Geotechnics

-class notes 2013-

Reader PhD. Eng. Nicoleta ILIE

nicoleta.ilies@dst.utcluj.ro
1

5 March, 2013

References
SR EN 1997-1/2006. Geotechnical design. General rules +
Geotechnical investigation.
2.
POPA A., FRCAS V., - Geotehnic, U.T.Press, 2004
3.
F. M. THOMLINSON - Foundations
4.
V.POP Geotehnic si fundatii, Lito IPCN, 1983
5.
A. POPA, F. ROMAN Calculul structurilor de rezisten pe mediu
elastic, 2000
6.
V. POP, col. Proiectarea fundatiilor, Lito IPCN, 1985.
7.
A. STANCIU, I. LUNGU Fundatii Fizica si mecanica pmnturilor,
Ed. Tehnic, 2006
8.
T. SILION Geotechnics, Iasi, 1995
9.
* * * STAS and romanian norms
10. A. Verruijt Soil mechanics, Delft University of Technology, 2010
11. C. Venkantramaiah Geotechnical Engineering, 2006
1.

Geotechnics exam 5 ECTS

Final mark
30% Laboratory tests

20% Numerical aplication

50% Theory

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

The term Soil has different meanings in different scientific

fields. It has originated from the Latin word Solum.
To an agricultural scientist, it means the loose material on the

earths crust consisting of disintegrated rock with an admixture of

organic matter, which supports plant life.
To a geologist, it means the disintegrated rock material which has
not been transported from the place of origin.
To a civil engineer, the term soil means, the loose
unconsolidated inorganic material on the earths crust produced
by the disintegration of rocks, overlying hard rock, with or without
organic matter. Foundations of all structures have to be placed on
or in such soil, which is the primary reason for our interest as Civil
Engineers in its engineering behaviour.
4

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

Soil mechanics is the study of the engineering behaviour of soil

when it is used either as a construction material or as a foundation

material.
This is a relatively young discipline of civil engineering, systematised in its modern form by

Karl Von Terzaghi (1925), who is regarded as the Father of Modern Soil Mechanics.
An understanding of the principles of mechanics is essential to the study of soil

mechanics.
A knowledge and application of the principles of other basic sciences such as physics and
chemistry would also be helpful in the understanding of soil behaviour. Further, laboratory
and field research have contributed in no small measure to the development of soil
mechanics as a discipline.

The application of the principles of soil mechanics to the design and

construction of foundations for various structures is known as

Foundation Engineering.
Geotechnical Engineering may be considered to include both soil
mechanics and foundation engineering.
5

In fact, according to Terzaghi, it is difficult to draw a distinct line of demarcation between

soil mechanics and foundation engineering; the latter starts where the former ends.

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

The use

of soil for engineering purposes dates back to prehistoric

times. Soil was used not only for foundations but also as construction
material for embankments. The knowledge was empirical in nature
and was based on trial and error, and experience.
The hanging gardens of Babylon were supported by huge retaining
walls, the construction of which should have required some
knowledge, though empirical, of earth pressures.
The large public buildings, harbours, aqueducts, bridges, roads and
sanitary works of Romans certainly indicate some knowledge of the
engineering behaviour of soil. This has been evident from the writings
of Vitruvius, the Roman Engineer in the first century, B.C.
Mansar and Viswakarma, in India, wrote books on construction
science during the medieval period.
6

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy, (1174 and 1350 A.D.) is an example

of a lack of sufficient knowledge of the behaviour of compressible

soil, in those days.
Coulomb (French Engineer) published his wedge theory of earth
pressure (1776), which is the first major contribution to the scientific
study of soil behaviour. He was the first to introduce the concept of
shearing resistance of the soil as composed of the two components cohesion and internal friction.
Poncelet, Culmann and Rebhann were the other men who extended
the work of Coulomb.
D Arcy and Stokes were notable for their laws for the flow of water
through soil and settlement of a solid particle in liquid medium,
respectively. These laws are still valid and play an important role in
7 soil mechanics.

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

Rankine gave his theory of earth pressure (1857); he did not consider

cohesion, although he knew of its existence.

Boussinesq (1885) gave his theory of stress distribution in an elastic
medium under a point load on the surface.
Mohr( 1871) gave a graphical representation of the state of stress at a
point, called Mohrs Circle of Stress. This has an extensive
application in the strength theories applicable to soil.
Atterberg, a Swedish soil scientist, gave in 1911 the concept of
consistency limits for a soil. This made possible the understanding of
the physical properties of soil.
The Swedish method of slices for slope stability analysis was
developed by Fellenius in 1926. He was the chairman of the Swedish
Geotechnical Commission.
8

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

Prandtl gave his theory of plastic equilibrium in 1920 which became

the basis for the development of various theories of bearing capacity.

Terzaghi gave his theory of consolidation in 1923 which became an
important development in soil mechanics. He also published, in 1925,
the first treatise on Soil Mechanics, a term coined by him. (Erd bau
mechanik, in German). Thus, he is regarded as the Father of modern
soil mechanics.
Later on, R.R. Proctor and A. Casagrande and a host of others were
responsible for the development of the subject as a full-fledged
discipline.

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

Romania:
1936 first detailed geotechnical studies about soil behaviour for

CFR Palace in Bucharest

Test performed by K. Terzaghi in Viena laboratory
1939 Bucharest first geotechnical laboratory in Romania
Due to the important geotechnical works necessary for the
granary on the border of Danube River
1967 Bucharest first National Conference of Geotechnics and
Foundations (every 4 years since 1967)
1990 Romanian Society of Geotechnics and Foundations (SRGF)
affiliated to International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE)
10

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

SOIL MECHANICS - APPLICATIONS
The knowledge of soil mechanics has application in many fields of Civil Engineering

1. Foundations
The loads from any structure have to be ultimately transmitted to a
soil through the foundation for the structure. Thus, the foundation is
an important part of a structure, the type and details will be decided
only with the knowledge and application of the principles of soil
mechanics.
2. Underground and Earth-retaining Structures
Underground structures (drainage structures, pipe lines, tunnels and
earth-retaining structures: retaining walls) can be designed and
constructed only by using the principles of soil mechanics and the
concept of soil-structure interaction.
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1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

SOIL MECHANICS - APPLICATIONS
The knowledge of soil mechanics has application in many fields of Civil Engineering.

3. Roads Design
Roads Design may consist of the design of flexible or rigid elements.
Flexible - depend more on the subgrade soil for transmitting the
traffic loads.
Problems peculiar to the design of roads are the effect of repetitive
loading, swelling and shrinkage of sub-soil and frost action.
Consideration of these and other factors in the efficient design of a
road is a must and one cannot do without the knowledge of soil
mechanics.
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1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

SOIL MECHANICS - APPLICATIONS
The knowledge of soil mechanics has application in many fields of Civil Engineering.

4. Excavations, Embankments and Dams

Excavations require the knowledge of slope stability analysis;
Deep excavations may need temporary supports, the design of

which requires knowledge of soil mechanics.

The construction of embankments and earth dams, where soil itself
is used as the construction material, requires a thorough knowledge
of the engineering behaviour of soil especially in the presence of
water.
Knowledge of slope stability, effects of seepage, consolidation and
consequent settlement as well as compaction characteristics for
achieving maximum unit weight of the soil in-situ, is absolutely
essential for efficient design and construction of embankments and
13 earth dams.

1. Geotechnics soil mechanics. General remarks

Soil behaviour
The knowledge of soil mechanics, assuming the soil to be an ideal

material, elastic, isotropic and homogeneous, coupled with the

experimental determination of soil properties, is helpful in predicting
the behaviour of soil in the field.
Soil being a particulate and heterogeneous material, does not lend
itself to simple analysis. Further, the difficulty is enhanced by the fact
that soil strata vary in extent as well as in depth even in a small area.
A through knowledge of soil mechanics is a prerequisite to be a
successful foundation engineer.
It is difficult to draw a distinguishing line between Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering; the later starts where the former ends.
14

2. Soil composition
1. Structure of soils
The structure of a soil may be defined as the manner of

arrangement and state of aggregation of soil grains.

In a broader sense, consideration of mineralogical composition, electrical

properties, orientation and shape of soil grains, nature and properties of soil
water and the interaction of soil water and soil grains, also may be included in
the study of soil structure, which is typical for transported or sediments soils.

Structural composition of sediment soils influences, many of their

important engineering properties such as permeability,

compressibility and shear strength.
The following types of structure are commonly studied:
(a) Single-grained structure
(b) Honey-comb structure
(c) Flocculent structure
15

2. Soil composition
1. Structure of soils
a. Single-grained Structure

Single-grained structure is
characteristic of coarse grained
soils, with a particle size greater
than 0.02mm.

Gravitational
forces
predominate - the surface
forces, hence grain to grain
contact results.

The deposition may occur in a

loose state, with large voids or
in a dense state, with less of
voids.
16

2. Soil composition
1. Structure of soils
b. Honey-comb Structure

This structure can occur only in finegrained soils, especially in silt. Due to the
relatively smaller size of grains, besides
gravitational forces, inter-particle surface
forces also play an important role in the
process of settling down.

In the formation of a honey-comb

structure, each cell of a honey-comb is
made up of numerous individual soil
grains.

The structure has a large void space and

may carry high loads without a
significant volume change. The structure
can be broken down by external
17
disturbances.

2. Soil composition
1. Structure of soils
c. Flocculent Structure

This structure is characteristic of finegrained soils such as clays. Inter-particle

forces play a predominant role in the
deposition. Mutual repulsion of the
particles may be eliminated by an
appropriate chemical; this will result in
grains coming closer together to form a
floc.

Formation of flocs is flocculation. But

the flocs tend to settle in a honeycomb
structure, in which in place of each grain,
a floc occurs.

Thus, grains grouping around void spaces

larger than the grain-size are flocs and
flocs grouping around void spaces larger
than even the flocs result in the
18 formation of a flocculent structure.

2. Soil composition
1. Structure of soils

Very fine particles or particles of colloidal size (<

0.001 mm) may be in a flocculated or dispersed
state.
The flaky particles are oriented edge-to-edge or
edge-to-face with respect to one another in the
case of a flocculated structure. Flaky particles of
clay minerals tend to from a card house structure
(Lambe, 1953), when flocculated.
When inter-particle repulsive forces are brought
back into play either by remoulding or by the
transportation process, a more parallel
arrangement or reorientation of the particles
occurs. This means more face-to-face contacts
occur for the flaky particles when these are in a
dispersed state (honey comb structure).
In practice, mixed structures occur, especially in
typical marine soils.

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2. Soil composition
2. Soil profile / soil horizon

A deposit of soil material, resulting from one or more of the

geological processes, is subjected to further physical and chemical
changes which are brought about by the climate and other factors
prevalent subsequently. Vegetation starts to develop and rainfall
begins the processes of leaching and eluviation of the surface of
the soil material.
Gradually, with the passage of geological time profound changes
take place in the character of the soil.
These changes bring about the development of soil profile.
Thus, the soil profile is a natural succession of zones or strata
below the ground surface and represents the alterations in the
original soil material which have been brought about by
weathering processes. It may extend to different depths at
different places and each stratum may have varying thickness. 20

2. Soil composition
2. Soil profile / soil horizon

O - Rich in humus and organic plant

residue. This is usually eluviated and
leached; the ultrafine colloidal
material and the soluble mineral
salts are washed out of this horizon.
It is dark in colour and its thickness
may range from a few centimetres to
half a meter. This horizon often
exhibits
many
undesirable
engineering characteristics and is of
value only to agricultural soil
scientists.
21

2. Soil composition
2. Soil profile / soil horizon

A - Surface soil: The A-horizon is

sometimes referred to as the zone of
accumulation. The material which has
migrated from the O-horizon by
leaching
and
eluviations
gets
deposited in this zone. There is a
distinct difference of colour between
this zone and the dark top soil of the
O-horizon. This soil is very much
chemically active at the surface and
contains
unstable
fine-grained
material. The thickness of A-horizon
may range from 0.50 to 0.75m.

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2. Soil composition
2. Soil profile / soil horizon

B Subsoil: The material in the Bhorizon is in the same physical and

chemical state as it was first deposited
by water, wind or ice in the geological
cycle. The thickness of this horizon may
range from a few centimetres to more
than 30m. The upper region of this
horizon is often oxidised to a
considerable extent.
C Bed rock: Layer of large unbroken
rocks. This layer may accumulate the
more soluble compounds.
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2. Soil composition
3. Texture of soils
The term Texture refers to the appearance of
the surface of a material, such as a fabric. It is
used in a similar sense with regard to soils.
Soil texture refers to particles lay down, in a
certain area of the investigated soil.
Soil texture can be:

Homogeneous with the same type of soil on the

entire layer thickness (a)
Layered on the active area there are few different
layers.

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Horizontal layers (b)

Inclined layers, with the slope
ground conditions (c)

>10% - difficult

Lens shaped layers - difficult ground conditions (d)

2. Soil composition
4. Soils as three-phase system

Soil is a complex physical system.

A mass of soil includes:
solid particles or soil grains and

the void spaces that exist between the particles.

The void spaces may be partially or completely filled with water or
some other liquid. Void spaces not occupied by water or any other
liquid are filled with air or some other gas.
Because the volume occupied by a soil mass may generally be
expected to include material in all the three states of matter (solid,
liquid and gas), soil is, in general, referred to as a three-phase
system
25

2. Soil composition
4. Soils as three-phase system

A soil mass as it exists in nature is a

more or less random accumulation of
soil particles, water and air-filled
spaces.

For purposes of analysis it is

convenient to represent this soil mass
by a block diagram, called Phasediagram
It may be noted that the separation of
solids from voids can only be
imagined.
The phase-diagram provides a
convenient means of developing the
weight-volume relationship for a soil.

26

2. Soil composition
4. Soils as three-phase system

When the soil voids are completely filled with

water, the gaseous phase being absent, the
soil is fully saturated or saturated.
When there is no water at all in the voids, the
voids will be full of air or other gas, the liquid
phase being absent ; the soil it is dry. (It may
be noted that the dry condition is rare in
nature and may be achieved in the laboratory
through drying).
In both these cases, the soil system reduces
to a two-phase system
These are special cases of the three-phase
system.

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2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Soil mechanics approach particulate materials (soils) found in the

ground, that are not cemented and not greatly compressed.

Soils usually have a sedimentary origin, however, they can also

occur as the result of rock weathering without any transport of
the particles.

The soil particles can have varying sizes, shapes and mineralogy,
although these properties are usually interrelated.
28

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

The larger sized particles are generally composed of quartz and

feldspars, minerals that have high strengths and the particles are
fairly round.
The smaller sized particles are generally composed of the clay
minerals (montmorillonite), minerals that have low strengths.
One of the most important aspects of particulate materials is that
there are voids between the particles. The amount of voids is also
influenced by the size, shape and mineralogy of the particles.
29

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

The extent and properties of the soil on the site have to be

determined for any construction project.

Cheap and simple tests are required to give an indication of the

engineering properties such as stiffness and strength for
preliminary design.
To achieve this task, continuous samples are recovered from
boreholes, drilled to a depth that will depend on the scale of the
project.

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2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Observation of the samples deteremine each soil and then

classification tests are performed for these different strata.
The extent of the different soil layers can be determined by
correlating the results from different boreholes.
An indication of the engineering properties is given on the basis of
particle size. This approach is used because the engineering
behaviour of soils with very small particles, usually containing clay
minerals, is significantly different from the behaviour of soils with
larger particles. Clays can cause problems because they are
relatively compressible, drain poorly, have low strengths and can
swell in the presence of water.
31

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Particle size definitions: The precise boundaries between different

soil types/ particle sizes are somewhat arbitrary, but the following
scale is in use worldwide

Most soils contain mixtures of sand, silt and clay particles, so the
range of particle sizes can be very large.

Not all particles less than 2m are comprised of clay minerals, and
some clay mineral particles can be greater than 2m. (A micron,
m, is 10-6m).
32

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

33

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles
Coarse-grained soils: sands, gravels and larger particles.

For these soils the grains are well defined and may be seen by the eye.
The individual particles may vary from perfectly round to highly angular reflecting
their geological origins.

Fine-grained soils: silts and clays with particles smaller than 63 m.

Silts - These can be visually differentiated from clays because they have the property

34

of dilatancy. If a moist sample is shaken in the hand water will appear on the surface.
If the sample is then squeezed in the fingers the water will disappear. Their gritty feel
can also identify silts.
Clays - Clays exhibit plasticity, they may be readily remoulded when moist, and if it
is let to dry can attain high strengths

Organic -These may be of either clay or silt sized particles. They contain significant
amounts of vegetable matter. The soils as a result are usually dark grey or black and
have a noticeable odour from decaying matter. Generally they appear only at the soil
surface, but layers of peat may be found at a certain depth. These are very poor soils
for most engineering purposes.

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Procedure for grain size determination

Different procedures are required for fine and coarse-grained material.

Detailed procedures are described in the Romanian or European norms.

Coarse

They will be demonstrated in a laboratory session.

particles:

Sieve

analysis is used to determine the distribution of the

larger grain sizes.
The soil is passed through a series of sieves with the
mesh size reducing progressively, and the proportions by
weight of the soil retained on each sieve are measured.
There

are a range of sieve sizes that can be used, and the finest
is usually a 63m sieve. Sieving can be performed either wet or
dry.
Because of the tendency for fine particles to clump together,
wet sieving is often required with fine-grained soils.
35

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Fine particles

To determine the grain size distribution of material

passing the 63m sieve the hydrometer method is
commonly used (sedimentation analysis).
The soil is mixed with water and a dispersing agent,
stirred vigorously, and allowed to settle to the
bottom of a measuring cylinder.
As the soil particles settle out of suspension the
specific gravity of the mixture reduces.
An hydrometer is used to record the variation of
specific gravity with time, applying Stokes Law,
which relates the velocity of a free falling sphere to
its diameter
The test data provide particle diameters and the %
by weight of the sample finer than a particular
particle size.
36

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles
Grading Curves

37

The results from the

particle size determination
tests are plotted as grading
curves.
They show the particle size
plotted
against
the
percentage of the sample
by weight that is finer than
that size. The results are
presented on a semilogarithmic plot.
The shape and position of
the grading curve are used
to
identify
some
characteristics of the soil.

100
80

% F i ne r

60
40
20
0
0 .0 0 0 1

0 .0 0 1

0 .0 1

0 .1

10

P a rtic le s ize (m m )

W - Well graded material

U - Uniform material
P - Poorly graded material
C - Well graded with some clay
F - Well graded with an excess of fines

100

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Grading Curves
The use of names to describe typical grading curve shapes and positions
has developed as the suitability of different gradings for different
purposes has become apparent.

For example, well graded sands and gravels can be easily compacted to
relatively high densities which result in higher strengths and stiffnesses. For
this reason soils of this type are preferred for road bases.

An important property of a granular or coarse-grained soil is its degree of

uniformity. The grain-size distribution curve of the soil itself indicates, by
its shape, the degree of soil uniformity. A steeper curve indicates more
uniform soil.
From the typical grading curves it can be seen that soils are rarely all sand
or all clay, and in general will contain particles with a wide range of sizes.
38

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Grading Curves
Certain properties of granular or coarse-grained soils have been related to
particle diameters.
Quantitatively, the uniformity of a soil is defined by its Coefficient of
Uniformity

where d60 = 60% finer size and d10 = 10% finer size, or effective size.
The soil is said to be

very uniform, if cU < 6;

of medium uniformity, cU = 6 to 15; and

very non-uniform or well-graded, if cU > 15.

On the average,

for sands cU = 10 to 20,

for silts cU = 2 to 4, and

for clays cU = 10 to 100 (Jumikis, 1962)

39

2. Soil composition
5. Soil solid particles

Ternary diagram / ternary plot

The proportions of gravel, sand, silt,

and clay in any soil.
SR EN ISO 14 688

1 gravel percentage
2 sand percentage
3 fine particles percentage
4 clay percentage
5 fine soils (clay+silt)
6 mixt soils (clayey or silty gravel and
sand)
7 granular soils (gravel and sand)
40

2. Soil composition

41

2. Soil composition
When defining a soil, all the fractions have to be named, considering

their importance:
Examples:
Sandy gravel

sa Gr
Fine gravel with coarse sand
c sa F Gr
Silt with medium sand
m sa Si
Coarse sand with fine gravel
f gr C Sa
Silty fine sand
si F Sa
Silt with fine gravel and coarse sand
f gr c sa Si
Clay with medium sand
m sa Cl

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See you next time!!!