Architecture

For the professional, see Architect. For other uses, see civilizations are often identied with their surviving arArchitecture (disambiguation).
chitectural achievements.
Architecture (Latin architectura, after the Greek
Architecture can mean:
A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures.[3]
The art and science of designing buildings and
(some) nonbuilding structures.[3]
The style of design and method of construction of
buildings and other physical structures.[3]
The knowledge of art, science & technology and
humanity.[3]
Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of Florence Cathedral
in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and
the city, but also the role and status of the architect.[1][2]

The practice of the architect, where architecture

means oering or rendering professional services
in connection with the design and construction of
buildings, or built environments.[4]
The design activity of the architect,[3] from the
macro-level (urban design, landscape architecture)
to the micro-level (construction details and furniture).
Architecture has to do with planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience to reect functional,
technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of materials and technology, and of light and shadow.
Often, conicting requirements must be resolved. The
practise of Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic
aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including
scheduling, cost estimation and construction administration. Documentation produced by architects, typically
drawings, plans and technical specications, denes the
structure and/or behavior of a building or other kind of
system that is to be or has been constructed.
The word architecture has also been adopted to describe other designed systems, especially in information
technology.[3]

Section of Brunelleschi's dome drawn by the architect Cigoli (c.

1600)

arkhitekton from - chief and

builder, carpenter, mason) is both the process
and the product of planning, designing, and constructing 1 Theory of architecture
buildings and other physical structures. Architectural
works, in the material form of buildings, are often per- Main article: Architectural theory
ceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical
1

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, the supreme example among

architectural sites. (Fletcher).[5]

1.1

THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

The Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by

Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin

Historic treatises

The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect
Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD.[6] According to
Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of rmitas, utilitas, venustas,[7][8] commonly known
by the original translation rmness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in modern English would be:

narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the
edices raised by men ... that the sight of them contributes to his mental health, power, and pleasure.[10]

For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding signicance.

His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work
of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For
Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional
Durability a building should stand up robustly and building needed string courses or rustication, at the very
remain in good condition.
least.[10]

Utility it should be suitable for the purposes for On the dierence between the ideals of architecture
and mere construction, the renowned 20th-century arwhich it is used.
chitect Le Corbusier wrote: You employ stone, wood,
Beauty it should be aesthetically pleasing.
and concrete, and with these materials you build houses
and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work.
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to ful- But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good.
ll each of these three attributes as well as possible. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is
Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Architecture.[11]
Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedicatoria, saw beauty
Le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament
said Architecture starts when you carefully put two
also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion
bricks together. There it begins.[12]
were those that governed the idealised human gure, the
Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was
therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied supercially; and was based on universal,
recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was
not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of
Vasari:[9] by the 18th century, his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.
In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore
Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested,
contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world.
Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true
Christian form of architecture.
The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his
Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849, was much

The National Congress of Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer

1.2

Modern concepts of architecture

The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis

Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural
design: "Form follows function".

2 History
Main article: History of architecture

While the notion that structural and aesthetic consid- 2.1 Origins and vernacular architecture
erations should be entirely subject to functionality was
met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the ef- Main article: Vernacular architecture
fect of introducing the concept of function in place of Building rst evolved out of the dynamics between needs
Vitruvius' utility. Function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic,
psychological and cultural.

Vernacular architecture in Norway

Sydney Opera House, Australia designed by Jrn Utzon

Nunzia Rondanini stated, Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that
it has in common with other human sciences. Through
its own particular way of expressing values, architecture
can stimulate and inuence social life without presuming
that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.'
To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to
art for arts sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a
purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality.[13]

(shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available

building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized
through oral traditions and practices, building became a
craft, and architecture is the name given to the most
highly formalized and respected versions of that craft.
It is widely assumed that architectural success was the
product of a process of trial and error, with progressively
less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed
vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many
parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up
most of the built world that people experience every day.
Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting
in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and
evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of atal
Hyk in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley
Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.

Among the philosophies that have inuenced modern

architects and their approach to building design are
rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism,
and phenomenology.
2.2
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those
included in the compass of both structure and function,
the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of
its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon
non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water
and waste management and lighting.

Ancient architecture

In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt

and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reected
the constant engagement with the divine and the
supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the
political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state
itself.
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic

HISTORY

The Pyramids at Giza in Egypt

ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new

building types emerged. Architectural style developed The Taj Mahal (16321653), in India
in the form of the Classical orders.
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient 2.4 Islamic architecture
time. These texts provided both general advice and specic formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of Main article: Islamic architecture
canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE
Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most important
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorearly examples of canonic architecture are religious.
porating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East
and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be
found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain
and the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread application of the pointed arch was to inuence European architecture of the Medieval period.

2.5 Middle ages

Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan

2.3

Asian architecture

Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao

Gong Ji of China from the 7th5th centuries BCE; the
Shilpa Shastras of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu
Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.
The architecture of dierent parts of Asia developed
along dierent lines from that of Europe; Buddhist,
Hindu and Sikh architecture each having dierent characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed
great regional diversity. Hindu temple architecture,
which developed around the 3rd century BCE, is governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led
to architectural forms that were designed specically to
enhance the natural landscape.

Notre Dame de Paris, France

In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were

formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually
one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum
as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

2.8

Modernism and reaction

The major architectural undertakings were the buildings

of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onwards,
the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried
architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the
pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

Paris Opera by Charles Garnier (1875), France

La Rotonda (1567), Italy by Palladio

2.6

Renaissance and the architect

In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there

was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the
development of Renaissance Humanism which placed
greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specic architects
Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio and the
cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any
of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one
of regional preference.

ful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Eective

architects generally received their training in the oces
of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door
for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.
Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental.
House builders could use current architectural design in
their work by combining features found in pattern books
and architectural journals.

2.8 Modernism and reaction

Main article: Modern architecture
Around the beginning of the 20th century, a general

A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering
which aected the proportions and structure of buildings.
At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a
bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was
within the scope of the generalist.

2.7

Early modern and the industrial age

With the emerging knowledge in scientic elds and the

rise of new materials and technology, architecture and
engineering began to separate, and the architect began to
concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design.
There was also the rise of the gentleman architect who
usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typied by the many country houses
of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or
Scottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in
the 19th century, for example at Ecole des Beaux Arts in
France, gave much emphasis to the production of beauti-

The Bauhaus Dessau architecture department from 1925 by

Walter Gropius

dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines
of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine
made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial

HISTORY

design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the

Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919,
redened the architectural bounds prior set throughout
history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate
synthesisthe apexof art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was rst practiced, it was
an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and
aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I,
pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social
and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of
the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic renement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects
was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural
elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.

The Crystal Cathedral, California, by Philip Johnson (1980)

1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against its

austerity. Postmodernism viewed Modernism as being
too extreme and even harsh in regards to design. Instead,
Postmodernists combined Modernism with older styles
from before the 1900s to form a middle ground. Robert
Venturi's contention that a decorated shed (an ordinary
building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a duck (an ungainly building in which the whole form and its function
are tied together) gives an idea of these approaches.

2.9 Architecture today

Fallingwater, Organic architecture by Frank Lloyd Wright

Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed

Organic architecture, in which the form was dened
by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and
Fallingwater.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and
Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for
simplied geometric forms, celebrating the new means
and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution,
including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to
high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism
had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic
epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New
Yorks World Trade Center.

Postmodern design at Gare do Oriente, Lisbon, Portugal, by

Santiago Calatrava

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began

to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the eld of architecture became
multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project
type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect [Notes 1] from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required
standards and deals with matters of liability.[Notes 2] The
Many architects resisted Modernism, nding it devoid preparatory processes for the design of any large buildof the decorative richness of ornamented styles and as ing have become increasingly complicated, and require
the founders of that movement lost inuence in the late preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustain-

7
ability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws.
A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and
Postmodernism, have been criticised by some members
of the architectural profession who feel that successful
architecture is not a personal philosophical or aesthetic
pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable
environments, with the design process being informed by
studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

3 See also

Angkor Wat, Cambodia, symmetry and elevation have

often been utilised in the architectural expression of
religious devotion or political power.

Machu Picchu, Peru, shows the adaptations of architecture and town planning to a rugged natural site
Green roof planted with native species at L'Historial de la
Vende, a new museum in western France

Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream

issue, with profound aect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the nancing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the
facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather Lower Manhattan, March 2001. The 20th century saw
than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major cities across the world transformed by highrise buildings
examples of this can be found in Passive solar building de- in the International Style
sign, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and
more attention to a structures energy usage. This major
shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools
Architectural design competition
to focus more on the environment. Sustainability in ar Architectural drawing
chitecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the
1960s by Buckminster Fuller and in the 1970s by archi Architectural style
tects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn in the US
Architectural technology
and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand.
There has been an acceleration in the number of build Architectural theory
ings which seek to meet green building sustainable design
principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of
Architecture prizes
vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration
Building materials
for environmentally and socially sustainable contempo[14]
The U.S. Green Building Councils
rary techniques.
Contemporary architecture
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
Glossary of architecture
rating system has been instrumental in this.[15]
List of human habitation forms
Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism
and New Classical Architecture promote a sustainable
Organic architecture
approach towards construction, that appreciates and de Outline of architecture
velops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical
design.[16][17] This in contrast to modernist and globally
Sociology of architecture
uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary
housing estates and suburban sprawl.[18]
Sustainable architecture

Notes

EXTERNAL LINKS

6 External links

[1] A design architect is one who is responsible for the design.

Global Architecture and Urbanity Community SSC

[2] A project architect is one who is responsible for ensuring

the design is built correctly and who administers building contracts in non-specialist architectural practices the
project architect is also the design architect and the term
refers to the diering roles the architect plays at diering
stages of the process.

World Architecture Community

References

[1] Museo Galileo, Museum and Institute of History and Science, The Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, (accessed 30
January 2013)
[2] Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, Becocci, Florence (1980),
Chapter: The Dome pp. 10-41.
[3] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1993), Oxford, ISBN
0 19 860575 7
[4] Gov.ns.ca. Gov.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 21
July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
[5] Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method
[6] D. Rowland T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on
Architecture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3
[7] Translated by Henry Wotton in 1624
[8] Vitruvius. Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2 July
2011.
[9] Franoise Choay, Alberti and Vitruvius, editor, Joseph
Rykwert, Prole 21, Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5-6
[10] John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, G. Allen
(1880), reprinted Dover, (1989) ISBN 0-486-26145-X
[11] Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7
[12] Mies van der Rohe quotation at Brainyquote
[13] Rondanini, Nunzia Architecture and Social Change Heresies II, Vol. 3, No. 3, New York, Neresies Collective Inc.,
1981.
[14] OneWorld.net (31 March 2004). Vernacular Architecture in India. El.doccentre.info. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
[15] Other energy eciency and green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS
(Collaborative for High Performance Schools).
[16] Charter of the New Urbanism
[17] Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future. Traditional Architecture Group. Retrieved 23
March 2014.
[18] Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 23
March 2014.

Architecture.com, published by Royal Institute of

British Architects
Architectural centers and museums in the world, list
of links from the UIA
Architecture Week
American Institute of Architects
Glossary of Architecture Terms (with dictionary
denitions)
Cities and Buildings Database - Collection of digitized images of buildings and cities drawn from
across time and throughout the world from the University of Washington Library

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1

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Biswasstha123, WikiPhileros, Zombie2004, Wealthy&fruitful, Ghiele, CBHusky and Anonymous: 1363

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