

realizable k-
It Shares the same turbulent kinetic energy equation as the standard k-
model and improved equation for . The Variable C is located instead of
constant.
Distinctions from standard k- model:
Alternative formulation for turbulent viscosity:

Where (A0, As, and U* are functions of velocity gradients).

New transport equation for dissipation rate, :

k- model
the basic idea of this model was originated by kolmogorov 1942 with
turbulance associated with vorticity .
In this model is an inverse time scale that is associated with the
turbulence.and this model solves two additional PDEs:
A modified version of the k equation used in the k model.
A transport equation for .
The turbulent viscosity is then calculated as follows:
It suffers from some of the same drawbacks, such as the assumption that t
is isotropic.
SECOND ORDER MODELS
The central concept of second order models is to make direct use of the
governing equations for the second order moments (Reynolds stresses and
turbulent fluxes) instead of the questionable Boussinesq hypothesis. The
motivation is to overcome the limitations of first order models in dealing
with the isotropy of turbulence and the extra strains. The overshoot of this
approach is the large number of PDEs induced which involve many unknown
or impossible to find correlations. The most famous models are the
Algebraic Stress Model (ASM) and the Reynolds Stress Model (RSM).

THE ALGEBRAIC STRESS MODEL

In the algebraic stress model, two main approaches can be undertaken. In
the first, the transport of the turbulent stresses is assumed proportional to
the turbulent kinetic energy; while in the second, convective and diffusive
effects are assumed to be negligible. Algebraic Stress models can only be
used where convective and diffusive fluxes are negligibleThis model was
used in the 1980s and early 1990s. Research continues but this model is
rarely used in industry anymore now that most commercial CFD codes have
full RSM implementations available.
THE STANDARD REYNOLDS STRESS MODEL (RSM)
The most complex classical turbulence model is the Reynolds stress
equation model (RSM), also called the second-order or second-moment
closure model which closes the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations
by solving additional transport equations for the six independent Reynolds
stresses.
Transport equations derived by Reynolds averaging are the product of the
momentum equations with a fluctuating property.
Closure also requires one equation for turbulent dissipation.
Isotropic eddy viscosity assumption is avoided.
Resulting equations contain terms that need to be modeled.
RSM is good for accurately predicting complex flows.
It accounts for streamline curvature, swirl, rotation and high strain rates.
The exact equation for the transport of R j takes the following form:

And This equation can be read as:

- rate of change of R j= uiu j , plus
- transport of Rij by convection, equals
- rate of production Pij, plus
- transport by diffusion Dij, minus
- rate of dissipation ij, plus
- transport due to turbulent pressure-strain interactions ij, plus
- transport due to rotation ij.
This equation describes six partial differential equations, one for the
transport of each of the six independent Reynolds stresses.
The various terms are modeled as follows:
- Production Pij is retained in its exact form, where ;

Diffusive transport Dij is modeled by the assumption that the rate

oftransport of Reynolds stresses by diffusion is proportional to the gradients
of Reynolds stresses.

The dissipation ij, is related to as calculated from the standard

equation, although more advanced models are available also.

Pressure strain interactions ij, are very important. These include pressure
fluctuations due to eddies interacting with each other, and due to
interactions between eddies and regions of the flow with a different mean
velocity. The overall effect is to make the normal stresses more isotropic
and to decrease shear stresses. It does not change the total turbulent
kinetic energy. This is a difficultto model term.

Transport due to rotation ij is retained in its exact form.