THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF ACID MINE

DRAINAGE ON THE WITWATERSRAND BASIN

1 INTRODUCTION
For over 120 years, the economy of South Africa has largely dependent
on mining. Formal mining started at Langlaagte near Johannesburg and
spread through the whole of the Witwatersrand basin. Before the
adaptation of environmental legislation, mines have been reckless with
protecting the environment. The mining activities in the Witwatersrand
Basins have resulted in Acid Mine Drainage which has adverse effects
on the community and the environment. The motivation behind this
research on Acid Mine Drainage is that it is major environmental
challenge which threatens the scarce water resources in South. In this
paper we shall focus on the causes and effects of AMD on the
community located around the basins as well as South Africa.

2 LITERATURE
2.1 WHAT

IS

ACID MINE DRAINAGE?

Acid mine drainage arises when sulphur containing orebodies such as

pyrite come into contact with oxygenated water. The sulphur
containing orebodies undergo a two staged oxidation process with the
first reaction producing sulphuric acid and ferrous sulphate and the
second reaction producing orange-red ferric hydroxide and sulphuric
acid(McCarthy TS, 2011). The sulphuric acid produced dissolves heavy
toxic metals such as zinc, copper and magnesium, radioactive metals
such as palladium and radium are also dissolved. The water becomes
not only acidic but toxic. Acid mine drainage then occurs when the
toxic and acid water flows or seeps into the river channels. Although
the process occurs naturally and rocks such as dolomite are able to
neutralize the acid, in South Africa a vast number of coal and diamond

mines exist in one central area, and the natural neutralization process
becomes overwhelmed by the large quantities of acid produced. The
reactions below, as stated by (N. F. Gray, 1997) shows the formation of
acid from pyrite rock.

+ STYLEREF 1 . SEQ Equation 1

2+ +2 H
2++2 S O4
7
Fe S 2 + O2+ H 2 O F e
2

1
3++ H 2 O STYLEREF 1 . SEQ Equation 2
2
+ F e
1
2++ O 2 + H
4
F e

+ STYLEREF 1 . SEQ Equation 3

2++3 H 2 O Fe ( OH )2 +3 H
F e

+ STYLEREF 1 . SEQ Equation 4

2++16 H
2++ 2 S O4
Fe S 2+14 F e 3++ H 2 O 12 F e

2.2 THE

CAUSES OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE IN SOUTH

AFRICA?

2.3 MINE DUMPS

Ever since the discovery of gold in 1886 in the Central Basin, the
Witwatersrand Basin has been responsible for 30 percent of the gold in
the world. Mponeng and TauTona gold mines are one of the deepest
mines in the world, all located in the Witwatersrand Basin. The gold in
the Witwatersrand occurs in the conglomerate rock which forms part of
the
approximately
7000m
thick
sequence
of
sedimentary
rocks(McCarthy TS, 2011).
The process of mining the rock involves extracting the rock from
underground and transporting it to the surface where it can be crushed
and processed.
However, after extraction of the gold, some
conglomerate which contains 3% pyrite is dumped in heaps called
mine dumps or tailings. There is an economic value of the gold that is
contained in the tailings and some mines go as far as treating the
tailings to extract more gold. The location of the tailings is
controversial. (Durand, 2012) claims that mines built the slime and
holding dams on dolomite because it would minimize the probability of
it to collapse. However, (Oelofse, Hobbs, Rascher, & Cobbing, 2007)
argue that the usage of heaps especially on dolomite, would result in
the contamination of streams through indirect or direct methods. This
raises the question whether a HAZOP Analysis was done during the
planning and construction of the holding dams? If it were done, did the
engineers choose to have a stable holding dam over environmental
contamination?
What happens inside the tailings is that, rainwater oxides the pyrite
forming the toxic and acidic water, which then emerges from the base
of the tailings to join the local groundwater as pollution plume. In a
study conducted by 6, it was found that the streams draining around
the dumps were very acidic, contained a high sulphate and heavy
metal concentration, all confirming that the AMD is from the dumps.

2.4 DECANTATION

OF

VOID

Another source of AMD is from the Witwatersrand void, during the

mining process, miners created a void by extracting the gold-bearing
rock and through continuous pumping out of water, they ensured that
the void remained filled with air. Because of the interconnectedness of
the shafts in the Basins, after shutdown of most the mines and only
East Rand Propriety Mines Ltd. (ERPM), was left pumping out the water
in the void. It later shutdown and in 2010. An interesting note is that, ()
reported that the water level is raising at 15m per month and in 36
months the water will start decanting. As stated before, when pyrite
oxides the result is water with toxic metals as well as sulphuric acid.
The water that will decant will be toxic and will discharge from the
lower level into the nearby streams. To calculate the outflow of AMD
from the void, the inflow of water to the void before it became filled
amounted to about 40 million litres per day, and the volume of
decanting water can be expected to be similar (probably slightly less)
().

3 CRITIC OF THE ISSUE.

In this paper, an attempt will be made to answer several questions and
raise several issues to the readers. Since there is a nearby community
located next to the basins, one would ask themselves the effects of
AMD on the health and well-being of the community. Most of the
community practice farming in their homes as a source of food, what
are the effects of AMD on the vegetation as well as the community that
digest the food on a daily basis? After the discovery of AMD, many
mines were forced to shut down, what are the effects on this loss of job
opportunities to the community? Also, should the mining managers
that can be located be held accountable for not performing a HAZOP
Analysis on the location of the slime dams? Lastly, why has AMD which
was discovered by () not prevented or treated when it was still same
scale and manageable? These are the issues that will be discussed in
the rest of the paper.

4 DISCUSSION
4.1

CONDITION OF THE GROUND WATER AT THE

4.2 SOIL-GROUND

WITWATERSRAND

BASINS

RELATION.

To understand the effects of AMD on the community and quality of the water, an
analysis of the groundwater needs to be done. Although the ground water outside
the mining area is sulphate dominated and has a neutral pH, (H. Tutu, T.S. McCarthy,
& E. Cukrowska, 2008) stated that the ground water around the mining area is very
acidic and has a high heavy metal concentration. They concluded that this is the
result of oxidation of iron underground, which is the primary cause of AMD.
Moreover, the site observed by (N. F. Gray, 1997) has never been covered by
tailings but it still has a high metal concentration. The reason for this behavior is
that, metal rich ground water is drawn upwards by capillarity and evaporates on the
soil surface producing a gysum crust which is enriched in metal sulphate. From this,
we can conclude that not only does AMD affect the groundwater directly near the
surface but also, through evaporation and surface runoff, the heavy metals can
move to the nearby groundwater resources.

4.3 THE EFFECTS

OF

ACID MINE DRAINAGE

ON THE

WITWATERSRAND BASIN.

4.3.1 EFFECT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE ON THE ENVIRONMENT.

The effect of Acid Mine Drainage differs because of the different metals
and acidity found in the discharge. However, the effects can be
generalized into chemical, physical, biological and ecological, as shown
in Figure 4-1. The overall impact of Acid Mine Drainage is the
elimination of species, simplification of the food chain which then
reduces the ecological stability.

FIGURE 4:1: GENERAL EFFECTS OF ACID-MINE DRAINAGE IN

THE CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS (N. F. GRAY, 1997).

4.3.2 LOWERING THE ACIDITY OF WATER.

One of the effects of acid mine drainage is lowering the pH of water
where it is unsuitable for domestic or any other use. (H. Tutu et al.,
2008) state that the pH of acid mine drainage entering steams in the
Western Basin is found slightly lower than 3. Although the water is not
corrosive but in the long term it will finally have an effect on the
materials in constantly comes into contact with.
4.3.3 LOWERING THE WATER QUALITY

(H. Tutu et al., 2008) conducted a study on the quality of water near the tailings and
further downstream. It was concluded that acid mine drainage adversely affects the
quality of water because closer to the tailing the water quality was poor but further
downstream the water quality showed an increase.

4.3.4 DAMAGE TO THE SCENERY

With focus on the Witwatersrand Basins, one should look at the
ecological damage of the Robinson Lake on the West Rand. The lake
which was a recreational dam has become a radioactive site. Mine
acid water was pumped into the dam as an emergency measure to
contain the acid water from decanting.
4.3.5 SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution arises due to surface runoff, contaminates are transported from the
heaps to the surrounding soils which might be a residential area. (Oelofse et al.,
2007) argue that through the practice of geophagy, which is the practice of eating
earth, the heavy metal might be able to enter into the body systems of the
community. Heavy metals inside the human body may result in cancer and mental
retardation in kids.

4.3.6 GEOLOGICAL INSTABILITY.

Dolomite and limestone are very soluble in an acidic medium. These rocks pose a
threat of excessive karstification in the Witwatersrand basin which may result in
subterranean cavities in the dolomite. When the water with AMD flows through the
karstic aquifers in the dolomite, fissures widen and sinkholes may result when the
surface collapses into the void(Durand, 2012)

4.4 THE EFFECT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE ON THE ECONOMY

4.4.1 UNECONOMICAL MINING ACTIVITIES.
Provided that acidic mine drainage remains uncontrolled in the
Witwatersrand Basin, any mining company that would like to pursue
the extraction of the remaining gold will run at a loss.

4.5 THE EFFECT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE ON THE PEOPLE OF SOUTH AFRICA.
4.5.1 MISUSE OF WATER RESOURCES.
South Africa is listed as the 28th most water stressed country in the
world and therefore cannot afford to be negligent about its water
usage(T.I Ewart, 2011). The unmanaged discharge of contaminated
mining effluent has resulted in the hydrological transport of toxic metal
and acidic water into streams, rivers and drainage basins thus polluting
the primary element of South Africas water availability mix. Currently,
the salinity of the AMD discharge from the Witwatersrand basin is only
managed once it enters the Vaal River System where it is diluted with
clean water from the Lesotho Highlands Project, which can be seen as
a waste of clean water which could be used to supply the population of
South Africa.
Another example (Durand, 2012) stated is that, the slimes dams were
built on dolomite which the AMD drained into the karst system in
Gauteng and North West Province. However, the water from the karst
could have provided the residences of the provinces with more water
but instead, it was contaminated with AMD.
4.5.2 INCREASED UNEMPLOYMENT
Since the first decant of AMD, the relationship between the
government and the mining companies has been under strain. Mines
which provided employment to the nearby communities closed down
and this resulted in the loss of job opportunities and increased
unemployment(Oelofse et al., 2007). Although one can argue that
subsistence farming can be used to sustain the families, but AMD
leaves the soil and the water filled with heavy metals.

4.5.3 THREAT TO HEALTH OF THE USERS OF WATER.

One of the greatest effect of AMD is the threat to exposure of all living
organisms to toxic metal and radionuclide contamination as a result of
AMD(T.I Ewart, 2011). Although most living organisms require metallic
elements in varying amounts, but other heavy metals pose no benefit
to living organism. Continuous exposure to these heavy elements may
cause ecological destruction, serious illness or even death to animals.
Such metals include nickel, copper, cadmium, arsenic and lead. To
name one of the illnesses that is speculated to be caused by heavy
metals in autism. ( Carin Smit,2009), says that. When toxic metals
enter the body, they attach themselves to the sulphr and hydrogen
proteins, which exist in the enzymes and hormones of the body,
disabling these catalytic elements randomly or purposely leaving
neuro-immuno-endocrinological devastation. Children who are
exposed to these heavy metals appear to have a missing mentally and
are diagnosed as having autistic spectrum disorder.
Uranium which is one of the radioelements found in the AMD discharge
is very deadly to human life. It decays into radioactive substances such
as thorium, radium, radon and palladium. Uranium is described as
being neuro-toxic and can lead to seizures, mental retardation if
children are exposed to it. Radon is an odorless gas if inhaled
excessively can cause lung diseases which one of them is cancer.
Focusing on the Witwatersrand Basins an informal settlement on the
West Rand, which is between Roodeport and Krugersdorp had
measured radioactivity levels between 10 000 and 100000 Becquerels
per cubic meter(T.I Ewart, 2011). It was recommended that they
should be relocated and genetic disease should be carried out to
determine the impact of the communitys level of exposure.

FIGURE 4:2 TUDOR SHAFT INFORMAL SETTLEMENT. SOURCE: (T.I EWART, 2011)

4.6 CONCLUSION
The realities of acid mine drainage are harsh, but sadly in South Africa we
are yet to understand the importance of environmental integrity and a strong
economy. As much as Acid Mine Drainage could have been prevented by the
mine that extracted gold, even now the government is still dragging their
feet to address this environmental crisis. Mines that have maximized their
profits and left slime dams filled with AMD should be accountable for their
actions. AMD is an environmental crisis that the government needs to
address urgently.

5 REFERENCES
Durand, J. (2012). The impact of gold mining on the Witwatersrand on
the rivers and karst system of Gauteng and North West Province,
South Africa. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 68, 2443.
H. Tutu, T.S. McCarthy, & E. Cukrowska. (2008). The chemical
characteristics of acid mine drainage with particular reference to
sources, distribution and remediation: The Witwatersrand Basin,
South Africa as a case study. Applied Geochemistry, 23(23),
36663684.
McCarthy TS. (2011). The impact of acid mine drainage in South Africa.
S Afr J Sci, 107(5/6)(712), 7.
N. F. Gray. (1997). Environmental impact and remediation of acid mine
drainage: a management problem. Environmental Geology, 30.
Nstenfedzeni Obed Novhe. (2012). Evaluation of the applicability of the
passive treatment for the management of polluted mine water in
the Witwatersrand Goldflieds. Council for Geosciences,
Environmental Geosciences Uint.
Oelofse, S., Hobbs, P., Rascher, J., & Cobbing, J. (2007). The Pollution
and Destruction Threat of Gold Mining Waste on the
Witwatersrand: A West Rand Case Study (pp. 1113). Presented

at the 10th International Symposium on Environmental Issues

and Waste management in Energy and Mineral Production
(SWEMP, 2007), Bangkok.
T.I Ewart. (2011, December). Acid Mine drainage in the Gauteng
province of South Africa - A phenomenoloigca; study on the
degree of alignment between stakeholders concerning a
sustainable solution to acid mine drainage. University of
Stellenbosch.

6 Acid mine drainage arising from gold mining

activity in Johannesburg, South Africa and
environs
7 The decanting of acid mine water in the Gauteng city-region