EG-260 - Dynamics 1

Professor S Adhikari
S.Adhikari@swansea.ac.uk
@ProfAdhikari, Hash tag: #EG260

Swansea University
Following: Engineering Vibration
D J Inman, 3rd Edition
Pearson Education
College of Engineering
Eng. Vib, 3rd Ed.

Motivation The Millennium Bridge

a Recent Vibration Problem (2000-1)

OPENED AND CLOSED WITHIN A FEW HOURS

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(Show movies)

2/43

Millennium Bridge Vibration

Lack of consideration of dynamic loads and vibration

caused this to relatively new bridge to vibrate wildly
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3/43

Modeling and Degrees of Freedom

The bridge has many degrees of freedom, we will start with one
and work towards many.

Lack of consideration of dynamic loads and vibration

caused this to relatively new bridge to vibrate wildly
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The goal of this course is to understand such 4/43

phenomenon and how to prevent it

Example 1.1.1 The Pendulum

Sketch the structure or
part of interest
Write down all the
forces and make a
free body diagram
Use Newtons Law
and/or Eulers Law to
find the equations of
motion

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= J 0 , J 0 = ml

5/43

The problem is one dimensional,

hence a scalar equation results
J 0 (t) = mgl sin (t) m 2(t) + mgsin

(t)
=
0

restoring
force

Here the over dots denote differentiation with respect to time t

This is a second order, nonlinear ordinary differential equation
We can linearise the equation by using the approximation sin

m (t) + mg (t) = 0 (t) + (t) = 0

Requires knowledge of (0) and (0)

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the initial position and velocity.

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Next consider a spring mass system

and perform a static experiment:
From strength of
materials recall:
FBD:

nonlinear

linear
A plot of force versus displacement:
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experiment f k = kx

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Free-body diagram and equation

of motion

Newtons Law:

m
x(t) = kx(t) m
x(t) + kx(t) = 0
x(0) = x0 , x (0) = v0

Again a 2nd order ordinary differential equation

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(1.2)

8/43

Stiffness and Mass

Vibration is caused by the interaction of two different forces
one related to position (stiffness) and one related to
acceleration (mass).
Proportional to displacement

Stiffness (k)

Displacement
x

f k = kx (t )
Mass (m)

statics

fm = ma(t) = m
x(t)

m
Mass

Spring

dynamics
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Proportional to acceleration

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Examples of Single-Degree-ofFreedom Systems

Pendulum

Shaft and Disk

l =length
Gravity g

Torsional
Stiffness
k

Moment
of inertia
J

(t) + (t) = 0
l
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J(t) + k (t) = 0
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Solution to 2nd order DEs

Lets assume a solution:

x(t)

x (t ) = A sin(nt + ) (1.3)

Differentiating twice gives:

x (t) = n A cos( n t + )

(1.4)

x(t) = n2 Asin( n t + ) = - n2 x(t)

(1.5)

Substituting back into the equations of motion gives:

mn2 A sin(nt + ) + kA sin(nt + ) = 0

2
n

m + k = 0
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or

k
n =
m

Natural
frequency
rad/s

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Summary of simple harmonic

motion
x(t)

Period

T=
x0

Slope
here is v0

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Amplitude
A

t
Maximum
Velocity

n A

n rad/s
n cycles n
fn =
=
=
Hz
2 rad/cycle
2 s
2

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Initial Conditions
If a system is vibrating then we must assume that something
must have (in the past) transferred energy into to the system
and caused it to move. For example the mass could have
been:
moved a distance x0 and then released at t = 0 (i.e. given
Potential energy) or
given an initial velocity v0 (i.e. given some kinetic energy) or
Some combination of the two above cases
From our earlier solution we know that:

x0 = x(0) = Asin( n 0 + ) = Asin( )

v0 = x (0) = n A cos( n 0 + ) = n A cos( )
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13/43

Initial Conditions Determine the

Constants of Integration
Solving these two simultaneous equations for A and gives:

"
%
1
2 2
2
1 n x0
A=
n x0 + v0 , = tan $
'
n
v0 &

Amplitude

Phase

Slope
here is v0

x(t)

x0

n2 x02 + v02
x0

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v0

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Thus the total solution for the

spring mass system becomes:
n2 x02 + v02
1 n x0
x(t) =
sin nt + tan
n
v0

(1.10)

Called the solution to a simple harmonic oscillator

and describes oscillatory motion, or simple harmonic motion.
Note (Example 1.1.2)

n2 x02 + v02
x(0) =
n
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n x0
n2 x02 + v02

as it should

= x0
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A note on arctangents
Note that calculating arctangent from a
calculator requires some attention. First, all
machines work in radians.
The argument atan(-/+) is in a different quadrant
then atan(+/-), and usual machine calculations
will return an arctangent in between -/2 and
+/2, reading only the atan(-) for these two
different cases.
+

+
-

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In MATLAB, use the atan2(x,y) function to get

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the correct phase.

Example 1.1.3 wheel, tire suspension

m = 30 kg, n = 10 hz, what is k?
! cylce 2 rad $
5
k = m = (30 kg) #10
i
=
1.184
10
N/m
&
sec cylce %
"
2
n

There are of course more complex models of suspension systems

and these appear latter in the course as our tools develope

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17/43

Section 1.2 Harmonic Motion

The period is the time elapsed to complete one complete cylce

2 rad 2
T=
=
s
n rad/s n

(1.11)

The natural frequency in the commonly used units of hertz:

n
n rad/s
n cycles n
fn =
=
=
=
Hz
2 2 rad/cycle
2 s
2
For the pendulum:

n =

(1.12)

g
l
rad/s, T = 2
s
l
g

For the disk and shaft:

n =
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k
J
rad/s, T = 2
s
J
k

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Relationship between Displacement,

Velocity and Acceleration
1

x (t ) = A sin(nt + )

Displacement

-1
0
20

x (t) = n A cos( n t + )

Velocity

x(t) = n2 Asin( n t + )

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 0.6
Time (sec)

0.7

0.8

0.9

-20
0
200

Acceleration

-200
0
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A=1, n=12

Note how the relative magnitude of each increases for n>1

19/43

Example 1.2.1Hardware store spring, bolt: m= 49.2x10

-3

kg, k=857.8 N/m and x0 =10 mm. Compute n and the max amplitude
of vibration.

k
857.8 N/m
n =
=
= 132 rad/s
-3
m
49.2 10 kg

n
fn =
= 21 Hz
2
2 1
1
T=
= =
n fn 21 cyles
x(t) max = A =
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Note: common
Units are Hertz

To avoid Costly errors use fn

when working in Hertz and n
when in rad/s

0.0476 s
sec

2 2
n 0

2
0

x + v = x0 = 10 mm
Units depend on system 20/43

Compute the solution and max velocity and

acceleration:

v(t)max = n A = 1320 mm/s = 1.32 m/s

2

a(t) max = n A = 174.24 10 mm/s

2.92 mph

=174.24 m/s 17.8g!

g = 9.8 m/s2

1 n x0
90
= tan
= rad
0 2
x(t) = 10 sin(132t + / 2) = 10 cos(132t) mm
~0.4 in max
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21/43

Does gravity matter in spring

problems?

Let be the deflection caused by

hanging a mass on a spring
( = x1-x0 in the figure)
Then from static equilibrium:

mg = k

Next sum the forces in the vertical for some point x > x1 measured
from

m
x = k ( x + ) + mg = kx + mg
k

=0

m
x(t) + kx(t) = 0
So no, gravity does not have an effect on the vibration
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22/43

Example 1.2.2 Pendulums and

measuring g
A 2 m pendulum
swings with a period
of 2.893 s
What is the
acceleration due to
gravity at that
location?

l
T=
= 2
n
g
2

4
4
g= 2 l =
2m
2 2
T
2.893 s
g = 9.796 m/s2

This is g in Denver, CO USA, at 1638m

and a latitude of 40
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23/43

Review of Complex Numbers and Complex

Exponential (See Appendix A)
A complex number can be written with a real and imaginary
part or as a complex exponential

c = a + jb = Ae j
Where

a = A cos , b = A sin

Multiplying two complex numbers:

c1c2 = A1 A2 e

j (1 +2 )

Dividing two complex numbers:

c1 A1 j (1 2 )
=
e
c2 A2
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24/43

Equivalent Solutions to 2nd order

Differential Equations (see Window 1.4)
All of the following solutions are equivalent:

x (t ) = A sin(nt + )

Called the magnitude and phase form

x (t ) = A1 sin nt + A2 cos nt
x (t ) = a1e

jn t

+ a2 e

jn t

Sometimes called the Cartesian form

Called the polar form

The relationships between A and , A1 and A2, and a1 and a2

can be found in Window 1.4 of the course text, page 17.

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Each is useful in different situations

Each represents the same information
Each solves the equation of motion 25/43

Derivation of the solution

Substitute x(t) = ae t into m
x + kx = 0
m 2 ae t + kae t = 0
2

m + k = 0
k
k
= =
j = n j
m
m
x(t) = a1en jt and x(t) = a2 en jt
x(t) = a1en jt + a2 en jt

(1.18)

This approach will be used again for more complicated problems

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26/43

Is frequency always positive?

From the preceding analysis, = + n then

n jt

x (t ) = a1e

+ a2 e

n jt

Using the Euler relations* for trigonometric functions, the

above solution can be written as (recall Window 1.4)

x (t ) = A sin (nt + )

(1.19)

It is in this form that we identify as the natural frequency

n and this is positive, because the + sign being used up
in the transformation from exponentials to the sine
function.
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler's_formula

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e jx = cos x + j sin x

27/43

Calculating root mean square

(RMS) values
May need to be limited due
to physical constraints

A = peak value
T

Not very useful since for

a sine function the
average value is zero

1
x = lim x (t )dt = average value
T T
0
T

1 2
x = lim x (t )dt = mean-square value
T T
0
2

xrms = x 2 = root mean square value

(1.21)
Proportional
to energy

Also useful when the vibration is random

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28/43

The Decibel or dB scale

It is often useful to use a logarithmic scale to plot vibration
levels (or noise levels). One such scale is called the decibel or
dB scale. The dB scale is always relative to some reference
value x0. It is define as:
2

x
x
dB = 10 log10 = 20 log10
x0
x0

(1.22)

For example: if an acceleration value was 19.6m/s2 then relative

to 1g (or 9.8m/s2) the level would be 6dB,
2

19.6
10 log10
= 20 log10 ( 2 ) = 6 dB

9.8
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Or for Example 1.2.1: The Acceleration Magnitude

29/43
is 20log10(17.8)=25dB relative to 1g.

1.3 Viscous Damping

All real systems dissipate energy when they vibrate. To
account for this we must consider damping. The most simple
form of damping (from a mathematical point of view) is called
viscous damping. A viscous damper (or dashpot) produces a
force that is proportional to velocity.
Mostly a mathematically motivated form, allowing
a solution to the resulting equations of motion that predicts
reasonable (observed) amounts of energy dissipation.

Damper (c)
x

fc = cv(t) = cx (t)

fc
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30/43

The Role of Damping

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The Role of Damping

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32/43

Differential Equation Including

Damping
For this damped single degree of freedom system the force acting
on the mass is due to the spring and the dashpot i.e. fm= - fk - fc.
Displacement
x

m
x(t) = kx(t) cx (t)
or
m
x(t) + cx (t) + kx(t) = 0 (1.25)

M
c

To solve this for of the equation it is useful to assume a

solution of the form (again):

x(t) = ae
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33/43

Solution to DE with damping

included (dates to 1743 by Euler)
The velocity and acceleration can then be calculated as:

= ae t
x(t)

x(t) = 2 ae t
If this is substituted into the equation of motion we get:

aet (m 2 + c + k) = 0

(1.26)

Divide equation by m, substitute for natural frequency and

assume a non-trivial solution
t

ae 0
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c
( + + n2 ) = 0
m
2

34/43

Solution to our differential

equation with damping included:
For convenience we will define a term known as the
damping ratio as:

c
=
2 km

(1.30)

Lower case Greek zeta

NOT as some like to use

The equation of motion then becomes:

2
n

( + 2n + ) = 0
Solving for then gives,
2

1,2 = n n 1
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(1.31)
35/43

Possibility 1. Critically damped motion

Critical damping occurs when =1. The damping coefficient
c in this case is given by:

=1 c = ccr = 2 km = 2m n

Solving for then gives,

definition of critical
damping coefficient

1,2 = 1n n 1 1 = n
The solution then takes the form

A repeated, real root

x(t) = a1e n t + a2te n t

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Needs two independent solutions, hence the t

in the second term
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Critically damped motion

a1 and a2 can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

x = (a1 + a2t)e n t
k=225N/m m=100kg and
0.6

v = ( n a1 n a2t + a2 )e n t

0.5

v0 = n a1 + a2
a2 = v0 + n x0
No oscillation occurs
Useful in door
mechanisms, analog
gauges

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Displacement (mm)

a1 = x0

=1

x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1

2
Time (sec)

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Possibility 2: Overdamped motion

An overdamped case occurs when >1. Both of the roots of the
equation are again real.

k=225N/m m=100kg and =2

0.6

1,2 = n n 1
1

+ a2 e n t

a1 and a2 can again be calculated

from initial conditions (t=0),

v0 + ( + 2 1)n x0
a1 =
2n 2 1
2

v0 + ( + 1)n x0
a2 =
2n 2 1
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0.5

Displacement (mm)

x(t) = en t (a1en t

x0=0.4mm v0=1mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=0mm/s
x0=0.4mm v0=-1mm/s

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
0

2
Time (sec)

Slower to respond than

critically damped case

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Possibility 3: Underdamped motion

An underdamped case occurs when <1. The roots of the
equation are complex conjugate pairs. This is the most
common case and the only one that yields oscillation.

1,2 = n n j 1
x(t) = e

n t

= Ae

(a1e

n t

jn t 1 2

+ a2 e

j n t 1 2

sin( d t + )

The frequency of oscillation d is called the damped natural

frequency is given by.

d = n 1 2
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(1.37)
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Constants of integration for the

underdamped motion case
As before A and can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

A=

(v0 + n x0 )2 + (x0 d ) 2

x0 d
= tan

v0 + n x0
1

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Displacement

Gives an oscillating
response with exponential
decay
Most natural systems vibrate
with and underdamped
response
See Window 1.5 for details
and other representations

1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1

2
3
Time (sec)

5
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Example 1.3.1: consider the spring of 1.2.1, if c = 0.11

kg/s, determine the damping ratio of the spring-bolt system.

m = 49.2 10 kg, k = 857.8 N/m

3

ccr = 2 km = 2 49.2 10 857.8

= 12.993 kg/s
c
0.11 kg/s
=
=
= 0.0085
ccr 12.993 kg/s
the motion is underdamped
and the bolt will oscillate
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41/43

Example 1.3.2
The human leg has a measured natural
frequency of around 20 Hz when in its rigid
(knee locked) position, in the longitudinal
direction (i.e., along the length of the bone)
with a damping ratio of = 0.224. Calculate
the response of the tip if the leg bone to an
initial velocity of v0 = 0.6 m/s and zero initial
displacement (this would correspond to the
vibration induced while landing on your feet,
with your knees locked form a height of 18
mm) and plot the response. What is the
maximum acceleration experienced by the
leg assuming no damping?
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42/43

Solution:
n =

20 cycles 2 rad
= 125.66 rad/s
1
s cycles
2

d = 125.66 1 (.224) = 122.467 rad/s

2

A=

(0.6 + (0.224 )(125.66)(0)) + (0)(122.467)2

122.467

= 0.005 m

(0)( d )
= 0
= tan
v0 + n (0 )
-1

x(t ) = 0.005e 28.148t sin(122.467t )

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43/43

Use the undamped formula to get maximum

acceleration:
2

!v $
2
A = x0 + ## 0 && , n = 125.66, v0 = 0.6, x0 = 0
" n %
A=

v0
0.6
m=
m
n
n

! 0.6 $
max
x = A = ## && = 0.6 125.66 m/s 2 = 75.396 m/s 2
" n %

()

2
n

2
n

( )(

2
75.396
m/s
maximum acceleration =
g = 7.68g's
2
9.81 m/s

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44/46

Here is a plot of the displacement

response versus time

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45/46

Example 1.3.3

Compute the form of the response of an

underdamped system using the Cartesian form of the solution given in
Window 1.5.

sin(x + y) = sin x sin y + cos x cos y

x(t) = Aent sin( d t + ) = ent (A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t)
x(0) = x0 = e 0 (A1 sin(0) + A2 cos(0)) A2 = x0
x = n ent (A1 sin d t + A2 cos d t)
+ d ent (A1 cos d t A2 sin d t)
v0 = n (A1 sin 0 + x0 cos0) + d (A1 cos0 x0 sin 0)
A1 =
x(t) = e
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nt

v0 + n x0

# v0 + n x0
&
sin d t + x0 cos d t (
%
d
$
'
46/46