The Tomb of Tyre

restoration of the roman frescoes in the national museum of beirut
Foreword
a word from h. e. the minister of culture
a word from h. e. the ambassador of italy

Mr. Giuseppe Morabito
Nist, volupidus ipsam natet et offici officil iditiorum veliate num quaturi ut
et alic tem. Faciis audam ni nobis venient, alique cus sit aut ero iur magnatur mod
modisse et prores nam im quo di bersper erroviti beat.
Ugit omnimporum hil etus rae volorum dolecaboris alis si sa inctem adio. Ignis volupitas
dolectus. Vitatur, occupta qui nonsed quiatem et, a perum quae omnis vel eium ea ilit
qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem
quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam,
consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes
milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa
conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo
inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet
es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur
sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut
qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur.
Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu
assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui
doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat.
Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis
molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus
solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat
ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust,
cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es
et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit
qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui
doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as
dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit.
Nist, volupidus ipsam natet et offici officil iditiorum veliate num quaturi ut
et alic tem. Faciis audam ni nobis venient, alique cus sit aut ero iur magnatur mod
modisse et prores nam im quo di bersper erroviti beat.
es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur
sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut
qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur.
Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu
assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui
doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat.
Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis
molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus
solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat
ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust,
cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es
et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit
dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit.
Aknowledgements
Nist, volupidus ipsam natet et offici officil iditiorum veliate num quaturi ut et alic tem.
Faciis audam ni nobis venient, alique cus sit aut ero iur magnatur mod modisse et
prores nam im quo di bersper erroviti beat.
es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit
dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia
nonseque venimus as mo inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera.
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Introduction
22
The Tomb of Tyre
42
From Tyre to Beirut
48
The Restoration
86
The Museography
106
Bibliography & Credits
Anna Dal Maso
Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche
Isabelle Doumet Skaf
Giorgio Capriotti, Caterina Michelini Tocci, Ghada Salem & Badr Jabbour Gdon
Antonio Giammarusti, La Captan
Anna Dal Maso
10
Introduction
Anna Dal Maso
Knowing our past to understand our present

The cultural significance and background of the conservation project for the Tomb of Tyre Roman frescoes
Anna Dal Maso
Italian Cooperation Officer
2 | Chamaa Castle,
South Lebanon.
why do we preserve cultural heritage?
hy do we preserve our cultural heritage? Why do we commit

ourselves to the protection of the cultural heritage? These are the
questions that often come to mind, especially when the protection of
cultural heritage is applied to specific areas of the world. When we mention countries
like Afghanistan, Sudan or Haiti and the conflicts or catastrophic events that occurred
there and that dramatically affected those countries, considering and being committed
to cultural heritage activities or to the preservation of cultural objects sometimes seems not
completely understandable and reasonable, compared to the gravity of the overall situation.
Nevertheless, it is too often forgotten that most of the time, humanitarian
emergencies are also cultural emergencies, as
1 | Cultural Emergency
Culture is the cement that holds a society together. Cultural heritage comprises physical
constructions (tangible culture) as well as all the traditions, customs, values and ways
to ensure the survival and continuity of a community (intangible culture). They reflect
rules of existence, survival, development and progress. 1
Response, Culture
is a Basic Need:
Responding to Cultural
Emergencies, 2006.
Summary presented
in the website of the
Governance and
Social Development
Resource Center.
The concept of culture as a basic need for the different societiesalthough at

times difficult and neglectedis important and gives one of the best answers to the
previous question: Why do we preserve cultural heritage? We do protect the cultural
properties because we value what they represent, the message they bring forward from
our past roots and that is our task to deliver to the generations to come. We protect the
cultural heritage because culture is necessary for the development of any society and
with the common belief that knowing our past may lead to a better future.
Close to this perspective, the Italian Development Cooperation of the Italian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs included the protection of cultural heritage in its strategy
and among its field of intervention since the very beginning of its mandate. Considered
as a tool to fight poverty while raising awareness among the local communities, the
protection and valorisation of cultural heritage has proven to be in more than one
context and occasion an effective strategy to emphasize common roots, origins
and patrimony and therefore an important mean to facilitate the dialogue and the
communication among different social parties. The commitment to support culture
as a significant component for the sustainable and comprehensive development of
1 | Tomb of Tyre detail of the Tombs funerary chamber after restoration and museographic interventions.
a country and its social community, made Italy one of the most reliable counterparts
in the implementation of cultural projects in more than a country. Moreover, the
conservation and restoration best practices promoted by the Italian conservators,
while putting into practice the guidelines provided by the International Council for
Monuments and Sites (icomos), and the International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property in Rome (iccrom), contributed
also, more than once, to the establishment of interesting cultural and methodological
debates within the countries where the Italian Cooperation interventions took place.
Enjoying the support of a well established tradition in the conservation of Italian
cultural heritage and of the results achieved so far in this field, the Italian Cooperation
is presently carrying out several projects aimed at enhancing the local cultural
patrimony and promoting cultural tourism in Lebanon (Figure 1): the initiative for the
reconstruction of Chamaa Castle in South Lebanon (Figure 2), the one dedicated to the
re-qualification of Khan El Echle in Old Sidon (Figure 3) as well as the activities aimed
at supporting the tourism development in Baalbek and North Bekaa are some of the
projects presently financed by the Italian Cooperation in Lebanon. Among all these
different initiatives, the Cultural Heritage and Urban Development (chud) Program,
and namely its activities in the most important archaeological sites (Baalbek, Tyre,
Sidon and Tripoli) (Figures 4 and 5), can truly be considered among the key interventions
3 | Khan El-Echle, Sidon.
4 | Bacchus Temple, Baalbek.
5 | El-Bass, Tyre.
11
12
Introduction
Anna Dal Maso
of the Italian Development Cooperation for the protection of the cultural patrimony of
this Country.
Although smaller in scale, the Project for the restoration of the Roman frescoes
of the Tomb of Tyre, hosted in the National Museum of Beirut, can be considered an
important and successful story that effectively shows the fruitful collaboration with the
Lebanese Ministry of Culture and the Directorate General of Antiquities.
the project origins

This outstanding example of ancient art, now better known as the Tomb of Tyre,
dates back to the 2nd century ad: the beautiful frescoes, now restored and clearly visible
in the basement of the National Museum of Beirut, deeply reflect the art of the Roman
imperial period with some interesting connection to the Pompeian style. They show
local innovations in iconography as well as the exquisite skills and techniques reached
by the unknown artist who created them.
At the time of discovery, in 1937, the Tomb had preserved the original architectural
structure with a monumental staircase carved in the rock (Figure 6), an entrance, a main
funerary chamber and two additional chambers all in fairly good state of conservation.
The main chamber was richly decorated with frescoes depicting several myths related
to the netherworld and namely the restitution of Hectors spoil to his father Priam,
the story of the abduction of Proserpina by Pluto, the myth of Hercules and Alcestis,
Tantale, the episode of the 12th labour of Hercules with Cerberus.
The fortunate discovery of this painted Tomb in the Region of Tyre, in Bourj ElShemali, and the quality of the monument clearly drew the attention of the Lebanese
Directorate General of Antiquities that decided, in 1939, to detach the frescoes and
transfer the funerary chamber to the National Museum of Beirut in order to better
protect this excellent example of their cultural patrimony. The main funerary chamber
with the lifted frescoes and the entrance were thus re-settled in the basement of the
National Museum, whereas the staircase and the secondary chamber were not moved.
The frescoes conditions were very good and the work done by the English
architect, Henry Pearson, responsible of the transportation, was carried out in an
excellent manner: the accurate and thorough design of the structure for the frescoes
detachment enabled safe transportation from the region of Tyre to the National
Museum of Beirut .
The dramatic event of the outbreak of the Lebanese civil war, which lasted from
1975 to 1991, forced the Museum to close its doors while leaving deep scars and traces
on part of its cultural relics: the unfortunate position of the National Museum of Beirut,
located along the so-called Green Line, namely the battle line that divided East and
West Beirut, caused several damages to the main structure and to part of its exhibits.
The incredibly wise measures taken by the then Director General of Antiquities, Emir
Maurice Chhab, who managed to hide and protect many cultural items and most
6 | Monumental staircase from the Tomb of Tyre, original location, BMB, pl. 1.2, 1965.
13
14
Introduction
2 | The Director General of

Antiquities, Emir Maurice Chhab,
managed to protect in situ most
of the collection of the National
Museum of Beirut. When the
galleries were subsequently
transformed into military barracks
and bunkers, the larger objects,
too heavy to be removed, had to
be hastily shielded with concrete
caissons built around them. [...]
in Skaf, I., War and conservator:
4. Recovery operations at the
National Museum of Beirut,
in Museum management and
curatorship, Vol. 16, N. 2, p. 173,
1997.
3 | In these rooms, the water level
at the time the photographs were
taken stood at about 12 cm. Silt and
mud brought about by rising waters
have been deposited all over the
shelves and the objects. In Skaf, I.,
Ibidem, p. 177, 1997.
4 | Capriotti, G., Conservation
of the Tomb of Tyre: 1st diagnostic
campaign, National Museum, Beirut,
Anna Dal Maso
of the collections, helped in preserving many artefacts and antique relics that could
have been surely looted or vandalized.2 Nevertheless, the prolonged misuse of the
Museum for military purposes, led to major damages to the structure and to part of the
collection that was protected in situ: the rooms in the basement were in fact extensively
flooded with the result that the Tomb and the frescoes remained in a wet and damp
environment for an incredibly long time.
At the end of the war, activities aimed at securing the Museum as well as
assessing damages were carried out by the Directorate General of Antiquities: the
objects to be consolidated or restored were identified and works started accordingly.
The situation of the basement was also carefully evaluated, as some of the basement
rooms showed high water marks of nearly 1 meter, with silt and mud covering part of
the shelves and the objects.3 Needless to say, the frescoes also presented clear traces
of the prolonged unhealthy conservation conditions.4 Microbiological and chemical
alterations were clearly visible to the eyes of the local professionals and left their traces
on the colours of the Tomb beautifully decorated scenes (Figure 7). As it happens after
a war that deeply affects the overall conditions of a country and its society, the financial
resources to carry out all the necessary activities were not enough and an international
support was thus requested to unesco, iccrom and several European countries, which
cooperated, in different manners, to design the rehabilitation plan for the Museum
structure, for the laboratories and collaborated in some conservation activities mainly
related to the Museum items.
For the Tomb of Tyre, a special mission was organized by iccrom in April 1997.
Headed by Mr. Werner Schmid 5 in order to evaluate the state of conservation and the
level of decay of the frescoes and of the Tomb delicate structure, the mission delivered
to the Directorate General of Antiquities a first conservation project that included the
description of the main activities needed, the human resources necessary to carry out
Lebanon, 920 July 1997. Mission

report, iccrom, Rome, Italy, 1997,
and Conservation of the Tomb of Tyre:
the overall restoration, and the estimation of a

global budget for the required interventions.
In order to identify the correct
restoration methodology, the conservation
project recommended the execution of some
preliminary diagnostic interventions and
cleaning tests that were carried out by an
Italian restorer, Mr. Giorgio Capriotti, who
was selected by iccrom due to his great
experience and skills in the field of Roman
frescoes restoration. The mission was financed
by the National Heritage Foundation. The
preliminary cleaning tests, performed later
on, were focused on two samples of the front
8 | Cleaning sample carried out by Mr. Capriotti in 19978, detail of Plutos chariot.
and left wall and resulted in a very good work
that enabled to understand and highlight the
beauty of the decorations. The powerful portrait of Hercules rescuing Alcestis and one
particular of Plutos chariot started to emerge after the removal of the chemical and
microbiological substances (Figure 8).
Eventually, in 2009, the Directorate General of the Antiquities and namely,
the then Director General, Mr. Frdric Husseini, and the then curator, Ms. Suzy
Hakimian, considering Italy as a reliable counterpart for Cultural Heritage projects
given the qualified expertise of Italian restorers and the strong tradition in the cultural
patrimony conservation, requested the support of the Italian Embassy in Beirut, in
order to implement a project aimed at restoring and valorizing the Tomb of Tyre Roman
Frescoes. The project proposal submitted by the dga was evaluated and approved in
the second half of 2009, and a total financing of 256.000 Euro was thus allocated in
order to jointly achieve the conservation and valorisation of the exquisite frescoes of
the Tomb of Tyre.
2nd diagnostic campaign & emergency

treatments, National Museum,
the project implementation
Beirut, Lebanon, 815 February

1998, Mission report, iccrom,
Rome, 1998.
During late 2009 - early 2010, the project activities started with the selection of
the restoration team: the experience of Mr. Giorgio Capriotti and the results achieved
during the preliminary cleaning action led the dga to request him as senior restorer
in charge of the overall conservation plan6. Ms. Caterina Michelini Tocci, an Italian
restorer experienced in frescoes conservation, was asked to assist him during the
major works. Ms. Isabelle Doumet Skaf, Ms. Badr Jabbour Gdon and Ms. Ghada
Salem were eventually proposed by the dga as the local team in charge of cooperating
at the various phases of the restoration due to their previous extensive collaboration
with the dga in several conservation activities in Lebanon, namely in mural painting
and frescoes.
5 | Schmid, W., Lebanon:

survey of needs and draft action plan
for the preservation of
archaeological and historic mural
paintings, Mission report,
iccrom, Rome, 1997.
7 | The Tomb of Tyre after the civil war damages caused by humidity and dampness.
6 | Capriotti, G., Ibidem,

1997 and 1998.
15
16
Introduction
9 | Detail of the right

side wall of the funerary
chamber with the shoring
structure.
Anna Dal Maso
The project financed by the Italian Development Cooperation was divided into
three restoration campaigns, of two months each, aimed at ensuring the adequate
conservation of the painted surfaces. The first campaign started in February 2010
and was mainly dedicated to the right side wall, whose structure appeared to be more
damaged and was temporarily covered by a protective fence supported by props
(Figure 9). The shoring structure was thus removed and a preliminary consolidation
and restoration work was executed. In the meantime, the team of restorers proceeded
also with the removal of salts resulted from the prolonged exposition
of the frescoes to a very humid environment, re-establishing the
cohesion and adhesion of the painted layers, the fillings of the lacunae
with respect for the authenticity of the work of art and with other
relevant interventions in compliance with the updated methodologies
developed by the Italians and included in the unesco and icomos
recommendations and guidelines. All in all, these activities resulted
in the conservation of the right wall with the main scenes of Hercules
overpowering Cerberus to bring him out of Tartarus (the 12th labour
of Hercules according to mythology) and the story of Priam begging
Achilles for the restitution of the spoil of Hector, his son, as described in the Iliad
(first restoration campaign) (Figure 10). The front wall with the exceptional artistic
masterpiece of the abduction of Proserpina by Pluto, god and ruler of the underworld
that was meant by the antiques to illustrate the changing of seasons was the main
objective of the second restoration campaign, whereas the conservation of the left wall
with Hercules rescuing Alcestis from Hades, Tantaluss punishment and the external
part of the entrance side with Psyche were conducted during the last restoration
campaign.
The restoration and conservation works improved the conditions of the frescoes
and, by eliminating the cause of deterioration, prevented further decay. The beauty
of the main mythological scenes together with the minor, but not less beautiful,
particular of winged Eros, sirens, architectural details and trompe-lil effects, could
thus be visible again and the message from the past could be delivered to us and to the
generations to come.
Within the project framework, the opportunity to provide an adequate setting
and presentation for the Tomb of Tyre was also deeply evaluated. A museological
strategy for the basement of the National Museum of Beirut was going to be defined by
the Directorate General of Antiquities and the Tomb of Tyre was therefore the first step
towards the creation of a new exhibition area dedicated to the funerary art and relevant
cultural objects along the centuries and different cultures.
The results delivered by the restoration process showed, both to the dga and
to the Italian Cooperation officers, the evidences that it was not enough to limit the
intervention of this Project to the frescoes, the main funerary chamber and its inner
layout, but that it was highly recommended to proceed with a more comprehensive
museological approach that could adequately showcase the value and the meaning of
this exquisite artistic masterpiece.
10 | February 2010: first restoration campaign, detail of the right side wall intervention.
The prompt response of the Directorate General for Development Cooperation

(dgcs) enabled the participation of Arch. Antonio Giammarusti to the project and
the elaboration of a specific museographic design aimed not only at improving the
presentation of the funerary chamber, but also at providing a new museographic
perspective to the area facing the Tomb of Tyre. The museological study carried out by
the Italian architect together with the dga and namely with the constant support of the
Museum Curator, Ms. Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche, took into consideration the overall
story of the Tomb, from its fortunate discovery to the transportation to the Museum,
and in the perspective of the future opening to the public. The main objective of the
museological strategy was thus to ensure the safe and secure access of the visitors to
17
18
Introduction
Anna Dal Maso
11 | The Tomb of Tyre after the restoration and the museographic interventions.
7 | Dunand, M., Tombe

peinte dans la campagne
de Tyr, in Bulletin du
Muse de Beyrouth,
Beyrouth, p. 151.
the chamber, to keep the adequate conservation condition for the frescoes and, at the
same time, to enable the visitors to reach a correct interpretation of the netherworld
myths while having a clearer picture of the Roman funerary rituals and traditions
(Figure 11).
The documentation produced by Mr. Maurice Dunand describing the Tomb at
the time of the discovery, his drawings and pictures provided the necessary information
for the elaboration of the museographic project and put the basis for the intervention
carried out in the interior of the funerary chamber as well as for the external and access
part 7. Reflecting the original plan of the Tomb as carefully described by Dunand, the
design proposed by Arch. Giammarusti and agreed to by the then Minister of Culture,
Mr. Selim Warde and the dga, introduced a different concept of space in the basement,
in an attempt to bring back the spatial significance of the Tomb that was partially lost
with the transfer from Tyre to Beirut. Architectural quotations of the original settings
were reproduced in the modern reinterpretation of the ancient vestibule area: this
new space similar in structure and dimensions to the original drawn by Dunand,
was meant to have a double purpose (Figures 1213). It was aimed at introducing the
perspective of the original architectural layout of the Tomb when descending from
the monumental staircase now lost, while providing a functional area where visitors
can receive information on the Tomb, the frescoes, the restoration etc through the
video documentary and the didactic panels. At the same time, the new vestibule
allows the visitors to wait their turn of visit and to respect the carrying capacity of
the painted funerary chamber: the restorers established in fact in 10 the maximum
number of visitors allowed to see the frescoes at a time in order not to dramatically
modify the relative humidity of the funerary chamber and to enable the complete
vision of the painted surfaces in a narrow area. The access to the frescoes was also
modified in order to re-establish the concept of the descent to the Tomb through
the original steps.
The design and execution of the museographic project requested nearly four
months of constant and painstaking works directed by Arch. Giammarusti and with
the collaboration of the young Lebanese architect La Captan. The execution of the
floors, the ceiling and the new vestibule were carried out with thorough attention to the
architectural details and with a specific care for the material selection.
The various phases of the conservation works that brought about the excellent
results achieved by the restorers and the elaboration and execution of the new
museographic display were all documented and are now included in the didactic
panels presenting the Tomb of Tyre in the vestibule area, in the brochures for visitors
and in a short documentary prepared in three languages (Arabic, English and French)
where the historical, archaeological background, as well as the long path that led to
the restoration of the frescoes are thoroughly described. A dedicated website was also
designed and set up in order to increase accessibility to the information regarding this
important instance of ancient art: a 360 view of the funerary chamber with relevant
information on the frescoes subjects and details is available on the website (and
downloadable on most used smart phones) enabling people from different part of the
world to admire the beauty of the frescoes 8.
Although not opened to the large public as of September 2011, but only to
small groups upon reservation, due to other works that need to be carried out in the
basement, the project achievements were nevertheless presented during an official
ceremony in April, 2011: in the presence of h.e. the then Minister of Culture, Mr.
Selim Warde, and h.e. the Ambassador of Italy, Mr. Giuseppe Morabito, the restored
Roman frescoes of the 2nd century ad and the new museography for the Tomb of Tyre
were in fact shown to the representatives of Lebanese cultural institution, universities,
local authorities and scholars and to many European authorities.
8 | The official website of the

Tomb of Tyre is the following:
www.culture.gov.lb/tomboftyre.
19
20
Introduction
Anna Dal Maso
21
conclusion
The beauty of the restored frescoes is the message generously sent to the future
by the ancient artist. The myths, the concept of the netherworld, the idea of life are
finally delivered to us through the paintings, the stories and myths narrated along the
walls, thanks to the ability of curators, restorers, architects, the Lebanese and Italian
authorities and all the different actors who cooperated, at various levels, to make this
project possible and the life of this monument and its message to be prolonged and
passed on to the generations to come.
12 | The pillars in the original architecture, in BMB, XVIII, p. 23, 1965.
The importance of the restoration work, the profound respect for the authenticity
of the piece of art, the significance of this project and of the opportunity to protect a
part of the heritage that reminds to Lebanon and Italy their common roots, represented
a fruitful opportunity for cooperation.
Culture is a basic need and is an effective mean of communication and, in many
occasions, a source of hope for people.
A nation stays alive when its culture stays alive. 9
9 | Inscription at the entrance

of the National Museum of Kabul,
This is one of the powerful messages that the Tomb of Tyre and its significance
for the Lebanese cultural heritage brought forward: the glorious past of this Country
is effectively witnessed by the exquisite beauty of the frescoes, by the concept of hope
and life which is delivered to us through the represented myths, by the records of the
transportation and the great efforts made along history by archaeologists, restores,
curators and authorities in order to prevent all this to be lost.
This is the answer to the initial question, the source of our strategy and the
cultural significance of this project. This is the reason why we should always commit
ourselves to protect our cultural patrimony.
13 | The architectural quotation of the pillars in the museographic display.
in Afghanistan.
22
23
24
The Tomb of Tyre
A Roman painted Tomb from Tyre in the

National Museum of Beirut
Curator of the National Museum of Beirut
n May 1937, a providential and unexpected discovery in the Tyre region

uncovered a 2nd century Tomb decorated with magnificent frescoes. Scenes
from Greek mythology, bright images of vegetation and illusionistic
architectural similes were depicted in great detail on the four Tomb walls. Intended
to provide visual distraction thus contributing in comfort to the subterranean space,
these paintings also carry the suggestion of symbolic meanings.
This Roman Tomb, carved in rock near the village of Burj el-Shemali in the El
Awatin region and about 3 km from Tyre (South Lebanon) was discovered by a peasant
digging in his field. What made the find unusual were the well-preserved paintings
running along the Tombs or hypogeums four inner walls. Lively coloured frescoes
depict a variety of scenes in a no less remarkable choice of composition. The deliberate
selection and grouping of images expresses a comprehensive theme related to funerary
practices and the belief in the afterlife. In fact, the iconographical arrangements
reveal the religious affiliations of the inhabitants of nearby Tyre and its region during
the Roman period. The subject matter of the frescoes reflects the ornamental taste
commonly used to decorate a 2nd century ad house of the dead.
Although we may never know the identity of the Tomb of Tyres owner, his wealth
and erudition can be confidently adduced from the finesse of its appointment.
This is the story of the discovery of an exceptional Roman Tomb in Lebanon.
It tells the story of the excavation of this extraordinary monument by archaeologist
Maurice Dunand soon after its discovery and of the decision in 1939 to detach the
frescoes from their original location and relocate them to the National Museum. It tells
of their unfortunate degradation during the Lebanese Civil war, which raged between
1975 and 1991, and finally it describes the conservation program, which began in 2010
that rescued this outstanding Roman Tomb and restored it to public viewing in 2011.
For a number of years, particular attention has been aimed at the refurbishment
and repair of the National Museum of Beirut but more recently the focus of this has
turned to the Tomb of Tyre hosted in its basement. The rehabilitation program that
was started in 1996, with Dr. Camille Asmar former Director General of Antiquities
successfully allowed the reopening of the National Museum after more than 20 years
of closure, due to a time of civil unrest between 1975 and 1991. The newly refurbished
ground floor and first floor gallery were inaugurated in 1999 while the underground
area remained closed. The overhaul of the basement was however undertaken in 2004
under the guidance of the then Director General of Antiquities, Mr. Frdric Husseini
and the then curator Ms. Suzy Hakimian. The Museums permanent collection exhibit
should eventually be opened to the public upon completion of the museographic works.
Meanwhile, the inauguration of one of the museums major masterpieces namely the
Tomb of Tyre, took place in April 2011.
Thanks to the commitment, the technical and the financial support of the
Embassy of Italy in Lebanon and to the Cooperation Development Office in Beirut
and more specially to Ms. Anna Dal Maso, the restoration of this monument began
in February 2010 under the guidance of Giorgio Capriotti. The degradation of the
frescoes was largely due to the upwelling of water, the high level of humidity and the
inadequate environmental conditions that plagued the National Museums basement
throughout the war years.
A team of Italian (Mr. Giorgio Capriotti, Ms. Caterina Michelini Tocci) and
Lebanese restorers (Ms. Isabelle Doumet Skaf, Ms. Badr Jabbour Gdon and Ms.
Ghada Salem) participated in this operation that came to an end in November 2010.
Furthermore, appropriate presentations program display for the Tomb was
designed by the architect Mr. Antonio Giammarusti, assisted by Ms. La Captan, in order
to ensure the long term protection of the monument well beyond the completion of the
restoration process whilst at the same time affording visitors a clear view of the Tomb.
the discovery
In 1938, the then Director of Antiquities Maurice Chhab, wrote in the Bulletin du
Muse de Beyrouth 10:
10 | Chronique,
BMB, II, p. 109111, 1938.
Lvnement capital de lanne coule a t, au Liban, la dcouverte dun hypoge

peint dans la ncropole romaine de Tyr []. Toutes les parois sont recouvertes de
peinture dune vive polychromie [].
transl.: The most notable event of this past year in Lebanon was the discovery
of a painted hypogeum in the Roman necropolis of Tyre [...]. All the wall surfaces
are covered in a bright polychromy [].
He then goes on to describe the hypogeum whose incomparable and unique artistic and
historic importance he recognized straight away. The region of Burj el-Shemali near
Tyre was well known for the ancient necropolis nestling in its limestone rocky hills.
The discovery of the Tomb dates back to 1937 when a Tyrian peasant, Hajj Hassan,
reported his find to the Service des Antiquits in Beirut and upon his insistence a
25
26
The Tomb of Tyre
member of the scientific team from the Department of Antiquities, Lon Albanse
was sent to inspect the site. His four-page report recorded what he found (Figure 14).
In his somewhat emotional but acuminous account he describes the first time he
investigated the site:
Nous dplaons, non sans peine quelques-unes de ces grosses pierres et nous parvenons
nous glisser lintrieur du monument. La circulation y est particulirement difficile,
le sol est jonch de quartiers de rocs provenant de la vote effondre par endroits, de
plus un amas considrable de terre, rendue boueuse par les eaux dinfiltration recouvre
toute la surface, a et l des fragments de sarcophages en terre cuite briss[]
transl.: We shifted, with no small effort, some of the large boulders and managed
to slip inside the monument. There was very little room to manuvre; fallen
pieces of rock from where the vault had collapsed were scattered everywhere, a
significant amount of earth turned to wet mud by seeping water covered the floor
which was strewn here and there with broken pieces of terracotta sarcophagi...
It seems that the Tomb had been looted in antiquity as evidenced by the dispersed
human remains by thieves searching for gold jewellery. However, Albanses
attention was focused on the painted wall decoration.
In October 1937, the excavation inside the Tomb began directed by the archaeologist
Maurice Dunand. The description of the dig encompassing sketches, plans, and
pictures was published by Dunand in 1965 11, many years after the excavation was
completed and after the frescoes were moved from their original location in Tyre to
a specially built chamber in the basement of the National Museum of Beirut. A more
in-depth account of the discovery as well as the interpretation of the painted scenes
can be found in volume xviii of the Bulletin du Muse de Beyrouth. Hence Dunands
article remains the essential reference work on the state of this Tomb in situ and proved
to be a great help during the recently undertaken restoration works. The inscriptions
painted inside the Tomb were translated and interpreted by Jean-Paul Rey-Coquais 12.
In a note also published in the Bulletin du Muse de Beyrouth, Maurice Chhab
explains that the decision in 193913 to dismantle and move the frescoes was based on
the fact that the paintings were found to be saturated with water when the Tomb was
first opened, it was therefore not possible to keep them in situ due to the humidity
that would eventually have destroyed them completely. Consequently, the decision was
taken to reconstruct the Tomb in the basement of the National Museum of Beirut and
to recompose the mural paintings on its new walls. This very ambitious and delicate
operation was successfully undertaken and completed at the time by the architect
Henry Pearson.
the description
Dating back to the 2nd century ad, the Tomb is composed of a rectangular funerary
room with two additional secondary chambers. A monumental 26-step staircase led
down to the Tomb. The chamber itself consists of an underground rectangular area
measuring 6.30 mx 5.40 m and is 3.40 m from the floor to the ceiling at its highest
point. When discovered, the Tombs ceiling was some 2.25 m below the surface. Inside
chamber benches run along the walls; fourteen loculi (or cavities) were built into the
malleable limestone of the rock thus creating a depth of about 2 m intended to house
the sarcophagi. The loculi were blocked with flagstones. Two secondary tombs were
found, one on the left side of the vestibule and the other to the left side of the entrance
(Figure 15). On the right side of the entrance, two large arches resting on two stone
pillars measuring 70 cm x 72 cm were built, probably because at that time the ceiling
was most likely about to collapse.
The excavations brought to light numerous findings which, apart from 43 human
remains, included some terra cotta oil lamps and coins. Indeed, the latter were used to
date the Tomb to the 2nd century ad.
The Tomb of Tyre is certainly exceptional from a pictorial point of view as well as
from the high quality of its frescoes and their state of conservation. However, painted
14 | From the dga Archives, Ministry of Culture / dga.
11 | Dunand, M., Op. cit.,

in BMB, XVIII, p. 551, 1965.
12 | Note additionnelle, Ibidem,
p. 4951.
13 | Chronique, in BMB, II,
p. 109111, 1938.
27
28
The Tomb of Tyre
tombs are not exceptional in this area and era. Many examples of Roman tombs were
discovered in Lebanon, although so far, no global study has been published to identify
and document this type of monument 14. In South Lebanon, several tombs are recorded
as being in the vicinity of the village of Helalieh where a large necropolis with many
tombs carved inside the limestone hill was found at the beginning of the 20th century.
Renan in his Mission de Phnicie refers to this type of sepulchre 15. There were well
known to the inhabitants of the areas villages and were often looted and left open,
consequently leading to a bad conservation state. Lately, in collaboration with the
Directorate General of Antiquities, a conservation mission by Nara University, was
undertaken in Tyre in the Burj el-Shemali region and focused on a Roman painted
hypogeum 16. Elsewhere in the region several similar tombs have been recorded like
that of a large necropolis discovered in Jordan in the ancient city of Tell Abil 17 which
contains about twenty richly painted tombs. This type of hypogeum, often built for
families, is attested since the Hellenistic period. In 1938, the hypogeum of Ain Zelhefeh,
about 2 km north of Sidon, as described by Meurdrac and Albanse18 presents the same
architecture with funerary rooms accessible through a deep stairway, carved in the rock
and comprising lateral loculi.
The taste for ornament and floral decoration originates from a Hellenistic
concept aimed at eliminating sinister ideas of death 19. Consequently, decorating
houses of eternity became widely spread during the Roman period.
14 | A research study in the

framework of a doctoral thesis
is being undertaken by Mr. Gaby
Maamari.
15 | Renan, E., Mission de
Phnicie, p. 367368, pl. 44.
16 | The mission was carried
out under the direction of
Prof. Mishiyama Yioichi
(unpublished report).
17 | Barbet, A., Vibert-Guigue, C.,
Les peintures des ncropoles
romaines dAbila et du nord de la
Jordanie, Bibliothque Archologique
et Historique, CXXX, IFAPO, 1994.
18 | Meurdrac, M.,
Albanse L., A travers les
ncropoles grco-romaines de
Sidon,BMB, II, p. 76, 1938.
19 | Ibidem, p. 9697.
The stairway
The vestibule
The entrance
The loculi
The secondary tombs
The pillars
The frescoes
B
E
e
n
s
w
(m)
15 | Plan from Dunand, BMB, XVIII, pl. 22, 1965.
29
30
The Tomb of Tyre
16 | Entrance, Psyche representation.
the iconography
20 | Dunand, M., Ibidem,

in BMB, XVIII, p. 12,
1965.
21 | Like the garland
from Room L of the villa
of P. Fannius Synistor
at Boscoreale, in The
Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York.
A rich floral decoration composed of red and green interlacing branches starts at
the entrance of the Tomb. Often used in Roman graves, an ornamentation consisting
of ivy branches and grapes is associated with a wine cult and thus comprises typical
Dionysiac symbols20. Flanking the doorway, the decoration has faded away, mainly
because of the continuous movement of people passing through the door. The
goddess Psyche, often depicted with wings, appears in the middle of the foliage as the
representation of the human soul (Figure 16).
Mural paintings of outstanding quality cover the four sides of the Tomb, except
for the ceiling. Red ochre, yellow ochre, green, light brown, black and white are the
main colours used. A winged Eros appears flanked with garlands in the middle of
the side of each wall, a reference to Phosphorus, the morning star, who accompanies
the dead in the afterworld (Figure 17). Another representation of young boys masks is
depicted in the middle of the foliage. It is probably the image associated with the soul
of the deceased, or eidlon, reproduced here in order to preserve him from permanent
extinction (Figure 18). Commonly represented with the mask is the garland ornament 21,
a wreath made of flowers, pomegranates, peaches and leaves which is repeated on
three walls marking the partition between the different themes.
Two musician mermaids are painted on either side of the entrance wall.
One holds a four-string harp while the other plays a double flute (Figure 19). These
instruments are commonly used in funerary ceremonies. These enchanting sirens
also represented celestial birds intended to guide, with their music, the soul of the
deceased to the world beyond.
On the lower parts of the walls, there are painted trompe-lil architectural
compositions imitating columns, capitals and double wing doors (Figures 20 and 21).
This artistic technique of providing an illusion of windows, doors or porticos is typical
of the Pompeian Second Style which began in the early 1st century bc. Four Pompeian
styles of painted wall decoration were identified by August Mau, in the late 19th century.
Without ascribing the Tomb of Tyres pictorial style to any one group, it is likely that our
frescoes can be compared, in some aspects, to the Pompeian style of mural paintings in the
Villa Livia at Prima Porta or the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale.
17 | Northern wall, detail of Phosphorus.
18 | Eidlon.
19 | Mermaids.
20 | Column.
The developed scenes are inspired from the fabulous world of the Greek myths.
Two compositions appear on the northern wall: Tantalus in the infernal gardens and
Alcestis and Heracles, while two others are depicted on the southern one: The return
of Hectors body and Heracles and Cerberus. A unique theme, The abduction of
Proserpina is divided into two sequences painted on the western wall facing the entrance
and consequently occupies the prime spot of the Tomb.
21 | Door.
31
32
The Tomb of Tyre
22 | Northern wall, detail of tantalus scene.
23 | Northern wall, detail of Alcestis and Heracles scene.
tantalus in the infernal gardens
alcestis and heracles
Represented as a modest man, Tantalus appears in a well-composed scene dressed

in a skirt and wearing a hat. He is standing in a pond bound by olive and pomegranate
trees replete with fruit. Tantalus is serving a sentence imposed by the Gods to whom he
offered his childs flesh during a meal. His punishment was therefore to live in a rich
and prosperous environment in which he could never partake.
An inscription with his name is painted above his bent back. The theme of Tantalus
in the infernal gardens is evocative of what can be expected by the deceased in the
afterworld. The cultivation and widespread existence of both olive and pomegranate
trees were an essential feature in the Mediterranean region. They also have symbolic
connotations with the olive representing a fundamental and life-supporting fruit whilst
the pomegranate is associated with death.
This funerary scene depicts the hero Heracles holding his mace. He is bringing
Alcestis back from the hereafter to the world of the living. Alcestis is wearing a plain
sleeveless greenish chiton with a red brown scarf; her pale look, hesitant walk and
bowed head make it clear she is coming cautiously back from the world beyond.
Beneath them is the Greek inscription: Be courageous, no one is immortal.
33
34
The Tomb of Tyre
22 | Meurdrac, M.,
Albanse L., Ibidem,
BMB, II, p. 96, 1938.
24 | Eastern wall, detail of Proserpina scene.
25 | Southern wall, detail of Achilles scene.
the abduction of proserpina
the return of hectors body
The frescoes on the wall facing the entrance depict the myth of Proserpinas abduction.
To the right, recognizable by their inscribed names used to stand the goddesses Athena
and Artemis. To the left is Pluto abducting Proserpina. His chariot is carried away
by four horses led by Hermes, identified by his winged ankle. The ascending horses
symbolize the moment the soul passes to the hereafter. In one of the Helalieh tombs 22,
as in the Tomb of Tyre, Hermes appears holding a stick without any ornament as if it
was an enchanted twig. This most certainly refers to Homers Hermes or Cyllenius as
mentioned in the Odysseus (xxiv, 15) gently leading souls to the underworld.
This scene from Homers Iliad (xxiv, 477505) reveals the importance of funerary
rituals to the souls survival in the afterlife. Priam is kneeling in front of Achilles,
begging him for the return of his son Hectors body. The names of Priam, Achilles and
Hector are written in red characters whilst Hectors body is depicted on a weighing
scale, his left arm hanging down.
35
36
The Tomb of Tyre
26 | Sothern wall, detail of Heracles scene.
27 | Eastern wall, detail of eidlon.
heracles and cerberus

Heracles is represented holding his mace in his left hand while gripping Cerberus
chain in the other. Cerberus the dog is the mythical guardian of the hereafter and only
became docile when Heracles tamed him at the gates of hell. This second appearance
of Heracles in the Tomb reflects the devotion Tyres inhabitants had for their hero.
human expressions
Homeric cycle theme, Greek mythology, and heroic figures are present in this Tomb
yet each of the human figures is depicted in a realistic pose. Expressions of sorrow,
melancholy, fear, or resignation (Tantalus), strength (Heracles) and supplication (Priam)
emanate from the frescoes.
37
38
The Tomb of Tyre
28 | Eastern wall, detail of a horse.
29 | Northern wall, detail of a pomegrenate.
animal representations
vegetal and geometric motifs
The same realistic approach is given to the animals: graceful birds, furious horses
being pushed by the wicked Pluto or the representation of the dreadful Cerberus.
Vegetal decoration, geometric patterns, garland and foliage, trees, flowers and fruit appear
in delicate colours, mainly red and green declinations.
39
40
The Tomb of Tyre
conclusion
Some issues raised by the iconography developed in the Tomb of Tyre emerge:
What are the socio-economic and cultural backgrounds of the owner of the Tomb?
What concept might have guided him in the choice of the painted subjects?
What is the significance beyond the decorative role of the scenes?
One of the answers that could be given promptly is that this Tomb witnesses
the taste of Tyrians for mural frescoes. The painter successfully reaches his realization
with realism in depicting human figures and nature representations.
Drawn from Greek mythology, religious beliefs can be discerned. In the case
of the Tantalus scene for example, it is a glimpse of what awaits the deceased in
the underworld. Condemned to thirst, punished with ceaseless food beyond reach,
Tantalus symbolizes punishment, frustration and suffering. Represented twice in the
Tomb of Tyre, Heracles is associated with Melqart, god of Tyre, where a particular cult
was devoted to him. The scene depicting Alcestis and Heracles alludes to Heracles who
experienced the awakening (Egersis). His revival every spring identifies him as a god
who dies and is resurrected or reborn either literally or symbolically. The presence of
Heracles twice in the Tomb associated with Alcestis on the one hand and to Cerberus on
the other, reflects this particular devotion. Very similar to this is the myth of Proserpina
with the scene of the abduction by Pluto who took her to the Underworld to become his
queen. But it also symbolizes hope as Proserpina returns regularly to live six months of
each year on Earth, thus embodying the changing of the seasons.
30 | Western wall, detail of a door.
What makes the Tomb of Tyre unique are the mythical themes underlining the
painted frescoes, the fact that it is a creation that was elaborated in the 2nd century ad
in Tyre and the result of an erudite milieu acknowledging a deep spirituality.
architectural elements
However, a clear dissimilarity appears in the lower parts of the four walls, mainly
surrounding the loculi intended to house the sarcophagi. The colours here are bright
yellow ochre and deep red, as well as black and white. The architectural elements as
designed amplify the theatrical general setting.
41
42
43
44
From Tyre to Beirut
From Tyre to Beirut: the work of Henry Pearson

Conservator
23 | Chronique,
Op. Cit., in BMB, II,
p. 109111, 1938.
24 | Ibidem.
he site was excavated by Maurice Dunand in October 1937 and the

paintings detached and moved to the National Museum in Beirut in
1939. The detachment and transfer of the paintings was unavoidable as
the paintings suffered from constant water infiltration through the rock and survived
in a situation of severe flooding (1.25 m of water accumulated in the Tomb) following
heavy rains. The situation was brought under control following the intervention of the
French army (Parc du gnie de lArme du Levant)23.
The Yale architect Henry Pearson (Figure 31) who had worked on the conservation and
transfer of the Dura-Europos Synagogue paintings in 1933 and 1934 was put in charge
of the project. The task was in fact rather difficult, as it was commented at that time:
This delicate task, fraught with difficulties, has been entrusted to the architect
Henry Pearson, who has already successfully achieved the reconstruction of the
painted synagogue of Dura Europos in Damascus.24
To this date we have no document on the detachment and conservation
methodology followed by Pearson on the Tomb of Tyre frescoes. The only document
remaining is of an administrative nature and consists of a receipt signed by Pearson

for the amount of one hundred and forty one Lebanese pounds, in return for the
reconstruction of the Tomb at the National Museum in Beirut between December 1
and 15, 1939 (Figure 32).
Henry
Pearson
trained
briefly with George Stout and
Rutherford Gettens at Harvard
Universitys Fogg Art Museum
Department
of
Conservation
and Technical Research, which
provided scientific and technical
assistance for the Dura-Europos
project. The institution also
provided Pearson with a kit for
transferring and conserving wall
paintings along with a Preliminary
report on the transfer of the Asiatic
Type of wall paintings, which drew
on Italian techniques and applied
them to wall paintings from the
Fogg Museums expeditions to
Dunhuang, China. The report
included an addendum entitled
Materials for Emergency Use 25.
25 | Snow, C.,
Preservation
Information on Henry Pearsons

work in Dura-Europos was
provided by Carol Snow from the
Yale University Art Gallery. She has
recently published some of the Yale
archives related to the architects
work on the wall paintings of
the Synagogue 26. Interventions
on the Dura-Europos paintings
(which were detached in 1933
and remounted in the National
Museum in Damascus in 1936) are
32 | From the dga Archives, Ministry of Culture / dga.
well documented. A careful reading
of the documents could give us useful information on the methodology followed by
Pearson a few years later when he undertook the detachment and restoration of the
Tomb of Tyre wall paintings.
31 | Henry Pearson (at the right) in front of the Mithraeum of Dura Europos, Syrian Arab Republic, late 1920s
(courtesy of Ms. Alice Pearson).
of the Dura-Europos
Synagogue wall paintings,
in Conservation and
the Eastern Mediterranean,
Contributions to
the Istanbul Congress,
International Institute
for Conservation
of Historic and
Artistic Works,
2024 September
2010, p. 272.
26 | Ibidem,
Conference poster.
45
46
From Tyre to Beirut
detachment and lifting
27 | Snow, C., Ibidem.

28 | Ibidem.
29 | Ibidem.
In order to consolidate the surface of the paintings, Pearson advocates spraying

several coats of cellulose nitrate or vinyl ester adhesives diluted in alcohol. Taking into
consideration the fragility of the painted surface he writes: It is better to leave dirt
rather than remove paint.27
It is not clear if a facing cloth with organic glue was applied on the surface of
the wall paintings during the detachment process; however, in Dura-Europos, Pearson
developed a technique to support the standing wall paintings from the front with wood
as they were being lifted. He writes:
Should it be necessary to use Plaster of Paris in the backing, for want of better
material or by necessity, size all surfaces and wood with gum dammar (in which
beeswax has been cut). The task is to seal the fragment from moisture. It will be
necessary to employ a retardant to the setting of Plaster of Paris. Hemp fibre used
as a binder, wood used as a lattice. Allow it to dry very thoroughly in the sun [...]. 28
In Tyre the walls of the Tomb were not mud brick as in Dura-Europos, but
calcareous rock. The use of Plaster of Paris mixed with hemp fibres to reinforce the
panels while they were being detached was a method used in Syria and adapted for
the Tomb of Tyre: during the dismantling of the gypsum fillings and examination of
the support stratigraphy the presence of Plaster of Paris panels reinforced by wooden
latticework was noted in some areas. The flexible rope segments used as tie bridges
were also rigidified by impregnation with gypsum. Furthermore, in 1997, scientific
investigations made by iccrom on fragments of the panels showed the presence of
purified beeswax or paraffin. The wall paintings conservator Giorgio Capriotti confirms
that during drilling operations on the panels, the heat generated by the drill heads
melted a material very similar to wax.
The cutting joints between the panels in the Tomb of Tyre are rectilinear and
could have been obtained by the use of a long sharp knife as in Dura-Europos. Pearson
recommends in his notes to consolidate the edges of the cutting lines with a 25%
solution of vinyl ester before cutting through the wall.
gap-filling and reintegration

In his notes on the Dura-Europos intervention regarding final presentation,
Pearson states clearly the rules he followed:
Restore with transparent colour the backgrounds when they are of one colour
and restore the system of decoration so that it is self-explanatory. That is, the
whole chamber must present a unified whole without any shock of white plaster,
bare spots, joints, etc., yet the original painting must not be touched [...] 29.
Pearson stated that the restorations were on top of varnish and could be removed
with alcohol.
The approach to the Tomb of Tyre seemed to follow these principles: all the lacunae
filled with Plaster of Paris were painted with a yellowish base colour. Missing areas of
the painting were reconstituted only by outlining shapes with lighter or darker hues
than the original colours.
surface treatment
The surfaces of the Dura-Europos paintings were varnished with egg yolk in
water . The use of organic materials of this nature on the surface of the Tomb of Tyre
paintings is very likely. Capriotti mentions the presence of considerable quantities of
organic adhesives in the roughness of the plaster, which could have been used for the
facing during the detachment, or simply as a surface consolidant.
30
The work undertaken by Pearson in 1939 is still, by todays standards, a huge and
challenging task, and it was executed with great skill and rigor. As described by joint articles
in this publication, the reconstitution of the hypogeum in the basement of the Beirut National
Museum is extremely faithful to the original and is based on a very accurate and precise
architectural survey. In his notes on the Dura-Europos project Pearson writes:
I wish there were more definite ethics on restorations, but there are several
schools so that one will take a beating no matter what school he belongs to
[...]. Our principles have been to restore entirely whatever we ourselves have
destroyed since the building was found. 31
Through the work he undertook in Lebanon and Syria one can consider Pearson
a true pioneer in the field of wall paintings conservation. His notes in the Yale
archives show his belief in the necessity of following specific and systematic rules
of conservation intervention, and his awareness of the importance of preserving the
authenticity and integrity of the discovery.
30 | Ibidem.
31 | Ibidem.
47
48
49
Giorgio Capriotti, Caterina Michelini Tocci, Ghada Salem & Badr Jabbour Gdon
50
The Restoration
Giorgio Capriotti
The restoration of the frescoes

Giorgio Capriotti
Conservator
previous intervention: study of the support structure
he wall paintings of the Tomb of Tyre were detached from the original
site in the late 30s and reassembled in the early 40s in the lower level of
the National Museum of Beirut by the English architect Henry Pearson.
The aim of that project was to display the recreation of the original hypogeum.
The area of the basement on which the Tomb was reconstructed is a rectangular
space, outlined by four concrete pillars, about 30 cm in diameter.
The support structure consists of a cage in reinforced concrete, formed by a
sequence of 26 vertical rigid ribs (section of 15 cm and height of 320 cm) along the
outside perimeter which starting from a platform at floor level, is anchored to the
ceiling and the four concrete pillars of the basement (Figure 32). A series of horizontal
33 | Outside anchoring system and details of the original structure by H. Pearson.
concrete ribs of the same strength put a belt round the entire rectangular perimeter.
The choice of concrete for this structure is justified by both its mechanical resistance
and by the facility of shaping it during the casting phase. As a matter of, the ribs
follows the curved surface of the painting, reproducing faithfully the original irregular
configuration of the rock support in the Tomb, which, as it is documented by old
photographs taken before the detachment, were not well squared and showed the
characteristic features of a directly carved calcareous rock (slight tapering off the walls
towards the ceiling, rounding of corners, ellipsoidal surfaces twisting). It is likely that
the system used for the reconstruction of the chamber - which reproduced almost
faithfully with regard to vertical sections and floor plan - was based rather on a precise
architectural survey of the irregular shape of the walls than on the use of complex
moulds. It appears that the design for the rib structure, forming a cage, and the building
of the supporting walls, which are fixed on it, were made on the basis of a very accurate
measured drawing of the hypogeum. The junction on the corners matches so perfectly
that even at a macroscopic level no reductions or losses, which might have occurred
as a result of the detachment, can be noted. The only exception is in the entrance (low
left corner), where the discontinuity of a red strip shows an evident mistake occurred
during the reassembling phase.
The construction of the walls, erected against the rib structure and tied to it,
was made from the bottom to the top by means of direct manual shaping with Plaster
of Paris (semi-hydrated calcium sulphate) mixed with fine stone dust and chemical
additives (barium) to harden the plaster. During the dismantling of the gypsum
fillings it was possible to examine the in-depth stratigraphy of the support. A flexible
latticework in wood was used as an internal, reinforcing element and guide. The direct
shaping of the walls modeled with the intention of reproducing faithfully the curved
state of the surfaces was thus regulated by a flexible internal grid, which is anchored
to the concrete ribs by means of ties composed of cord. However, the hundreds of tie
bridges, rather than a structural role provide regular reference points for the definition
of the irregular contours of the wooden lattice
work used for the construction of the wall. These
reference points were defined by measuring the
length of the various ropes in tension. Once the
precision of the various lengths on one horizontal
level was verified, the rope segments were made
rigid by impregnating them with Plaster of
Paris, supplying an exact reference for the final
modelling of the walls which never exceed the 10
cm of thickness. Except for the right hand wall,
all the back of the structure, including these rigid
cords are coated with a layer of bitumen, aiming at
the protection/water-proofing of the gypsum.
34 | Detail of the revealed original panels.
After the completion of the reconstruction of
the wall with its rectangular perimeter, it became
a statically autonomous system. The stability of which is insured by the cross-bonding
of the concrete ribbing.
The re-mounting of the paintings, detached in 36 squared panels (maximum
1 square meter each) and reduced to a small thickness from the back (nearly 1 cm),
was carried out by direct bedding (Figure 34). During the dismantling of the previous
gap fillings, traces of beeswax were noticed and further confirmed by the analysis
carried out by iccrom in 1997. The presence of beeswax was most probably applied
for the backing of the panels to avoid risks that may come from moisture. Numerous
differences in level, visible under raking light, indicate that the alignment of the
51
52
The Restoration
Giorgio Capriotti
rectilinear joints created difficulties. These joints between two sections are contiguous,
without substantial loss of material, but the alignment is not always correct resulting
in differences in level, which were compensated by pointing.
For the extremely fragmentary areas in between the loculi, separated panels were
executed: on top of them, the remaining fragments of a geometric decoration were
applied, following the graphic record.
The treatment of the large lacuna, which already existed at the moment of the
discovery, were presented by means of a plaster reintegration made of gypsum and
filling the lacuna up to the level of the original surface. Moreover, large portions of the
missing painting, like in the right part of the front wall (Abduction of Proserpine) were
invented, by suggesting the shapes of missed figures (Athena and Artemis) and the
sequence of the painted architecture at the dado with colour glazes, using hues slightly
lighter than the originals. In some places, the original was over-painted to emphasize
figurative details.
The votive bench along the walls, built with modern masonry materials according
to the site record, rests directly on the ground. It is not structurally connected to the
concrete ribbing and is not acting as a foundation for the walls.
Panels of Plaster of Paris reinforced with wood latticework were used for the small
entrance, imitating the surface of the carved calcareous bedrock.
state of conservation
Water rising from the underground occurring accidentally during the civil
war years, when the museumremained closed, caused alarm for the static of the
structureand large degradationto the surfaces. In such stressful conditions (Relative
humidity equal to 100% and temperature to 30C), the structure projected by Pearson
in the 40s performed anyway quite efficiently. Despite the general environmental
decay that occurred in the whole basement of the museum, the system guaranteed
a substantial static capacity as confirmed by the two assessment missions held
by iccrom in 199798 and focused on the rescue of the structure. In 1997 the
microclimatic conditions of the entire basement, including the area where the Tomb
was reconstructed, were prohibitive and totally incompatible with the conservation of
the paintings. Persisting conditions of relative humidity close to saturation in the space
enclosed by masonry wall and with the entrance sealed until April 1997, were the main
source of decay of the painted surfaces.
The general conditions of decay were mostly related to two different aspects: the
bio-deteriogenic decay and the chemical-physical decay.
1. the bio-deteriogenic decay
The unfavourable environmental conditions inside the enclosed room of the Tomb
led to an exceptionally extended and severe growth of heterotrophic microorganisms
(e.g. fungi, streptomyces). Abundant quantities of substrata were provided by organic
adhesives used for the detachment and never completely removed, and by the fixative
applied in the larger reintegrated lacuna. Laboratory analysis also revealed the presence
of sulphides, probably produced- from sulphates (gypsum) migrated to the surface by
sulphur-reducing bacteria. A direct effect of the bio-deterioration of organic matter was
the decay of the wooden structure of the ceiling that followed its collapse.
On the painted surfaces, products of the metabolic activity caused the formation
of extended, powdery and variously coloured stains (brown on residues of fixative
and whitish on adhesives used for the detachment). The action of bio-deteriogens,
in addition to the detrimental effect on the legibility, also contributed to the loss of
cohesion of some pigments.
2. the chemical-physical decay
A major source for the migration of pollutants towards the surface is the gypsum
support. The high water content in the room started a process of solubilization,
migration and re-crystallization of soluble salts (sulphates). The capillarity raised
from the ground was absorbed by the votive bench and by the panels in between the
loculi, leading to a total impregnation of the constituent materials up to a level of about
one meter. Here the re-crystallization of soluble salts was particularly destructive,
with the plaster edges of the fragments completely plagued by efflorescence, with
lack of adhesion and advanced loss of cohesion. The thickness of these fragments is
generally less than that of the paintings above. This, together with the fact that they
were applied on the panels in direct contact with the gypsum, might have contributed
to a stronger effect of the salt decay. Also the salt efflorescence on the higher part of
the walls appeared to be made up almost exclusively of calcium sulphate. They were
concentrated mainly in the areas close to gypsum fills, forming macroscopic crystals,
which however were much less invasive than in the lower part.
Restricted areas of the back wall and the right hand-wall showed the lack of adhesion of
the original plaster from the gypsum support. Also in this part, the destructive thrust of
sulphates appears to be directly proportional to the thickness of the original fragment.
During the cleaning and upon removing the sedimentation, the biological growth
and the soluble salts, which were covering the paintings, it was possible to identify
calcareous incrustations and incrusted soil, which were never removed completely
during the previous intervention of the 40s. Moreover, considerable quantities of
organic adhesives, which were applied on the surface of the painting during the
detachment, could be found in the roughness of the plaster.
3. intervention
The restoration project, executed in six months along the year 2010, was focused
at two main aspects: preventive and conservative actions.
The preventive actions were aimed at achieving the reestablishment of a
correct stability of temperature and relative humidity in the environment of the Tomb
(Temperature around 2025C and Relative Humidity equals to 5565%), whereas
53
54
The Restoration
Giorgio Capriotti
conservative actions consisted mainly in facing the complete treatment of the wall
paintings, including the consolidation of the structure, fixing renderings and paint
layers, cleaning the surfaces from microbiological growths and salts, removing
previous interventions, and preparing a new esthetical presentation (Figure 35).
Based on the positive evaluation of the stability of the supporting structure
and recognizing the high level of fidelity achieved in the reconstruction of the Tomb
using Pearsons survey, it was decided not to replace the supports and to maintain
the structure as an historical evidence of the conservative approach of the Near East
archaeology in the first half of 20th century. Excluding the possibility of transferring the
paintings, which would have been traumatic for the already weary painted surfaces,
thoughts turned towards problems related to the preservation of the overall system.
The strategy was first directed to prop and reinforce the structure wherever
necessary, and then to achieve the complete de-humidification and water proofing
of the basement, in order to establish a compatible microclimate, suitable for the
conservation of the detached mural painting.
35 | Restoration interventions.
The different phases of interventions were articulated as follows:

d Execution of a temporary facing for the right-side wall and reinforcement of its
stability applying new series of steel tension wires;
d Removal of the microbiological growth;
d Re-establishment of the cohesion and adhesion of the paint layer;
d Removal of salt efflorescence, calcareous incrustations and insoluble salt veils;
d Removal of the old residues of the organic glue (protein) used in the detachment
process during the 40s;
d Adsorption of dark stains;
d Partial detachment and correct re-alignments of the differences in level;
d Mechanical removal of the gypsum fills in the deep lacuna;
d Fillings of the lacuna, using a plaster with similar characteristics to the original in
terms of mineralogical compositions, granulometry, colour and morphology.
According to the type of lacuna the plaster was then applied in three different levels:
a. Flush with the original surface for the re-constructible levels;
b. At the level of the abraded original plaster in worn areas;
c. Slightly below the level of the original surface for lacuna that could not be
reconstructed;
The esthetical presentation of lacuna was eventually based on:
a. Tone lowering of the superficial abrasions of the paint layer with water colour
glazes;
b. Reintegration in tratteggio technique (Italian word for cross-hatching) of the
re-constructible lacuna already filled flush with the originals surface (Figure 36).
The theoretical principles of this esthetical presentation were aimed at ensuring
neither to hide the passage of time over the surfaces, and therefore including their
36 | Tratteggio technique.
37 | During the intervention.
decay, or to deny gaps and abrasions that occurred in the past. Even the interruption
of the painted text (lacuna), indeed has to be achieved as a part of the history of the
monument and thus linked with the value of its authenticity (Figure 37).
The case of the Tomb of Tyre, emblematic for the presence of such an extensive system
of losses, reveals how the interpretation of ancient paintings is directly related to an
issue of visual perception, in other words, it is a question of close relationship between
gaps and original areas, even if severely fragmented.
According to this, the intervention focused mainly on the search of a new balance
between the original parts and the lacuna, avoiding any attempt of vast reconstruction,
fake imitation or didactic hypothesis, but achieving, at the same time, a satisfactory
level of readability.
55
56
The Restoration
38a | Northern wall, detail of Alcestis scene, before restoration.
Giorgio Capriotti
38b | Northern wall, detail of Alcestis scene, after restoration.
57
58
The Restoration
39a | Eastern wall, detail of Hermes, before restoration.
Giorgio Capriotti
39b | Eastern wall, detail of Hermes, after restoration.
59
60
The Restoration
40a | Western wall, musician mermaid, before restoration.
Giorgio Capriotti
40b | Western wall, musician mermaid, after restoration.
61
62
The Restoration
41a | Eastern wall, detail of Heracles, before restoration.
Giorgio Capriotti
41b | Eastern wall, detail of Heracles, after restoration.
63
64
The Restoration
42a | Northern wall, detail of Tantalus, before restoration.
Giorgio Capriotti
42b | Northern wall, detail of Tantalus, after restoration.
65
66
The Restoration
Caterina Michelini Tocci
The Roman frescoes technique in the Tomb of Tyre

Restorer
he mural paintings which are decorating the four walls of the Tomb
of Tyre and its faade are executed in fresco, according to the classical
Roman technique developed during the first centuries of the Christian
Era across the Roman Empire and its provinces (1st 2nd century ad).
The term fresco is an Italian word which means fresh and it refers to those
mural paintings in which colours, made by pigments dissolved in water, are applied
on a wet plaster. During the drying and hardening of the plaster a chemical reaction,
called carbonatation, occurs between the lime content in the plaster and the carbon
dioxide content in the air, fixing the pigments particles to the plaster, so that the colours
are perfectly bound to the wall.
The technique used to paint frescoes, as practiced in Classical times, has been
handed down to us by Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder: the wall was prepared by applying
at least three rough coats of mortar made by lime mixed with sand, followed by three
more coats of mortar made by lime mixed with finely powdered marble, with thinner
and smoother layers close to the surface. The base for the paintings had to be perfectly
clean and smooth, therefore the uppermost layer, sometimes enriched by clay, was
carefully pressed in order to obtain a polished surface.
Coloured pigments, usually characterized by a high content of clay or mixed with
kaolin (a natural clay) to allow the final polishing, were applied while the mortar was
still damp and absorbed by the compact but porous surface, becoming a permanent
part of it. In most cases the finished paintings would then be polished to a shiny finish,
probably using a special tool.
The artist had to be extremely skilled, as mistakes could not be rubbed out but only
scraped out and re-plastered; he also had to be very quick in order to complete the plastered
area before it dried out. As a result, only one section of the wall would be plastered and
painted at a time, and the resulting joints would have to be perfectly matched up and
hidden through carefully pressing of the edges. Plastering and painting were normally
executed in horizontal sections due to the space occupied by the scaffoldings (pontate),
starting from the top of the wall. Sometimes, these scaffoldings spaces were divided, by
vertical lines, in areas that required a day of work (in Italian referred to as giornate),
whereas in some smaller areas, which demanded a more complex execution, the plaster
was cut out and plastered at a later moment. The described technique can be found in the
Pompeian mural paintings (2nd century bc 1st century ad), from which derive most of our
knowledge of Ancient Roman paintings.
However, some later evidences can be found in catacombs in Rome (Early

Christian Roman Empire, 1st 2nd century ad), which are executed in a form that can be
compared, both in terms of style and technique, to the paintings of the Tomb of Tyre.
These wall paintings, belonging to the funerary context, were spreading in the same
form into the imperial provinces of that period.
Assuming that in the Ancient Roman Empire frescoes were the favourite method
of decorating the interiors of the houses of the wealthy, as they met the requirements
of durability needed for interior decoration (a tradition that was inherited from the
Hellenistic architecture), we can suppose that a hypogeum (underground) environment
did not require the same careful polishing of surfaces and colours. An example of how
the burial environment could also be subject to changes or maintenance is clearly
visible in a corner of the left wall of the Tomb, where a rougher plaster is overlapping
the previous one (Figure 49).
Thus, in the Tomb of Tyre we find many characteristics of the Roman fresco
technique, as we know from the literary sources, except for the shiny polishing of the
coloured surface. In fact, even though the plasters were detached from their original
location and transferred to the National Museum after a mechanical reduction of
their thickness, which hardly allows our
understanding of the preparatory layers, we
are able today to identify two distinct layers
of lime plasters. The deeper one is made of a
coarse-grained calcareous material, whereas
the uppermost is fine-grained, pressed and
smooth. As a result, it is likely that these
layers were lying on other rougher layers
made by sand mixed with lime.
Chemical analysis showed the
presence on the surface of a thin preparatory
layer made of whitewash (diluted white lime).
The white colour is in fact the background
of the entire composition, on top of which
figures and motives were painted, and we
can assume that the whitewash also allowed
the surface of the plaster to be painted, to
remain damp.
The pressing of the plaster makes
it hard to identify the joints. However, it
is likely that horizontal partitions were
used, dividing the upper part in which
mythological scenes are shown, from the
lower part in which small figures of birds are
enclosed in the architectural frames.
43 | Northern wall: rough plaster executed at a later time.
67
68
The Restoration
The palette of colours that were used consists of: Red Ochre, Yellow Ochre and Green
Earth (all of which are earths made of mineral pigments and coloured by the presence
of iron), Carbon Black (made with charcoal from burning wood), Whitewash (lime), plus
some rare details painted in Blue Azurite (Figure 44) and Red Minium (Figure 45), both of
which were probably used in several other places, but unfortunately they have been lost.
Colours such as Azurite and Minium were rarely found in Classical Roman
paintings, therefore we can attribute their use to the particular location on the coastal
area belonging to the Roman Province of Syria. It is not by chance, in fact, that Azurite
is a pigment which is found both in the Sinai and in the Eastern Desert, named by
Pliny as Caeruleum: the Armonium was the one imported from Armenia, whereas
44 | Northern wall, Tantalus hat: trace of blue Azurite.
the Cyprium, a pigment of better quality, was mined in Cyprus, which, as it is known,
is separated from Lebanon only by a short stretch of sea. On the other hand, the
most common blue used in Rome was the Egyptian blue (called by Pliny Caeruleum
Egyptium), widely used also in the Middle East, in Greece and Pompeii (hence the
name Pompeian Blue).
In addition, the so called Pompeian Red, which is known as Cinnabar, mentioned
by Pliny as Minium, is not found in the Tomb; we find instead the Minium, also
known as Red Lead and described by Pliny as Secondarium Minium, another pigment
of the antiquity probably known as early as lead itself, and used, for example, in Egypt
during the Greco-Roman times.
45 | Southern wall, wreath: trace of Red Minium.
69
70
The Restoration
The style developed in the late 1st century ad in the Roman Empire and its
provinces was named by Pliny pictura compendiaria (meaning concise style) in
which the technique of painting with rapid and accurate brushstrokes resumed the
characteristic ways of the earlier Hellenistic paintings.
The main traits of the compendiaria technique are well represented in the
Tomb of Tyre: a rapid and immediate painting, lively, concise, and performed by
sketchy but precise strokes, improvised without any preparatory drawing. However, it
is possible that a summary preparatory drawing, useful to the pictorial composition,
was sketched on the underlying layer of rougher plaster of which, as mentioned, we
have no knowledge.
46 | Eastern wall, horses: example of painting shadows by linear brushstrokes.
The white background had multiple functions: not only did create a clean
background for the paintings, but it also gave greater nobility to the subjects and
offered brightness to the surface.
The figures of the horses on the back wall (Figure 46) show in an excellent way the
technique of painting the shadows employing linear brushstrokes, using thus graphic
signs rather then gradient colour, and they also show the knowledge of representing
the light (made by fat but agile white strokes) in accordance with its source. The same
way of painting the black or brownish shadows and the white lights in the shape of
quick lines is well visible in the figures of the Eros, which separate the mythological
scenes in the middle of the wall, both in faces and bodies (Figure 47).
47 | Eastern wall, Eros: quick lines describing shadows and lights.
71
72
The Restoration
The plasticity of the figures is obtained by quick but skilled brushstrokes, as

shown in the small faces painted in the middle of the wreaths, where patches of
halftones are followed by strokes of dark shadows and dotted by thick strokes of white
in the eyes, the forehead, the cheeks and the pearl earrings (Figure 48).
48 | Eastern wall, mask: the plasticity of the faces.
The wreaths are painted starting with a background layer of a black tone, followed
by halftones of green and white leaves on which the yellow fruit lies, shaded by a red
stroke; finally, the lights are dotted on the fruit by a single brushstroke, and some
other darker green leaves are added, overlapping parts of the fruit itself, thus giving a
significant impact of likelihood (Figure 49).
49 | Southern wall, detail of the wreath: overlapping colours.
73
74
The Restoration
An example of pictura compendiaria is well summarized in the figures of the

birds, widespread in the Roman iconography, where it is easy to see the patch of the
grey background, the overlying lighter patch on the body giving the plasticity, the rapid
and incisive strokes of white increasing in thickness on the enlightened wing, whereas
quick black lines suggest the shadows (Figure 50).
50 | Eastern wall, bird: example of pictura compendiaria.
It is also worth noting the ability to handle the palette shown in the dress of
Alcestis, where the dark shadows overlapping the yellow ones give an iridescent effect
from a lighter to a darker olive green colour (Figure 51).
51 | Northern wall, Alcestis dress: the effect of iridescence.
75
76
The Restoration
Ghada Salem & Badr Jabbour Gdon
To conclude, the last observation on the painting technique used in the Tomb of
Tyre is about how the flesh tones of a man and a woman are rendered: light pink with
white lights was used for women, whereas dark red with yellow lights was used for
men, following thus the ancient tradition of the Eastern world (Figure 52).
The Tomb of Tyre frescoes documentation

Restorers
he documentation of the frescoes in the Tomb of Tyre was necessary

for recording the lacunae at the actual state. The frescoes presented in
fact huge areas of losses that have been maintained from the time of
detachment and relayed by Henry Pearson.
The documentation survey was carried out according to visual observation
recorded at a later stage after the restoration intervention was finished. The plans show
three different layers: the original fresco surface, the under level mortar layer, which
consists in a mortar coat at a slightly lower level compared to that of the original and
authentic parts of the frescoes, and the areas reintegrated with the tratteggio technique.
This classification was followed in order to make the frescoes readable and
understandable. More specifically in this case, the graphic documentation was focused
at identifying the extension, the localization and the formal gravity of lacunae. The
information gathered, provides the immediate perception of the relationship between
the original painted surfaces and the large articulated system of losses, in a way even
clearer than what can be understood from a normal photograph. In this regard, it
is important to mention that, during the 2010 conservation campaigns, the gypsum
material which was previously used to fill the gaps, was removed enabling the
restoration team to discover and identify that:
1. original and well preserved paintings were still present,

2. deep and non-re-constructible lacunae were covered by hydraulic rough
mortar, and
3. superficial re-constructible lacunae were covered by a hydraulic fine mortar
and were reintegrated with the tratteggio technique.
total walls
Total area: 47.0959 m2
Painting: 26.8604 m2 (57.03%)
Gap fill: 18.0944 m2 (38.42%)
Tratteggio: 2.1411 m2 (4.54%)
52 | Northern wall, hands of Herakles and Alcestis: the colours of the flesh tones.
77
78
The Restoration
entrance wall, right

Painting: 2.3371 m2 (62.47%)
Gap fill: 1.5302 m2 (37.5%)
Tratteggio: 0.2102 m2 (5.15%)
entrance wall, left

Painting: 3.3814 m2 (66.98%)
Gap fill: 1.2025 m2 (23.82%)
Tratteggio: 0.4643 m2 (9.19%)
25
50
cm
Original and well preserved paintings

Loss areas reintegrated with tratteggio technique
Loss areas filled with underlevel mortar
54 | Western wall, mermaids scenes, original state at discovery, in BMB, XVIII, pl. 6.1, 6.2, 1965.
53 | Documentation of the right and left sides of the entrance wall (survey & digitizing by Ghada S. Salem, September 2011).
79
80
The Restoration
left wall
Painting: 10.2349 m2 (75.93%)
Gap fill: 2.4698 m2 (18.32%)
Tratteggio: 0.7732 m2 (5.73%)
25
50
cm

56 | Left wall, scenes of Tantalus and Alcestis with Heracles, original state at discovery, in BMB, XVIII, pl. 9.1, 9.2, 1965.
55 | Documentation of the left wall (survey & digitizing by Ghada S. Salem, September 2011).
81
82
The Restoration
front wall
Painting: 5.9496 m2 (51%)
Gap fill: 5.2932 m2 (45.38%)
Tratteggio: 0.4211 m2 (3.61%)
58 | Front wall, detail of Proserpina scene, original state at discovery, in BMB, XVIII, pl. 13, 1965.
25
50
cm

57 | Documentation of the front wall (survey & digitizing by Ghada S. Salem, September 2011).
83
84
The Restoration
right wall
Painting: 4.9574 m2 (38.64%)
Gap fill: 7.5987 m2 (59.23%)
Tratteggio: 0.2723 m2 (2.12%)
60 | Right wall, Achilles and Priam scene, original state at discovery, in BMB, XVIII, pl. 13, 1965.
Documentation of the right wall from entrance

Survey & digitizing: Ghada S. Salem
Date September 2011
Site: TOMB OF TYR National Museum - Beirut
25
50cm.
conclusion
The applied method of analysis, which is based on graphics documentation,

ensure that the dimensions of the conserved painting, the extension of the lacunae
before the conservation project and the position of the tratteggio technique after
intervention may be easily recognizable. At the same time, this documentation is an
essential element of the frescoes conservation process that is of key importance for its
protection: the presented documentation show exactly the actual status of the frescoes
conservation and therefore gives an efficient and functional tool for monitoring the
effectiveness of the restoration intervention and to promptly identify possible future
decays.
Legend
Loss areas reintegrated with "Tratteggio" technique
59 | Documentation of the right wall (survey & digitizing by Ghada S. Salem, September 2011).
85
86
87
Antonio Giammarusti, La Captan
88
The Museography
Antonio Giammarusti
The museography of the Tomb of Tyre

Antonio Giammarusti
Architect museographer
32 | Dunand, M.,
Op. cit., in BMB, XVIII,
p. 551, 1965.
he Tomb of Tyre frescoes were transferred to the National Museum of

Beirut after Maurice Dunands archaeological intervention in 193932.
The transfer was entrusted to the capable hands of the architect
Henry Pearson, a specialist in the field of transferring monuments who had already
successfully transported the Dura-Europos Synagogue to the National Museum of
Damascus, as well as a Christian tomb to the United States.
It was with infinite care and precision that Henry Pearson detached the frescoes
in the burial chamber and its entranceway from the rock wall where the Tomb had
been excavated, and reassembled them inside the basement of the National Museum
of Beirut. To do this, he had first reconstructed the hypogeum walls in the new setting
according to a near-perfect geometrical design. The transfer and recomposition of the
frescoes was achieved by preserving, and museologically documenting, with great
accuracy and precision each and every deformation of the walls which had been hewn
into the rock foundation when the Tomb had first been excavated. The irregular walls
on which the frescoes were repositioned were made of Plaster of Paris which was
spread on a steel frame and in keeping with the original misalignment of several
centimetres.
The softness of the limestone in which the Tomb was excavated was probably
one of the factors that caused the ceiling to cave in. This prompted the original owners
of the Tomb to consolidate it by building arches with stone blocs that were supported by
approximately 70 x 72 cm thick pillars. The precarious stability of the Tomb, its isolated
location in the Burj el-Shemali countryside, and water infiltrations were the main concerns
that led the Directorate General of Antiquities of Lebanon to the removal of the artistically
significant frescoes and their wealth of data to a safer place inside the museum.
After the frescoes had been removed to the museum, the site was left with the
stairway descending to the Tomb, the vestibule with its stone seats, and inside the
Tomb, the arches supporting the ceiling. Fourteen loculi (funerary recesses) and the
chamber connected to the central burial chamber of the Tomb also remained.
The frescoes were therefore transferred to the museum devoid of their
original support in order to save them from certain degradation, and without much
consideration for the architectural elements of the Tomb itself, since they did not
seem to be of sufficient artistic value to warrant their transfer. In any event, had it
been decided to transfer the Tomb as it was, the museum would have been obliged
to undergo extensive structural changes to accommodate the Tomb in its entirety. A
hypogeum would have had to be carved out of the museums foundation, or else the
61 | Monumental staircase from the Tomb of Tyre, original location, BMB, pl. 1.1, 1965.
stairway to the entrance of the basement would have had to be modified. Either way,
the museum would have had to undertake a remake similar to that of the Museum of
Damascus when accommodating the monumental tomb from Palmyra 33.
Pearson was quite familiar with the Museum of Damascus because this was
where he had re-erected the synagogue from Dura-Europos, and where the architect
Michel Ecochard had designed the entrance around the two monuments transferred
there: the Synagogue of Dura-Europos and the hypogeal tomb of Palmyra. The entrance
to the Museum of Damascus was later modified, again by Ecochard, when the faade
of the Al Hayr Al Gharbi castle was transferred and recomposed there. The 2nd century
ad tomb, which had been removed from Palmyra to the museum in synchrony with
its construction, was moved once again. A hypogeum was excavated to accommodate
it beneath the ground floor. Two modern flights of stairs lead to the underground
chamber. Awkward as the stairs are to negotiate, they are suggestive of the descent to
the underworld, with the added note of surprise and wonder upon reaching the bottom
as extolled in all good manuals of museography.
33 | AbuIFaraj Al Ush, M.,

A Guide to the National Museum
of Damascus, Damascus, 1999.
89
90
The Museography
34 | I would be very cautious

in agreeing today with the
indisputable necessity to remove
monuments from their original sites
because I am only too well aware
of the traumas inflicted upon them
during their transfer to a new
location. In 1976 I participated
in the transfer of the monuments
on the Island of Philae in Egypt,
which would have been submerged
by the waters of Nasser Lake
generated by the construction of the
Aswan Dam. The unesco campaign
to save the monuments of Nubia,
a region which disappeared entirely
beneath the waters of the lake,
was perhaps the last successful
instance of the practice of moving
monuments for their safekeeping.
When the gargantuan task was
completed, the Egyptian government
donated a monument to each nation
participating in the Nubian
campaign. The monuments were
Antonio Giammarusti
In the first half of the 20th century, when archaeological digs flourished and
allowed the rediscovery of ancient art and culture with a more scientific view, it was
quite customary in the Middle East, as well as in Italy and other western states, to
transfer ancient monuments to museums. Artefacts from archaeological digs
nourished museum exhibits, eventually leading to the construction of new larger
museums to house them. The underlying principle which guided such endeavours
was essentially a cultural and political operation aimed at highlighting the glorious
past of a nations heritage.
In the Middle East, the archaeological museums of Cairo, Beirut, Damascus,
Baghdad and Teheran were built between the end of the 19th century and the first half
of the 20th, while that of Amman was built in 1951. The list of monuments that were
transferred to museums in that period is indeed a long one. If, on the one hand, the
removal of these monuments deprived them of their original habitat, it is also true that
it contributed effectively to their safekeeping.
In those times the state institutions whose duty was to oversee national heritage
sites and artefacts were taking their first steps. They did not have the resources and
ability to control the territory and effectively protect monuments from looting and
destruction. Today the situation is radically different. The ministries of culture have
efficient departments of antiquities which oversee and manage the areas under
protection, enabling their preservation. This in turn makes it possible to restore the
monuments on site, thus sparing entire architectural structures, or parts of them, the
trauma of removal to the safety of museums 34.
transferred to the museums of those

countries. Italy received the
tomb of Ellesija, which was taken
to the Egyptian Museum of
Turin, while Spain was given the
temple of Debod.
35 | Binni, L. Pinna,
G., Museo, Milano, 1980.
Museums today have a very different relationship with the public. The new
approach emphasizes communication in a way that is both entertaining and accessible
to visitors from all walks of life. This was obviously not the case in the first half of the
century, when the purpose of museums was to preserve and protect ancient artefacts
and, especially in Europe, the manner of exhibition and communication with the
public was a negligible factor. Experts visiting the museum knew what to look for,
while the rare ordinary visitor was content with admiring the beauty or uniqueness of
the artefacts exhibited. At the end of the 19th century, museums were for the most part
an extension of the Wunderkammer of the 15th 16th centuries, in which collections of
naturalia, mirabilia et artificialia assembled by noblemen were exposed as collections
or for study. The French revolution had opened up museums to the common folk, but
had failed to understand the social importance of cultural communication. The late
19th century instead, saw the transformation of museums from mere containers of
precious artefacts to showcases celebrating the power and glory of nations.35
This is how in the British Museum, the first to be opened to the public, the
historic keystone to the interpretation of hieroglyphs, the Rosetta Stone, came to
celebrate, and continues to do so, the victory of the British over Napoleon in the land
of Egypt. The supremacy of British colonialism is also manifest in the invaluable
collection of ancient Persian bas-reliefs and sculptures, the likes of which cannot be
found in their country of origin.
The Louvre in Paris, initially opened by the French revolutionaries as a museum

of itself, became the place of accumulation for Napoleons spoils of war and became
the stage on which to showcase the international grandeur of France. While these
methods may seem predatory to our modern conscience, it is also true that many of
these artefacts owe their conservation to their appropriation by the colonial powers of
the time. In addition, these collections can be seen today as agents of an important
marketing operation, geared to the understanding of foreign cultures and encouraging
tourism to the lands where these priceless works of art were created 36.
The reassembly of a monument inside a museum became, in the latter half of the
19th century, an important aspect of museological communication. In response to the
museological crisis of the 70s and 80s, museums were assigned all kinds of cultural
and not-so-cultural functions. They were required to be educational, communicative,
to provide areas for temporary exhibitions or events, or become places of encounter
where one might merely come for a cup of coffee or do some shopping.
In the 1920s, the question of opening museums to the public at large with its
varying degrees of culture, had already been extensively debated in the United States, at
the time exempt from the cultural-colonial contests of Europe. The intense debate that
went on through the first quarter of the 20th century had to do with the message and
the best way to exhibit the museum collections 37. The American museologists ardently
supported the aesthetic and cognitive experience while insisting that museums be
conceived for the public.
John Cotton Dana, who was convinced that museums should attract young people,
underscored in his 1920 work A Plan for a New Museum the all importance of the public:
36 | The metopes of the

Parthenon, transferred to London
where they are still exhibited
today, were saved from the
insensitivity of the Turkish sultan
to Greek national feeling.
Thanks to their transfer, they have
promoted the study of ancient
Greece. In the words of Pietro
Marani and Rosanna Pavoni,
Although removed forever from
their historical and cultural
context, the statues of Phidias
have exerted an enormous
influence on western culture,
perhaps even more so than if they
had remained on the Acropolis
of Athens []. (In Marani, P. C.,
Pavoni, R. Musei, Venice, 2006).
We believe that every community will reap advantages [] from the creation of
an institution [] of visual education [] and museums will be transformed into
living organisms.
The intellectuals of Chicago upheld that museums were to become peoples
parks, and even before Dana, in 1876, George Brown Goode wrote:
Museums of the future should be adapted to the needs of the factory worker, the
day-worker, the trader and the office clerk, just as much as to the expert or to the
idle visitor with time to spare []
The Middle East presented different needs from those of the western world.
Weary of being depredated of their cultural heritage, experts and political leaders
promoted the creation of national archaeological museums, often with the financial
aid and museological expertise of western states. The west sought in this way to
compensate the nations they had previously deprived of part of their cultural heritage,
and assuage the feelings of guilt expressed by the foreign intellectuals who had long
been operating in those countries. The archaeological museums that came to light,
in the first quarter of the 20th century, were designed to preserve the artefacts that
91
37 | Marani, P., Pavoni, R.,

Ibidem, 2006.
92
The Museography
Antonio Giammarusti
93
emerged abundantly from the new digs, while also endowing them with institutions for
research and the preservation of cultural heritage, in view of promoting the rediscovery
of national identity on the part of the local population, by exhibiting the glories of
these lands often forgotten past. The difference in outlook between Middle Eastern
museums and the great universal museums born in the West is egregious, if not
downright antithetical. Unfortunately, the debate on this matter has been drowned out
by the sheer quantity of material flooding Middle Eastern museums, that have thus been
transformed into warehouses, and can be visited profitably only with the help of a guide.
The tragedy that befell Lebanon also had dire effects on the National Museum
of Beirut. In 1999 the museum was born again in the form of a new and modern
institution. A vibrant debate among the museum curators, museologists and
museographers engendered a museum which offers experts and common visitors
alike a high-level experience that is both aesthetic and entertaining. The new museum
celebrates the international vocation cultivated by Lebanon since ancient times, without
neglecting to portray the negative consequences of violence on the nations cultural
heritage. Over 1300 objects of inestimable historic and artistic value are displayed with
exquisite skill in the new National Museum of Beirut. These artefacts are a testament
to the nature of Lebanon as a land of encounter for a multitude of cultures: Egyptian,
Persian, Greek, Roman and, of course, Arab.
The museums new layout, and the high professionalism of its curators, places it
at the top of Middle Eastern museums. The renovation of the museum is still underway,
and the Directorate General of Antiquities is working to recuperate and rearrange the
basement in view of the permanent display of funerary art. The Tomb of Tyre, whose
frescoes were damaged by microbiological decay and salt due to high levels of humidity
during the civil war (19751991), is displayed in the basement.
The Directorate General of Antiquities, with the financial and technical support
of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Italian Cooperation, has carried out the
renovation and arrangement of the Tomb. Along with the Anthropoid Sarcophagi gallery,
this Tomb is now destined to become the key attraction of a visit to the museum basement.
Parallel to the delicate operations to restore the frescoes, the Tomb needed to
be displayed in a museologically persuasive manner. Summing up the debate, the
solution to satisfy that goal was found in providing the Tomb with a new ceiling and
vestibule (Figure 62).
When Henry Pearson transferred the frescoes to the museum, he made a precise
museographical choice. He reconstructed the identical geometry of the funerary
chamber so as to place the frescoes in the same context as the original, just as he
had done in Damascus, where the internal walls of the synagogue were reconstructed
along with the colonnaded court in front of it.
The decision to reconstruct, at least in part, the structures context in both
museums probably adhered to the museological standards in vogue in the United
States. It was in those years that museum curators, concerned with the financial
soundness of their institutions, brought to bear the notion of entertainment for the
62 | The re-contestualization of the Tomb of Tyre: view of the entrance vestibule reconstructed in a modern key.
public that led to close ties with American entrepreneurship. This practice, which
was warmly supported by the likes of John Cotton Dana, Steward Culin and Morris
DCamp Crawford, occasioned a kind of ante litteram audience measurement, to
determine the numbers of visitors, which is still largely in use today by sponsors and
financers. The more visitors a museum attracts, the more it attracts private sponsors
and consequently more public and private funds as well 38.
Financial soundness and entertainment is what prompted the American
museographers of the 1900s to develop communication inside museums and to
form a new strategy of exhibition to actuate this conception. With this in mind, the
recreation of an objects original setting and the atmosphere surrounding it became of
primary importance. Such was the case with, for example, the reconstruction of halls
from Renaissance or Baroque palazzi in which to exhibit the paintings and sculptures
they once housed, or, in our case, the reconstruction of the setting that contained the
frescoes and mosaics of the classical period.
38 | In Italy, it was this vision of

marketing applied to museums
that convinced Japanese television
to sponsor the restoration of
the Sistine Chapel, and, more
recently, prompted a renowned
entrepreneur to finance the
restoration of the Coliseum.
94
The Museography
Antonio Giammarusti
63 | The re-contestualization of the funerary chamber and the descent through the original three steps.
95
96
The Museography
Antonio Giammarusti
The new Tomb which was reconstructed inside the museum to house the
frescoes of Tyre stands squarely on the ground where the slate slabs are interrupted to
make room for the Tomb. The area thus left open, both inside the Tomb and around
it, gives way to an unpaved floor of small pebbles. The entrance to the Tomb, where
fourteen loculi have been placed below the frescoes, is situated three steps down, and is
about 60 cm higher than the museums basement floor (Figure 63).
According to the previous museographic display, the entrance to the Tomb
enabled an access to the frescoes without having to negotiate any steps. On the inside
the Tomb had no ceiling and the walls supporting the frescoes were completely
independent from the basement ceiling.
64 | The re-contestualization of the Tomb of Tyre: detail of the access to the entrance vestibule.
As mentioned earlier, the aim of the new museographical program for the
display was to re-contextualize the Tomb according to Henry Pearsons design, while
at the same time updating it in form and content. Today it is no longer acceptable
to reconstruct the funerary chamber and its vestibule to the letter, as this would
result in a fake. Seventy years after the architects seminal work, and following the
developments in museographic theory and the guidelines on modern museographic
display recommended by the International Council of Museums icom 39, it would have
been unthinkable to reconstruct the parts of the Tomb left in Burj el-Shemali. The
re-contextualization therefore had to be conceived in abstract terms, with modern
materials, and not look anything like stage scenery. The first problem to be dealt with
concretely was to remove the museum basements air conditioner duct casing, and
devise a ceiling for the burial chamber that would be suggestive of the original without
being an outright fake. This new ceiling would also have to be inconspicuous enough
to avoid distracting the visitors attention with strange visual effects.
The new ceiling has an irregular line which caps with a gap of approximately 5 cm
the upper end of the walls while following their contour, and is suggestive, in a modern
fashion, of the original geometry of the ceiling. Small plates of gypsum board were used
for panelling and the boards plastered over with a gypsum-based material, which was left
rough and made to cover all the corners between the gypsum-board panels.
After some research and studies on the lighting, which included also modern
looking lamps contrasting the ancient chamber, the final proposal for the lighting
consisted in encased wall-washer type lights aimed at minimising their visual impact
with the wall frescoes while ensuring the requested lighting effect. The technical
calculations for the lighting were carried out by Sergio Padula of the Light Planning
Department of iGuzzini.
As previously stated, the ceiling of the funerary chamber at Burj el-Shemali was
upheld by two arches that rested on two 70 x 72 cm pillars. To evoke the original
structure we designed two pillar bases made of stone and of the same width, but
only about 50 cm high. The bases can, in this way, also be used by visitors to sit on
comfortably as they admire the frescoes. The three steps down to enter the Tomb were
put in place by Pearson and have been renovated (Figure 65). Since the original floor
had been excavated from the underlying rock, we did not think it fitting to cover it with
any kind of panelling, as this could have created unseemly vanishing lines at odds with
the surroundings and cluttered the overall design. A resin bton cir was therefore
chosen for its homogenous and compact appearance without vanishing lines, as well
as for its clearly modern appearance. To keep the public from getting too close to the
frescoes the new resin flooring ends at about one meter from the wall: 50 cm from the
masonry benches that run under the base of fourteen loculi, and another 50 cm from the
section of the floor covered in stone loose pebbles. Upon the request of the dga, a low-lying
railing was introduced for added security, the latter being perfectly suited to the setting of
the funerary chamber. The railing is made of the same material and is identical in design
to those used on the ground floor of the museum to protect statues and sarcophagi.
39 | Running a Museum
A Practical Handbook
unesco/icom - 2006
97
98
The Museography
Antonio Giammarusti
99
Outside the burial chamber of the Tomb it became

necessary to redesign the entrance, not least to bridge the
60 cm gap between the museum floor and the threshold
of the entrance to the Tomb. In consonance with the recontextualization initiated by Henry Pearson, the entrance
vestibule was reconstructed in a modern key.
An irregular platform, elevated from the ground by
approximately 40 cm and having a somewhat trapezoidal
shape, with a length of about 5 m and a width of nearly 3.70
m, was placed in front of the entrance to the Tomb. (Figure 66)
One enters the vestibule where the entrance to another Tomb
was situated at Burj el-Shemali. The entrance to the vestibule
is positioned sideways in relation to that of the Tomb, so as to 66 | The elevation of the entrance vestibule designed to bridge the gap
eliminate the possibility of any discordant effects of perspective, between the museum floor and the entrance of the funerary chamber.
while allowing the visitors to discover the Tomb only upon
reaching its threshold. As in the original vestibule, two benches have been placed along
the long sides, so that visitors awaiting their turn to enter the funerary chamber may
sit comfortably while reading the information panels and watching the documentary
video. Access to the Tomb itself will be regulated so as not to allow more than 10 visitors
at a time. As a reminder of the 26-step stairway that led to the Tomb, our proposal was
to create a slight sloping of the wall in front of the Tombs entrance, and to suggest the
beginning of the stairway. Along the vertical walls niches were arranged in which were
placed information panels that explain the meaning of the frescoes, and tell the story of
the Tombs discovery and its restoration on the occasion of its reopening to the public.
65 | The museography of the Tomb of Tyre: view of the irregular ceiling and the bton cir floor in the funerary chamber.
67 | View of the entrance vestibule and details of the benches.
100
Antonio Giammarusti |
The Museography
68 | The museography of the Tomb of Tyre: view towards the entrance wall.
101
102
La Captan |
The Museography
The works for the Tomb of Tyre museography: an overview

La Captan
Architect
fter the removal from the original necropolis in Tyre and the
transportation to the National Museum of Beirut, several studies and
research were carried out in order to adequately design the museology
for the Roman frescoes and the funerary chamber in the new setting. Several attempts
to ensure the correct interpretation of the original ancient monument were executed
in order to enable the Tomb to be safely visited and the beauty of the Roman frescoes
adequately valorized. During the restoration and conservation works, further attention
was directed to the museographic presentation of the Tomb of Tyre and to the necessity
to update the previous display to a comprehensive project involving also the area
facing the Tomb entrance. The main objective of the museographic intervention was
to establish a dialogue between the newly restored frescoes and the Museum premises,
creating an homogeneous design capable of attracting visitors to discover the funerary
chamber in a sort of learning process, while including the transferred frescoes in a
more understandable context.
The museography was thus focused to ensure the correct conservation of the
frescoes by respecting the needed microclimatic parameters in terms of temperature
and humidity, to valorize the frescoes and the authenticity of all the architectural
elements transferred from Tyre, to offer a didactic overview of the Tomb history, its
layout, the frescoes significance and description as well as the importance of the
restoration works in the perspective of making this incredible monument accessible
and understandable for all.
The study of the space around and inside the Tomb according to a museological
perspective began in August 2010 and was mainly focused on the original plans of the
Tomb of Tyre, in its original location. The core idea that emerged after the thorough
study of the ancient documents was to bring back the concept of the descent to
the Tomb, recreating the feeling of going down into a vestibule and eventually
discovering the Tomb and the frescoes.
The construction of a small vestibule on an irregular platform, 40 cm higher
than the museum basements floor was thus recommended as a reference to the
original one: the vestibule could in fact ensure to have an adequate access to the Tomb,
enabling to recreate the descent to the funerary chamber level and creating, in the
same time, a space where visitors could get information on the frescoes while waiting
for their visit (Figures 69 and 70).
In the same time, the museography of the internal part of the Tomb was also
matter of concerns, as the height of the transported walls are uneven and demanded a
careful design for the ceiling. It was agreed to make the reconstruction of a false-ceiling
as neutral as possible, as non existing as possible. The ceiling was thus designed in
order to follow the different inclinations of every painted wall, keeping it at an average
e
n
s
w
69 | The original plan in Burj el-Shemaly as drawn
70 | The designed plan according to the new museographic
by M. Dunand, BMB, XVIII, pl. 22, 1965.
display (museological concept of Antonio Giammarusti,

drawing made by La Captan).
103
104
La Captan |
The Museography
Mur gauche
Caveau
71 | The original section in Burj el-Shemaly as drawn by M. Dunand: view of the original irregular geometry of the ceiling
(BMB, XVIII, pl. 24, 1965).
72 | Section of the funerary chamber according to the new museographic display: detail of the ceiling suggestive of the original geometry
(museological concept of Antonio Giammarusti, drawing made by La Captan).
of 5 cm distance from the frescoes upper edges and

having an inclined and curved ceiling that was very
challenging and very difficult to respect.
Upon finalizing the museographic design, the
decision on the most suitable materials was discussed
thoroughly: a mix between modern materials and
natural materials seemed to be the proper solution
in order to provide the requested quality for the
museographic results expected for the lighting, the
floor and the ceiling, while ensuring to adequately
valorize the ancient structures and the frescoes. The
choice recommended for the interior part of the Tomb
was thus to have concrete floors in bton cir to
73 | The left wall before the museographic intervention:
give a modern and neutral aspect to the space and
detail of the uneven height of the transported wall.
natural stone for the benches and the steps whereas
the ceiling inside the Tomb and in the vestibule was
suggested to be executed in gypsum board and painted in the same neutral colour of
the benches. Each space was aimed at having its own texture: inside the Tomb rough
surfaces were meant to remind the walls, whereas the sleeker aspect for the vestibule
intended to suggest the newly added space.
Finding solutions for the lighting system was not an easy task as well: the choice
of lights inside the Tomb was in fact related to the necessity of keeping stable the
microclimatic conditions of the funerary chamber and to the importance of providing
suitable lighting to the frescoes. The effect of lumire rasante for the frescoes and the
restored surfaces was requested by the restorers in order to enable a correct perspective
for the authentic part of the frescoes compared to the restored or missing parts. The
lighting plans were thus provided by iGuzzini lighting specialist Mr. Sergio Padula.
He calculated the exact number of light spots needed and relevant position on the
ceiling in order to get the effect of lumire rasante inside the Tomb while ensuring an
homogenous lighting that avoid dark spots on the painted surfaces.
Works for the vestibule and the Tomb of Tyre took around 3 months, between
the dismantling of the existing elements and materials in the basement of the National
Museum of Beirut, and the implementation of the new concept. At the end of the
museographic works, the vestibule enables to suggest the original architectural space
for the Tomb, as discovered in Burj el-Shemaly: the raised floor level of the vestibule
ensures the descent to the funerary chamber, the slope wall on the right side of the
entrance aims at alluding to the original staircase, niches all around the vestibule
walls provides the suitable place for displaying didactic panels and explanations, the
benches were reproduced and can be utilized as seats by the visitors while reading the
information on the didactic panels.
This additional space, completed with a video placed on the inclined wall of
the vestibule itself, creates an interactive area for visitors where they can learn about
the history of the Tomb, the concept of the project, and having a more complete
understanding of the value of the Tomb. Visitors will thus have the opportunity to
enjoy the visit and to be fascinated by the authentic beauty of the ancient frescoes.
105
106
107
108
109
bibliography
AbuI Faraj Al Ush, M., A Guide to the National Museum of Damascus,

Damascus, 1999.
Asmar, C., Dismantling the concrete caissons in the Beirut National Museum,
in National Museum News, 3, 1996, p. 23.
Barbet, A., Vibert-Guigue, C., Les peintures des ncropoles romaines dAbila

et du nord de la Jordanie, in Bibliothque Archologique et Historique, CXXX,

IFPO, 1994.
Binni, L. Pinna, G., Museo, Milano, 1980.
Capriotti, G., Conservation of the tomb of Tyre: 1st diagnostic campaign, National Museum,
Beirut, Lebanon, 920 July 1997. Mission report, iccrom, Rome, Italy, 1997.
Capriotti, G., Conservation of the tomb of Tyre: 2nd diagnostic campaign & emergency
treatments, National Museum, Beirut, Lebanon, 8 15 February 1998, Mission
report, iccrom, Rome, 1998.
Capriotti, G., The mural paintings of the Tomb of Tyre in the Beirut National Museum,
iccrom, unpublished Report, 199798, p. 1.
Chhab, E.M., Chronique, in Bulletin du Muse de Beyrouth, II, Beyrouth, 1938,

p. 109111.
Colombo, L., I colori degli antichi, Nardini, Firenze, 1995, p. 71133.
Dimos, Corso sulla manutenzione dei dipinti murali, mosaici, stucchi; Modulo I
Tecniche di esecuzione e materiali costitutivi, Istituto Centrale del Restauro, Roma,
1978, cap. VI, p. 179212.
Dunand, M., Tombe peinte dans la campagne de Tyr, in Bulletin du Muse de
Beyrouth, XVIII, Beyrouth, 1965, p. 151.
Meurdrac, M., Albanse, L., A travers les ncropoles Grco-romaines de Sidon,

in Bulletin du Muse de Beyrouth, II, Beyrouth, 1938, p. 76.
Mora, P., Laura Philippot, P., La Conservazione delle pitture murali, Compositori,

II ed., Bologna, 2001, p. 85122.
Renan, E., Mission de Phnicie, p. 367368, pl. 44.
Running a Museum A Practical Handbook unesco/icom 2006.
Skaf, I., War and conservator: 4. Recovery operations at the National Museum of
Beirut, in Museum management and curatorship, 1997, Vol. 16, N. 2, p. 173.
Schmid, W., Lebanon: survey of needs and draft action plan for the preservation of
archaeological and historic mural paintings. Mission report, iccrom, Rome, 1997.
Snow, C., Preservation of the Dura-Europos Synagogue wall paintings, in
Conservation and the Eastern Mediterranean, Contributions to the Istanbul
Congress, International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic
Works, 2024 September 2010, p. 272.
110
colophon
Funded by
Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs / Italian Cooperation
Under the Patronage of
Lebanese Ministry of Culture / Directorate General of Antiquities
Official Website
www.culture.gov.lb/tomboftyre
Editing
Anna Dal Maso
Graphic Design
Davide Falzone
Photography
The figures included in this publication,
wherever not differently mentioned, were taken by:
Giorgio Capriotti
La Captan
Davide Falzone
Tony Farraj
Badr Jabbour Gdon
Ghada Badr Salem
Italian Cooperation Office for Lebanon and Syria
All photos on this publication are copyrighted
material and all rights are reserved.
Printed by
Chemaly&Chemaly Printing Press (s.a.l.)
Printed in january 2012

The Tomb of Tyre

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

The Tomb of Tyre

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

restoration of the roman frescoes in the national museum of beirut

a word from h. e. the minister of culture

a word from h. e. the ambassador of italy

The Tomb of Tyre

From Tyre to Beirut

Bibliography & Credits

Anna Dal Maso

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

Isabelle Doumet Skaf

Antonio Giammarusti, La Captan

Anna Dal Maso

Anna Dal Maso

Knowing our past to understand our present

why do we preserve cultural heritage?

hy do we preserve our cultural heritage? Why do we commit

The concept of culture as a basic need for the different societiesalthough at

3 | Khan El-Echle, Sidon.

4 | Bacchus Temple, Baalbek.

Anna Dal Maso

the project origins

2 | The Director General of

Anna Dal Maso

Lebanon, 920 July 1997. Mission

the overall restoration, and the estimation of a

2nd diagnostic campaign & emergency

the project implementation

Beirut, Lebanon, 815 February

5 | Schmid, W., Lebanon:

6 | Capriotti, G., Ibidem,

9 | Detail of the right

Anna Dal Maso

The prompt response of the Directorate General for Development Cooperation

Anna Dal Maso

7 | Dunand, M., Tombe

8 | The official website of the

Anna Dal Maso

12 | The pillars in the original architecture, in BMB, XVIII, p. 23, 1965.

9 | Inscription at the entrance

13 | The architectural quotation of the pillars in the museographic display.

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

The Tomb of Tyre

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

A Roman painted Tomb from Tyre in the

n May 1937, a providential and unexpected discovery in the Tyre region

Lvnement capital de lanne coule a t, au Liban, la dcouverte dun hypoge

The Tomb of Tyre

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

11 | Dunand, M., Op. cit.,

The Tomb of Tyre

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

14 | A research study in the

The secondary tombs

15 | Plan from Dunand, BMB, XVIII, pl. 22, 1965.

The Tomb of Tyre

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

16 | Entrance, Psyche representation.

20 | Dunand, M., Ibidem,

17 | Northern wall, detail of Phosphorus.

The Tomb of Tyre

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

22 | Northern wall, detail of tantalus scene.

23 | Northern wall, detail of Alcestis and Heracles scene.

tantalus in the infernal gardens

alcestis and heracles