Transformer - Description

4/24/2015
TransformerWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Transformer
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Atransformerisanelectricaldevicethattransfersenergybetween
twoormorecircuitsthroughelectromagneticinduction.
Avaryingcurrentinthetransformer'sprimarywindingcreatesa
varyingmagneticfluxinthecoreandavaryingmagneticfield
impingingonthesecondarywinding.Thisvaryingmagneticfieldat
thesecondaryinducesavaryingelectromotiveforce(EMF)or
voltageinthesecondarywinding.MakinguseofFaraday'sLawin
conjunctionwithhighmagneticpermeabilitycoreproperties,
transformerscanthusbedesignedtoefficientlychangeACvoltages
fromonevoltageleveltoanotherwithinpowernetworks.
TransformersrangeinsizefromRFtransformerslessthanacubic
centimetreinvolumetounitsinterconnectingthepowergrid
weighinghundredsoftons.Awiderangeoftransformerdesignsis
encounteredinelectronicandelectricpowerapplications.Sincethe
inventionin1885ofthefirstconstantpotentialtransformer,
transformershavebecomeessentialfortheACtransmission,
distribution,andutilizationofelectricalenergy.[3]
Contents
1Basicprinciples
Polemounteddistribution
transformerwithcentertapped
secondarywindingusedtoprovide
'splitphase'powerforresidential
andlightcommercialservice,
whichinNorthAmericais
typicallyrated120/240V. [1][2]
1.1Idealtransformer
1.2Realtransformer
2Basictransformerparametersandconstruction
2.1Effectoffrequency
2.2Energylosses
2.3Coreformandshellformtransformers
3Construction
3.1Cores
3.2Windings
3.3Cooling
3.4Insulationdrying
3.5Bushings
4Classificationparameters
5Types
6Applications
7History
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer
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7.1Discoveryofinduction
7.2Inductioncoils
7.3Firstalternatingcurrenttransformers
7.4Earlyseriescircuittransformerdistribution
7.5Closedcoretransformersandparallelpower
distribution
7.6Otherearlytransformers
8Seealso
9Notes
10References
11Bibliography
12Externallinks
Basicprinciples
Idealtransformer
Itisverycommon,forsimplificationor
approximationpurposes,toanalyzethe
transformerasanidealtransformermodelas
representedinthetwoimages.Anideal
transformerisatheoretical,lineartransformerthat
islosslessandperfectlycoupledthatis,thereare
noenergylossesandfluxiscompletelyconfined
withinthemagneticcore.Perfectcouplingimplies
infinitelyhighcoremagneticpermeabilityand
windinginductancesandzeronetmagnetomotive
force.[5][c]
Avaryingcurrentinthetransformer'sprimary
windingcreatesavaryingmagneticfluxinthe
coreandavaryingmagneticfieldimpingingon
thesecondarywinding.Thisvaryingmagnetic
fieldatthesecondaryinducesavarying
electromotiveforce(EMF)orvoltageinthe
secondarywinding.Theprimaryandsecondary
windingsarewrappedaroundacoreofinfinitely
highmagneticpermeability[d]sothatallofthe
magneticfluxpassesthroughboththeprimaryand
secondarywindings.Withavoltagesource
connectedtotheprimarywindingandload
impedanceconnectedtothesecondarywinding,
thetransformercurrentsflowintheindicated
directions.(SeealsoPolarity.)
Idealtransformerequations(eq.)
ByFaraday'slawofinduction
...(1)[a]
...(2)
Combiningratioof(1)&(2)
Turnsratio
...(3)
where
forstepdowntransformers,a>1
forstepuptransformers,a<1
BylawofConservationofEnergy,apparent,
realandreactivepowerareeachconservedin
theinputandoutput
...(4)
Combining(3)&(4)withthisendnote[b]
yieldstheidealtransformeridentity
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AccordingtoFaraday'slawofinduction,sincethe
samemagneticfluxpassesthroughboththe
primaryandsecondarywindingsinanideal
transformer,[7]avoltageisinducedineach
winding,accordingtoeq.(1)inthesecondary
windingcase,accordingtoeq.(2)intheprimary
windingcase.[8]TheprimaryEMFissometimes
termedcounterEMF.[9][10][f]Thisisinaccordance
withLenz'slaw,whichstatesthatinductionof
EMFalwaysopposesdevelopmentofanysuch
changeinmagneticfield.
.(5)
ByOhm'sLawandidealtransformeridentity
...(6)
ApparentloadimpedanceZ'L(ZLreferredto
theprimary)
.(7)
Thetransformerwindingvoltageratioisthus
showntobedirectlyproportionaltothewinding
turnsratioaccordingtoeq.(3).[11][12][g][h]
AccordingtothelawofConservationofEnergy,
anyloadimpedanceconnectedtotheideal
transformer'ssecondarywindingresultsin
conservationofapparent,realandreactivepower
consistentwitheq.(4).
IdealtransformerconnectedwithsourceVPonprimary
andloadimpedanceZLonsecondary,where0<ZL<
.
Theidealtransformeridentityshownineq.(5)is
areasonableapproximationforthetypical
commercialtransformer,withvoltageratioand
windingturnsratiobothbeinginversely
proportionaltothecorrespondingcurrentratio.
ByOhm's
Lawandthe
ideal
transformer
identity:
thesecondary
circuitload
impedance
canbe
expressedas
eq.(6)
Idealtransformerandinductionlaw[e]
theapparent
load
Instrumenttransformer,with
polaritydotandX1markingson
LVsideterminal
impedance
referredtotheprimarycircuitisderivedineq.(7)tobeequaltotheturnsratiosquaredtimesthe
secondarycircuitloadimpedance.[15][16]
Polarity
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Adotconventionisoftenusedintransformercircuitdiagrams,nameplatesorterminalmarkingsto
definetherelativepolarityoftransformerwindings.Positivelyincreasinginstantaneouscurrententering
theprimarywinding'sdotendinducespositivepolarityvoltageatthesecondarywinding'sdot
end.[17][18][19][i][j][k]
Realtransformer
Deviationsfromideal
Theidealtransformermodelneglectsthefollowingbasiclinearaspectsinrealtransformers.
Corelosses,collectivelycalledmagnetizingcurrentlosses,consistof[23]
Hysteresislossesduetononlinearapplicationofthevoltageappliedinthetransformercore,and
Eddycurrentlossesduetojouleheatinginthecorethatareproportionaltothesquareofthe
transformer'sappliedvoltage.
Whereaswindingsintheidealmodelhavenoresistancesandinfiniteinductances,thewindingsinareal
transformerhavefinitenonzeroresistancesandinductancesassociatedwith:
Joulelossesduetoresistanceintheprimaryandsecondarywindings[23]
Leakagefluxthatescapesfromthecoreandpassesthroughonewindingonlyresultinginprimary
andsecondaryreactiveimpedance.
Leakageflux
Theidealtransformermodelassumesthatallflux
generatedbytheprimarywindinglinksalltheturns
ofeverywinding,includingitself.Inpractice,some
fluxtraversespathsthattakeitoutsidethe
windings.[24]Suchfluxistermedleakageflux,and
resultsinleakageinductanceinserieswiththe
mutuallycoupledtransformerwindings.[10]
Leakagefluxresultsinenergybeingalternately
storedinanddischargedfromthemagneticfields
witheachcycleofthepowersupply.Itisnot
directlyapowerloss,butresultsininferiorvoltage
Leakagefluxofatransformer
regulation,causingthesecondaryvoltagenottobe
directlyproportionaltotheprimaryvoltage,
particularlyunderheavyload.[24]Transformersarethereforenormallydesignedtohaveverylowleakage
inductance.
Insomeapplicationsincreasedleakageisdesired,andlongmagneticpaths,airgaps,ormagneticbypass
shuntsmaydeliberatelybeintroducedinatransformerdesigntolimittheshortcircuitcurrentitwill
supply.[10]Leakytransformersmaybeusedtosupplyloadsthatexhibitnegativeresistance,suchas
electricarcs,mercuryvaporlamps,andneonsignsorforsafelyhandlingloadsthatbecomeperiodically
shortcircuitedsuchaselectricarcwelders.[25]
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Airgapsarealsousedtokeepatransformerfromsaturating,especiallyaudiofrequencytransformersin
circuitsthathaveaDCcomponentflowinginthewindings.[26]
Knowledgeofleakageinductanceisalsousefulwhentransformersareoperatedinparallel.Itcanbe
shownthatifthepercentimpedance[l]andassociatedwindingleakagereactancetoresistance(X/R)ratio
oftwotransformerswerehypotheticallyexactlythesame,thetransformerswouldsharepowerin
proportiontotheirrespectivevoltampereratings(e.g.500kVAunitinparallelwith1,000kVAunit,the
largerunitwouldcarrytwicethecurrent).However,theimpedancetolerancesofcommercial
transformersaresignificant.Also,theZimpedanceandX/Rratioofdifferentcapacitytransformers
tendstovary,corresponding1,000kVAand500kVAunits'valuesbeing,toillustrate,respectively,Z
5.75%,X/R3.75andZ5%,X/R4.75.[28][29]
Equivalentcircuit
Referringtothediagram,apracticaltransformer'sphysicalbehaviormayberepresentedbyan
equivalentcircuitmodel,whichcanincorporateanidealtransformer.[30]
Windingjoulelossesandleakagereactancesarerepresentedbythefollowingseriesloopimpedancesof
themodel:
Primarywinding:RP,XP
Secondarywinding:RS,XS.
Innormalcourseofcircuitequivalencetransformation,RSandXSareinpracticeusuallyreferredtothe
primarysidebymultiplyingtheseimpedancesbytheturnsratiosquared,(NP/NS)2=a2.
Corelossand
reactanceis
representedbythe
followingshuntleg
impedancesofthe
model:
Coreoriron
losses:RC
Magnetizing
reactance:XM.
Realtransformerequivalentcircuit
RCandXMarecollectivelytermedthemagnetizingbranchofthemodel.
Corelossesarecausedmostlybyhysteresisandeddycurrenteffectsinthecoreandareproportionalto
thesquareofthecorefluxforoperationatagivenfrequency.[31]Thefinitepermeabilitycorerequiresa
magnetizingcurrentIMtomaintainmutualfluxinthecore.Magnetizingcurrentisinphasewiththeflux,
therelationshipbetweenthetwobeingnonlinearduetosaturationeffects.However,allimpedancesof
theequivalentcircuitshownarebydefinitionlinearandsuchnonlinearityeffectsarenottypically
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reflectedintransformerequivalentcircuits.[31]Withsinusoidalsupply,corefluxlagstheinducedEMF
by90.Withopencircuitedsecondarywinding,magnetizingbranchcurrentI0equalstransformerno
loadcurrent.[30]
Theresultingmodel,thoughsometimestermed'exact'equivalentcircuitbasedonlinearityassumptions,
retainsanumberofapproximations.[30]Analysismaybesimplifiedbyassumingthatmagnetizingbranch
impedanceisrelativelyhighandrelocatingthebranchtotheleftoftheprimaryimpedances.This
introduceserrorbutallowscombinationofprimaryandreferredsecondaryresistancesandreactancesby
simplesummationastwoseriesimpedances.
Transformerequivalentcircuitimpedanceandtransformerratioparameterscanbederivedfromthe
followingtests:opencircuittest,[m]shortcircuittest,windingresistancetest,andtransformerratiotest.
Basictransformerparametersandconstruction
Effectoffrequency
By
Faraday's
Lawof
induction
shownin
eq.(1)and
(2),
Powertransformeroverexcitation
conditioncausedbydecreased
frequencyflux(green),ironcore's
magneticcharacteristics(red)and
magnetizingcurrent(blue).
TransformeruniversalEMFequation
Ifthefluxinthecoreispurelysinusoidal,the
relationshipforeitherwindingbetweenits
rmsvoltageErmsofthewinding,andthe
supplyfrequencyf,numberofturnsN,core
crosssectionalareaainm2andpeak
magneticfluxdensityBpeakinWb/m2orT
(tesla)isgivenbytheuniversalEMF
equation:[23]
transformerEMFsvaryaccordingtothe
Ifthefluxdoesnotcontainevenharmonics
derivativeoffluxwithrespecttotime.[33]The
thefollowingequationcanbeusedforhalf
idealtransformer'scorebehaveslinearlywithtime
cycleaveragevoltageEavgofanywaveshape:
foranynonzerofrequency.[6][34]Fluxinareal
transformer'scorebehavesnonlinearlyinrelation
tomagnetizationcurrentastheinstantaneousflux
increasesbeyondafinitelinearrangeresultingin
magneticsaturationassociatedwithincreasingly
largemagnetizingcurrent,whicheventuallyleadstotransformeroverheating.
TheEMFofatransformeratagivenfluxdensityincreaseswithfrequency.[23]Byoperatingathigher
frequencies,transformerscanbephysicallymorecompactbecauseagivencoreisabletotransfermore
powerwithoutreachingsaturationandfewerturnsareneededtoachievethesameimpedance.However,
propertiessuchascorelossandconductorskineffectalsoincreasewithfrequency.Aircraftandmilitary
equipmentemploy400Hzpowersupplieswhichreducecoreandwindingweight.[35]Conversely,
frequenciesusedforsomerailwayelectrificationsystemsweremuchlower(e.g.16.7Hzand25Hz)
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thannormalutilityfrequencies(5060Hz)forhistoricalreasonsconcernedmainlywiththelimitations
ofearlyelectrictractionmotors.Assuch,thetransformersusedtostepdownthehighoverheadline
voltages(e.g.15kV)weremuchheavierforthesamepowerratingthanthosedesignedonlyforthe
higherfrequencies.
Operationofatransformeratitsdesignedvoltagebutatahigherfrequencythanintendedwillleadto
reducedmagnetizingcurrent.Atalowerfrequency,themagnetizingcurrentwillincrease.Operationofa
transformeratotherthanitsdesignfrequencymayrequireassessmentofvoltages,losses,andcoolingto
establishifsafeoperationispractical.Forexample,transformersmayneedtobeequippedwith'voltsper
hertz'overexcitationrelaystoprotectthetransformerfromovervoltageathigherthanratedfrequency.
Oneexampleisintractiontransformersusedforelectricmultipleunitandhighspeedtrainservice
operatingacrossregionswithdifferentelectricalstandards.Theconverterequipmentandtraction
transformershavetoaccommodatedifferentinputfrequenciesandvoltage(rangingfromashighas
50Hzdownto16.7Hzandratedupto25kV)whilebeingsuitableformultipleACasynchronousmotor
andDCconvertersandmotorswithvaryingharmonicsmitigationfilteringrequirements.
Largepowertransformersarevulnerabletoinsulationfailureduetotransientvoltageswithhigh
frequencycomponents,suchascausedinswitchingorbylightning.[36]
Energylosses
Realtransformerenergylossesaredominatedbywindingresistancejouleandcorelosses.Transformers'
efficiencytendstoimprovewithincreasingtransformercapacity.Theefficiencyoftypicaldistribution
transformersisbetweenabout98and99percent.[37][38][n]
Astransformerlossesvarywithload,itisoftenusefultoexpresstheselossesintermsofnoloadloss,
fullloadloss,halfloadloss,andsoon.Hysteresisandeddycurrentlossesareconstantatallloadlevels
anddominateoverwhelminglywithoutload,whilevariablewindingjoulelossesdominatingincreasingly
asloadincreases.Thenoloadlosscanbesignificant,sothatevenanidletransformerconstitutesadrain
ontheelectricalsupply.Designingenergyefficienttransformersforlowerlossrequiresalargercore,
goodqualitysiliconsteel,orevenamorphoussteelforthecoreandthickerwire,increasinginitialcost.
Thechoiceofconstructionrepresentsatradeoffbetweeninitialcostandoperatingcost.[40]
Transformerlossesarisefrom:
Windingjoulelosses
Currentflowingthroughawinding'sconductorcausesjouleheating.Asfrequencyincreases,skin
effectandproximityeffectcausesthewinding'sresistanceand,hence,lossestoincrease.
Corelosses
Hysteresislosses
Eachtimethemagneticfieldisreversed,asmallamountofenergyislostduetohysteresis
withinthecore.AccordingtoSteinmetz'sformula,theheatenergyduetohysteresisisgiven
by
,and,
hysteresislossisthusgivenby
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where,fisthefrequency,isthehysteresiscoefficientandmaxisthemaximumflux
density,theempiricalexponentofwhichvariesfromabout1.4to1.8butisoftengivenas
1.6foriron.[40][41][42]
Eddycurrentlosses
Ferromagneticmaterialsarealsogoodconductorsandacoremadefromsuchamaterialalso
constitutesasingleshortcircuitedturnthroughoutitsentirelength.Eddycurrentstherefore
circulatewithinthecoreinaplanenormaltotheflux,andareresponsibleforresistive
heatingofthecorematerial.Theeddycurrentlossisacomplexfunctionofthesquareof
supplyfrequencyandinversesquareofthematerialthickness.[40]Eddycurrentlossescanbe
reducedbymakingthecoreofastackofplateselectricallyinsulatedfromeachother,rather
thanasolidblockalltransformersoperatingatlowfrequenciesuselaminatedorsimilar
cores.
Magnetostrictionrelatedtransformerhum
Magneticfluxinaferromagneticmaterial,suchasthecore,causesittophysicallyexpandand
contractslightlywitheachcycleofthemagneticfield,aneffectknownasmagnetostriction,the
frictionalenergyofwhichproducesanaudiblenoiseknownasmainshumortransformer
hum.[11][43]Thistransformerhumisespeciallyobjectionableintransformerssuppliedatpower
frequencies[o]andinhighfrequencyflybacktransformersassociatedwithPALsystemCRTs.
Straylosses
Leakageinductanceisbyitselflargelylossless,sinceenergysuppliedtoitsmagneticfieldsis
returnedtothesupplywiththenexthalfcycle.However,anyleakagefluxthatinterceptsnearby
conductivematerialssuchasthetransformer'ssupportstructurewillgiverisetoeddycurrentsand
beconvertedtoheat.[44]Therearealsoradiativelossesduetotheoscillatingmagneticfieldbut
theseareusuallysmall.
Mechanicalvibrationandaudiblenoisetransmission
Inadditiontomagnetostriction,thealternatingmagnetic
fieldcausesfluctuatingforcesbetweentheprimaryand
secondarywindings.Thisenergyincitesvibration
transmissionininterconnectedmetalwork,thusamplifying
audibletransformerhum.[45]
Coreformandshellformtransformers
Closedcoretransformersareconstructedin'coreform'or'shell
Coreform=coretypeshellform=
form'.Whenwindingssurroundthecore,thetransformeriscore
shelltype
formwhenwindingsaresurroundedbythecore,the
transformerisshellform.Shellformdesignmaybemore
prevalentthancoreformdesignfordistributiontransformerapplicationsduetotherelativeeasein
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stackingthecorearoundwindingcoils.[46]Coreformdesigntendsto,asageneralrule,bemore
economical,andthereforemoreprevalent,thanshellformdesignforhighvoltagepowertransformer
applicationsatthelowerendoftheirvoltageandpowerratingranges(lessthanorequalto,nominally,
230kVor75MVA).Athighervoltageandpowerratings,shellformtransformerstendtobemore
prevalent.[46][47][48][49]ShellformdesigntendstobepreferredforextrahighvoltageandhigherMVA
applicationsbecause,thoughmorelaborintensivetomanufacture,shellformtransformersare
characterizedashavinginherentlybetterkVAtoweightratio,bettershortcircuitstrengthcharacteristics
andhigherimmunitytotransitdamage.[49]
Construction
Cores
Laminatedsteelcores
Transformersforuseatpoweroraudiofrequenciestypicallyhave
coresmadeofhighpermeabilitysiliconsteel.[50]Thesteelhasa
permeabilitymanytimesthatoffreespaceandthecorethus
servestogreatlyreducethemagnetizingcurrentandconfinethe
fluxtoapathwhichcloselycouplesthewindings.[51]Early
transformerdeveloperssoonrealizedthatcoresconstructedfrom
solidironresultedinprohibitiveeddycurrentlosses,andtheir
designsmitigatedthiseffectwithcoresconsistingofbundlesof
insulatedironwires.[52]Laterdesignsconstructedthecoreby
stackinglayersofthinsteellaminations,aprinciplethathas
remainedinuse.Eachlaminationisinsulatedfromitsneighbors
byathinnonconductinglayerofinsulation.[53]Theuniversal
transformerequationindicatesaminimumcrosssectionalarea
forthecoretoavoidsaturation.
Laminatedcoretransformershowing
edgeoflaminationsattopofphoto
Theeffectoflaminationsistoconfineeddycurrentstohighly
ellipticalpathsthatencloselittleflux,andsoreducetheir
magnitude.Thinnerlaminationsreducelosses,[54]butaremore
laboriousandexpensivetoconstruct.[55]Thinlaminationsare
generallyusedonhighfrequencytransformers,withsomeof
verythinsteellaminationsabletooperateupto10kHz.
Onecommondesignoflaminatedcoreismadefrominterleaved
stacksofEshapedsteelsheetscappedwithIshapedpieces,
Powertransformerinrushcurrent
leadingtoitsnameof'EItransformer'.[55]Suchadesigntendsto
causedbyresidualfluxatswitching
exhibitmorelosses,butisveryeconomicaltomanufacture.The
instantflux(green),ironcore's
cutcoreorCcoretypeismadebywindingasteelstriparounda
magneticcharacteristics(red)and
rectangularformandthenbondingthelayerstogether.Itisthen
magnetizingcurrent(blue).
cutintwo,formingtwoCshapes,andthecoreassembledby
bindingthetwoChalvestogetherwithasteelstrap.[55]They
havetheadvantagethatthefluxisalwaysorientedparalleltothemetalgrains,reducingreluctance.
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Asteelcore'sremanencemeansthatitretainsastaticmagneticfield
whenpowerisremoved.Whenpoweristhenreapplied,theresidualfield
willcauseahighinrushcurrentuntiltheeffectoftheremaining
magnetismisreduced,usuallyafterafewcyclesoftheappliedAC
waveform.[56]Overcurrentprotectiondevicessuchasfusesmustbe
selectedtoallowthisharmlessinrushtopass.Ontransformersconnected
tolong,overheadpowertransmissionlines,inducedcurrentsdueto
geomagneticdisturbancesduringsolarstormscancausesaturationofthe
coreandoperationoftransformerprotectiondevices.[57]
Laminatingthecoregreatly
reduceseddycurrentlosses
Distributiontransformerscanachievelownoloadlossesbyusingcores
madewithlowlosshighpermeabilitysiliconsteeloramorphous(non
crystalline)metalalloy.Thehigherinitialcostofthecorematerialis
offsetoverthelifeofthetransformerbyitslowerlossesatlightload.[58]
Solidcores
Powderedironcoresareusedincircuitssuchasswitchmodepowersuppliesthatoperateabovemains
frequenciesanduptoafewtensofkilohertz.Thesematerialscombinehighmagneticpermeabilitywith
highbulkelectricalresistivity.ForfrequenciesextendingbeyondtheVHFband,coresmadefromnon
conductivemagneticceramicmaterialscalledferritesarecommon.[55]Someradiofrequency
transformersalsohavemovablecores(sometimescalled'slugs')whichallowadjustmentofthecoupling
coefficient(andbandwidth)oftunedradiofrequencycircuits.
Toroidalcores
Toroidaltransformersarebuiltaroundaringshapedcore,which,
dependingonoperatingfrequency,ismadefromalongstripof
siliconsteelorpermalloywoundintoacoil,powderediron,or
ferrite.[59]Astripconstructionensuresthatthegrainboundaries
areoptimallyaligned,improvingthetransformer'sefficiencyby
reducingthecore'sreluctance.Theclosedringshapeeliminates
airgapsinherentintheconstructionofanEIcore.[25]Thecross
sectionoftheringisusuallysquareorrectangular,butmore
expensivecoreswithcircularcrosssectionsarealsoavailable.
Theprimaryandsecondarycoilsareoftenwoundconcentrically
tocovertheentiresurfaceofthecore.Thisminimizesthelength
ofwireneededandprovidesscreeningtominimizethecore's
magneticfieldfromgeneratingelectromagneticinterference.
Smalltoroidalcoretransformer
ToroidaltransformersaremoreefficientthanthecheaperlaminatedEItypesforasimilarpowerlevel.
OtheradvantagescomparedtoEItypes,includesmallersize(abouthalf),lowerweight(abouthalf),less
mechanicalhum(makingthemsuperiorinaudioamplifiers),lowerexteriormagneticfield(aboutone
tenth),lowoffloadlosses(makingthemmoreefficientinstandbycircuits),singleboltmounting,and
greaterchoiceofshapes.Themaindisadvantagesarehighercostandlimitedpowercapacity(see
Classificationparametersbelow).Becauseofthelackofaresidualgapinthemagneticpath,toroidal
transformersalsotendtoexhibithigherinrushcurrent,comparedtolaminatedEItypes.
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Ferritetoroidalcoresareusedathigherfrequencies,typicallybetweenafewtensofkilohertzto
hundredsofmegahertz,toreducelosses,physicalsize,andweightofinductivecomponents.Adrawback
oftoroidaltransformerconstructionisthehigherlaborcostofwinding.Thisisbecauseitisnecessaryto
passtheentirelengthofacoilwindingthroughthecoreapertureeachtimeasingleturnisaddedtothe
coil.Asaconsequence,toroidaltransformersratedmorethanafewkVAareuncommon.Small
distributiontransformersmayachievesomeofthebenefitsofatoroidalcorebysplittingitandforcingit
open,theninsertingabobbincontainingprimaryandsecondarywindings.
Aircores
Aphysicalcoreisnotanabsoluterequisiteandafunctioningtransformercanbeproducedsimplyby
placingthewindingsneareachother,anarrangementtermedan'aircore'transformer.Theairwhich
comprisesthemagneticcircuitisessentiallylossless,andsoanaircoretransformereliminateslossdue
tohysteresisinthecorematerial.[10]Theleakageinductanceisinevitablyhigh,resultinginverypoor
regulation,andsosuchdesignsareunsuitableforuseinpowerdistribution.[10]Theyhavehoweververy
highbandwidth,andarefrequentlyemployedinradiofrequencyapplications,[60]forwhichasatisfactory
couplingcoefficientismaintainedbycarefullyoverlappingtheprimaryandsecondarywindings.They're
alsousedforresonanttransformerssuchasTeslacoilswheretheycanachievereasonablylowlossin
spiteofthehighleakageinductance.
Windings
Theconductingmaterialusedforthewindingsdependsupon
theapplication,butinallcasestheindividualturnsmustbe
electricallyinsulatedfromeachothertoensurethatthe
currenttravelsthroughouteveryturn.[61]Forsmallpower
andsignaltransformers,inwhichcurrentsarelowandthe
potentialdifferencebetweenadjacentturnsissmall,thecoils
areoftenwoundfromenamelledmagnetwire,suchas
Formvarwire.Largerpowertransformersoperatingathigh
voltagesmaybewoundwithcopperrectangularstrip
conductorsinsulatedbyoilimpregnatedpaperandblocksof
pressboard.[62]
Highfrequencytransformersoperatinginthetensto
Windingsareusuallyarranged
hundredsofkilohertzoftenhavewindingsmadeofbraided
concentricallytominimizefluxleakage.
Litzwiretominimizetheskineffectandproximityeffect
losses.[63]Largepowertransformersusemultiplestranded
conductorsaswell,sinceevenatlowpowerfrequenciesnonuniformdistributionofcurrentwould
otherwiseexistinhighcurrentwindings.[62]Eachstrandisindividuallyinsulated,andthestrandsare
arrangedsothatatcertainpointsinthewinding,orthroughoutthewholewinding,eachportionoccupies
differentrelativepositionsinthecompleteconductor.Thetranspositionequalizesthecurrentflowingin
eachstrandoftheconductor,andreduceseddycurrentlossesinthewindingitself.Thestranded
conductorisalsomoreflexiblethanasolidconductorofsimilarsize,aidingmanufacture.[62]
Thewindingsofsignaltransformersminimizeleakageinductanceandstraycapacitancetoimprovehigh
frequencyresponse.Coilsaresplitintosections,andthosesectionsinterleavedbetweenthesectionsof
theotherwinding.
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Cutviewthroughtransformerwindings.
White:insulator.Greenspiral:Grain
orientedsiliconsteel.Black:Primary
windingmadeofoxygenfreecopper.Red:
Secondarywinding.Topleft:Toroidal
transformer.Right:Ccore,butEcore
wouldbesimilar.Theblackwindingsare
madeoffilm.Top:Equallylow
capacitancebetweenallendsofboth
windings.Sincemostcoresareatleast
moderatelyconductivetheyalsoneed
insulation.Bottom:Lowestcapacitancefor
oneendofthesecondarywindingneeded
forlowpowerhighvoltagetransformers.
Bottomleft:Reductionofleakage
inductancewouldleadtoincreaseof
capacitance.
Powerfrequencytransformersmayhavetapsatintermediate
pointsonthewinding,usuallyonthehighervoltagewinding
side,forvoltageadjustment.Tapsmaybemanually
reconnected,oramanualorautomaticswitchmaybe
providedforchangingtaps.Automaticonloadtapchangers
areusedinelectricpowertransmissionordistribution,on
equipmentsuchasarcfurnacetransformers,orforautomatic
voltageregulatorsforsensitiveloads.Audiofrequency
transformers,usedforthedistributionofaudiotopublic
addressloudspeakers,havetapstoallowadjustmentof
impedancetoeachspeaker.Acentertappedtransformeris
oftenusedintheoutputstageofanaudiopoweramplifierin
apushpullcircuit.ModulationtransformersinAM
transmittersareverysimilar.
Drytypetransformerwindinginsulationsystemscanbe
eitherofstandardopenwound'dipandbake'constructionor
ofhigherqualitydesignsthatincludevacuumpressure
impregnation(VPI),vacuumpressureencapsulation(VPE),
andcastcoilencapsulationprocesses.[64]IntheVPIprocess,
acombinationofheat,vacuumandpressureisusedto
thoroughlyseal,bind,andeliminateentrainedairvoidsin
thewindingpolyesterresininsulationcoatlayer,thus
increasingresistancetocorona.VPEwindingsaresimilarto
VPIwindingsbutprovidemoreprotectionagainst
environmentaleffects,suchasfromwater,dirtorcorrosive
ambients,bymultipledipsincludingtypicallyintermsof
finalepoxycoat.[65]
Cooling
Toplacethecoolingprobleminperspective,theacceptedruleofthumbisthatthelifeexpectancyof
insulationinallelectricmachinesincludingalltransformersishalvedforaboutevery7Cto10C
increaseinoperatingtemperature,thislifeexpectancyhalvingruleholdingmorenarrowlywhenthe
increaseisbetweenabout7Cto8Cinthecaseoftransformerwindingcelluloseinsulation.[66][67][68]
Smalldrytypeandliquidimmersedtransformersareoftenselfcooledbynaturalconvectionand
radiationheatdissipation.Aspowerratingsincrease,transformersareoftencooledbyforcedaircooling,
forcedoilcooling,watercooling,orcombinationsofthese.[69]Largetransformersarefilledwith
transformeroilthatbothcoolsandinsulatesthewindings.[70]Transformeroilisahighlyrefinedmineral
oilthatcoolsthewindingsandinsulationbycirculatingwithinthetransformertank.Themineraloiland
paperinsulationsystemhasbeenextensivelystudiedandusedformorethan100years.Itisestimated
that50%ofpowertransformerswillsurvive50yearsofuse,thattheaverageageoffailureofpower
transformersisabout10to15years,andthatabout30%ofpowertransformerfailuresaredueto
insulationandoverloadingfailures.[71][72]Prolongedoperationatelevatedtemperaturedegrades
insulatingpropertiesofwindinginsulationanddielectriccoolant,whichnotonlyshortenstransformer
lifebutcanultimatelyleadtocatastrophictransformerfailure.[66]Withagreatbodyofempiricalstudyas
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aguide,transformeroiltestingincludingdissolvedgasanalysis
providesvaluablemaintenanceinformation.Thisunderlinestheneedto
monitor,model,forecastandmanageoilandwindingconductor
insulationtemperatureconditionsundervarying,possiblydifficult,
powerloadingconditions.[73][74]
Buildingregulationsinmanyjurisdictionsrequireindoorliquidfilled
transformerstoeitherusedielectricfluidsthatarelessflammablethan
oil,orbeinstalledinfireresistantrooms.[37]Aircooleddry
transformerscanbemoreeconomicalwheretheyeliminatethecostofa
fireresistanttransformerroom.
Thetankofliquidfilledtransformersoftenhasradiatorsthroughwhich
theliquidcoolantcirculatesbynaturalconvectionorfins.Somelarge
transformersemployelectricfansforforcedaircooling,pumpsfor
forcedliquidcooling,orhaveheatexchangersforwatercooling.[70]An
oilimmersedtransformermaybeequippedwithaBuchholzrelay,
which,dependingonseverityofgasaccumulationduetointernal
arcing,isusedtoeitheralarmordeenergizethetransformer.[56]Oil
immersedtransformerinstallationsusuallyincludefireprotection
measuressuchaswalls,oilcontainment,andfiresuppressionsprinkler
systems.
Cutawayviewofliquid
immersedconstruction
transformer.Theconservator
(reservoir)attopprovides
liquidtoatmosphereisolation
ascoolantleveland
temperaturechanges.The
wallsandfinsproviderequired
heatdissipationbalance.
Polychlorinatedbiphenylshavepropertiesthatoncefavoredtheiruseas
adielectriccoolant,thoughconcernsovertheirenvironmental
persistenceledtoawidespreadbanontheiruse.[75]Today,nontoxic,
stablesiliconebasedoils,orfluorinatedhydrocarbonsmaybeused
wheretheexpenseofafireresistantliquidoffsetsadditionalbuildingcostforatransformervault.[37][76]
PCBsfornewequipmentwerebannedin1981andin2000foruseinexistingequipmentinUnited
Kingdom[77]LegislationenactedinCanadabetween1977and1985essentiallybansPCBusein
transformersmanufacturedinorimportedintothecountryafter1980,themaximumallowablelevelof
PCBcontaminationinexistingmineraloiltransformersbeing50ppm.[78]
Sometransformers,insteadofbeingliquidfilled,havetheirwindingsenclosedinsealed,pressurized
tanksandcooledbynitrogenorsulfurhexafluoridegas.[76]
Experimentalpowertransformersinthe500to1,000kVArangehavebeenbuiltwithliquidnitrogenor
heliumcooledsuperconductingwindings,whicheliminateswindinglosseswithoutaffectingcore
losses.[79][80]
Insulationdrying
Constructionofoilfilledtransformersrequiresthattheinsulationcoveringthewindingsbethoroughly
driedofresidualmoisturebeforetheoilisintroduced.Dryingiscarriedoutatthefactory,andmayalso
berequiredasafieldservice.Dryingmaybedonebycirculatinghotairaroundthecore,orbyvapor
phasedrying(VPD)whereanevaporatedsolventtransfersheatbycondensationonthecoilandcore.
Forsmalltransformers,resistanceheatingbyinjectionofcurrentintothewindingsisused.Theheating
canbecontrolledverywell,anditisenergyefficient.Themethodiscalledlowfrequencyheating(LFH)
sincethecurrentusedisatamuchlowerfrequencythanthatofthepowergrid,whichisnormally50or
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60Hz.Alowerfrequencyreducestheeffectofinductance,sothevoltagerequiredcanbereduced.[81]
TheLFHdryingmethodisalsousedforserviceofoldertransformers.[82]
Bushings
Largertransformersareprovidedwithhighvoltageinsulatedbushingsmadeofpolymersorporcelain.A
largebushingcanbeacomplexstructuresinceitmustprovidecarefulcontroloftheelectricfield
gradientwithoutlettingthetransformerleakoil.[83]
Classificationparameters
Transformerscanbeclassifiedinmanyways,suchasthefollowing:
Powercapacity:Fromafractionofavoltampere(VA)tooverathousandMVA.
Dutyofatransformer:Continuous,shorttime,intermittent,periodic,varying.
Frequencyrange:Powerfrequency,audiofrequency,orradiofrequency.
Voltageclass:Fromafewvoltstohundredsofkilovolts.
Coolingtype:Dryandliquidimmersedselfcooled,forcedaircooledliquidimmersedforced
oilcooled,watercooled.
Circuitapplication:Suchaspowersupply,impedancematching,outputvoltageandcurrent
stabilizerorcircuitisolation.
Utilization:Pulse,power,distribution,rectifier,arcfurnace,amplifieroutput,etc..
Basicmagneticform:Coreform,shellform.
Constantpotentialtransformerdescriptor:Stepup,stepdown,isolation.
Generalwindingconfiguration:ByEICvectorgroupvariouspossibletwowinding
combinationsofthephasedesignationsdelta,wyeorstar,andzigzagorinterconnectedstar[p]
otherautotransformer,ScottT,zigzaggroundingtransformerwinding.[84][85][86][87]
Rectifierphaseshiftwindingconfiguration:2winding,6pulse3winding,12pulse...n
winding,[n1]*6pulsepolygonetc..
Types
Variousspecificelectricalapplicationdesignsrequireavarietyoftransformertypes.Althoughtheyall
sharethebasiccharacteristictransformerprinciples,theyarecustomizeinconstructionorelectrical
propertiesforcertaininstallationrequirementsorcircuitconditions.
Autotransformer:Transformerinwhichpartofthewindingiscommontobothprimaryand
secondarycircuits.[88]
Capacitorvoltagetransformer:Transformerinwhichcapacitordividerisusedtoreducehigh
voltagebeforeapplicationtotheprimarywinding.
Distributiontransformer,powertransformer:Internationalstandardsmakeadistinctioninterms
ofdistributiontransformersbeingusedtodistributeenergyfromtransmissionlinesandnetworks
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forlocalconsumptionandpowertransformersbeingusedtotransferelectricenergybetweenthe
generatoranddistributionprimarycircuits.[88][89][q]
Phaseangleregulatingtransformer:Aspecialisedtransformerusedtocontroltheflowofreal
poweronthreephaseelectricitytransmissionnetworks.
ScottTtransformer:Transformerusedforphasetransformationfromthreephasetotwophase
andviceversa.[88]
Polyphasetransformer:Anytransformerwithmorethanonephase.
Groundingtransformer:Transformerusedforgroundingthreephasecircuitstocreateaneutralin
athreewiresystem,usingawyedeltatransformer,[85][90]ormorecommonly,azigzaggrounding
winding.[85][87][88]
Leakagetransformer:Transformerthathaslooselycoupledwindings.
Resonanttransformer:Transformerthatusesresonancetogenerateahighsecondaryvoltage.
Audiotransformer:Transformerusedinaudioequipment.
Outputtransformer:Transformerusedtomatchtheoutputofavalveamplifiertoitsload.
Instrumenttransformer:Potentialorcurrenttransformerusedtoaccuratelyandsafelyrepresent
voltage,currentorphasepositionofhighvoltageorhighpowercircuits.[88]
DataSignaltransformer:Specializedsmallsignaltransformerusedtotransmitdigitalsignaling
whileprovidingelectricalisolation,commonlyusedinEthernetcomputernetworksas10BASET,
100BASETand1000BASET.
Applications
Transformers
areusedto
increase
voltage
before
transmitting
electrical
energyover
long
distances
AnelectricalsubstationinMelbourne,Australia
through
showingthreeoffive220kV66kVtransformers,
wires.Wires
TransformerattheLimestone
[91]
have
eachwithacapacityof150MVA
GeneratingStationinManitoba,
resistance
Canada
whichloses
energythroughjouleheatingataratecorrespondingtosquareof
thecurrent.Bytransformingpowertoahighervoltagetransformersenableeconomicaltransmissionof
poweranddistribution.Consequently,transformershaveshapedtheelectricitysupplyindustry,
permittinggenerationtobelocatedremotelyfrompointsofdemand.[92]Allbutatinyfractionofthe
world'selectricalpowerhaspassedthroughaseriesoftransformersbythetimeitreachesthe
consumer.[44]
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Transformersarealsousedextensivelyinelectronicproductstostepdownthesupplyvoltagetoalevel
suitableforthelowvoltagecircuitstheycontain.Thetransformeralsoelectricallyisolatestheenduser
fromcontactwiththesupplyvoltage.
Signalandaudiotransformersareusedtocouplestagesofamplifiersandtomatchdevicessuchas
microphonesandrecordplayerstotheinputofamplifiers.Audiotransformersallowedtelephonecircuits
tocarryonatwowayconversationoverasinglepairofwires.Abaluntransformerconvertsasignalthat
isreferencedtogroundtoasignalthathasbalancedvoltagestoground,suchasbetweenexternalcables
andinternalcircuits.
History
Discoveryofinduction
Electromagneticinduction,theprincipleoftheoperation
ofthetransformer,wasdiscoveredindependentlyby
MichaelFaradayin1831andJosephHenryin1832.[94]
Faradaywasthefirsttopublishtheresultsofhis
experimentsandthusreceivecreditforthe
discovery.[95][96]TherelationshipbetweenEMFand
magneticfluxisanequationnowknownasFaraday'slaw
ofinduction:
.
Faraday'sexperimentwithinductionbetween
where
isthemagnitudeoftheEMFinVoltsandBis
coilsofwire[93]
themagneticfluxthroughthecircuitinwebers.[97]
Faradayperformedthefirstexperimentsoninductionbetweencoilsofwire,includingwindingapairof
coilsaroundanironring,thuscreatingthefirsttoroidalclosedcoretransformer.[98]Howeverheonly
appliedindividualpulsesofcurrenttohistransformer,andneverdiscoveredtherelationbetweenthe
turnsratioandEMFinthewindings.
Inductioncoils
Thefirsttypeoftransformertoseewideusewastheinduction
coil,inventedbyRev.NicholasCallanofMaynoothCollege,
Irelandin1836.Hewasoneofthefirstresearcherstorealizethe
moreturnsthesecondarywindinghasinrelationtotheprimary
winding,thelargertheinducedsecondaryEMFwillbe.Induction
coilsevolvedfromscientists'andinventors'effortstogethigher
voltagesfrombatteries.Sincebatteriesproducedirectcurrent
Inductioncoil,1900,Bremerhaven,
(DC)ratherthanAC,inductioncoilsrelieduponvibrating
Germany
electricalcontactsthatregularlyinterruptedthecurrentinthe
primarytocreatethefluxchangesnecessaryforinduction.
Betweenthe1830sandthe1870s,effortstobuildbetterinductioncoils,mostlybytrialanderror,slowly
revealedthebasicprinciplesoftransformers.
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Firstalternatingcurrenttransformers
Bythe1870s,efficientgeneratorsproducingalternatingcurrent
(AC)wereavailable,anditwasfoundACcouldpoweran
inductioncoildirectly,withoutaninterrupter.
In1876,RussianengineerPavelYablochkovinventedalighting
systembasedonasetofinductioncoilswheretheprimary
windingswereconnectedtoasourceofAC.Thesecondary
windingscouldbeconnectedtoseveral'electriccandles'(arc
lamps)ofhisowndesign.[99][100]ThecoilsYablochkov
employedfunctionedessentiallyastransformers.[99]
Faraday'sringtransformer
In1878,theGanzfactory,Budapest,Hungary,began
manufacturingequipmentforelectriclightingand,by1883,had
installedoverfiftysystemsinAustriaHungary.TheirACsystemsusedarcandincandescentlamps,
generators,andotherequipment.[101]
LucienGaulardandJohnDixonGibbsfirstexhibitedadevicewithanopenironcorecalleda'secondary
generator'inLondonin1882,thensoldtheideatotheWestinghousecompanyintheUnitedStates.[52]
TheyalsoexhibitedtheinventioninTurin,Italyin1884,whereitwasadoptedforanelectriclighting
system.[102]However,theefficiencyoftheiropencorebipolarapparatusremainedverylow.[102]
Earlyseriescircuittransformerdistribution
Inductioncoilswithopenmagneticcircuitsareinefficientattransferringpowertoloads.Untilabout
1880,theparadigmforACpowertransmissionfromahighvoltagesupplytoalowvoltageloadwasa
seriescircuit.Opencoretransformerswitharationear1:1wereconnectedwiththeirprimariesinseries
toallowuseofahighvoltagefortransmissionwhilepresentingalowvoltagetothelamps.Theinherent
flawinthismethodwasthatturningoffasinglelamp(orotherelectricdevice)affectedthevoltage
suppliedtoallothersonthesamecircuit.Manyadjustabletransformerdesignswereintroducedto
compensateforthisproblematiccharacteristicoftheseriescircuit,includingthoseemployingmethods
ofadjustingthecoreorbypassingthemagneticfluxaroundpartofacoil.[102]Efficient,practical
transformerdesignsdidnotappearuntilthe1880s,butwithinadecade,thetransformerwouldbe
instrumentalintheWarofCurrents,andinseeingACdistributionsystemstriumphovertheirDC
counterparts,apositioninwhichtheyhaveremaineddominanteversince.[103]
Closedcoretransformersandparallelpowerdistribution
Intheautumnof1884,KrolyZipernowsky,OttBlthyandMiksaDri(ZBD),threeengineers
associatedwiththeGanzfactory,haddeterminedthatopencoredeviceswereimpracticable,asthey
wereincapableofreliablyregulatingvoltage.[105]Intheirjoint1885patentapplicationsfornovel
transformers(latercalledZBDtransformers),theydescribedtwodesignswithclosedmagneticcircuits
wherecopperwindingswereeithera)woundaroundironwireringcoreorb)surroundedbyironwire
core.[102]Thetwodesignswerethefirstapplicationofthetwobasictransformerconstructionsin
commonusetothisday,whichcanasaclassallbetermedaseithercoreformorshellform(or
alternatively,coretypeorshelltype),asina)orb),respectively(seeimages).[46][47][106][107]TheGanz
factoryhadalsointheautumnof1884madedeliveryoftheworld'sfirstfivehighefficiencyAC
transformers,thefirstoftheseunitshavingbeenshippedonSeptember16,1884.[108]Thisfirstunithad
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beenmanufacturedto
thefollowing
specifications:1,400W,
40Hz,120:72V,
11.6:19.4A,ratio
1.67:1,onephase,shell
form.[108]
Inbothdesigns,the
magneticfluxlinking
theprimaryand
Coreform,frontshellform,back.
secondarywindings
EarliestspecimensofZBDdesigned
Shellformtransformer.Sketchused
traveledalmostentirely
highefficiencyconstantpotential
byUppenborntodescribeZBD
withintheconfinesof
transformersmanufacturedattheGanz
engineers'1885patentsandearliest
theironcore,withno
factoryin1885.
articles. [102]
intentionalpaththrough
air(seeToroidalcores
below).Thenew
transformerswere3.4
timesmoreefficientthan
theopencorebipolar
devicesofGaulardand
Gibbs.[109]TheZBD
patentsincludedtwo
othermajorinterrelated
TheZBDteamconsistedofKroly
innovations:one
Zipernowsky,OttBlthyandMiksa
concerningtheuseof
Dri
Stanley's1886designforadjustable
parallelconnected,
insteadofseries
gapopencoreinductioncoils[104]
connected,utilizationloads,theotherconcerningtheabilityto
havehighturnsratiotransformerssuchthatthesupplynetwork
voltagecouldbemuchhigher(initially1,400to2,000V)thanthevoltageofutilizationloads(100V
initiallypreferred).[110][111]Whenemployedinparallelconnectedelectricdistributionsystems,closed
coretransformersfinallymadeittechnicallyandeconomicallyfeasibletoprovideelectricpowerfor
lightinginhomes,businessesandpublicspaces.[112][113]Blthyhadsuggestedtheuseofclosedcores,
Zipernowskyhadsuggestedtheuseofparallelshuntconnections,andDrihadperformedthe
experiments[114]
Transformerstodayaredesignedontheprinciplesdiscoveredbythethreeengineers.Theyalso
popularizedtheword'transformer'todescribeadeviceforalteringtheEMFofanelectric
current,[112][115]althoughthetermhadalreadybeeninuseby1882.[116][117]In1886,theZBDengineers
designed,andtheGanzfactorysuppliedelectricalequipmentfor,theworld'sfirstpowerstationthatused
ACgeneratorstopoweraparallelconnectedcommonelectricalnetwork,thesteampoweredRome
Cerchipowerplant.[118]
AlthoughGeorgeWestinghousehadboughtGaulardandGibbs'patentsin1885,theEdisonElectric
LightCompanyheldanoptionontheUSrightsfortheZBDtransformers,requiringWestinghouseto
pursuealternativedesignsonthesameprinciples.HeassignedtoWilliamStanleythetaskofdeveloping
adeviceforcommercialuseinUnitedStates.[119]Stanley'sfirstpatenteddesignwasforinductioncoils
withsinglecoresofsoftironandadjustablegapstoregulatetheEMFpresentinthesecondarywinding
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(seeimage).[104]Thisdesign[120]wasfirstusedcommerciallyintheUSin1886[103]butWestinghouse
wasintentonimprovingtheStanleydesigntomakeit(unliketheZBDtype)easyandcheapto
produce.[120]
Westinghouse,Stanleyandassociatessoondevelopedaneasiertomanufacturecore,consistingofa
stackofthin'Eshaped'ironplates,insulatedbythinsheetsofpaperorotherinsulatingmaterial.
Prewoundcoppercoilscouldthenbeslidintoplace,andstraightironplateslaidintocreateaclosed
magneticcircuit.WestinghouseappliedforapatentforthenewlowcostdesigninDecember1886it
wasgrantedinJuly1887.[114][121]
Otherearlytransformers
In1889,RussianbornengineerMikhailDolivoDobrovolskydevelopedthefirstthreephasetransformer
attheAllgemeineElektricittsGesellschaft('GeneralElectricityCompany')inGermany.[122]
In1891,NikolaTeslainventedtheTeslacoil,anaircored,dualtunedresonanttransformerfor
generatingveryhighvoltagesathighfrequency.[123][124]
Seealso
Compensationwinding
Inductor
Loadprofile
Magneticcore
Magnetization
Paraformer
Polyphasesystem
Rectiformer
Switchedmodepowersupply
Notes
a. WhereVsistheinstantaneousvoltage,Nsisthenumberofturnsinthesecondarywinding,andd/dtisthe
derivativeofthemagneticfluxthroughoneturnofthewinding.Withturnsofthewindingoriented
perpendicularlytothemagneticfieldlines,thefluxistheproductofthemagneticfluxdensityandthecore
area,themagneticfieldvaryingwithtimeaccordingtotheexcitationoftheprimary.Theexpressiond/dt,
definedasthederivativeofmagneticfluxwithtimet,providesameasureofrateofmagneticfluxinthe
coreandhenceofEMFinducedintherespectivewinding.ThenegativesignisdescribedbyLenz'slaw.
b. Althoughidealtransformer'swindinginductancesareeachinfinitelyhigh,thesquarerootofwinding
inductances'ratioisequaltotheturnsratio.[4]
c. Thisalsoimpliesthefollowing:Inputimpedanceisinfinitewhensecondaryisopenandzerowhensecondary
isshortedthereiszerophaseshiftthroughanidealtransformerinputandoutputpowerandreactivevolt
ampereareeachconservedthesethreestatementsapplyforanyfrequencyabovezeroandperiodicwaveforms
areconserved.[6]
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d. Windingsofrealtransformersareusuallywoundaroundveryhighpermeabilityferromagneticcoresbutcan
alsobeaircorewound.
e. DirectionoftransformercurrentsisaccordingtoRighthandrule.
f. SectionLeakagefactorandinductanceofLeakageinductancederivesatransformerequivalentintermsof
variousmeasurableinductances(winding,self,leakage,magnetizingandmutualinductances)andturnsratio,
whicharecollectivelyessentialtorigorouscounterEMFunderstanding.
g. "Theturnratioofatransformeristheratioofthenumberofturnsinthehighvoltagewindingtothatinthe
lowvoltagewinding",[13]commonusagehavingevolvedovertimefrom'turnratio'to'turnsratio'.However,
somesourcesusetheinversedefinition.[14]
h. Astepdowntransformerconvertsahighvoltagetoalowervoltagewhileastepuptransformerconvertsalow
voltagetoahighervoltage,anisolationtransformerhaving1:1turnsratiowithoutputvoltagethesameas
inputvoltage.
i. ANSI/IEEEStandardC57.13definespolarityintermsoftherelativeinstantaneousdirectionsofthecurrents
enteringtheprimaryterminalsandleavingthesecondaryterminalsduringmostofeachhalfcycle,theword
'instantaneous'differentiatingfromsayphasorcurrent.[20][21]
j. TransformerpolaritycanalsobeidentifiedbyterminalmarkingsH0,H1,H2...onprimaryterminalsand
X1,X2,(andY1,Y2,Z1,Z2,Z3...ifwindingsareavailable)onsecondaryterminals.Eachletterprefix
designatesadifferentwindingandeachnumeraldesignatesaterminationortaponeachwinding.The
designatedterminalsH1,X1,(andY1,Z1ifavailable)indicatesameinstantaneouspolaritiesforeachwinding
asinthedotconvention.[22]
k. Whenavoltagetransformerisoperatedwithsinusoidalvoltagesinitsnormalfrequencyrangeandpowerlevel
thevoltagepolarityattheoutputdotisthesame(plusminusafewdegrees)asthevoltagepolarityattheinput
dot.
l. Percentimpedanceistheratioofthevoltagedropinthesecondaryfromnoloadtofullloadandishere
representedwiththevariableZ.[27]Insometexts,Zisusedforabsoluteimpedanceinstead.
m. AstandardizedopencircuitorunloadedtransformertestcalledtheEpsteinframecanalsobeusedforthe
characterizationofmagneticpropertiesofsoftmagneticmaterialsincludingespeciallyelectricalsteels.[32]
n. Experimentaltransformersusingsuperconductingwindingsachieveefficienciesof99.85%.[39]
o. Transformerhum'sfundamentalnoisefrequencyistwotimesthatofthepowerfrequencyasthereisan
extensionandacontractionofcorelaminationsforeverycycleoftheACwaveandatransformer'saudible
humnoiselevelisdominatedbythefundamentalnoisefrequencyanditsfirsttriplenharmonic,i.e.,bythe
100&300Hz,or120&360Hz,frequencies.[43]
p. Forexample,thedeltawyetransformer,byfarthemostcommoncommercialthreephasetransformer,is
knownastheDyn11vectorgroupconfiguration,Dyn11denotingDfordeltaprimarywinding,yforwye
secondarywinding,nforneutralofthewyewinding,and11forrelativephasepositionontheclockbywhich
thesecondarywindingleadstheprimarywinding,namely,30leading.
q. Whiletheaboveformaldefinition,derivedfromstandardssuchasIEEEC57.12.80,appliestolarge
transformers,itisnotuncommonincolloquial,oreventrade,parlanceforsmallgeneralpurposetransformers
tobereferredtoas'power'transformers,fordistributiontransformerstobereferredtoas'powerdistribution'
transformers,andsoon.
References
1. Knowlton,A.E.(Ed.)(1949).StandardHandbookforElectricalEngineers(8thed.).McGrawHill.p.597,
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Fig.642.
2. Mack,JamesE.Shoemaker,Thomas(2006).Chapter15DistributionTransformers(http://books.mcgraw
hill.com/downloads/products/0071467890/0071467890_ch15.pdf)(PDF)(11thed.).NewYork:McGrawHill.
pp.151to1522.ISBN0071467890.
3. Bedell,Frederick."HistoryofACWaveForm,ItsDeterminationandStandardization".Transactionsofthe
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(https://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FTAIEE.1942.5058456).
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CircuitswithMagneticCircuits"(http://books.google.ca/books/about/Analysis_of_electric_circuits.html?
id=V4FrAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y).AnalysisofElectricCircuits.McGrawHill.pp.598599.
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8. Heathcote,Martin(Nov3,1998).J&PTransformerBook(12thed.).Newnes.pp.23.ISBN075061158
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9. Rajput,R.K.(2002).Alternatingcurrentmachines(http://books.google.ca/books?id=mcT2MXb1
4wC&pg=PA107)(3rded.).NewDelhi:LaxmiPublications.p.107.ISBN9788170082224.
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Denver.RetrievedMay19,2007.
11. Winders,JohnJ.,Jr.(2002).PowerTransformerPrinciplesandApplications.CRC.pp.2021.
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MachinesI:Basics,Design,Function,Operation.RWTHAachenUniversityInstituteofElectricalMachines.
p.27.
13. Knowlton,613,p.552
14. Miller,WilhelmC.Robbins,AllanH.(2013).Circuitanalysis:theoryandpractice
(http://books.google.ca/books?
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WE4SoogSWkIHICw&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=turns%20ratio%20convention&f=false)(5th
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16. Tcheslavski,GlebV.(2008)."Slide13ImpedanceTransformationinLecture4:Transformers".ELEN3441
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(http://books.google.ca/books?id=FdSQSAC3_EwC&pg=PA1017).InWhitaker,JerryC.TheElectronics
Handbook(2nded.).Taylor&Francis.pp.172,1017.ISBN0849318890.
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070699670.
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Externallinks
InsideTransformers,composedbyJ.B.Calvert,from
DenverUniversity
(http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/transfor.htm)
SubstationandTransmission
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedto
Transformers.
TheWikibookSchool
Sciencehasapageonthe
topicof:Howtomakea
transformer
(https://www.dmoz.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Substation_and_Transmission/)at
DMOZ
IntroductiontoCurrentTransformers(http://www.elkor.net/pdfs/AN0305
Current_Transformers.pdf)
Transformer(InteractiveJavaapplet)(http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Transformer.htm),
'Physicsisfun'byChuikingNg
HDvideotutorialontransformers
(http://www.afrotechmods.com/videos/transformer_tutorial.htm)
(Video)Powertransformerinrushcurrent(damping)(https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=XRb1RKbv0LM)fromYouTube
(Video)Powertransformeroverexcitation(damping)(https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=7Meu7SxBDPk)fromYouTube
Threephasetransformercircuits(http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_10/6.html)fromAll
AboutCircuits
BibliographyofTransformerBooks
28/29
4/24/2015
(http://www.transformerscommittee.org/info/Bibliographybooks.pdf)byP.M.Balma,fromIEEE
TransformerCommittee
EinschaltendesTransformators.GermanWikipediaarticleabouttransformerinrushcurrentat
switchon(inGerman).
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&oldid=658648116"
Categories: Electricalpowerconversion Hungarianinventions Russianinventions
Transformers(electrical)
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon22April2015,at19:09.
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