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9
9.1

RESERVOIR PLANNING AND STORAGE ANALYSIS

Reservoir Planning

9.1.1 Site Assessment and Dam Selection

The functional suitability of a site is governed by the balance between its natural physical characteristics
and the purpose of the reservoir. Technical suitability on the other hand is dictated by the hydrological
and geological or geotechnical characteristics of the catchment and the site. Furthermore, the assessment
of anticipated environmental consequences of construction and operation of the dam is equally important.
The principal stages involved in site appraisal and optimum selection of site and type of dam follow the
steps mentioned in Section 1.5 and are explained below.
The statement of the objectives, the collection of data, the future projections, the project formulation and
project evaluation as shown in Fig 9.1 all combined form the feasibility study. This may take 1 to 5 years
and would include resource mobilization. The collection of data would include field reconnaissance
surveys to collect extensive topographical, geological and hydrological survey data and also mapping of
data. Feasibility studies would include options with regard to the location, height and type of dam and
comparisons drawn in terms of estimated costs and construction programs.
Initial dam site evaluations are then carried out through extensive investigations to confirm that the site
can be developed to the desired scale at an acceptable cost. These require careful planning and
considerable time and resource investment. After which the type of dam to be constructed is then
confirmed. This may take 2 4 years.
Detailed dam site investigations are then carried out. This is done to determine the engineering parameters
to be safely used for foundation stability; to determine seepage patterns and parameters; to confirm the
containment integrity of the reservoir basin and stability of its margins; and confirmation of the nature,
suitability and availability of natural construction materials. Key features of this phase include:
meticulous logging of all natural and excavated exposures and borehole records. This information is used
to prepare the detailed design and may take 1-2 years.
The next stage is implementation which first involves the procurement of a contractor, after which the
contractor can commence; this stage lasts 2-6 years (Novak et al, 1996).

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Statement of Objectives

Collection of Data

Future Projections

Project Formulation

Project Evaluation

Project Implementation
Fig 9.1 Steps in Project Development
9.1.2 Site Selection
A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:
i)
ii)

iii)

iv)

Large storage capacity: The topography of the site should be such that the reservoir has a large
capacity to store water.
Suitable site for the dam: There should be good foundation for the dam and the reservoir basin
should have a narrow opening in the valley so that the length of the dam is so small. The cost of
the dam is often a controlling factor in the selection of a site for the reservoir.
Water tightness of the reservoir: The geological conditions of the reservoir site should be such
that the reservoir basin is water tight. The reservoir sites having pervious rocks are not suitable.
The reservoir basin having shales, slates, gneiss, granite etc are generally suitable.
Good hydrological conditions: The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir site
should be such the runoff is available for storage. The catchment area of the river should give
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HWRE AR 2010

v)

vi)

vii)

viii)

ix)

high yield. There should not be heavy losses in the catchment due to evaporation, transpiration
and percolation.
Deep reservoir: The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed in the construction of the
dam. A deep reservoir is preferred to a shallow one because in the former the evaporation losses
are small, the cost of land acquisition low and the weed growth less.
Small-submerged area: The site should be such that the submerged area is minimum. It should
not affect the ecology of the region. Monuments of historical and architectural importance should
not be submerged.
Low silt inflow: The life of the reservoir is short if the river water at the site has a large quantity
of sediments. The reservoir site should be selected such that is excludes the water from those
tributaries which carry a high percentage of silt.
No objection minerals: The soil and rock mass at the reservoir site should not contain any
objectionable soluble minerals which may contaminate the water. The stored water should be
suitable for its intended use.
Low cost of real estate: The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam, dwellings, and roads
should be low.

9.2

Basic Terms and Definitions

i)

Full Reservoir Level (FRL): The full reservoir level is the highest water level to which the water
surface will rise during normal operation conditions. The effective storage of the reservoir is
computed up to the full reservoir level. The FRL is equal to the crest of the spillway. In case of
dams without spillway gate (Fig. 9.2a, the FRL is equal to the level of the top of the crest.
However if the spillway is gated (Fig. 9.2b, the FRL is equal to the level of the top of the gates.
The full reservoir level is also called the full tank level (FTL) or the normal pool level (NPL).
Normal Conservation Level (NCL): It is the highest level at which water is intended to be stored
for various uses other than flood. The normal conservation level is different from the FRL as the
latter may include a part of the flood. However if there is no storage for the flood up to FRL, the
normal conservation level and the FRL become identical.
Maximum Water Level (MWL): The maximum water level is the maximum level to which the
water the water surface will rise to when the design flood passes over the spillway. The maximum
water level is higher than the full reservoir level so that some surcharge storage is available
between the two levels to absorb flood. The maximum water level is also called the maximum
pool level (MPL) or maximum flood level (MFL).
Minimum pool level: The minimum pool level is the lowest level up to which the water is
withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary conditions. The minimum pool level generally
corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet (or sluice gate) of the dam. However, in the case
of a reservoir for hydroelectric power, the minimum pool level is fixed after considering the
minimum working head required for the efficient running of the turbines. The storage below the
minimum pool level is not useful and is called the dead storage.
Useful storage: The volume of water stored between the full reservoir and the minimum pool
level is called the useful storage. The useful storage is available for various purposes of the
reservoir. In most of the reservoirs, the useful storage is the conservation storage of the reservoir.
However in the case of multi purpose reservoirs, in which the flood control is also a designed
function, the useful storage is divided into: the conservation storage for other purposes and the
flood control storage for the flood control in accordance with the adopted plan of the operation of
the reservoir. The useful storage is also known as the live storage.
Surcharge storage: The surcharge storage is the volume of water stored above the full reservoir
level up to the maximum water level. The surcharge storage is an uncontrolled storage, which
exists only when the river is in the flood and the floodwater is passing over the spillway. The
storage is available only for the absorption of flood it cannot be used for other purposes.
3

ii)

iii)

iv)

v)

vi)

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vii)

viii)

ix)

x)

xi)

xii)

xiii)
xiv)

Dead storage: The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called dead storage.
The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating
conditions.
Bank storage: If the banks of the reservoir are porous, they temporarily store some water when
the reservoir is full. The stored water in the banks drains into the reservoir when the water level in
the reservoir falls. Thus the banks of the reservoirs act like mini reservoirs. The bank storage
increases the effective capacity of the reservoir above the capacity indicated by the elevation
storage curve. However, in most of the reservoirs, the bank storage is small because the banks are
usually impervious.
Valley storage: The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley up to the top of
its banks before the construction of a reservoir is called valley storage. The valley storage
depends upon the cross-section of the river, the length of the river and its water level. The net
increase in the storage capacity after the construction of a reservoir is equal to the total capacity
of the reservoir up to FRL minus the valley storage. However, this distinction between the net
storage capacity and the total storage is not of much significance in a conservation or storage
reservoir where the main concern is the total water available for different purposes. But in the
case of a flood control reservoir, the difference between the net storage capacity and the total
storage capacity is important because the effective storage for flood control is reduced due to the
valley storage. The effective storage is equal to the sum of the useful storage and the surcharge
storage minus the valley storage in the case of a flood control reservoir.
Yield from a reservoir: Yield is the volume of water, which can be withdrawn from a reservoir in
a specified period of time. The time period for the estimation of yield is selected according to the
size of the reservoir. It may be a day for a small reservoir and a month or a year for a large
reservoir. The yield is expressed as Mm3/ year for the large reservoirs.
Safe Yield (Firm Yield): Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water, which can be supplied from
a reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year. The lowest recorded natural
flow of the river for a number of years is taken as the critical dry period for determining the safe
yield.
Secondary Yield: Secondary Yield is the quantity of water, which is available during the period of
high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield. There is guarantee to supply the
secondary yield. It is supplied on as and when basis at the lower rates.
Average Yield: The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the secondary
yield over a long period of time.
Design Yield: The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The design yield
is usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of water
involved. The design yield should be such that the demands of the consumers are met with, and at
the same time, the storage required is not unduly large (Arora, 2007).

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Below is an Illustration of the basic definitions:

M.W.L
Surcharge Storage

Crest

F.R.L
Useful Storage

Outlet

Minimum
Pool Level

Reservoir

Dead Storage

Dam

Fig 9.2a Dam without a spillway gate

M.W.L
Surcharge Storage
F.R.L
Useful Storage

Outlet

Spillway Gates
(Removed during
flood)

Minimum
Pool Level

Reservoir

Dead Storage

Dam

Fig 9.2b Dam with spillway gates

9.3

Investigations for Reservoir Planning

The following investigations are usually conducted for reservoir planning; engineering surveys,
geological investigations and hydrological investigations.

9.3.1

Engineering Surveys

Engineering surveys are conducted for the dam, the reservoir and other associated works. Generally, the
topographic survey of the area is carried out and the contour plan is prepared. The horizontal control is
usually provided by triangulation survey and the vertical control by precise levelling.
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a) Dam Site. For the area in the vicinity of the dam site, a very accurate triangulation survey is
conducted. A contour plan to a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is usually prepared. The contour interval is
usually 1m or 2m. The contour plan should cover an area at least up to 200m upstream and 400m
downstream and for adequate width beyond the two abutments.
b) Reservoir. For the reservoir, the scale of the contour plan is usually1/15,000 with a contour interval of
2m to 3m, depending upon the size of the reservoir. The area-elevation and storage elevation curves
are prepared for different elevations up to an elevation of 3 to 5m higher than the anticipated
maximum water level (MWL).
9.3.2

Geological Investigations.

Geological investigations for the dam and reservoir are done for the following purposes
i)
Suitability of foundation for the dam;
The type and height of the dam mainly depend upon the type of foundation. Subsurface explorations are
carried out to determine the depth of the overburden to be removed for laying the foundation of the
dam, the type of rock, the nature and extent of the fault zones, if any, present in the rock.
Depending upon the location of the bedrock, the following methods of sub-surface explorations are
used.
a) Excavation of open pits or trenches of suitable size
b) Drifting (or tunnelling) into the sides of the valley
c) Driving vertical inspection shafts into the rock
d) Core drilling to obtain the samples and to determine the configuration of the strata
If the hard rock lies far below the surface, the dam site may be suitable for a low gravity dam or an
earth dam. The dam in that case may have to be founded on soil foundations. Sub-surface investigations
are done to determine the type of soil, the properties of soil, the soil profile, and the location of the
water table
The information obtained from the geological investigations is used for determining a suitable
programme of foundation treatment and grouting, if necessary
ii)

Water tightness of the reservoir basin

The reservoir basin should be watertight so that the stored water is not wasted due to seepage through
the bed and banks; otherwise the very purpose of constructing the reservoir would be defeated.
Geological investigations are conducted to detect the presence of cavernous rock formations, which
have cavities and are porous. The stored water may escape through such cavities into adjacent valleys.
If such formations exist in small areas, they may be treated and made watertight. However, if they are
widespread, the site may have to be abandoned.

iii)
Location of quarry sites for the construction materials
Large quantities of construction materials such as stones, aggregates, sand, soil, rockfill, etc. are
required for the construction of a dam. Geological investigations are conducted for location of suitable
quarries for stones and burrow areas for soils. The quantity and quality of the available construction
materials are ascertained.
9.3.3

Hydrological Investigations.

Hydrological investigations are conducted for the following purposes:

i). To study the runoff pattern and yield
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The most important aspect of reservoir planning is to estimate the quantity of water likely to be available
in the river from year to year and season to season. For determination of the required storage capacity of a
reservoir, the runoff pattern of the river at the dam site is required. If the stream gauging has been done
for a number of years before the construction of the dam, the runoff pattern will be available from the
record. It is generally assumed that the runoff pattern will be substantially the same in the future as well.
The available record is used for estimating the storage capacity. The inflow hydrographs of two or three
consecutive dry years when the discharge is low are frequently used for estimating the required capacity.
However, if the stream gauging records are not available, the runoff and yield have to be estimated
indirectly by other methods.
ii).
To determine the flood discharge at the site.
The spillway capacity of the dam is determined from the inflow hydrograph for the worst flood when the
discharge in the river is at maximum. Flood routing is done to estimate the maximum outflow and the
maximum water level reached during the worst flood. The methods for estimating the maximum flood
discharge are discussed under flood routing in Chapter 11.

9.3.4 Hydropower, Environmental and Social Safeguards

Investment in hydropower has high upfront capital costs and has lengthy lead times for planning,
permitting and construction. However, on life cycle costing hydropower has the best performance
compared to other sources of energy with running cost as low as 1% of the initial capital investment. On
the medium and long term, hydropower is a cheaper way to produce electricity. With regard to climate
change, hydropower tends to have a very low greenhouse gas (GHG) footprint (Altinbilek et al, 2007).
Dams are designed to manipulate the flows of rivers and as a result they impact indirectly on the
downstream river ecosystem by potentially affecting every part of the flow, sediment, thermal and water
quality regimes. They can also impact the ecosystem directly by blocking fish passage. These are
explained as follows: i) Low flows: dams may store low flows during the wet season for release
downstream in the dry season. As a result the seasonal pattern of low flows may be partially or wholly
reversed, eradicating conditions needed for life cycles of aquatic plants and insects to reach completion.
In some rivers dry-season low flows are periodically completely eradicated by damming or direct
abstraction; ii) Intra-annual floods; small and medium floods may be completely stored in reservoirs and
they are known to sort riverbed sediments, help maintain and control the spread of marginal vegetation,
provide depth of water for fish migrationsand enhance water quality during dry months; iii) Inter annual
floods are known to maintain riparian belts , scour channels and river beds and eradicate patches of inchannel and bank vegetation enhancing diversityas new growth appears. The magnitude and frequency of
these floods will be reduced, the larger floods spill over, iv) Sediment regime and the ecosystem, dams
trap sediments passing down the river as well as altering flows, which may lead to degradation ( loss of
sediments) or aggradation ( accumulation of sediments) depending on whether the remaining floods can
move the remaining incoming sediments (Basson, 2004).
Any investment in a water resources project and in particular hydropower, must comply with the
environmental and social safeguard policies of the specific Government and the Development Partner
concerned. Usually they are quite similar and are in the form of an environmental assessment. This can
take the form of an environmental audit, an environmental scan, environmental review or a
comprehensive environmental impact assessment (EIA). Some can be very complex and require in depth
study of certain aspects of the environment. These are usually required for larger investment projects.
Others may not be so in depth and usually apply to the smaller projects, where the impacts are known and
can be readily addressed (MEMD, 2007). As mentioned in Section 1.3, in Uganda, the National
Environmental Act 1995, states that EIAs are required and the EIA Regulations specify the types of
projects subject to an EIA. The World Bank has a set of ten environmental and social safeguards policies
for which all World Bank financed projects must be in compliance. These are; i) Environmental
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Assessment ii) Forestry iii) Natural Habitats, iv) Pest management, v) Involuntary Resettlement, vi)
Indigenous Persons vii) Cultural Property, viii) Dam Safety ix) International Waterways and x) Disputed
Areas. All are applicable to hydropower except for Forestry and Disputed Areas.
Table 9.1 provides the potential impacts, consequences and mitigation of a hydropower project.

Table 9.1 Potential Impacts, Consequences and Mitigation of Hydropower Projects

Potential Impact
Habitat Loss

Consequences
Important downstream
habitats may rely on
regular water flows and
minimum flows for their
maintenance.

Loss of water to
downstream users

Loss of Domestic supply

and Irrigation water.
Downstream users may
have to relocate.

Water and Soil

contamination

Lubricating oils and

Greases contaminate
downstream domestic
water supplies and affect
downstream aquatic
communities
Loss of life limb and
injuries requiring medical
attention. Loss of
productivity

Personal injury as
a result of
accessible
equipment

Mitigation
Downstream surveys are
required to determine the
water needs of habitats and
important ecosystems.
Avoid schemes on water
courses with significant
downstream flora and fauna
Schemes should be
established only where
downstream effects are
negligible or where water is
quickly returned to the water
course
Ensure proper handling and
storage of lubricants and
storage and disposal of used
lubricants.

Remarks
Natural
habitats

Involuntary
resettlement.

Ensure site and all equipment

is well shielded from human
interference.
Safety warnings community
workshops and signing

Source: (MEMD, 2007)

9.3.5 The Development of Large Dams

There has considerable discussion recently about the impact of large dams on society. To this effect, the
World Commission on Dams (WCD) was established as in 1998 on the recommendation of a workshop
involving participants from governments, private sector, international financial institutions, civil society
and dam affected people held in Switzerland. It was an independent institution and comprised of 68
members derived from a cross section of views and interests. The workshop was convened by
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with support from the World Bank to address
growing conflicts throughout the World regarding the development of large dams. The mandate was to: i)
review the development effectiveness of large dams and assess alternatives for water resources and
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energy development and ii) develop internationally acceptable criteria guidelines and standards for the
planning, design, appraisal, construction, operation, monitoring and decommissioning of dams.
After more than two years of consultations with stakeholders in favour and against large dams, the
Commission concluded the following:
i.

Dams have made an important and significant contribution to human development and the
benefits derived from them have been considerable.

ii.

In many cases, an unacceptable and often unnecessary price has been secured to secure dam
benefits, especially in social and environmental terms, by people displaced, by communities, by
taxpayers and by the natural environment.

iii.

The lack of equity in the distribution of benefits has brought into question the value of many
dams in meeting water and energy development needs, when compared to other alternatives.

iv.

By bringing together all those with rights involved and those who bear the risks associated with
different options for water and energy resources development, the conditions for a positive
resolution for competing interests and conflicts are created.

v.

Negotiating outcomes will greatly improve the development effectiveness of water and energy
projects by eliminating unfavourable projects at an early stage and by offering as a choice only
those options that the key stakeholders agree represent their needs.

vi.

In future there will be growing competition for water to meet the demands for agriculture,
industry, and drinking water and that as demand increases, loss of water by evaporation in the dry
climates will exacerbate the problem. Therefore decisions on large dams call for rethinking the
management of freshwater resources, so as to minimize dramatic impacts of withdrawing water
from lakes, rivers and aquifers that adversely affect the continued supply of water.

WCD recommended the following:

i.

Five core values of equity, sustainability, efficiency, participatory decision making and
accountability are applied to all future dam developments. In order to achieve this, development
choices and decisions on dams and development should be based on public choice guided by
policy and address a wide range of needs.

ii.

During planning and developing large dams, a rights and risks approach should be applied that
comprises gaining public acceptance, comprehensive options assessment, addressing existing
dams, sustaining rivers and livelihoods, recognizing entitlements and sharing benefits, ensuring
compliance and sharing rivers for peace and development.

iii.

Establish criteria and guidelines for good practices related to strategic options, life cycle,
environmental flows, risk analysis and integrity packs (WCD, 2000).

In Uganda, significant progress has been made through the Uganda Dams Dialogue (UDD), which started
in 2004, to contextualize the WCD recommendations by making them serve as a reference rather than
being applied in totality (UDD, 2006). This approach is partially being operationalised through the
development of a Multi Objective Decision Support System (MODSS), which models the evolving
relationships between decision makers, negotiators, stakeholders and their values, operational goals,
control decisions, criteria and group pReferences. Here stakeholders structure their management
objectives and performance indicators of some preferred management alternative using value trees
(Zaake, 2007).

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9.4
Reservoir Storage Capacity
For simple determination of the storage capacity of a reservoir, several different methods can be used; the
i) Mass Curve Method ii) Analytical Method iii) Sequent Peak Algorithm and iv) Flow duration curve
method and v) Pondage. A sixth method, Behaviour Analysis takes into account the behaviour of the
reservoir during operation. The above methods are commonly used in design practice. In a study on the
applicability of twelve storage estimation methods, to determine the least bias and standard error, based
on 3000 years of synthetic streamflow data, it was noted that the modified Gould and Behavior Analysis
had the least standard error and are recommended for use together with simulation methods for
investigating storage requirements for Irish and similar climatic conditions (Carty and Cunnane, 1997).

9.4.1 Mass Curve Method

Mass Inflow Curve: The mass inflow curve is used in the determination of the reservoir capacity. A mass
inflow curve, also called a mass curve, is a plot between accumulated inflow volumes against time. A
mass inflow curve is prepared from the inflow hydrograph of a river for a large number of consecutive
years.
Fig 9.3 shows the hydrograph of a river at a particular site from the year 1980 to 1992. The discharge
ordinates represent the annual discharge (average discharge of the full year obtained from the total, annual
volume of stream flow by dividing it by (365 x 24 x 3600). The area under the hydrograph from the
starting year 1980 to 1981 represents the volume of water in cumecs that has flowed through the river in
that year. Similarly the areas under the hydrograph in other years represent the volume of water in
corresponding years. Thus the total area of the hydrograph from 1982 is equal to the total volume from
1980 to 1982 and so on.
14000

250

12000

200
10000

150

8000
6000

100

A1

4000

50
2000

A1
0
1980

1981 1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

Year

Fig 9.3 A Flow Hydrograph

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

Y ea r

Fig 9.4 A Mass Curve

Fig 9.4 shows the mass inflow curve. The ordinate of the curve at the year 1980 is zero and that at the
year 1981 is equal to the volume of water flowed from the year 1980 to 1982. The ordinate of the curve at
the year 1982 represents the total volume of water year from the year 1980 to 1982. Likewise the other
ordinates of the mass are found and plotted. The mass curve is a continuously rising curve as it shows the
accumulated volume against time. If there is no flow during a certain period, the mass curve can be
horizontal but it can never fall. On the other hand the mass curve can rise steeply when there is a large
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inflow. The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of inflow at that time. Relatively dry periods
are indicated as depressions with concavity upwards, whereas the periods of high discharge are indicated
as crests with convexity upwards.
Mass Demand Curve
A mass demand curve is a plot of demand rate against time. The mass demand curve is determined from
the demand curve in the same manner as the mass inflow curve is determined from the hydrograph.

14000

250

Discharge (m 3/s)

12000

200
10000

150
100

8000
6000

A1

4000

50

2000

0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

A1

0
1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

Year
Ye a r

Fig 9.5 Uniform Demand

Fig 9.6 A Mass Demand Curve

When the demand is uniform, the demand curve is a horizontal line (Fig 9.5) and the corresponding mass
demand curve is a straight line, having a slope equal to the demand rate (Fig 9.6)
On the other hand, if the demand is variable, the mass demand curve is obtained from the demand curve
after finding out the area of the demand curve for consecutive years, as in the case of a mass inflow curve.
The assumptions for the mass curve method and others based on it, like the analytical method, the sequent
peak algorithm are as follows: i) If N years of data are available, the inflows and demands are assumed to
repeat themselves in a cyclic progression of N year cycles, which also implies that the future flows will
not contain a more severe drought than historical data.
ii) The reservoir is assumed to be full at the beginning of the dry period. Thus while using the mass curve
method, the beginning of the dry period should be noted and the minimum storage required to pass each
drought period should be calculated.
Procedure

Obtain the adjusted inflow Qa.

Obtain the rate of Demand, D.

Calculate the Cumulative Qa (Qa)

Calculate the Cumulative D (D)

Plot a mass (inflow) curve using the calculated values

Plot a mass demand curve (line) corresponding to the given rate of demand superimposing it with the
mass inflow curve.

Draw the lines AB, FG, etc such that they are parallel to the mass demand curve and tangential to the
crests, A, F, etc of the mass curve. The points A, F, etc indicate the beginning of dry periods marked
by depressions as shown in Fig 9.7.
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Determine the vertical intercepts CD, HJ, etc, between the tangential lines and the mass inflow curve.
These intercepts indicate the volumes by which the inflow volumes fall short of demand.
Determine the largest of the vertical intercepts obtained above. The largest vertical intercept
represents the storage capacity required. The vertical distance such as FL between successive tangents
represents the volume of water spilled over the spillway of the dam.

Time (Years)
Fig 9.7 Mass Curve Method

Example 9.1
Twenty-five years of mean monthly flows of River Moroto are recorded in the table below. A monthly
seepage loss of 0.2m3/s is estimated. Determine the required storage capacity if the demand is 80% of the
mean monthly flow and a compensation flow of 0.3m3/s must be maintained in the river.
Month
Q(m3/s)

J
7.5

F
8.7

M
6.8

A
3.5

M
2.7

J
2.3

J
1.7

A
2.0

S
4.7

O
8.7

N
9.6

D
7.8

Solution:
Seepage loss,

S = 0.2 m3/s

Compensation,

C = 0.3 m3/s

Adjusted flow,
Demand D=80% of

Qa = Q - (S+C) = Q 0.5 m3/s

Mean Monthly Flow = 66

12

x 80% = 4.4 m3 / s

The flow Q, adjusted flow Qa, the demand D, the cumulative adjusted flow Qa and cumulative demand
D are all tabulated in Table 9.2, after which the mass curve is drawn as shown in Fig 9.8.and the value
of the intercept is read off.
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Table 9.2 Mass Curve Calculations

Q (m3/s)
7.5
8.7
6.8
3.5
2.7
2.3
1.7
2
4.7
8.7
9.6
7.8

Month
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

Qa (m3/s)
7
8.2
6.3
3
2.2
1.8
1.2
1.5
4.2
8.2
9.1
7.3

Qa
7
15.2
21.5
24.5
26.7
28.5
29.7
31.2
35.4
43.6
52.7
60

D
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4

D
4.4
8.8
13.2
17.6
22
26.4
30.8
35.2
39.6
44
48.4
52.8

M ass C urve
70
60
50

m3/s

storage
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

12

14

M onths
m ass flow curve
m ass dem and curve

From the mass curve plotted,

Required storage capacity = 45 33 = 12 m3/s = 12 x 30 x 24 x 3600 m3 = 31.1 x 106 m3.

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HWRE AR 2010

9.4.2 Analytical Method

This is one of the techniques based on the mass curve method (Rugumayo and Kizza, 2001) and is similar
to the sequent peak algorithm method except that in this case the number runs is equal to the number of
years of data available, whereas in the latter case, the number of runs is twice the number of years of data
available. The capacity of the reservoir is determined from the net inflow and demand and storage is
required when the demand for that period exceeds the net inflow.
Procedure

The stream flow data at the reservoir site is obtained, Q (monthly or annual low rate)

Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir during the month (P)

Estimate the evaporation losses, which would occur from the reservoir (E)

Determine the compensation required during period(C)

Ascertain the demand during various months (D)

Calculate the adjusted inflow during each month (Qa)
Qa = Q + P- E - C

Compute storage capacity for each month (S)
S = Qa - D

Obtain Cumulative (Qa D)

Obtain the maxima and minima for each cycle
Note
 The maxima represents a full reservoir
 The minima represents the minimum reservoir level (maximum depletion)
 A cycle is the period from when the reservoir is at maximum level to the next time it returns
to maximum or from when it is at the minimum level to the next time it is at minimum again

To obtain the amount of water that should be stored in any cycle, obtain the difference between the
maxima and the subsequent minima .i.e,
Storage = Max (
(Q-D)) - Min (
(Q D)), in a cycle.
(9.1)

The maximum value of the storage values gives the necessary capacity of the reservoir
To obtain the amount of spill i, add the storage of the cycle to the minimum (to fill the reservoir) and
subtract from the subsequent maxima, or obtain the maxima of a cycle and subtract the sum of the
storage and the minima.
Spill = Max (
(Q-D)) -[ Storage + Min (
(Q-D))]
(9.2)

Example 9.2
Same Question as in Example 9.1, but use the Analytical Method.
Solution:
In this case the first four columns are the same as for the mass curve; iethe month, the flow Q, the
adjusted flow Qa and the demand D. This is followed by the fifth column, where there is the difference
between the adjusted flow and the demand (Qa-D) and then the cumulative values (Qa-D) in the sixth
column. In the seventh column inflexion points are tabulated from, which the storage can be estimated.

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HWRE AR 2010

Table 9.3 Analytical Method Calculations

Month

Q (m3/s)

Qa (m3/s)

D(m3/s)

Qa-D(m3/s) (Qa-D)
(m3/s)

Inflexion
pts
(m3/s)

7.5

7.0

4.4

2.6

2.6

2.6

8.7

8.2

4.4

3.8

6.4

6.8

6.3

4.4

1.9

8.3

3.5

3.0

4.4

-1.4

6.9

2.7

2.2

4.4

-2.2

4.7

2.3

1.8

4.4

-2.6

2.1

1.7

1.2

4.4

-3.2

-1.1

2.0

1.5

4.4

-2.9

-4.0

4.7

4.2

4.4

-0.2

-4.2

8.7

8.2

4.4

3.8

-0.4

9.6

9.1

4.4

4.7

4.3

7.8

7.3

4.4

2.9

7.2

Storage
(m3/s)

8.3

5.7

-4.2

12.5

7.2

11.4

Q = 66
The maxima is 8.3, while the minima is -4.2 . Taking the difference between these values gives:
Storage = (8.3 (- 4.2)) = 12.5m3/s = 12.5 x 30 x 24 x 3600 = 32.4 x 106 m3.

9.4.3 Sequent Peak Algorithm Method

As mentioned in 9.4.2, this method is similar to the analytical method except that in this case, the analysis
is carried out for a period of 2N, where N could be months or years or any other period (Thomas 1963).
Let the data be available for N consecutive periods not necessarily of uniform length. These periods can
be year, month, day or hours depending upon, the problem. In the ith period let xi = inflow volume and Di
= demand volume. The surplus or deficit of storage in that period is the netflow volume given by.
Net-flow volume = Inflow volume - Outflow volume
(9.3)
= xi - Di
In the sequent peak algorithm, a mass curve of cumulative net-flow volume against chronological time is
used. This curve in Fig. 9.9.), will have inflexion points; peaks (local maximums) and troughs (local
minimums). For any peak P, the next following peak of magnitude greater than P is called a sequent peak.
Using two cycles of N periods; where N is the number of periods of the data series, the required storage
volume is calculated by the following procedure: .
1. Calculate the cumulative net-flow volumes viz.
t

(X

Di ) for t = 1, 2, 3 ., 2N

(9.4)

2. Locate the first peak P1 and the sequent peak P2 which is the next peak of greater magnitude than P1
(Fig. 9.9)
15

HWRE AR 2010

3. Find the lowest trough T1 between P1 and P2 and calculate (P1T1).

4. Starting with P2 find the next sequent peak P3 and the lowest through T2 and calculate (P2T2).
5. Repeat the procedure for all the sequent peaks available in the 2N periods. j.e. determine the sequent
peak Pj, the corresponding Tj) and the jth storage.
(Pj Tj) for all j values.
6. The required reservoir storage capacity is
S = maximum of (Pj Tj) values. (9.5) (Subramanya, 2001)

Base length = 2N years

Where N = No. of years of record

Sequent peak, P3

(Positive)

First peak, P1

Lowest trough, T2

Volume units

Time (months)
Lowest trough, T1
(Negative)

Cumulative Net-Flow Volume, (Xi-Di)

Sequent peak, P2

Fig 9.7 The Sequent Peak Algorithm Method

Example 9.3. Same Question as in Example 9.1, but use the Sequent Peak Algorithm Method
All the seven columns are the same as in the analytical method, however the data set is repeated as shown
in Table 9.4.

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Table 9.4 Sequent Peak Algorithm method

Month
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D

Q m /s Qa m /s D m
7.5
7
8.7
8.2
6.8
6.3
3.5
3
2.7
2.2
2.3
1.8
1.7
1.2
2
1.5
4.7
4.2
8.7
8.2
9.6
9.1
7.8
7.3
7.5
7
8.7
8.2
6.8
6.3
3.5
3
2.7
2.2
2.3
1.8
1.7
1.2
2
1.5
4.7
4.2
8.7
8.2
9.6
9.1
7.8
7.3

/s
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.4

Qa-D
m3/s
2.6
3.8
1.9
-1.4
-2.2
-2.6
-3.2
-2.9
-0.2
3.8
4.7
2.9
2.6
3.8
1.9
-1.4
-2.2
-2.6
-3.2
-2.9
-0.2
3.8
4.7
2.9

(Qa-)m /s
2.6
6.4
8.3
6.9
4.7
2.1
-1.1
-4
-4.2
-0.4
4.3
7.2
9.8
13.6
15.5
14.1
11.9
9.3
6.1
3.2
3
6.8
11.5
14.4

Inflexion
Point m3/s

(P1 ) 8.3

( T1) -4.2

(P2) 15.5

(T2) 3

As can be seen, P1 T1 = P2 T2 = 12.5 m3/s, which is the same value as obtained in the
Analytical Method, Example 9.3. The storage therefore is 12.5 x 30 x 24 x 3600 = 32.4 x 106 m3
9.4.4

Flow Duration Curve Method

A Flow Duration Curve is a plot between the discharge as the ordinate and the percentage of time that the
discharge is exceeded as abscissa. The data used could be daily weekly, ten daily or monthly values.
Before the Flow Duration Curve is drawn, the streamflow data has to be collected.
We can assume that the average daily flow data are available for one year (365 days) for, which the flow
duration curve is to be drawn The following procedure can then be used for plotting the flow duration
curve from the daily flow:
The streamflow data is then arranged in a descending order of discharges, using class intervals especially
since the number of individual values is very large. If n is the number of data points are used in the
listing, the plotting position of any discharge (or class value) Q is
17

HWRE AR 2010

P = (m/n) x 100%

(9.6)

where m is the order number of the discharge or class value and P is the percentage probability of the
flow magnitude being equaled or exceeded. The plot of discharge against Q and P is the flow duration
curve. Arithmetic scale paper, semi-log or log-log paper is used depending upon the range of data and use
of the plot. The storage can be estimated and will be equal to the area between the demand line and the
flow duration curve, and below the demand line as shown in Fig 9.10.
Flow duration curves are used widely in water resources planning as follows:
i.
Estimating dependable flows in water resources engineering projects.
ii.
Evaluating characteristics of the hydropower potential of a river.
iii.
In the design of drainage systems
iv.
In flood control
v.
In estimating sediment load and dissolved solids of a stream
vi.
In the extension of streamflow data to adjacent catchments,
Example 9.4
Same as Question in Example 9.1, but use the Flow Duration Curve
Solution:
The adjusted flow values are ranked in descending order in column 1 of Table 9.5. The number of times
this amount is equaled or exceeded is given in column 2. Column 3 gives the percentage time exceeded.
Table 9.5 The Flow Duration Curve
Adjusted mean monthly flows (in
descending order) Qa (m3/s)

Number of times equaled or

exceeded (m)

Percentage of time
P = (m n X 100)

9.1

8.3

8.2

25.0

8.2

25.0

7.3

33.3

7.0

41.7

6.3

50.0

4.2

58.3

3.0

66.7

2.2

75.0

1.8

10

83.3

1.5

11

91.7

1.2

12

100.0

From the Flow Duration Curve plotted as shown in Fig 9.10

The storage capacity required = Hatched area A
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HWRE AR 2010
(1 00 5 7 ) x ( 4.4 0.2)
1
Area A is approximately = 2 x
100
= 0.93 m 3 / s / month
= 0.93 x12 = 11.2 m 3 / s
= 11.2 x 30 x 24 x 3600
= 29.03 x10 6 m 3

From the example above, it can be clearly seen that though the value of the answers obtained are close to
each other, the flow duration curve method gives a lower value (compared to the values obtained using
the mass curve, analytical and sequent peak algorithm methods.

Flow D uration C urve

10
9
8

Flow rate, Q a (m 3/s)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Percentange of tim e equaled or exceeded

Fig 9.8 The Flow Duration Curve

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HWRE AR 2010

Example 9.5
Determine the Flow Duration Curve for the data provided in the following table.
Month

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

110

180

193

102

118

109

97

88

97

84

79

91

70

56

82

62

52

74

45

47

68

67

35

43

82

60

30

134

75

48

205

142

98

49

127

66

Solution
Flow Duration Curve
The data is arranged in descending order, divided into class intervals and the midpoint of each class
interval determined. The frequency of each class interval is determined from, which m is obtained as
shown in the Table below. The flow duration curve is then plotted as shown in Fig 9.11.

Class interval

Mid point

Frequency

Cumulative
frequency (m)

Percent of time
P = (m/n)x100%

201 210

205

2.8

171 200

185

8.3

141 170

155

11

101 140

120

10

27.8

71 100

85

11

21

58.3

41 70

55

13

34

94.4

0 40

20

36

100.0

n = 36

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HWRE AR 2010

250

Flow Rate (m3/s)

200
150
100
50
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Percentage of time exceeded or equalled

Fig 9.9 Flow Duration Curve

Example 9.6
A dam is to be constructed in the River Sezibwa Catchment to store water for a proposed irrigation
scheme. The mean daily flows for the river have been measured for the critical year and are summarised
in the Table 9.6.
A compensation flow must be maintained in the river and hence no water can be abstracted until the flow
exceeds 15% of the average daily flow. In addition it is considered uneconomical to abstract water at a
rate greater than three times the average daily flow. Determine the volume of water that could be
abstracted from the river per year.
Table 9.6 Daily Flows
Mean Daily flow range

Number of days

0.10 0.99

144

1.00 1.99

63

2.00 2.99

60

3.00 3.99

29

4.00 7.99

32

8.00 11.99

18

12.00 1 5.99

16.00 23.99

24.00 -= 35.99

36.00 48.00

Solution:
The Flow Duration Curve Method can be used to solve this problem, because we are given frequencies
for particular flow ranges.
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HWRE AR 2010

First, we determine the average daily flow and then construct a flow duration curve from which the
required volume of water is estimated. Column 2 in Table 9.7 gives the mid value, which corresponds to
the range of the flow values for the frequency interval. Column 3 shows the number of days and the
fourth column is the mid value multiplied by the frequency in days and the number of seconds in a day to
give the volume for the number of days given. Table 9.8 is then developed based on the flows and their
frequencies.
Table 9.7 Flow Frequency and Volumes
Mid value-q (m3/s)

Frequency (f)(days)

Volume = qf x 86400
(m3 x 106)

0.10 0.99

0.545

144

6.781

1.00 1.99

1.495

63

8.138

2.00 2.99

2.495

60

12.934

3.00 3.99

3.495

29

8.757

4.00 7.99

5.995

32

16.575

8.00 11.99

9.995

18

15.544

12.00 1 5.99

13.995

9.673

16.00 23.99

19.995

12.093

24.00 35.99

29.995

5.183

36.00 48.00

42.00

7.258

365

102.936

Mean daily flow range

(m3/s)

The volume discharged from the river in one year is 102.936 x 106 m3.

102.936 10 6 m 3
60 60 24 365s
= 3.26m 3 / s

Average daily flow =

Compensation flow

= 115

Maximum rate of extraction

100

x 3 .2 6 = 3 .7 5 m 3 /s

= 3 x 3.26 = 9.78 m3/s

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HWRE AR 2010

Table 9.8 Flows and Frequencies

Flow (m3/s)
(Mid value)

Days

Cumulative days (m)

Percent of time
p=m/nx100%

42

0.55

30

1.10

20

11

3.01

14

19

5.21

10

18

37

10.14

32

69

18.90

3.5

29

98

26.85

2.5

60

158

43.29

1.5

63

221

60.55

0.55

144

n =365

100.00

45

3500

40

3139.2

35

2746.8

30

2354.4

25

1962

20

1569.6

15

1177.2

10

784.8

3000

2000
1500

Flow, Q (m 3/s)

Power (KW)

2500

1000
500

10

392.4
20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percentage of tim e equalled or exceeded

Fig 9.10 A Flow Duration Curve and Power Duration Curve

The volume of water that could be abstracted from the river can be obtained from the area of the hatched
area.
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HWRE AR 2010

Hatched area

= Area A + Area B
(9.78 3.75) x (10 0) 1
(9.78 3.75) x (26 10)
x
=
+
2
100
100
= (0.603 + 0.482)
= 1.0854 m 3 / s

Volume of water that could be abstracted in a year = 1.085 m3/s x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 s

= 34.22 x 106 m3, which is about a third of the available flow.
A Power Duration Curve can be plotted by making the power as the ordinate and the percentage of time a
particular power amount is equaled or exceeded as the abscissa. Since the power generated is a product of
the discharge and head, a flow duration curve can be converted into a power duration curve by changing
the ordinate from discharge into power if the head remains constant according to the equation:
P= QgH
(9.7)
P= Q(gH)
Where Q is the flow, is the density of water (1000kg/m3), g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2),
H is the constant head available (assumed 10m) and is the efficiency of the turbines and power
generating equipment (assumed 80%). The bracketed portion would be constant and the corresponding
values of power are shown on the additional scale of ordinates on the left of Fig 9.12.
Like in the case of the flow duration curve, the area under the entire curve represents the average yield of
the river, the area under the corresponding power duration curve gives the average yield of power from
the power plant (Arora, 2007).

9.4.4.1 Some Basic Power Terms

In a hydropower plants, the electrical energy cannot be economically stored on a large scale. The
generation of power depends upon the electrical use or the demand for power which keeps on varying
with time during different hours of the day.
The Base Load is the energy required to be supplied continuously for most of the time for which the
electrical generator has to be run. The pattern of energy or load variation with time is called Load Curve.
From the load curve it may be noted that at a certain hour of the day, the demand or the requirement for
power reaches the maximum or peak value.
The Peak Load is generally defined as that part of the load, which is carried out at rate greater than 1.33
times the average load so as to supply the fluctuation portion of the load or energy requirement.
The Average Load is taken as the mean of the load for the period considered.
The Load Factor is the ratio of the average load to the peak load over a given period. Depending upon the
mode of variation of load, the load factor maybe calculated daily, weekly, monthly or yearly. Since the
area under the load curve represents the energy consumed in kilowatt hours, the load factor may also be
defined as the ratio of the energy consumed to the peak demand, if assumed to last for 24 hours of the
day.
Load Factor =

Energy consumed in 24 hours

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HWRE AR 2010

Peak demand or load x 24 hours

(9.8)

It should be noted that, while the peak load determines the capacity of the generating units, the load factor
gives an idea of the degree of utilization of the capacity. Thus, a load factor of 70 per cent would mean
that the electrical machines are producing only 70 per cent of their maximum production capacity.
The Capacity Factor is a measure of the plant use. It is defined as the ratio of the average load to the
installed capacity of the plant. For instance, a plant with an installed capacity of 60,000 KW and
producing on output of 4.5 x l0 KWH while working for a period of 150 hours would have capacity factor
= 4.5 x 106 = 0.5
60,000 x150. If the plant were so operating that 60000x150 the peak load becomes equal to the plant
installed capacity, load factor is identical to the capacity factor.
The Utilization Factor is a measure of plant use as affected by the water supply. More specifically, it is
the ratio of the quantity of water actually utilized for power generation to that available from river source.
When there is sufficient water to run the plant at capacity, the utilization factor is the same as the capacity
factor. However, depending upon the shortage of water supply, output may be curtailed, which may either
decrease or increase the utilization factor, according to the plant load factor. It may, in practice, vary from
0.40 to 0.90.
The Gross Head in a hydroelectric power plant is the total difference in elevation between maximum
surface in the reservoir at the dam and the water level in the river where the tail race is to be located.
The Net Head (also called effective head) is the head available for energy production after deducting
losses in friction, entrance and unrecovered velocity head in the draft tube.
The Firm Power (also called primary power) is the maximum annual rate at which energy in a
hydroelectric plant can be generated without interruption. This is a completely dependable power and
corresponds to the minimum streamflow available for all times. Firm power is thus available to
consumers for all the twenty four hours of the day.
The Secondary Power is the surplus or non-firm power which is available intermittently at off-peak hours.
Its use is primarily to relieve the load of overworked power plants in an interconnected grid system and
thereby ensure some economy or efficiency to the system.(Nagpal, 2000, Duggal, Soni, 2007)
9.4.5 Pondage
While storage refers to large reservoirs to take care of monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the river flow,
pondage usually refers to the small storage at the back of a weir, in run-of river plants, for temporarily
storing water during non-working hours, idle days and low load periods for use during hours of peak load
demand. These fluctuations may arise because of sudden change in the load demand on the turbines or on
the natural inflows of the year. The sudden increase in load demand would necessitate an instantaneous
increase in the inflows to the turbines, which can be met by stored water available in the pond created for
that purpose, or the excess natural inflows can be temporarily stored as pondage to cater for increased
water requirements of peak load demand. Run-of-river plants are feasible for streams which have a
minimum dry weather flow or receive flow as regulated by any storage reservoir upstream (Raghunath,
2005, Duggal and Soni, 2007).
25

HWRE AR 2010

The pondage factor is the ratio of the total inflow hours in a given period (say a week) to the total number
of hours of working of the power plant in that period (a week). For example, assuming constant stream
flow, if a power plant operates for 6 days in a week at 10 hours per day, then the pondage factor would be

7 24
7 24
= 2.8, and if the plant works only for 5 days in a week, the pondage factor would be
=
6 10
5 10

3.36 and the pondage required in the latter case would be (2x24 for idle days, 14x5 for idle hours)

48 + 70
59
x daily flow volume =
of daily flow-volume. Thus the pondage factor serves as a rough
24
12

guide of the amount of pondage required when the stream flow is constant and the plant works only for a
part of the period. Pondage is needed to cover the following four aspects:
I. To store the idle day flow.
II. For use during hours of peak load.
III. To balance the fluctuations in the stream flow.
IV. To compensate for wastage (due to leakage) and spillage.
Example 9.7
The available flow for 97% of the time (i.e., in a year) in a river is 36cumec. A run-of-river plant is
proposed on this river to operate for 6 days in a week round the clock. The plant supplies power to a
variable load whose variation is given below:

Period (hr)

0-6

6 - 12

12 - 18

18 24

Load during period ratio

24-hr average load

0.6

1.4

1.5

0.5

The other relevant data are given below;

Head at full pond level

= 18 m

Maximum allowable fluctuation of pond level

= 1.5 m

Plant efficiency

= 85%

Pondage to cover inflow fluctuations

Pondage to cover wastage and spillage

= 20% of average daily flow

= 10%

Determine:
I. The average load that can be developed
II. Daily load factor
III. Plant capacity
IV. Weekly energy output
V. Pondage required and
VI. The surface area of the pond for satisfactory operation
Solution:
I. 7 days flow has to be used in 6 days
Average flow available for power development
26

HWRE AR 2010

Q = 36

7
= 42 cumecs
6

Since maximum allowable fluctuation of pond level is 1.5 m, average head

H=

18 + 16.5
= 17.25 m
2

The average load that can be developed

gQH
o
1000
9.81 42 17.25
=
0.85 = 6.04 MW
1000

P=

II. Daily load factor :

Average load = daily load factor = 1 = 0.67

Peak load
1.5
III. Plant capacity = 6.04 x (peak factor)1.5 = 9.06 MW
IV. Weekly energy output = Average load in kW x No. of working hours
= (60.4 x 1000) (6 x 24) = 8.698 x 106 kWh
It should be noted that the installed capacity has to be equal to the peak load and the number of units
(kWh) generated will be governed by the average load.
V. Pondage required
a. To store the idle days flow = 36 x 60 x 60 x 24hrs = 3.1104 x 106m3
b. To store the excess flow during low loads to meet the peak load demand. Since power developed
is proportional to discharge (assuming constant average head of 17.25m), flow required during
peak load periods of 6.00 to 12.00 hr is (1.4 1) 42 cumec and from 12.00 to 18.00 hr is (1.5 1)
42 cumec.
Pondage to meet peak load demand
= (0.4 + 0.5) 42 cumecs for 6 hr
= (0.9 x 42) (6 x 60 x 60)
= 8.1648x 105 m3, or 0.81648 x 106m3
c. Pondage to cover inflow fluctuations
= (0.20 x 36) 86400
= 6.2208 x 105 m3, or 0.62208 x 106m3
Total of a, b, and c = 4.549 x 106 m3
Add 10% for wastage and spillage = 0.4549 x 106m3
Total pondage required = 5.0039 Mm3 or 5.0039 x 106 m3
Since the maximum fluctuation of pond level is 1.3 m
VI. The surface area of pond = 5.0039 Mm3 = 3.336 x 106 m2 = 3.336 km2, or 334 ha
1.5 m3
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HWRE AR 2010

9.4.6 Behavior Analysis

This method as mentioned earlier simulates the behavior of a reservoir during operation. In the Behavior
Analysis of a finite reservoir, storage content changes are calculated using the mass storage equation
below (McMahon, Mein, 1978):
Sn+1 = Sn + In Dn - En - Ln

(9.9)

Subject to; 0 Sn+1 C

Sn+1= storage at the nth time period and the beginning of the n+1th time period.
storage at the beginning of the nth time period.
Sn =
In =
inflow during the nth time period.
Dn =
release during the nth time period.
En = net evaporation loss from the reservoir during the nth time period.
Ln =
other losses during the nth time period.
C=
active storage capacity (where sedimentation reduces storage capacity during reservoir
life, this should be considered).
The time period is often taken to be one month, but this can be varied accordingly. Also, net evaporation
is taken as the difference between evaporation from the proposed reservoir and the evapotranspiration
from the proposed reservoir site and depends on the surface area of the water in the reservoir. Other losses
are considered negligible.
To construct a behavior diagram, the following steps must be followed:
Firstly, choose a reservoir of active capacity C, and assume it to be full initially i.e. SO = C.

Apply the mass storage equation (1) given above for every month or so depending on the time
period chosen. The release Dn can either be constant, assumed to have a seasonal variation, or
vary as a function of Sn. Inclusion of net evaporation may be done only when necessary.

Plot a graph of Sn+1 against time.

Consequently, compute the probability of failure by dividing the number of time periods for
which the reservoir is empty by the total number of time periods (total number of months in this
case).

If the probability derived above is unacceptable, a new C value should be chosen and the steps
repeated (the process is thus iterative to determine the storage size for a particular design
probability of failure).

Conversely, the storage size for which a reservoir empties only once for the period of historical data can
be set. Calculation of this storage could be done using the mass curve and residual mass curve methods.
During the calculations the following assumptions are made;
i. The reservoir is initially full.
ii.

The historical data sequence is representative of future river flows.

However, the following limitations are prevalent;

28

HWRE AR 2010

i.

Handling of non continuous records is difficult because of complexities in applying the initial
reservoir condition after a break in the stream flow data.

ii.

Due to the fact that analysis is based on historical records, the sequencing of flows may not be
representative of the population of flows.

iii.

The significance of the assumption that the reservoir is initially full on storage size can be
checked through examining a behavior diagram for various starting conditions. Analysis based on
generated data suggests that at least 100 years of stream flow are required for some rivers before
the effect of this assumption can be ignored.

iv.

Drafts (demands) related to growth rates in time for example through increased urban water
demand because of population increase are not easily projected because it is hard to relate the
demand in the future year to a specific year in the historical flow record.

Despite all these limitations, the following attributes are noticeable;

i.
Application of the procedure to data based on any time interval is possible.
ii.

The procedure takes into account serial correlation, seasonality and other flow parameters insofar
as they are considered in historical flows used in analysis.

iii.

The procedure is fairly simple and displays clearly the behavior of stored water. The behavior
diagram can be readily understood by non technical people.

iv.

Not only can seasonal drafts be easily taken into account, but also complicated operating policies
can be modelled.

29

HWRE AR 2010

Example 9.8
Using behavior analysis, compute the storage required for a river whose data is given below to supply a
uniform draft of 77.1% of the stream flow with a probability of failure of 6.4%. (All values are x 106 m3)
year
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984

Jan
5
35
14
9
42
98
34
57
26
14
4
40
57
39
35
41
28
84
59
53
139
54
43
42
23
77
32
32
17
32
15
98
7
87

Feb
3
27
16
44
19
22
52
30
12
16
24
22
33
21
49
25
16
48
65
56
64
46
22
26
5
57
19
24
14
15
14
45
2
54

Mar
3
22
25
199
14
64
42
25
14
7
59
35
22
33
67
19
22
28
28
53
88
28
17
16
11
32
12
6
10
14
15
36
1
28

Apr
18
12
2
130
3
87
76
76
17
14
47
30
23
28
139
36
49
26
30
31
481
12
21
34
20
13
16
7
22
16
12
19
6
42

May
21
27
22
84
49
90
112
51
64
16
44
46
67
32
44
100
120
44
46
48
414
14
89
23
118
5
141
9
29
19
35
8
76
45

Jun
11
29
47
183
46
62
149
52
39
56
91
80
69
78
49
159
496
58
64
121
521
65
105
33
132
8
109
15
79
22
44
4
128
84

Jul
19
32
41
159
42
101
387
110
64
42
489
253
59
95
79
297
372
178
68
180
505
109
151
72
207
5
86
36
367
54
68
12
58
178

Aug
52
45
58
195
68
63
235
139
63
154
312
337
87
117
118
324
207
253
149
576
456
89
271
86
269
87
132
85
287
67
112
35
222
132

Sep
27
131
91
218
83
110
306
201
39
146
174
276
156
174
164
250
472
297
129
495
402
99
105
195
223
128
119
111
289
152
207
52
155
197

Oct
12
125
85
263
58
126
239
181
76
101
122
330
168
236
226
279
265
319
117
449
352
132
226
211
208
95
104
137
409
78
232
91
319
103

Nov
80
56
19
316
31
72
159
113
46
89
109
165
232
238
167
126
349
195
249
241
278
60
104
96
146
65
90
105
154
62
201
45
152
75

Dec
48
13
29
99
28
53
54
57
17
30
78
94
75
86
73
63
241
84
153
123
116
53
72
36
95
57
43
54
97
48
138
10
73
62

total
299
554
449
1899
483
948
1845
1092
477
685
1553
1708
1048
1177
1210
1719
2637
1614
1157
2426
3816
761
1226
870
1457
629
903
621
1774
579
1093
455
1199
1087

30

HWRE AR 2010

Solution:
mean flow = 101.59 x 106 m3/month

Trial
1
2
3
4
5

draft = 0.771 x 101.59 x 106 = 78.33 x 106 m3/month

assuming the reservoir is initially full with a storage of 1000 x 106 m3, and applying the equation
St+1= St + It - Dt - Et - Lt, month by month for the whole period. Evaporation (Et) and other
losses (Lt) are considered negligible in this case because of their extremely small values. So =
1000 x 106 m3.
From calculations shown in the tables given, a Summary of the results is given below;
Storage estimate (106m3)
1000
900
850
870
865

Probability of failure
3.43
5.64
6.86
5.88
6.37

Therefore from the iterations performed as shown for the steady draft (release) given with the
reservoir initially full, the required storage capacity is 865 x 106m3 as shown in Fig 9.13, the
behavior diagram

Fig 9.11 A Behavior Diagram for Example 9.8

A study was carried out on two catchments in Uganda (Rugumayo and Kizza, 2001); one is of
bimodal rainfall (Chambura) and the other is of unimodal rainfall (Nyagak) on their response to
within year storage and relate it to reliability of the yield, the Behavior analysis method was
applied for three levels of reliability (90%, 95%and 99%) while the draft selected ranged from 031

HWRE AR 2010

Draft (% MAF)

Draft (% MAF)

100% of the mean annual flow (MAF). The results showed that for zero storage a yield of nearly
30% was possible for all reliability levels and was higher for Chambura , that receives bimodal
rainfall, as shown in Fig 9.14. Therefore for run- of- river schemes the demand would fall in this
region. Furthermore, the smaller the capacity of the reservoir, the greater the reliability and as the
yield increases so does the reservoir capacity increase until some assymptotic value of between
50%-70% of the MAF. The shape of the storage yield curve, gives an indication of the relative
costs of reservoir development on the respective rivers. For instance, a steep yield storage curve
means it will require less storage to meet a particular increase in demand, when it is assumed that
material and labour costs are comparable at both sites. The smaller the reservoir capacity, the
less the exposed surface area and hence the lower the evaporation from the surface. Evaporation
losses can be a significant factor during site selection especially in the Equatorial region.

Capacity (% MAF)
Capacity (% MAF)

Fig 9.12 Reservoir capacity yield curves

Summary
In order to plan for the sustainable water resources, aspects of site assessment and dam selection must be
considered. This should include the functional and technical suitability of a site and an assessment of
anticipated environmental consequences of the construction and operation of the dam. The above aspects
and the principal stages involved in site appraisal and optimum selection of site and type of dam are
explained in this chapter. The challenges in the development of large dams together with the
environmental and social safeguard policies of the main stakeholders are mentioned. The
commonly used methods for the estimation of the storage capacity of a reservoir are discussed and
examples given.

32

HWRE AR 2010

References
1.
Altinbilek,D., Abdel-Malek, R., Devernay,J-M., Gill, R., Leney,S., Moss,T., Schiffer,H.P.,
Taylor,R.M., Hydropowers Contribution to Energy Security, World Energy Congress, Rome,
International Hydropower Association, 2007, London, UK.
2.
Arora, S,O. Water Resources Hydropower and Irrigation Engineering, Standard Publishers and
Distributors, 1996,New Dehli, India.
3.
Basson, G., Hydropower Dams and Fluvial Morphological Impacts An African Perspective,
Proceedings United Nations Symposium on Hydropower and Sustainable Development, 27th 29th
October 2004, Beijing, China.
4.
Carty, J.G., Cunnane,C., An Evaluation of Some Methods of Determining the Storage Yield
Relationships for Impounding Reservoirs, Water and Environment Journal, 1997,Vol 4 (1) pp35-45.
5.
Duggal,K.N., Soni,J.P., Elements of Water Resources Engineering, New Age International (P)
Limited 2007, New Dehli, India.
6.
Environmental and Social Management Framework, A Field Manual, Rural Electrification
Agency, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development 2007, Kampala, Uganda.
7.
McMahon T.A., Mein R.G., Reservoir Capacity and Yield, Elsevier Scientific Publishing
Company, 1978, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
8.
Nagpal, G.R. Power Plant Engineeering, Khanna Publishers, 2000, New Dehli, India.
9.
Novak P., Moffat A.I.B., Nalurri C., .Naranyanan R., Hydraulic Structures, Second Edition,
E&FN Spon,1996, London, UK
10.
Raghunath H.M., Hydrology, Principles, Analysis and Design, New Age International (P) Ltd,
2005, New Dehli, India.
11.
Rugumayo A.I., Kizza M., Reservoir Yield Reliability Analysis, Proceedings of the 25th WEDC
Conference, 2001, Lusaka, Zambia.
12. Subramanya, K. Engineering Hydrology, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing, 2001, New
Dehli, India.
13.
The National Environment Act 1995, Uganda Printing and Publishing Company, Entebbe,
Uganda.
14.
The Scoping Report on the Decision Making Processes in Dams and Development in Uganda,
Uganda Dams Dialogue, DDP/GTZ/UNEP, 2006, Kampala, Uganda.
15.
Thomas, H. A.,Burden, R.P., Operations Research in Water Quality Management , Havard Water
Resources Group 1963, Havard, USA.
16.
World Commission on Dams (WCD), Dams and Development a New Framework. Earthscan
Publications Ltd, 2000, London, UK/Sterling VA, USA.
17.
Zaake B., Report on Stakeholder Meeting: Enhancing applicability of innovative methodologies
and tools to improve engagement and participation of stakeholders and decision makers at every
stage of the decision process in the management of dams along the Victoria Nile in Uganda, 19th
20th July 2007, Directorate of Water Resources Management, Entebbe, Uganda.
Further Reading
1. Chadwick, A., Morfett,J., Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, Allen and Unwin, 1989, London, UK.
2. Dake, J.M.K., Essentials of Engineering Hydraulics, 3rd Edition, Macmillan,London UK.
3. Design of Small Dams, United States Department of the Interior, A Water Resources Technical
Publication, 1974, Washington, USA.
4. Garg S.K. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1998, New Dehli, India.
5. Linsely and Franzini: Water Resources Engineering, McGraw, 1979, London, UK
6. Viessman, W., J.W. Knapp, G.L. Lewis & T.E. Harbaugh (1977). Introduction to Hydrology, Harper
Row, New York, USA
7. Wilson E.M., Engineering Hydrology, 4th Edition, Macmillan, 1996, London UK.
33

HWRE AR 2010

Questions
1.
The flow (in m3/s of River Aswa over 17months (each of 30 days) was:
April
6.7
39.6

May
16.8
68.8

June
77.1
145

July
102.4
216

Aug
238
162

Sept
247

Oct
216

Nov
63

Dec
26.3

Jan
20.6

Feb
16.8

Mar
6.5

A hydroelectric plant using a net head of 24m, and developing 15.2MW at 88% efficiency is to take water
from a reservoir on this river. An exceptionally wet season proceeding the first April would have left the
reservoir full.
What reservoir capacity would be necessary to supply 15.2MW, continuously?
What volume of water will escape over the spillway in the above period? Use the i) mass curve method,
ii) analytical method and iii) flow duration curves.
2. A dam is to be constructed to embark on large-scale irrigation in the Kafu plains. Given the following
monthly minimum flows, for River Kafu, over a 15month period, determine the reservoir capacity
required, if the demand will be 75% of the average minimum flow. Seepage losses are estimated at
12,500m3/day, evaporation losses are averaged at 3.00mm/day throughout the year and downstream
compensation requirements are 1.0m3/s. The reservoir surface area is approximately 400 hectares.
Month
Inflow
volume x 106m3

1
12

2
24

3
40

4
12

5
5

6
4

7
7

8
4

9
3

10
3

11
7

12
23

13
37

14
8

15
6

Use i) mass curve ii) analytical and iii) flow duration curve iv) sequent peak algorithm
3. Which of the above methods do you think gives the most accurate results?
4. Discuss the characteristics of a good reservoir site.

5. Define the power terms below:

i. Peak load ii. Net head iii. Utilization factor
6. What is entailed in the investigations for reservoir planning.
7. Define the term pondage and explain its use.

34

HWRE AR 2010

10 SEDIMENTATION
Sediments are produced in the catchment of a river by erosion. Rivers carry a large amount of sediment
load along with water. These sediments are deposited in the reservoir on the upstream of the dam because
of reduction of velocity. The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as reservoir silting or
sedimentation.
10.1
River Classification
Sediment yield is the amount of sediment passing a specified channel location. It is influenced by a
number of geomorphic processes. It may be substantially less than the amount actually eroded in the
basin. Sediment transport is influenced primarily by the action of wind and water. Deposition occurs in a
number of locations where energy for transport becomes weak to carry eroded sediments.
Classification, in the strictest sense, means ordering or arranging objects into groups or sets on the basis
of their similarities or differences.
There are currently four main methods of river classification (Rowntree, 1999). These are: (a) Whole
River System Classification (b) Zonal (Segment) Classification (c) Morphological Classification (d)
Hierarchical Classification.
i)

Whole River System Classification; River systems are composed of a hierarchy of

catchments with small catchments nested within larger ones. The magnitude of a river
system at any point within the larger river system can be described and compared to other
systems. Topographic indices such as basin relief, relief ratio, basin shape and the
hypsometric curve also describe and compare the relief and shape of catchments.
ii) Zonal Classification: this is classification based on the concept of zonation down the long
profile and is widely used. The earliest zonal classification, done in the 19th Century
subdivided the channel and adjacent catchment in terms of the gradient. The steep
headwater zones were termed youthful with high potential energy and active
degradation processes. This is characterized by steep gradients and giving rise to gorges
or narrow steep sided valleys. The fast flowing sterams have little need to deposit their
load and there is no flood plain. Most of the silt comes from the catchment due to soil
erosion. This can also be termed as the rocky stage as shown in Fig 10.2, since the beds
and banks are rocky and is ideal for the construction of dams.
The foothill areas were termed mature with more gentle slopes, less active degradation
and a tendency to equilibrium between erosion and sediment deposition. The valley is
both deeper and wider. This can also be termed as the boulder stage as shown in Fig 10.2.
In this stage, the bed and the banks are usually composed of large bouldes, gravels and
shingles. During floods, the river transports boulder and shingles downstream however,
when the flood recedes,these materials are deposited in the river bed. The river section is
well defined. The velocity is high but less than in the rocky stage.
The lower zones characterized by low gradients and low potential energy were termed
old age and were dominated by low velocity flows, deposition and low rates of
catchment denudation. This can be considered as both the trough, alluvial and deltaic
stages as shown in Fig 10.2. The river meanders and the cross section is made of alluvial
sand and silt. The river carries sediments which are the same as the bed and the bank. In
the deltaic stage, the last stage before it discharges into the sea, the bed slope and velocity
are further reduced. The river is unable to carry sediments and consequently drops them
35

HWRE AR 2010

and gets divided into channels on either side of the deposited sediments and forms a delta
(Arora, 2007).
A fluvial system can be further classified in terms of sediment activity into three zones:
an upper zone of sediment production (source) (youthful), a middle zone (transfer)
(mature) essentially in equilibrium, and a lower zone (sink or deposition area), (old)
where controls are base level and diastrophism. The fluvial cycle is the name given to the
series of progressive changes in landforms, which results from the development of a river
system. All the processes of erosion and deposition connected with rivers combine to
bring these changes and in areas of moderate rainfall, they are among the dominat factors
shaping the landscape (Read and Watson, 1972).
iii) Morphological Classification: This approach considers that the basis of any classification
system should be the river reach, a homogenous reach being a stretch of a river of
variable length within which controls of channel form such as hydrology, geology and
adjacent catchment conditions are sufficiently uniform to result in relatively uniform
channel morphology. More comprehensive classifications were developed that
differentiated between straight, meandering and braided channel patterns.
iv) Hierarchical Classification: this links large regional scales (ecoregions) with small
microhabitat scales. The basic assumption for the development of the hierarchical stream
classification is the geomorphologic premise that the structure and dynamics of the
stream are determined by the surrounding catchment.

Fig 10.1 Stages in river development

Source: (Arora, 2007)

36

HWRE AR 2010

A study (Rugumayo et al, 2004) was carried out on three rivers in Uganda, namely, Kagera, Sio and
Katonga, to estimate the amount of sediment load they carried and then develop a simple classification of
rivers in this region, based on the sediment load. The hierarchical system of classification was applied,
because it deals with large spatial variability and can relate to fewer variables than most other systems.
There are three major sources of sediment input into L. Victoria. These are direct runoff from the
catchment, sediment loads from the rivers and from physiochemical and biological processes within the
lake as a result of external factors. Agricultural related activities by the communities living in the river
and Lake Basin, are the most influential cause of sediment inflow into the lake.
The sediment load of rivers carried by moving water is subdivided into two categories namely; suspended
load and bed load. The study focused on the suspended load since according to previous studies
(Mwebembezi et al, 2001), approximately 94% of the sediment yield was found to comprise of suspended
load, hence the significance of the suspended load analysis.
A simple classification model was developed using the Rating Curve method, the Quasi Maximum
Likelihood Estimator and the Smearing Estimator to assist in estimating sediment load per unit area.
Typical characteristics are as shown in the Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 A Simple Sediment Transport Classification Model
Ratio of Sediment Input
per unit area (g/m3/day)
0.005 0.0019

Classification
Description
Low

0.200 0.399

Medium

0.400 - 0.600

High

>0.600

Very High (excessive)

Typical characteristics
Low flow velocity
Generally flat topography, well vegetated
Swampy surroundings
Fairly high flow velocity
Hilly areas with farming activities
High flow velocity
Area with intense farming
Usually sparsely vegetated
Little or no vegetation
Slope failures, landslides.

10.2 Land Degradation

Land degradation is the loss of utility or potential utility, or the reduction, loss or change of features or
organisms, which cannot be replaced. In Uganda there are two forms of land degradation; soil degradation
and vegetation degradation. In this section we shall confine ourselves to soil erosion, which is a form of
soil degradation. There are three major causes of soil erosion in Uganda; surface erosion, gully erosion
and soil mass movement. Surface erosion involves the detachment and subsequent removal of soil
particles by wind and water. In Uganda, water is the main agent of erosion with wind erosion commonly
found in the drier areas of less than 800 mm of rainfall per year such as north eastern Uganda. Rill erosion
occurs when running water concentrates and scours the sides of the channels. Rill erosion is the first stage
of gulley formation and rills can be obliterated by ordinary tillage, but it does not replace the lost soil.
Gulley erosion is normally the advanced stage of rill erosion and involves scouring and the movement of
ether individual soil particles or large aggregates in a channel by a large concentration of running water.
Gully formation normally begins with deeper incision in the soils of the lower reach of hill slopes that
expand uphill.
37

HWRE AR 2010

The main causes of soil erosion in Uganda are i) Improper land use or inappropriate farming practices;
complete forest removal, overgrazing, exposure of bare agricultural land, ii) Climatic factors, especially
the amount and intensity of rainfall. The characteristics of rain in many parts of Uganda render it highly
erosive and put the soil at great risk of degradation. The dominant factor on amount of runoff and soil loss
is usually the frequency of high intensity storms rather than the total amount of rainfall. Most often, heavy
downpours are received in very short durations, iii) Other physical causes include a) soil erodibility: In
general the soils are inherently erodible and prone to erosion and erosion induced degradation, b) length
and gradient of slope. In general the magnitude and severity of soil erosion is a function of slope length
and steepness. These vary widely across the ecozones of Uganda ranging from 0% to 30% and so are the
effects; c) mass wasting can occur in natural forests free form anthropogenic perturbations due to
earthquakes., iv) Non agricultural human activities; for instance the construction of roads or buildings
that leave the ground unprotected generates large volumes of surface runoff that cause both on site and off
site erosion and especially since most roads are murrum and there is a housing boom, v) land tenure and
land fragmentation; this occurs more in the heavily populated districts of Kisoro, Mbale , Kapchorwa
and Bushenyi.
The areas most seriously affected by soil erosion are the steep slopes of Kabale, Kisoro, Bundibugyo,
Kasese, Kabarole, Kapchorwa an Mbale. Although this problem is well recognized, the actual quantities
lost per annum and the offsite damage it causes are not known. Several studies have been done to quantify
soil loss from runoff plots and extrapolate them to arable lands but the discrepancies are high (Magunda
and Tenywa, 2001).
Recent work (Bamutaze et al, 2006) in the Mt Elgon region on major cropping systems and three
landscape positions shows that runoff and soil erosion are occurring at catastrophic proportions and is
more severe in annual crops, like beans and maize as compared to perennial crops like bananas.
Furthermore, the greatest runoff and soil loss occurred in the lowest landscape position, whereas the
lowest runoff and soil loss occurred in the middle landscape position. They recommend the promotion of
perennial land use as opposed to annual crops and the sensitization of communities on land use practices.

10.3 The Process of Sedimentation

There are two types of sediment load namely the suspended load and the bed load explained below:
Suspended load: The suspended load is that part of the sediment load that is held in suspension against
gravity by the vertical component of eddies of the turbulent flow. The suspended load usually consists of
fine material dispersed throughout the river cross section.
Bed load: The bed load is that part of the sediment load, which remains in contact with the bed when
moving with water. It consists largely of relatively coarser materials.
The Process
When the water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and the turbulence are
considerably reduced. The larger suspended particles and bed load get deposited in the head reaches of
the reservoir and a delta is formed. Some very fine particles may remain in suspension for a much longer
period and may finally escape from the dam along with water discharged through the sluice gates,
turbines, spillway, etc.

38

HWRE AR 2010

Turbid
inflow

Floating
Debris

Water
Surface

Relatively
clear
water
Delta

Density
Current
Fine
sediments

Sluiceways

Fig 10.2 Sediment accumulation in a typical reservoir

The sediment load of the river depends upon the following factors:
i) Nature of soil in the catchment: If the soil in the catchment is loose and easily eroded, the sediment
load is large. On the other hand, if the soil is hard and non erodible, the sediment load is quite small.
ii) Vegetal cover: If the catchment area has no vegetal cover, the soil is easily eroded and the sediment
load is large.
iii) Topography of the catchment: In case of catchments having steep slopes, the sediment load is large
because of high velocity of water.
iv) Intensity of rainfall: If the intensity of rainfall is high, the discharge in the river is increased and the
sediment load is large.
v) The size of a water body: has a strong implication for its hydrological and sedimentological
characteristics. In small lakes, wind-induced re-suspension is the only important sediment transport
mechanism, while in oceans current-mediate transport mechanisms assume an equally important role to
wind induced distribution mechanisms.
A study of the pattern and mechanisms of sediment distribution in Lake Victoria (Azza, 2006) suggests
that for large lakes, with relatively shallow basins, surface wave action together with currents can predict
the sediment distribution. He further suggested that morphometric, hydrological and meteorological
factors come together to mix and disperse sediments via the epilimnion and produce alongshore and
cross- isobath currents that transport sediment northwards and northeastwards from the western shore. A
related study (Kimaro et al, 2006) carried out on the northern and southern fringes of Lake Victoria,
showed that the nature of field parcels and overall farming techniques has an overall effect of protecting
the soil structure against raindrop impact, encouraging water infiltration, obstructing runoff and
eventually minimizing soil loss from the gardens. They further noted that the presence of settlements is
associated with very high sediment yield, indicating that future unchecked expansion is likely to
contribute to sedimentation of Lake Victoria. Although aquatic weeds are effective buffers, excessive
sedimentation is likely to reduce filtering capacity and therefore make the lake more vulnerable.

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HWRE AR 2010

10.4
Effects of Sedimentation
The deposition of sediments will reduce the water storing capacity of the reservoir and if the process of
deposition continues longer, a stage is likely to reach when the whole reservoir may get silted up and
become useless. Other effects include increased flood levels upstream of the reservoir, retrogression of
the riverbed and water levels downstream of the dam, elimination of nutrients carried by the fine
sediments, and the deterioration of the water quality.
Useful Life of a Reservoir
The deposition of sediments gradually reduces the available capacity of a reservoir. As more and more
sediments are deposited in the reservoir a stage comes when the reservoir is not able to serve its intended
purpose and its useful life is over. If the annual sediment flow is compared with the reservoir capacity, the
useful life of the reservoir would be very short. While planning a reservoir, it is essential to consider the
rate of sedimentation to know whether the useful life of the proposed reservoir will be sufficiently long to
justify the expenditure of its construction. The rate of sedimentation in the reservoir depends on the trap
efficiency.
Trap efficiency: The trap efficiency (t) is defined as the percent of the total inflow sediment, which is
retained in the reservoir. Thus;

Trap efficiency

(10.1)

From the observations of the rate of sedimentation of existing reservoirs, it has been found that the trap
efficiency of a reservoir depends upon the capacity/inflow ratio. Brune (1953) gave the curves relating
the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio on the basis of a large number of existing reservoirs in the
USA as shown in Fig 10.3. He also developed an empirical relationship from which the curves are drawn;
E = 100 x (0.97 0.19log(C/I))

(10.2)

Where C is the capacity and I is the Inflow.

In general the greater the capacityinflow ratio, the greater the trap efficiency, thus sedimentation is
higher in relatively larger reservoirs. The trap efficiency decreases with the age of the reservoir, because
the available capacity gradually decreases. It also depends on other factors like shape of reservoir basin,
type of outlets, method of operation, size and grading of the sediment and the behaviour of finer sediment
fractions under various conditions. Churchill (1948) developed a relationship between the percentage of
incoming sediment through a reservoir and a reservoir sedimentation index, which is defined as the ratio
of the period of retention to the mean velocity of flow through the reservoir.
Murthy (1980) developed guidelines for use of the above methods. He recommended the using of Brune
method for large storage or normal ponded reservoirs and the Churchill method for settling basins, small
reservoirs, flood retarding structures, semi-dry reservoirs or reservoirs that are continuously sluiced. A
study was carried out on the River Nile Basin Sedimentation Problems (Siyam et al, 2005), which gave
the Table 10.2 on the capacity/inflow ratio and estimate of the trap efficiency using Brune median curve.
The results showed a range between 78% and 98%.
There is ongoing research, which intends to develop a Nile Basin Reservoir Information System,
(NBRIS) that will be used to plan, monitor and manage reservoirs using the various analysis of spatial
and non spatial attribute overlaying, simulation and modeling and integrated analysis of spatial and non
spatial attribute data. With the availability of remote sensing satellite data that provide 1-4 m resolution
and the centimetre level accuracy of GPS, it would be possible to update the data regularly.
40

HWRE AR 2010

The following information could also be added to the data base;

Downstream hazard potential of a dam, which can identify the hazard to the downstream area
resulting from failure or failed operations of the dam.
Identification and review of the measures that can be taken to reduce sedimentation of reservoirs.
Consideration of the options for the removal of sediment, along with the associated
environmental concerns and consideration of the past and future consequences of reservoir
storage loss.
List of references of research in sedimentation problems in reservoirs.

Table 10.2 Trap Efficiency Coefficients for different Nile reservoirs estimated by Median Curve of
Brune Method
Capacity C(Mm3)

Koka
Roseiris
Girba
Angerib
Nasir Nuba

1650
3000
1300
5.28
162000

Source: (Siyam et al 2005)

Total Inflow (I) C/I
(Mm3)
29478
0.0560
48744
0.0615
12000
0.1083
27
0.1852
84000
.929

Brune Trap
Efficiency%
78.38
79.64
86.00
90.23
98.12

Location
Awash River Ethiopia
Blue NileSudan
Atbara river Sudan
Angerib River Ethiopia
Main Nile
Egypt Sudan

Sediment trapped (%)

Reservoir

Capacity: inflow ratio (capacity/volume of annual inflow)

Fig 10.3 Curves relating the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio
Source: (Brune, 1953)

Therefore, the complete sedimentation of the reservoir shall be more at the beginning and as its capacity
reduces due to silting, the silting rate will reduce. It can also be concluded that for small reservoirs on
large rivers, the trap efficiency is very low, because the capacity inflow ratio is very small. Such rivers silt
41

HWRE AR 2010

very little and most of their sediment is passed downstream. On the other hand, large reservoirs on
smaller rivers silt significantly and almost complete deposition of sediment may take place.
10.5
Measures to Control Reservoir Sedimentation
i) Minimising sediment input: This is by far the most effective measure and can be achieved by optimal
choice of the location of the reservoir, the prevention of erosion in the catchment by soil conservation
methods (afforestation, vegetation cover, terracing etc), the trapping of sediment in traps / check dams or
by vegetative screens on the tributaries upstream of the reservoir, or by bypassing heavily laden flows
during floods, from an upstream diversion structure to downstream of the dam.
ii) Maximising sediment throughflow: This requires flow regulation during floods and /or flushing during
reservoir drawdown. Under certain conditions the sediment laden inflow does not mix with the water in
the reservoir but moves along the old river bed as density current towards the dam, where it can be drawn
off by suitably located and operated outlets. In principle, the development of density currents requires a
significant difference between the density of the incoming flow and the water in the reservoir, a large
reservoir depth, and morphological conditions (steep, straight old river bed).The formation and sediment
transport of density currents can be predicted and should be applied to all reservoirs under various
operational conditions. Turbidity sensors should be applied at several elevations upstream of the dam wall
for management of density currents by releasing high sediment concentrations through low level outlets.
iii) Recovery of Storage: This can be achieved by flushing deposited sediment, a technique, which is very
effective when combined with a substantial reservoir drawdown, by siphoning or dredging; in the latter
case either conventional methods, particularly a suction dredger with a bucket wheel, or special
techniques can be used. Effective flushing requires excess water, suitably large low level outlets, a steep
narrow reservoir basin and judicious operation.
Dredging has been carried out only to a limited extent worldwide, mainly because of the high costs and
environmental problems associated with the disposal of dredged sediments and as a result should be
considered as a last resort (Basson, 2004).
iv) Sedimentation Compensation Measures: There are a number of techniques which can be applied,
which are discussed as follows; a) Dam raising; this provides an economical solution to regain storage
capacity lost due to sedimentation. The rasing options considered are fixed uncontrolled spillways, crest
radial gates, automatic crest gates of fuse gates, b) New dams; dam sites should be selected in regions
with relatively low sediment yields. The upper reaches have relatively high runoff, with low sediment
loads, however this is not always possible due to the location of power demand centresand availability of
dam sites, c) Design for sedimentation: designs should acknowledge the experience in reservoir
sedimentation, whereby 80% occurs in the live storage zones rather than the current practice of designing
for withdrawals from the dead storage zones. d) Augmentation from adjacent catchments; regulation of
runoff and sedimentation control requirements in a reservoir are often in conflict. Transfer of water from
adjacent catchments can provide a solution to sediment control if it is economically feasible and it can
provide sufficient excess runoff (Basson, 2004).
v) Simulation Techniques: The Reservoir Conservation RESCON model is designed to assist in the
selection of a reservoir management strategy that is technically feasible, which maximizes the net
economic benefits of a reservoir using four explicit options of sediment management namely: Flushing;
Hydrosuction; Traditional Dredging and Tracking. In addition the do nothing alternative (i.e. no sediment
removal), where eventual decommissioning is required is also analysed. The RESCON requires project
specific technical and economic data in addition to environmental and social safeguards parameters. The
important parameters with respect to flushing are representative flushing discharge; duration of flushing
events in addition to the parameters related to reservoir geometry, outlet capacities, sediments and water
flow. Before detailed calculations, the flushing scenarios are checked for technical feasibility, by
comparing the amounts of sediments evacuated with respect to amount of sediments inflow in a year. The
42

HWRE AR 2010

tracking and dredging options are always considered as technically feasible. For the baseline case for no
sediment removal, the model assumes two alternatives: run of river and eventual decommissioning. All
options are taken through an optimization routine to find economically viable options for each. The
results are compared and ranked for final decision by the user (Palmeri et al, 2003, Kawashima et al,
2003). This model was applied to the Tarbela dam in Pakistan and it was found that the reservoir can
achieve a sediment balance ratio of more than 1 even with a flushing for 20 days in a year with a water
depth of 417 m above mean sea level and a discharge of 3,787 m3/s.(Tinsanchi and Khan, 2006).
An empirical reservoir classification system was developed (Basson, 2004) based on a plot of the storage
capacity- mean annual runoff (MAR) against the capacity-sediment yield ratio gives some useful results.
Most reservoirs have a capacity- MAR ratio of between 0.2 to 3 and a life span of 50 to 2000 years when
considering reservoir sedimentation. When the capacity- MAR ratio is less than 0.03 especially in semiarid regions, sediment sluicing or flushing, should be carried out during the floods and through large
bottom outlets. When capacity MAR ratios are however, larger than 0.2, not enough excess water is
available for flushing and the typical operational model is storage operation. The operating rules for a
reservoir need not be inflexible, but can change with different stsges of storage loss Storage operation
may be continued in reservoirs with large capacities relative to the sediment loads, while sluicing
/flushing operation can be introduced once the loss of storage capacity reaches a certain stage. This is
shown in Fig 10.4.

Fig 10.4 Empirical reservoir classification system in terms of storage runoff and sediment yield
Source: Basson, 2004

10.6

Sediment Load Formulae

10.6.1 A Sediment Rating Curve

Segments of a sediment rating curve are usually approximated by the power relationship of the form;
Qs = mQn

(10.3)
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HWRE AR 2010

where: Qs = suspended sediment transport (Mtons/day)

Q = water discharge (m3/s)
m = coefficient
n = exponent
The exponent n for many rivers ranges about a mean of 2 (Garde and Ranga Raju, 1985). They could for
instance have one for the rising flood stage and the other for the falling stage. Observations indicate that
for higher discharges, the exponent will diminish and approach the value of unity.
Sediment rating curves are usually based on short term data unlike water discharge measurements.
However, long term sediment load estimates are required for reservoir sedimentation. As a consequence
Miller (1951) developed a method for finding the average sediment yield by combining the short term
sediment rating curve, with the long term flow duration curve to become the Flow Duration Sediment
Rating Curve Method. Experience indicates that the flow duration sediment rating curve is most reliable
when i) the recording period is long, ii) sufficient data at high flows are available and iii) the sediment
rating curve shows considerable scatter (Julien, 1995).
It is possible to calculate the total load or sediment load from the sum of the bed load and suspended load.
Separate equations are available for bed load and for suspended load. However, experimental data are still
rather sparse, and it is very difficult to separate bed and suspended load from these data. For this reason,
some researchers have tackled directly the problem of total load. Three examples of total load formulae
are outlined below.
10.6.2 Ackers and White Formula
Ackers and White (1973) applied dimensional analysis techniques to develop a general sediment transport
function in terms of three dimensionless groups, Ggr, Fgr and Dgr: Ggr is the sediment transport parameter,
which is based on the stream power concept. For bed load, the effective stream power is related to the
velocity of flow and to the net shear force acting on the grains. Suspended load is assumed to be a
function of total stream power, P. The particle mobility number, Fgr, is a function of shear stress/immersed
weight of grains. The critical value of Fgr (i.e. the magnitude representing inception of motion) is denoted
by A. Finally, a dimensionless particle size number, Dgr, expresses the relationship between immersed
weight of grains and viscous forces (Chadwick and Morfett, 1989). Ackers and White showed that the
transport of fine materials is best related to the total shear velocity and the transport of coarse sediments is
related to the mean velocity.
The equations are then as follows:

q D
G gr = S m
sD

Fgr =

n
Fgr

U
V = C A 1

gD [s 1] 32 log (10 D m D )
U n

D gr

g [s 1]
= D

(10.4)
1 n

(10.5)

(10.6)
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HWRE AR 2010

Where

qS = volume of sediment transported per second per unit channel width

q = flow discharge

Dm = mean flow depth

D = representative grain size (Usually D35, that is the size of sediment for which 35% of the
sample is finer)
U = shear velocity

V = mean cross-section velocity

s = grain specific gravity =

S = density of sediments
= density of water

= Kinematic viscosity

The index n does have a physical significance, since its magnitude is related to Dgr. For fine grains n =
1, for coarse grains n = 0, and for transitional sizes n = f (log Dgr).
The values for n, m , A, and C are as follows:
For Dgr > 60
n = 0, m = 1.5, A = 0 .17 , C = 0.025
For 1 < Dgr < 60

n = 1 0.56 log D gr
m = 1.34 + 9.66 / D gr
A = 0.14 + 0.23 / D gr

log C = 2.86 log D gr (log D gr ) 3.53

2

10.6.3 Yangs Formula

Yang (1979) hypothesized that the unit stream power, VS, defined as the time rate of potential energy
dissipated per unit weight of water, is the dominant factor in determining the sediment concentration in
alluvial channels. The relationship between the unit stream power and the total sediment concentration,
Ct, is expressed by
VS
log C t = I + J log

Where

Ct
U

J = 1 .780 0 .360 log

wD 50
U
0 .480 log
v
w

I = 5 .165 0 .153 log

wD 50
U
0 .297 log
v
w

(10.8, 10.9,10.10)

= total sediment concentration in ppm

= shear velocity
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HWRE AR 2010

V
S

= mean cross-section velocity

= water slope
= fall velocity
w
VS w = dimensionless unit stream power
= Kinematic viscosity
v
I and J are parameters determined from multiple regression analysis of a large range of experimental data.
10.6.4 Karim and Kennedys Formula
Karim and Kennedy (1983) used dimensional analysis to develop a power relationship between the total
sediment discharge, qt, and the flow velocity, V, shear velocity, U , the fall velocity, w, and the mean
particle diameter, D50

V
qt = k1

g (s 1)D50

2.97

1.47

U

w

3
g (s 1)D50

(10.11)

Where qt is the total sediment discharge per metre width in m2/s and k1 = 0.00139 is a coefficient of
proportionality.
10.6.5 Discussion of Sediment Transport Formulae
In a study Karamisheva et al (2006) investigated nine sediment load transport formulae with experimental
data obtained during inbank and overbank flows in compound channels with straight and meandering
planforms. The comparison between measured and predicted sediment discharge gave the following
results:
The formulae, which gave good prediction for sediment discharge for inbank flows also predicted
the sediment discharges for overbank flow with good accuracy.
The Yang formula gave very good results for all the data studied.
The Karim and Kennedy formula could be a good predictor of sediment discharge for inbank and
overbank flows in channels with straight and meandering planforms except that the constant of
proportionality needs calibration.
The Ackers and White formula gave a very good prediction for the flood channel facility and a
good overall mean discrepancy ratio, but over predicted the sediment discharge in the smaller
experimental channel.
10.7

Sediment Estimation Examples

Example 10.1 (after Garg, 1999)

The following information is available regarding the relationship between trap efficiency and capacity
inflow ratio.

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HWRE AR 2010

Capacity
inflow ratio

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Trap
efficiency
percent

87

93

95

95.5

96

96.5

97

97

97

97.5

Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 25 million cubic meters, if the
average annual flood inflow is 50 million cubic meters and the average annual sediment inflow is 200,000
tons. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2 gm per c.c. The usual life of the reservoir will
terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment.
Solution
Average annual sediment inflow = 200,000 tons
= 2 105 tonnes= 2 1011gm
Volume of average annual sediment inflow
2 1011
2 1011 3 0.2
=
c.c =
m =
10 6 m 3
6
1.2
1
.
2
1.2 10
1
= M .m 3
6
= 0.1667 x 106 m3
Initial Reservoir Capacity = 25 M.m3
Annual flood inflow=50 M. m3
Let us assume that 20% of the capacity,i.e 5 M. m3 is filled up in the first interval .
Capacity inflow ratio at the start of the interval =

25
= 0 .5
50

Trap efficiency at the start of the interval =0.96

Capacity inflow at the end of the interval =

20
= 0.4
50

Trap efficiency at the end of interval=0.955

Average trap efficiency during the interval =

0.96 + 0.955
= 0.9575
2
1
6

3
Volume of sediment deposited annually till the 20% capacity is filled = 0.9575M .m

= 0.1596 x 106m3
Therefore number of years during which 20% of the capacity, i.e 5 M. m3 shall be filled up

5
= 31.3 years
0.1596

Similarly, in the 2nd interval

Capacity inflow ratio at the start =

20
= 0 .4
50
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HWRE AR 2010

Capacity inflow at the end

15
= 0 .3
50

Trap efficiency at the start = 0.955

Trap efficiency at the end = 0.95
Average trap efficiency = 0.9525
Volume of sediment deposited annually during this interval = 0.1667 x 106 m3 x 0.9525 = 0.15875 x106 m3
Number of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
5
=
= 31.5 years
0.15875
Similarly, in the 3rd interval

15
= 0 .3
50
10
= 0 .2
=
50

Capacity inflow ratio at the start =

Capacity inflow at the end

Trap efficiency at the start = 0.95

Trap efficiency at the end = 0.93
Average trap efficiency = 0.94
Volume of sediment deposited annually during this interval = 0.1667 x 106m3x 0.94 = 0.1567 x 106 m3
Number of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
=

5
= 31.9 years
0.1567

Similarly, in the 4th interval

10
= 0 .2
50
5
= 0.1
=
50

Capacity inflow ratio at the start =

Capacity inflow at the end

Trap efficiency at the start = 0.93

Trap efficiency at the end = 0.87
Average trap efficiency = 0.90
Volume of sediment deposited annually during this interval = 0.1667 x106 x 0.9 = 0.15 x 106 m3
Number of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
=

5
= 33 . 3 years
0 . 15

Total probable life till 80% capacity gets filled up

= 31.3 + 31.5 + 31.9 + 33.3 = 128 years
The above calculations of dividing the entire capacity into intervals (20% each in the above case can also
be carried out in a tabular form, as shown below.

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HWRE AR 2010

Capacity
%
Capacity
Vol.
M.cum

Capacity/inflow= Col.(2)
50Mcum

Trap
efficiency

100

25

0.5

0.96

80

20

0.4

0.955

60

15

0.3

0.95

40

10

0.2

0.93

0.1

0.8

20

Av. Trap
eff.
During
the
interval

Sediment
trapped per
year ;Col 5x
Av.
Annual
sediment
inflow=Col
5x
(1/6)
M.cum

Years reqd. to
fill up 20%
capacity(6
Mcum)
6
=
Col .( 6)

0.9575

0.1596

31.3

0.9525

0.1588

31.5

0.94

0.1567

31.9

0.90

0.15

33.3

years

=128.0

Example 10.2
A proposed reservoir has a capacity of 400 ha-m. The catchment area is 100km2 and the annual stream
flow averages 12 cm of runoff. If the annual sediment production is 0.03 ha.m, what is the probable life of
the reservoir before its capacity is reduced by 10% of its initial capacity by sedimentation? The
relationship between the trap efficiency (%) and capacity inflow C/I is given below:
C/I
%

0.01
43

0.02
60

0.04
74

0.06
80

0.08
84

0.1
87

0.2
93

0.3
95

0.5
96

0.7
97

Average annual stream flow = 12 cm of runoff

Area of catchment
= 100 km 2 = 100 10 6 m 2

6
3
Thus Annual flood inflow = (100 10 ). 100 m

12

12 10 6 m 3 = 12 M .m 3

Annual sediment inflow

= 0.03 ha-m/km2 of the catchment

= 0.03 100ha m = 0.03 100 10 4 m 3

= 0.03Mm 3
It means that 0.03 Mcum of sediment flows every year into the dam/reservoir site, but the quantity of this,
which is trapped in the reservoir, depends on the average trap efficiency, in turn depends on the C/I ratio.
In the question, the total capacity to be filled up by sediment is 10% of the initial reservoir capacity,
i.e. 10% x 4 Mcum=0.4 Mcum
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HWRE AR 2010

Capacity of reservoir at the end = 3.6 Mcum

Capacity/inflow ratio at the start =

4Mcum
= 0.3333
12Mcum

at start =95%

Capacity/inflow at the end =

3.6
= 0.30
12

at the end of the interval = 95%

Average = 95%

Sediment trapped per year = 0.0375x 95% = 0.035625

Number of years during which 0.5 Mcum 0f sediment will be trapped =

0.4
years = 11.2 years
0.035625

Hence, after 14 years, the 10% reservoir will get filled up.

Example 10.3
Ackers and White Formula
In a flow of these characteristics
Depth, Dm
Mean velocity, V
Surface gradient, S

2.0 m
1.5 m/s
0.001

Over a bed characterized by

Representative grain size, D35 0.0003 m
Grain specific gravity, s
2.65
What rate of sediment transport should we expect per metre width of flow?

Solution

g [s 1] 3
First determine D gr = D
= 6.954
2

(Use = 0.00000114 m2/s, appropriate to 15oC)

1

Next determine the four Dgr dependent parameters n, m, A, and C

= 0.5283
n = 1 0.56 log D gr
m = 1.34 + 9.66 / D gr

= 2.729

A = 0.14 + 0.23 / D gr
C = 10

2.86 log D gr log D gr

) 3.53
2

= 0.2272
= 0.01477

With these we can get the dimensionless particle mobility, Fgr:

Fgr =

gD [s 1] 32 log (10 D m D )
U n

1 n

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HWRE AR 2010

We need the shear velocity U , which we calculate from the standard formula for parallel flow

U =
So

g Dm S = 0.1401 m/s

0.3540 1.5
Fgr =

0.06968 27.29

0.4717

And hence we get the mean concentration

= 1.293

qS

as

Fgr

U
V = C A 1

m
n

CsD V Fgr

1
c=
Dm U A

c Dm
G gr =
sD

= 0.000005872 X 3.5 X 67.90

= 0.001396
The units of this are strictly dimensionless that is to say Kg/Kg, and must be multiplied by , density of
water, to convert to mass / volume, the usual expression of concentration. Therefore to convert to the
customary mg/l we multiply by 1000000 ( in mg/l) and obtain
c = 1396 mg / l
To express sediment transport we use

qs = cVDm

Working entirely in Kg-m units we get

qS = 0.001396 X 1.5 X 2.0 X 1000 = 4.19 Kg/m/s

Example 10.4
Ackers and White Formula
A stream has a mean flow depth of 0.815m and mean cross section velocity of 1.57ms-1. The sediment in
this stream has a representative grain size of 1.14mm, shear velocity of 0.098ms-1, and a density of
2.65g/cm3. Taking acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81ms-2 and kinematic viscosity of water, = 1.04 x
10-6 m2/s, determine;

i) Particle size number, Dgr

Representative grain size, D = 1.14 x 10-3m

Density of sediment, s = 2.65g/cm3, density of water, = 1 g/cm3

Specific gravity of sediment, s = s/ = 2.65/1 =2.65

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HWRE AR 2010

ii)

iii)

Dgr =

Dgr = 28.09

= 1.14 x 10-3(9.81(2.65-1)/( 1.04 x 10-6)2)1/3

Particle mobility number, Fgr

Fgr =

Shear velocity of sediment,

mean cross section velocity, V = 1.57ms-1

mean flow depth, Dm = 0.815m

n = 1 0.56logDgr = 1 0.56 log 28.09 = 0.189

Fgr =

Fgr = 0.562

= 0.098ms-1

Sediment transport parameter, Ggr

Ggr =

m = 1.34 + (9.66/Dgr) = 1.34 + 9.66/28.09 = 1.684

A = 0.14 + (0.23/ Dgr) = 0.14 + (0.23/28.09) = 0.183
Log C = 2.86 log Dgr (log Dgr)2 3.53 = 2.86 log 28.09 (log 28.09)2 3.53
C = 0.0327

Ggr = 0.0327

Ggr = 0.111

Summary
The deposition of sediment in a reservoir is known as reservoir silting or sedimentation. During
sedimentation, when the water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and the turbulence
are considerably reduced. The deposition of sediments will reduce the water storing capacity of the
reservoir and if the process of deposition continues without being addressed it will lead to a significant
reduction in reservoir capacity with unfavourable consequences. In this chapter, river classification based
on sediment yield is discussed, followed by land degradation and the processes of sedimentation.This is
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HWRE AR 2010

followed by the different effects of sedimentation, measures to control reservoir sedimentation and
various methods of estimating sediment load with examples in the region.

References
1. Ackers P., White W.R. Sediment Transport: A New Approach and Analysis, Journal of the
Hydraulic Division, ASCE, 1973, 99, No NY11 2041-2060, New York, USA.
2. Arora S.O. Water Resources Hydropower and Irrigation Engineering, Standard Publishers and
Distributors, 1996, New Dehli, India.
3. Azza N., The Dynamics of Shoreline Wetlands and Sediments of Northern Lake Victoria PhD
Thesis, UNESCO-IHE Delft 2006, The Netherlands.
4. Bamutaze, Y.,Tenywa, M.M.,Mwanjalolo,M., The Effect of Land Use on Runoff and Soil Loss
from Wanale Micro- Catchment, Mt Elgon, Uganda, , International Sediment Initiative
Conference, 12-15 November 2006, UNESCO Chair in Water Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.
5. Basson, G., Hydropower Dams and Fluvial Morphological Impacts An African Perspective,
Proceedings United Nations Symposium on Hydropower and Sustainable Development, 27th
29th October 2004, Beijing, China.
6. Brune, G.M. Trap Efficiency of Reservoirs, Transactions of American Geophysical Union; 1953,
Vol 344, No 3.
7. Chadwick A., Morfett J., Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, Allen and Unwin, 1989, London, UK.
8. Churchill M,A., Discussion of Analysis and Use of Reservoir Sedimentation Data, by L.C.
Gottschalk, Proceedings, Federal Inter Agency Sedimentation Conference 1948, Denver,
Colorado, USA.
9. Das G,, Hydrology and Soil Conservation Engineering, Prentice Hall, 2002, New Dehli, India.
10. Garde, R.J., Ranga Raju, K.G., Mechanics of Sediment Transportation and Alluvial Stream
Problems 3rd Edition, 1985,Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, India.
11. Garg, S.K. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1998, New Dehli,
India.
12. Julein P.Y. Erosion and Sedimentation, Cambridge University Press, 1995 Cambridge UK.
13. Karamisheva R.D. Lyness J.F., Myers W.R.C., Cassells J.B.C. O Sullivan J., Sediment Transport
Formulae for Compound Channel Flows, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Water
Management 159, September 2006 Issue WM3, Pages 183-193 London,UK.
14. Karim M.F., Kennedy, J.F. Computer based Predictors for Sediment Discharge and Friction
Factor of Alluvial Streams, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, University of Iowa,1983,
Report No 242, Iowa, USA.
15. Kawashima S., Johndrow T. Annandale G.W. Shah F. Reservoir Conservation Vol II: Rescon
Model and User Manual, The World Bank 2003, Washington D.C. USA.
16. Kimaro, D., Isabirye, M., Semalulu, O., Magunda, M.K., Poesen, J.,Deckers, J., Magnitude of
Lake Victoria Sedimentation: Evaluation of Sediments and Agricultural Land Use on a Shoreline
Microcatchment, International Sediment Initiative Conference, 12-15 November 2006, UNESCO
Chair in Water Resources, Khartoum, Sudan.
17. Magunda, M.K., Tenywa, M.M., Soil and Water Conservation in Agriculture in Uganda, Vol 1,
General Information, 2001, Fountain Publishers/National Agriculture Research Organisation,
Technical Centr for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, Kampala, Uganda
18. Miller C.R., Analysis of Flow Duration, Sediment Rating Curve Method of Computing Sediment
Yield, United States Bureau of Reclamation,1953, Virginia USA
19. Mwebembezi L, Kyoburungi G, A Report on Sediment Sampling 2001, Water Resources
Management Department, Entebbe, Uganda.
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20. Novak, P., Moffat, A.I.B., Nalurri, C., Naranyanan, R., Second Edition, Hydraulic Structures,
E&FN Spon, 1996, London UK.
21. Palmieri A., Shah F., Annandale, G.W., Dina A, Reservoir Conservation Vol I, The Rescon
Approach, The World Bank 2003, Washington D.C. USA.
22. Raghunath H.M., Hydrology, Principles, Analysis and Design, New Age International Ltd, 2005,
New Dehli, India.
23. Read, H.H., Watson, J., Beginning Geology, George Allen and Unwin Ltd/ Macmillan Education
Ltd, 1972, London, UK..
24. Rowntree K.M., Wadeson R.A, A Hierarchical Geomorphological Model for the Classification of
selected South African Rivers, Water Research Commission, Report No 497/1/99, Pretoria, South
Africa.
25. Rugumayo A.I., Mwondha I., Musiime T; Sediment Yield Assessment and River Classification
with Limited Data Sets; Proceedings: Sustainable Water Resources Management in the Changing
Environment of Monsoon Region, 2004 Colombo, Sri Lanka.
26. Siyam A.M., El Zein S., El Sayed S.M., Mirghani M, Golla S., Saleh A, Klaassen G.,,
Assessment of the Current State of the Nile Basin Reservoir Sedimentation Problems, NBCBNRE, 2005, Khartoum, Sudan
27. Tingasanchali, T. Khan N.M. Combating Reservoir Sedimentation, Proceedings, International
Seminar on Managing Water Supply for Growing Demand Bangkok, Thailand, UNESCO 2006,
Jakarta, Indonesia.
28. Yang. C.T. Unit Stream Power Equation for Total Load, Journal of Hydrology 1979, No 40 pp
123-138, London, UK.
Further Reading
1. Dake,J.M.K.., Essentials of Engineering Hydraulics, 3rd Edition, Macmillan, 1982,London, UK.
2. Design of Small Dams, United States Department of the Interior, A Water Resources Technical
Publication,1974, Washington, USA.
3. Linsely and Franzini: Water Resources Engineering, McGraw, 1979, London, UK
4. Viessman, W., J.W. Knapp, G.L. Lewis & T.E. Harbaugh (1977). Introduction to Hydrology,
Harper Row, New York
Questions
1. The following information is available regarding the relationship between trap efficiency and capacity
inflow ratio.
Capacity inflow ratio

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Trap efficiency percent

87

93

95

95.5

96

96.5

97

97

97

97.5

Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 25 million cubic meters, if the
average annual flood inflow is 50 million cubic meters and the average annual sediment inflow is 150,000
tons. Assume a specific weight of the sediment equal to 1.2 gm per c.c. The usual life of the reservoir will
terminate when 80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment.
2. Explain the terms: i) Trap Efficiency ii) Capacity Inflow Ratio
3. How can we control reservoir sedimentation?
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4. In a flow of these characteristics:

Depth, Dm
Mean velocity, V
Surface gradient, S

1.5 m
2.0 m/s
0.0015

over a bed characterized by

Representative grain size, D35
Grain specific gravity, s

0.0003 m
2.65

and using the Ackers and White formula, determine the rate of sediment transport expected per metre
width of flow?
5. Distinguish between suspended load and bed load.
6. Describe the process of sedimentation in the different stages of a river.
7. What factors that affect the amount of sediment load in a river.
8. Explain the effects of sedimentation in a river.
9 Discuss the performance of three different formula for estimating sediment load.
10.Why should land degradation be addressed in engineering designs?

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