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Joachim Werther
Technical University Hamburg-Harburg, Hamburg, Germany
INTRODUCTION
2.2
2.1
TYPES OF GRIDS
Possible Disadvantages
Bed weepage to plenum; can be subject to buckling or
thermal distortion; requires peripheral seal to vessel
shell; requires support over long spans; high pressure
drop required if weepage during operation is to be
minimized
Bubble Caps and Nozzles (Laterally Directed
Flow)
Main Advantages
Simple fabrication; most common; inexpensive; easy to
modify hole size; easy to scale up or down; easy to
edge of the cap. The separation distance sbc is responsible for the sealing eect of the bubble cap.
2.3 Sparger (Laterally or Downwardly Directed
Flow)
Main Advantages
Possible Disadvantages
Expensive; dicult to avoid stagnant regions; more
subject to immediate bubble merger; dicult to
clean; dicult to modify; not advisable for sticky
solids; requires peripheral seal; ports not easily
shrouded.
Details of some nozzles that are currently used in
circulating uidized beds (CFB) combustors are shown
in Fig. 1 (VGB, 1994). There are signicant dierences
between bubble caps (No. 7 in Fig. 1) and nozzles (No.
1 in Fig. 1) with respect to the prevention of solids
back ow: in the case of nozzles, the high velocity of
the gas jet prevents the solids from owing back into
the wind box. On the other hand, in the case of the
bubble cap design, the gas owing out of the bubble
cap into the bed has a rather low velocity. In this case,
the backow of solids is avoided by letting the gas ow
downward from the holes in the inner tube to the lower
Can minimize weeping; good turndown ratio; low pressure drop; can support internals; can undergo thermal
expansion without damage; ports are easily shrouded;
well suited to multilevel uid injection; solids can ow
from above the grid to below.
Possible Disadvantages
Deuidized solids beneath the grid; can be a less
forgiving mechanical design.
Figure 1 Distributors and nozzles used in large circulating uidized bed combustors. (After VGB, 1994.)
2.4
Main Advantages
Promotes solid mixing; prevents stagnant solids
buildup; minimizes solids segregation. Facilitates the
easy discharge of solids.
Possible Disadvantages
Dicult to construct; requires careful design to ensure
good gas distribution; requires high pressure drop for
good gas distribution.
2.5
Possible Disadvantages
Dicult to construct, facilitates only small hole sizes,
requires reinforcement underneath the sheet to support
the bed.
Among the foregoing advantages and limitations,
the designer must select those most pertinent or critical
to the process application. There are, for example,
instances in which solids below the grid level are tolerable, where grid thermal expansion is signicant,
where bed solids are very friable, where pressure
drop, and therefore the cost of compressive horsepower, is critical, where solids are sticky and must
be kept in motion throughout, where internal impellers
or stirrers must be provided, or where grids are
expected to have a short life due to corrosion. These
and many other specics have dictated a host of design
variations, some of which are illustrated below. It
should be emphasized that each application requires
thoughtful engineering consideration before nal
design selection.
3
3.1
Gas owing from the grid holes can take the form of
either a series of bubbles or a permanent jet, depending
on system parameters and operating conditions.
However, a permanent jet prevails for most industrial
conditions. Jet penetration is one of the most important design parameters since it helps in
1. Determining how far to keep the bed internals,
such as feed nozzles, heat exchanger tubes, etc.,
away from the grid to minimize erosion of
internals.
2. Deciding on grid design parameters such as
hole size and the gas jet velocity required to
achieve a certain jetting region.
3. Minimizing or maximizing particle attrition at
grids.
Knowlton and Hirsan (1980) reported that the jet
penetration for upwardly directed jets uctuated
greatly. Karri (1990) noted that jet penetration can
vary as much as 30% for upwardly directed jets.
However, the jet emanating from a downwardly directed grid hole is stable, and its penetration length does
not signicantly uctuate with time. Figure 2 indicates
jet penetration congurations for jets oriented
upwardly, horizontally, and downwardly. According
!0:4
rg;b
rp
!0:2
dp 0:2
dh
The jet penetration lengths for upwardly and downwardly directed jets can be calculated from Eq. (1).
These equations take into account the eects of pressure and temperature on jet penetration. Knowlton
and Hirsan (1980) and Yates et al. (1986) found that
the jet penetration increases signicantly with system
pressure. In addition, Findlay and Knowlton (1985)
found that the jet penetration decreases with increasing
system temperature. Bed internals should not be placed
and
3. Under no circumstances should the pressure
drop across a large-scale commercial grid be
less than 2500 Pa, i.e.,
Pgrid 2; 500 Pa
i.e.,
Ph (Highest hole Ph (Lowest hole
480 9:8 0:9
Ph (Lowest hole 4235 Pa
7
Therefore the lowest grid hole has the lowest pressure
drop, and hence the pressure drop criterion must apply
with respect to the lowest hole on the grid.
3.3
Design Equations
The following equations can be used to design perforated plates, spargers, and bubble cap types of grids:
Pressure drop across the grid:
Pgrid KgrB LB
Pgrid 2; 500 Pa
where K 0:3 for upward and lateral gas entry and 0.1
for downward gas entry.
The gas velocity through the grid hole (orice equation):
s
2Pgrid
Uh Cd
rg;h
pdh2
U
4 h
10
number of grid holes per m2 should be 10. In practice, the number of grid holes per square meter should
be greater than 20.
3.3.2
Hole Layout
To increase the uniformity of uidization, it is common to lay out the holes in triangular or square pitch,
as shown in Fig. 5. All the holes in a grid with triangular pitch are equidistant. This is not the case for a
grid with square pitch. Triangular pitch will also result
in more holes per unit area.
The relationship between the grid hole pitch, Lh ,
and the number hole density (holes per unit area of
the bed), Nd , depends on whether the holes are laid
out in triangular or square pitch.
3.4 Additional Criteria for Sparger Grids
Figure 4 Grid hole discharge coecient design chart.
3.3.1
Hole Size
!2
>5
Figure 5 The relationship between hole density and grid hole pitch for both triangular and square pitch.
11
!2
>5
12
Ds dh
2 tan 5:5
13
dh
particle attrition with shrouds
5
5.1
EROSION
Erosion at Bed Walls and Internals
Erosion in the grid region is primarily due to highvelocity submerged jets impinging on distributor
parts, bed walls, or bed internals. Therefore one should
estimate the jet penetration heights for a given grid
design and check for the following:
Figure 6 Manifold sparger grid showing the denitions of
various parameters.
1. Bed internals should not be placed in the jetting zone near the grid, otherwise the internals
could be severely eroded.
Figure 7 (a) Diverging free jet; (b) shroud too short to contain the jet; (c) minimum shroud length required to contain jet.
5.2
15
second mechanism of erosion was observed by highspeed video in cold models (Hartge and Werther,
1998): even when the gas was owing out of the hole
into the bed, a region near the mouth of the orice
could be observed where the gas jet entrained particles
into the hole. These entrained particles caused erosion
at the outer edge of the hole. Figure 10 shows the
photography of a nozzle that had been painted in
black before the experiment. After 60 hours of operation, the erosion marks were clearly visible. They were
particularly obvious at the lower edges of the holes,
which is due to the fact that the jet issuing from a
horizontal bore tends to bend into the upward direction (see Fig. 2), which gives more surface area to
entrain solids at the lower edge of the hole.
6
WEEPAGE OF SOLIDS
PLENUM DESIGN
Figure 14
POWER CONSUMPTION
"
g1=g #
g
P1
P2 Q 2 1
P2
g1
18
Ws;actual
Z
20
Q Usup
pD2
p132
0:6
79:6 m3 =s
4
4
for a turboblower
for a roots blower
for an axial blower or a twostage reciprocating compressor
Equation (20) can be used not only for power consumption but also to size the correct horse power
motor to drive the blower.
The actual temperature of gas leaving a well-insulated (adiabatic) but not 100% ecient compressor is
then calculated from
"
#
T1 P2 g1=g
1
21
T2 T1
Z1 P1
Since Q N
dh2
U
4 h
Therefore
N
Q 1
79:6 1
1:14
2
2
2
Uh pdh =4 88:6 pdh =4
dh
N
1:14
1
0:0086
2
2
2
p=4D
dh p=413
dh2
10
DESIGN EXAMPLES
10.1
68 pdh2 =4 dh2
Various combinations of N and dh satisfy the pressure drop requirements for the two grid type as
shown in the table:
Pbed 4,234 Pa
60,000
15,000
2,400
600
and
Lh 0:29 m
t
0:025
1
dh 0:025
From Fig. 3
Cd
Lh
dh
0:1
D2head
122 0:0252
0:96
0:025 0:1
Cd 0:96
0:29
0:75 vs. 0.77 (initial guess
!2
>5
!2
>5
or
dh 0:025 m
rp 1440 kg=m3
N 1; 824
emf 0:42
97:13
0:04 m
2401
!0:4
rg;b
rp
!0:2
dp 0:2
dh
% of total length
1
2
3
4
Total =
1.43
3.05
4.68
6.30
8.98
19.16
29.41
39.58
97.13
9.24
19.73
30.28
40.75
Lhor
!0:4
0:64 88:62
5:25
14401 0:429:8 65 106
!0:2
0:5 0:2 65 106
0:025 0:32 m
0:025
1440
Perforated Plate
0:05 0:025
0:13 m
2 tan 5:5
Dh
particle attrition with shrouds
0:05 1:6
3:0
0:025
Thus adding a shroud to the grid reduces the attrition rate to 67% of the rate without a shroud.
10.2
rg;b 17 kg=m3
rp 641 kg=m3
rB 272 kg=m3
Pgrid 0:4Pbed
dh 0:01 m
dp 508 mm
t 0:019 m
emf 0:45
Solution
Determine Pbed and Pgrid
Pbed grB LB 9:8 272 12:2 32,520 Pa
Pgrid 0:4Pbed 13,008 Pa
Determine the gas velocity through the grid hole
(trial and error). Assume Cd 0:8:
s
r
2Pgrid
2 13008
0:8
U h Cd
29:5 m=s
rg;h
19:2
Determine the volumetric ow rate of gas
Q Usup
pD2
p4:62
0:5
8:3 m3 =s
4
4
Q
1
8:3
1
3582
Uh pdh2 =4 29:5 p=40:012
Hole density:
Nd
3582
215 holes/m2
p=44:62
1:9
dh
0:01
Pbed 15 kPa;
Pcyclonesfilters
Pgrid 6 kPa;
12 kPa; pressure at the exit of the filters 350 kPa.
Gas entering the compressor: T1 20 C; P1
101 kPaq; Q1 10 m3 =s.
Use Z 0:85; g 1:4
Solution
Determine compressor discharge pressure, P2 :
!0:4
19:2 29:52
5:25
6411 0:459:8 508 106
!0:2
17 0:2 508 106
0:01 0:55 m
0:1
641
Lh
0:073
0:13 < 1
Lup =2 1:1=2
Power Consumption
Z
0:85
1927 kW (or 2587 hp)
Ws;actual
NOMENCLATURE
Cd
dh
dp
D
Dhead
Dm
Ds
g
Hhigh
Hlow
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Ke
LB
Ldown
Lh
Lhor
Lmin
Ls
Lup
N
Nd
Nh
Nm
P1
P2
Q
Q1
Q2
t
T1
T2
Uh
Usup
Ws;actual
Ws;ideal
a
g
rB
rg;b
rg;h
rp
emf
y
Pbed
Pgrid
Ph
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