Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Water
Heating
Design
Published by
American
Society of
Plumbing
Engineers
Manual
Second Edition
ii
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
The Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition, is designed to provide accurate
and authoritative information for the design and specification of domestic water heating
systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding
the data and information contained in this publication. All data and information are provided
with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, consulting,
engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other
expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.
Contents
xiii
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2.1 Weekday vs. Weekend Consumption . . . . . 20
Figure 2.2 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2.3 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 2.4 Consumption curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 2.5 Comparison of DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.6 Parts of 3-Hour DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.7 Parts of Peak 60 Minutes DHW
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 2.8 Peak Demand Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 14.2 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.4 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at
Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at Top of System. . 242
Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water
Heater Piping Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters. 246
Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control
Cartridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve. . 248
Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with
Memory Stop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 15.1 Construction of a Typical Heating Cable
for Hot Water Temperature Maintenance. . . . . . . 268
Figure 15.2 Components of a Hot Water Temperature
Maintenance System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 15.3 Symbols Used to Indicate Components
of a Heat Traced Hot Water Supply System. . . . . . 273
Figure 15.4 Partial Simplified System Typical of
Hospitals, Correctional Facilities, and Hotels. . . . 276
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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Contents
xv
TABLES
Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1.1(M) Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1.2 Typical Delivered Hot Water Temperatures
for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment . . . . . . . . .
Table 1.2(M) Typical Delivered Hot Water
Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. 7
. 10
. 12
. 13
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
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Contents
xxi
ACRONYMS
Contents
iii
CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
SECTION I SYSTEM SIZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.
2.
MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS
Introduction
Background
Weekday
Seasonal
.........................
.........................
Vs. Weekend Demand Patterns .
Demand Patterns . . . . . . . . . . .
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DORMITORIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Student Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 3.1 Student Dormitory . . . .
Institutional Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 2.2 Institutional Dormitory .
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Contents
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59
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68
69
69
70
HOSPITALS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Group Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheets and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 6.AUser Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 6.AUser GroupExample 6.1 . . . . . .
Table 6.1General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . .
Table 6.2Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . .
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Patient Areas and Nurses Stations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydrotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dietary and Food Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surgical Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laundry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Central Sterile Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obstetrics/Nursery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous Areas (e.g., Lab, Administration,
Maintenance, Autopsy, the Morgue) . . . . . . . . .
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.232-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.3300-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Group Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheets and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 8.AUser Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 8.BUser Group Totals . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 8.AUser GroupExample . . . . . . .
Table 8.1General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . .
Table 8.2Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . .
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nursing/Intermediate Care Facility . . . . . . . . . .
Retirement Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: 48-Bed Nursing/Intermediate Care and
Retirement Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description of User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Group Worksheets, 48-Bed Nursing/
Intermediate Care and Retirement Home . . .
User Group Totals Worksheet, 48-Bed Nursing/
Intermediate Care and Retirement Home . . .
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Contents
vii
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jail Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculations for Jail Housing Units . . .
Auxiliary Equipment Demand . . . . . . .
Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prison Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Criteria and Assumptions . . . .
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculations for Inmate Housing Units
Storage Tank Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kitchen Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laundry Considerations . . . . . . . . . . .
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12. LAUNDRIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
System Design Questions
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 12.1 . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiple Temperature Systems . . . . . . . . . . .
Remodels and Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coordinating Design Information . . . . . . . . . . . .
Determining the Temperature to Maintain . . . . . .
Choosing the Right Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Tracing Hot Water Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combining Horizontal Mains with Supply Risers .
Hot Water Heat Tracing Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plumbing Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Countercurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shell and Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plate Type Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selecting Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
xi
. . . . 303
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. . . . 305
. . . . 305
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313
313
314
314
315
319
321
321
323
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Heat Pump Water Heater . . . . .
Integral Heat Pump Water Heaters .
Remote Heat Pump Water Heaters . .
Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Benefits of the Heat Pump Water Heater
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325
326
326
327
327
328
xii
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
. . . . . . . 328
. . . . . . . 329
. . . . . . . 330
. . . . . . . 331
. . . . . . . 331
. . . . . . . 332
. . . . . . . 332
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.
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Section
SYSTEM
SIZING
Every effort has been made to include all segments of the water
heating industrydesigners and manufacturersin the writing
and reviewing of this manual. The writers, coordinators and reviewers of this book made every attempt to include new
technologies when known and applicable. However, this manual
is designed to be a work in progress. As engineers and designers use and apply the material in this design manual, it will be
revised and updated so that future editions will represent an
ever expanding base of knowledge and experience.
Two important water heating system components, safety equipment and controls, have been intentionally omitted from this
manual. Because specific safety equipment and controls may vary
significantly according to water heater types and manufacturers
and applicable code requirements, this manual includes a general synopsis of the relevant data. This approach inherently limits
the scope of the information covered. Therefore, it is recommended
that information concerning safety equipment and controls be
closely coordinated with water heater manufacturers and checked
against local code requirements.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.
q = rwcT
where
q =
r =
w =
c =
T1 =
i
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation represents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
[( )(
q = gph
1 Btu
lb/F
[(
m3
h
q=
)]
8.33 lb (T)
gal
)(
4.188 kJ
kg/K
) ]}
999.6 kg
m3
( T)
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or output, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated surfaces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
(1.3)
Et =
q
100%
q+B
where
B
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
Solution
449,820 Btu/h
q
=
= 562,275 Btu/h
Et
0.80
q
475 374 kJ/h
=
Et
0.80
(1.4)
gph T
= kWh required
410 gal
(1.5)
L/h T
= kWh required
1552.02 L
(1.6)
gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T
L/h
= kW required
L of water per kWh at T
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required
Equation 1.4 can be used to establish a simple table based
on the required temperature rise.
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(43)
(38)
(32)
(27)
(21)
(16)
(10)
(4)
3.73
4.10
4.55
5.13
5.86
6.83
8.20
10.25
(14.12)
(15.52)
(17.22)
(19.42)
(22.18)
(25.85)
(31.04)
(38.8)
This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.
Example 1.3 An electric water heater must be sized to provide a
continuous flow of 40 gph (151.42 L/h) of hot water at a temperature of 140F (43C). The incoming
water supply during winter is 40F (4C).
Solution
151.42 L/h
= 9.8 kW required
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
P =
(Tm Tc)
(Th Tc)
where
Th = supply hot water temperature
Tc = inlet cold water temperature
Tm = desired mixed water temperature
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
50
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
55
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
60
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
65
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
50
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
55
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
60
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
65
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55
(Continued)
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
50
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
55
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
60
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
65
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
50
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
55
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
45
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
50
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
55
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
45
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
50
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
55
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
60
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
65
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
45
1.00
0.96
0.93
0.89
0.85
0.81
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.67
0.63
50
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.85
0.81
0.77
0.73
0.69
0.65
0.62
55
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.72
0.68
0.64
0.60
60
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.83
0.79
0.75
0.71
0.67
0.63
0.58
65
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
110
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
0.43
0.36
0.29
120
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
0.50
0.42
0.33
0.25
0.17
130
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
140
1.00
0.88
0.75
0.63
0.50
0.38
0.25
0.13
150
1.00
0.83
0.67
0.50
0.33
0.17
160
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
10
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
10
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
13
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
16
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
18
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67
Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
10
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
13
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
16
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
18
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
10
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
13
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
16
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
18
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
11
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
10
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
13
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
10
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
13
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41
68
66
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
10
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
13
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
16
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
18
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
(Continued)
12
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
79
77
74
71
68
66
63
60
58
54
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.83
0.75
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.75
0.67
0.50
0.89
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.87
0.79
0.75
0.70
0.63
0.50
0.25
0.85
0.85
0.84
0.83
0.83
0.71
0.67
0.60
0.50
0.33
0.81
0.81
0.80
0.79
0.78
0.64
0.58
0.50
0.38
0.17
0.78
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.57
0.50
0.40
0.25
0.74
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.50
0.42
0.30
0.13
0.70
0.69
0.68
0.67
0.65
0.43
0.33
0.20
0.67
0.65
0.64
0.63
0.61
0.36
0.25
0.10
0.63
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.57
0.29
0.17
Temp. (F)
105
110
140180
140
150
180195
160
180195
165
140
75
Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
13
Temp. (C)
41
43
6082
60
66
8291
71
8291
74
60
24
Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.
14
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)
C
Over 60
60
58
54
52
49
Time (sec)
Less than 1
2.6
5.5
15
50
290
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin damage in adult males.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
15
RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive temperatures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The designer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those standards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for information on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.
CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater controls should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.
16
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratification, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respectively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced significantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratification since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
17
Section
SYSTEM
SIZING
Every effort has been made to include all segments of the water
heating industrydesigners and manufacturersin the writing
and reviewing of this manual. The writers, coordinators and reviewers of this book made every attempt to include new
technologies when known and applicable. However, this manual
is designed to be a work in progress. As engineers and designers use and apply the material in this design manual, it will be
revised and updated so that future editions will represent an
ever expanding base of knowledge and experience.
Two important water heating system components, safety equipment and controls, have been intentionally omitted from this
manual. Because specific safety equipment and controls may vary
significantly according to water heater types and manufacturers
and applicable code requirements, this manual includes a general synopsis of the relevant data. This approach inherently limits
the scope of the information covered. Therefore, it is recommended
that information concerning safety equipment and controls be
closely coordinated with water heater manufacturers and checked
against local code requirements.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.
q = rwcT
where
q =
r =
w =
c =
T1 =
i
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation represents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
[( )(
q = gph
1 Btu
lb/F
[(
m3
h
q=
)]
8.33 lb (T)
gal
)(
4.188 kJ
kg/K
) ]}
999.6 kg
m3
( T)
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or output, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated surfaces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
(1.3)
Et =
q
100%
q+B
where
B
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
Solution
449,820 Btu/h
q
=
= 562,275 Btu/h
Et
0.80
q
475 374 kJ/h
=
Et
0.80
(1.4)
gph T
= kWh required
410 gal
(1.5)
L/h T
= kWh required
1552.02 L
(1.6)
gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T
L/h
= kW required
L of water per kWh at T
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required
Equation 1.4 can be used to establish a simple table based
on the required temperature rise.
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(43)
(38)
(32)
(27)
(21)
(16)
(10)
(4)
3.73
4.10
4.55
5.13
5.86
6.83
8.20
10.25
(14.12)
(15.52)
(17.22)
(19.42)
(22.18)
(25.85)
(31.04)
(38.8)
This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.
Example 1.3 An electric water heater must be sized to provide a
continuous flow of 40 gph (151.42 L/h) of hot water at a temperature of 140F (43C). The incoming
water supply during winter is 40F (4C).
Solution
151.42 L/h
= 9.8 kW required
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
P =
(Tm Tc)
(Th Tc)
where
Th = supply hot water temperature
Tc = inlet cold water temperature
Tm = desired mixed water temperature
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
50
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
55
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
60
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
65
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
50
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
55
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
60
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
65
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55
(Continued)
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
50
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
55
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
60
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
65
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
50
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
55
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
45
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
50
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
55
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
45
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
50
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
55
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
60
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
65
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
45
1.00
0.96
0.93
0.89
0.85
0.81
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.67
0.63
50
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.85
0.81
0.77
0.73
0.69
0.65
0.62
55
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.72
0.68
0.64
0.60
60
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.83
0.79
0.75
0.71
0.67
0.63
0.58
65
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
110
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
0.43
0.36
0.29
120
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
0.50
0.42
0.33
0.25
0.17
130
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
140
1.00
0.88
0.75
0.63
0.50
0.38
0.25
0.13
150
1.00
0.83
0.67
0.50
0.33
0.17
160
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
10
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
10
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
13
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
16
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
18
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67
Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
10
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
13
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
16
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
18
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
10
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
13
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
16
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
18
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46
(Continued)
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
11
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
10
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
13
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
10
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
13
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41
68
66
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
10
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
13
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
16
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
18
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
(Continued)
12
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
79
77
74
71
68
66
63
60
58
54
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.83
0.75
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.75
0.67
0.50
0.89
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.87
0.79
0.75
0.70
0.63
0.50
0.25
0.85
0.85
0.84
0.83
0.83
0.71
0.67
0.60
0.50
0.33
0.81
0.81
0.80
0.79
0.78
0.64
0.58
0.50
0.38
0.17
0.78
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.57
0.50
0.40
0.25
0.74
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.50
0.42
0.30
0.13
0.70
0.69
0.68
0.67
0.65
0.43
0.33
0.20
0.67
0.65
0.64
0.63
0.61
0.36
0.25
0.10
0.63
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.57
0.29
0.17
Temp. (F)
105
110
140180
140
150
180195
160
180195
165
140
75
Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
13
Temp. (C)
41
43
6082
60
66
8291
71
8291
74
60
24
Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.
14
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)
C
Over 60
60
58
54
52
49
Time (sec)
Less than 1
2.6
5.5
15
50
290
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin damage in adult males.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
15
RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive temperatures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The designer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those standards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for information on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.
CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater controls should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.
16
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratification, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respectively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced significantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratification since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
17
Multifamily Buildings
19
MULTIFAMILY
BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
When selecting and sizing domestic water heaters for multifamily buildings, the designer must take into consideration the
variables affecting hot water demand that are unique to each
particular project. (Note: Certain government agencies have their
own design criteria, which must be strictly followed.)
Demand is a function of the anticipated hot water usage of
the occupants of a particular building during the period being
considered. It is affected by the population of a project as well as
the behavioral patterns of those occupants and the amenities
offered them.
Note that the design guidelines in this chapter are based on a
large amount of monitored data from occupied buildings, which
was collected during recent research efforts.
BACKGROUND
In order to design a domestic hot water (DHW) system for multifamily buildings properly it is useful to understand the
consumption and demand patterns of this type of occupancy.
20
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Figure 2.1
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 46.
Multifamily Buildings
21
Figure 2.2
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.107.
22
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Figure 2.3
Source: Goldner and Price 1994.
Multifamily Buildings
23
IDENTIFICATION OF DEMAND
The first step the designer must take in calculating demand is to
determine the demographic profile of the project and building
occupants. Different types of building occupants have been found
to have fairly predictable patterns of hot water consumption. Users can be divided into three categorieslow, medium, and
high-volume water consumers (LMH)as a function of the building and occupant demographics. Table 2.1 shows a variety of
occupant characteristics. One or some combination of these
should closely describe any particular multifamily building. For
example, a luxury condominium in an area inhabited predominantly by young couples will tend to fall into the all occupants
work category of low anticipated water consumption. By contrast, a low-income housing project will generally fall somewhere
between the low-income and no occupants work categories of
high-volume water consumption. Keep in mind that the presence
of an abundance of hot water consuming appliances, such as
washing machines or dishwashers, tends to increase hot water
consumption. Therefore, if the condominium in the above example intended or allowed for the future installation of a washing
machine in each unit, its demographic category should be raised
from low to medium. It is up to the designer to ask the necessary
questions of the developer, architect, or building manager in order to determine this category. Remember, in the face of
uncertainty, be conservative.
It is important to note that Table 2.1 represents a graduated
scale of residents use of DHW. Quite often a building is occupied
by people from more than one of the demographic categories given
in this table. In such a case, the designer should weight the
demographic breakdown to select a low, medium, or high factor.
After some experience with this methodology, the designer may
decide that some buildings fall between groupings and select a medium-high or low-medium category. In such instances, the
designer can extrapolate from the values in Table 2.2.
The characteristic high population density in Table 2.1 is
sometimes overlookedand it shouldnt be. This characteristic
is important in the selection of the LMH factor and, thus, in system sizing. Even though a buildings other demographic factors
24
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
LMH Factor
High
Medium
Low
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project.
DEMAND DETERMINATION
Once the LMH factor has been determined, values for hot water
demand and consumption can be selected from Table 2.2. Thus,
anticipated consumption values can be determined using the
known building population for intervals of 5 min, 15 min, 30
min, 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h. These values will be used later in selecting
and sizing domestic hot water equipment.
Multifamily Buildings
25
Peak 15 Min,
gal (L)/person
Peak 30 Min,
gal (L)/person
Maximum H,
gal (L)/person
Low
0.4 (1.5 )
1.0 (4.0)
1.7 (6.5)
2.8 (10.5)
Medium
0.7 (2.6)
1.7 (6.4)
2.9 (11.0)
4.8 (18.0)
High
1.2 (4.5)
3.0 (11.5)
5.1(19.5)
8.5 (32.5)
Maximum 2 H,
gal (L)/person
Maximum 3 H,
gal (L)/person
Low
4.5 (17.0)
6.1 (23.0)
20.0 (76.0)
14.0 (54.0)
Medium
8.0 (31.0)
11.0 (41.0)
49.0 (185.0)
30.0 (113.6)
14.5 (55.0)
19.0 (72.0)
90.0 (340.0)
54.0 (205.0)
High
Maximum Day,
gal (L)/person
Average Day,
gal (L)/person
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Domestic W
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Water
Multifamily Buildings
27
28
Domestic W
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Water
Multifamily Buildings
29
Figure 2.5
Source: Goldner 1994, DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily buildings.
Figure 2.6
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 420.
30
Domestic W
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Water
Figure 2.7
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.110.
Multifamily Buildings
31
EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 Traditional Multifamily Building
Consider a 58-unit apartment building where occupants are a
mix of families, singles, and middle-income couples and most of
the adults work. There is a public laundry in the basement with
a few washers, and the leases prohibit both washing machines
and dishwashers in the apartments (although conversations with
the owner confirm that a moderate number of people have such
appliances).
Step 1
Compute the maximum probable occupancy based on local
standards/expectations and conversations with the building
owner, manager, or architect.
For example, multiply the number of 3-bedroom apartments (4) by the maximum number of persons in each
apartment (5) to determine the total number of persons (20).
This is then added to the resultant sum from all the other
apartment sizes, as follows.
Apt. Size
Maximum No.
Persons/Apt.
No. of Apts.
3-bedroom apts.
2-bedroom apts.
1-bedroom apts.
Studios
Building total (rounded)
4
14
25
15
5
4
3.5
2.25
=
=
=
=
20
56
87.5
33.75
198
persons
Note: The designer needs to determine the optimum usage and occupancy of
the facility. For example, in some facilities, the demographic profile may require using 3, 4, or 7 occupants per 3-bedroom apartment.
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Domestic W
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Water
Step 2
Determine the low, medium, or high usage factor (demographic
profile) of the project and building occupants from Table 2.1,
based on knowledge of the building, conversations with the
building owner, and observations. Consider the effect of either currently installed or possible future additions of
appliances (e.g., washers), which might move a building to a
higher usage category.
Based on the information above, the medium usage factor is selected.
Step 3
Estimate the DHW consumption. To estimate how much hot
water is used in a building for energy consumption or savings calculations, use the LMH factor and the average day
hot water value in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines). If the building
is existing, substitute the maximum probable occupancy from
Step 1 with the actual current (or estimated) occupancy level.
Current
LMH
No. of
Demand
System
Factor
People
Category
Load
Medium
153
Average day:
30.0 gal/capita = 4590 gal/day
(113.55 L/capita)
(17 373.15
L/day)
Step 4
Size the equipment. Follow Steps A and B, below, for either
Instantaneous Systems or Generation and Storage Systems, depending on the equipment used.
Instantaneous systems
For either an instantaneous, DHW-only system or a tankless coil
in a combination heating DHW boiler, follow the two steps below.
First find the system load in gallons per hour (gph) (liters per
hour [L/h]) based on the peak 5-min demand. Next, convert this
to a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating. This can then be used to select equipment.
Multifamily Buildings
33
Step A
Compute the system load using the LMH factor and the 5-min
peak demand values in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines).
LMH
Factor
Peak No.
of People
No.
Periods/
H
Demand
Category
Peak 5 min:
198 0.7 gal/capita
12 =
(2.65 L/capita)
Medium
System
Load
1663 gph
or 27 gpm
(6294.46 L/h
or 1.75 L/sec)
Step B
Convert the system load to a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating.
System Conversion
Load
1663
gph
(6.30
m3/h)
8.33
lb/gal
(4188.32
kJ/m3)
Temp.
Rise
1/Boiler
Efficiencya
90F
(50K)
1 =
0.8
Heater
Input
1,558,439
Btu/h
(1 649 151
kJ/h)
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Domestic W
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Water
No.
People
Medium 198
LMH
Factor
Medium
Peak 30 min:
2.9 gal/capita
(10.98 L/capita)
No.
People
198
No.
Periods/
H
Demand
Category
1148 gph
(4348.08 L/h)
Demand
Category
Maximum 3 h:
11.0 gal/capita =
(41.64 L/capita)
System
Load
Storage
Volume
2178 gal
(8244.73 L)
Step B
Convert the load into equipment ratings.
System
Load Conversion
1148 8.33
gph
lb/gal
(4.35
(4188.32
m3/h)
kJ/m3)
Temp.
Rise
90F
(50K)
1/Boiler
Efficiencya
1 =
0.80
Heater
Input
1,075,820
Btu/h
(1 017 362
kJ/h)
Multifamily Buildings
35
Demand
Category
5-min peak
15-min peak
30-min peak
1-h peak
2-h peak
3-h peak
No.
People
176
176
176
176
176
176
Demand
Factor (gal)
No.
People
176
176
176
176
176
176
1.2
3.0
5.1
8.5
14.5
19
Demand
(gal)
=
=
=
=
=
=
Demand
Factor (L)
4.5
11.4
19.3
32.2
54.9
71.9
211
528
898
1496
2552
3344
Demand
(L)
=
=
=
=
=
=
792
2 006.4
3 396.8
5 667.2
9 662.4
12 654.4
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Domestic W
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Water
POSSIBLE TRAPS
In order to avoid falling into a trap that leads to miscalculating
water demand, the designer must try to learn all of the unique
facets of a multifamily building. This is generally accomplished
by compiling a list of questions for the owner/manager/architect
during a project brainstorming session. Does the building have a
central laundry? If so, the designer should select the next higher
LMH value than otherwise would have been selected. Does the
building have retail spaces that might be used in the future for a
restaurant or other large water consuming application? If so, will
the building be obligated by lease to provide hot water for the
tenant? Would such a provision be a desirable selling point for
the retail space to the owner? The demand will then have to be
increased accordingly. For large restaurants or laundries, the
Figure 2.8
Source: Goldner and Price 1996, p. 8.
Multifamily Buildings
37
resulting flow should be added to the buildings demand. Do tenants pay for the utilities used to generate hot water? If so, hot
water consumption might decrease. Do water conserving laws
that restrict water flow exist in the area (as they do in New York)?
Or is there an abundance of water in the area (such as there is in
Chicago) with showers allowed to flow more water? (The designer
should review local codes concerning water conservation requirements that may impact the hot water demand.) Is this a building
with European occupants who tend to bathe rather than shower?
(Bathing is believed to consume considerably more water than
showering.) This is the sort of creative thinking required to accurately gauge water demand. Remember one thing especially: People
never complain about having too much hot water, but we do not
want to oversize the equipment as this saddles the owner/operator with both increased initial equipment costs (resulting from
larger-than-necessary equipment) and higher annual energy/operating costs (resulting from lower, seasonal efficiencies due to
increased cycling of equipment operating farther from full load).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carpenter, S. C., and J. P. Kokko. 1988. Estimating hot water use in
existing commercial buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. 94(2): 312.
Ciz, J. B. 1986. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five apartment buildings (Part IInstallation and commissioning). OHRD Rpt.
8677K.
Decioco, J., and G. Dutt. 1986. Domestic hot water service in Lumley
Homes: A comparison of energy audit diagnosis with instrumented
analysis. Proceedings of the 1986 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. 100(1): 147165.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. Energy use and DHW consumption research project:
Final reportPhase 1. Report no. 9419. Prepared for New York State
Energy Research and Development Authority.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1994. Domestic hot water loads, system sizing and selection for multifamily buildings. Proceedings of
the 1994 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1996. DHW modeling: System sizing
and selection criteria, Phase 2Interim project report no. 1. Prepared
for New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.
Milligan, N. H. 1987. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five
38
Domestic W
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Water
Dor
mitories
Dormitories
39
DORMITORIES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers two types of buildings classified as dormitories. The first type is a student dormitory or similar housing that
has a nonstructured use of hot water. The second type is an
institutional type dormitory, similar to that at a military school,
that has a structured hot water use.
STUDENT DORMITORIES
The peak demand for hot water for this type of building is more
spread out. Students tend to create schedules based upon when
their classes are held. Additional hot water demand that could
be anticipated is laundromat type clothes washers and possibly
a residential type kitchen. This type of building tends to have
multistory units.
40
Domestic W
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Water
Dor
mitories
Dormitories
41
78
30
6
114
Lavatories
78
30
6
4
118
Kitchen
Sinks
Dishwashers
78
82
78
82
Coin-operated
clothes washers = 8
Mop sinks = 4
Calculations1
Showers
Lavatories
Kitchen sinks
Mop sinks
1 Calculations for showers, lavatories, and mop sinks are based on ASPE Data
Book, looseleaf Chap. 4, Service Hot Water Systems, Table 7.
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Domestic W
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Water
INSTITUTIONAL DORMITORIES
The hot water requirements for this type of building are based
upon the shower and lavatory use occurring during a very short
period of time because of schedules. Any additional hot water
demand will be from kitchens, dining facilities, and possibly a
laundry. These specialized areas should have a separate water
heating system. (Refer to the chapter Laundries in this manual.)
Note that there will be a short time in the morning (2 h) and that
evening will be longer but less intense (4 to 5 h).
Dor
mitories
Dormitories
43
68 heads 7 min
4 persons 2.5 gpm =
4760 gph
30 heads 7 min
2.5 gpm =
525 gph
102 gph
5285 gph
5285 gph
= 1321 gph minimum recovery
4h
Water heater sizing: 1321 gph 0.65 = 858 gph each heater
Storage tank sizing: 5285 gal 1321 gph = 3964 gal storage
required
(Student showers: 68 heads 7 min
4 persons 0.158 L/sec
60 =
18 050 L/h
Advisor showers:
Lavatories:
30 heads 7 min
0.158 L/sec 60 =
170 fixtures 7.57 L/h
0.30 usage factor =
Total peak hour demand
1991 L/h
386 L/h
20 427 L/h
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
20 427 L/h
= 5107 L/h minimum recovery
4h
Water heater sizing: 5107 L/h 0.65 = 3320 L/h each heater
Storage tank sizing: 20 427 L 3320 L/h = 17 107 L storage
required)
Institutional dormitory conclusions
1. The amount of storage required indicates a separate water
heater and storage tank arrangement.
2. The circulation system shall be arranged in a way that eliminates stratification in the storage tanks.
3. The piping arrangement and valving should be set up to isolate water heaters for maintenance purposes.
4. The path of access to the water heaters should be reviewed to
ensure that it allows replacement in the future.
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
45
ELEMENTARY
AND SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for elementary and secondary schools.
TYPES OF SCHOOL
The terms elementary and secondary schools cover grades K
through 12. School districts have different ways of grouping
students, especially in the middle years. This middle group may
be known as either junior high school or middle school (see
Table 4.1).
Elementary
Elementary
Elementary
Elementary
Junior high
Middle school
Junior high
10
11
12
Senior high
Senior high
Senior high
Senior high
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
46
Domestic W
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Water
Elementary
Jr./Middle
High
Classroom toilets
Kitchen
Laundry
Art room
Science room
Health clinic
Teachers lounge
Teachers workroom
Principals toilet
Showers
Car wash
Shop room
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
47
INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
Sources of information include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The criteria for determining the hot water demand are presented
as if one central system were being designed. In fact, the best
choice may be to use multiple systems. This may be necessitated
by criteria calling for a dedicated kitchen water heater or by isolated small loads.
It is not the intent of this chapter to go into detail about the
selection of water heating equipment or the hot water delivery
system. An initial concept must be established for the purposes
of grouping the load and planning for the location of equipment.
48
Domestic W
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Water
SHOWERS
The shower load is often the most significant hot water requirement in secondary schools and should be carefully evaluated.
The quantity of showers is usually determined by the schools
criteria, the architects design, and code requirements.
Beyond the number of showers, the hot water requirement
can be affected by such things as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
SCHOOL POPULATION
For new schools, the populationthe total number of students and
staffis usually given in the design criteria for the school. Otherwise, it can be obtained from the school district or the architect or
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
49
(gph/fixture)
Lavatory (private)
Lavatory (public)
Dishwasher (residential type)
Sink (classroom, workroom, science room)
Clothes washer (residential type)
Service sink/mop basinb
2
4
20
8
30
20
(L/h/fixture)
7.57
15.14
75.70
30.28
113.55
75.70
Source: Reprinted with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers from the 1987 ASHRAE Handbook.
Modifications by the Washington, D.C., ASPE chapter.
a Demands shown represent the quantity of 140F (60C) water required to
produce the desired usable water temperature at the fixture.
bHot water demand for general purpose service sinks and mop basins in schools
is not included when supplied from the general purpose water heaters. This demand does not usually occur simultaneously with peak demands from toilets and
kitchens.
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Domestic W
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Water
Kitchen Demand
Using the data in Table 4.4, calculate the kitchen demand in the
same manner used for the general purpose demand. The dominant factor influencing the kitchen load will be the dishwasher
rinse requirement. If this is not available, the hot water requirement for the dishwasher can be estimated from Table 4.5.
(gph)
45
30
60
90
180
45
240
40
5
(L/h)
170.33
113.55
227.10
340.65
681.30
170.33
908.40
151.40
18.93
Dishmachine
Size
Flow Rate
(gpm)
Door type
16 x 16 in.
6.94
Inches rack
18 x 18 in. rack
8.67
20 x 20 in. rack
Conveyor type
10.4
Undercounter type
Single tank
6.94
Multiple tank
Consumption
(gph)
69
87
104
70
416
Dishes flat
5.78
347
Dishes inclined
4.62
277
Silverware washers
45
Utensil washers
75
Make-up water
requirements
180F on certain
conveyor types
2.31
139
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
51
Dishmachine
Size
406 406 mm
Millimeters rack
0.55
329.3
0.66
393.64
Conveyor type
Undercounter type
0.32
264.95
Single tank
0.44
1574.56
Dishes flat
0.36
1313.4
Dishes inclined
0.29
1048.45
Multiple tank
Silverware washers
0.44
170.33
Utensil washers
0.50
283.88
Make-up water
requirements
82C on certain
conveyor types
0.15
526.12
Note: Based on water pressure of 140 kPa at equipment. Based on operation at 100%
mechanical capacity. Seventy percent is normal operating capacity except for rackless
conveyor machines. Designer should contact equipment manufacturer for actual demand. Designer also should check local codes and regulations. Some agencies require
that domestic water heating systems be sized to provide 100% capacity for dishwashers.
Shower Load
The shower load is derived by multiplying the number of showerheads by the flow rate per shower by the amount of time the
showerheads are used per hour. The load is expressed in gallons
(liters) per hour. Generally, the water to showers is tempered by
mixing the hot water with cold water; therefore, the actual requirement for hot water will be only a portion of the total shower
flow. See Chapter 1, Equation 1.7, for the mixed water temperature formula.
52
Domestic W
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Water
EXAMPLES
Example 4.1 Elementary School
This school is not equipped with showers but does have a small
(lunch only) cafeteria with a food preparation area. The general
purpose demand is created by the following fixtures:
Fixture
Lavatory (private)
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(gph/fixture)
10
Total
(gph)
20
Lavatory (public)
50
200
Sink (classroom)
20
160
380b
Fixture
Lavatory (private)
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(L/h/fixture)
10
7.57
Total
(L/h)
75.7
Lavatory (public)
50
15.14
757
Sink (classroom)
20
30.28
605.6
1438.3b
No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(gph)
45
Total
(gph)
45
Triple-compartment sink
90
90
Prerinse
45
45
Hand sink
10
69
69
259
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
53
No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(L/h)
Total
(L/h)
Vegetable sink
Triple-compartment sink
1
1
170.33
340.65
170.33
340.65
Prerinse
Hand sink
1
2
170.33
18.93
170.33
37.86
261.17
Equipment
261.17
980.34
The designer has decided with this type of system to use one
or more water heater(s) to provide domestic hot water for the
school. Since the kitchen requires 140F (60C) water, the heater(s)
will raise the temperature of the water to this level and reduce it
to 110F (43C) for general usage. Using the mixed water temperature formula found in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7), we calculate
the amount of 140F (60C) water needed to meet the general
usage demand:
(110 40)
= 0.70
(140 40)
4)
= 0.70]
[ (43
(60 4)
0.70 380 gph = 266 gph of 140F water
(0.70 1483.3 L/h = 1038.31 L/h of 60C water)
Although the general demand is slightly higher than the
kitchen demand, the diversity of the general demand is such that
the kitchen demand should be the factor governing the sizing of
the water heater(s). For this example, the designer has selected a
heater that has a storage capacity of approximately half of the
kitchen demand with a recovery rate approximately equal to the
kitchen demand.
54
Domestic W
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Water
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(gph/fixture)
Total
(gph)
12
24
Lavatory (public)
60
240
Sink
25
200
Dishwasher (residential)
20
40
30b
90
594c
60b
534
Fixture
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(L/h/fixture)
Total
(L/h)
Lavatory (private)
12
7.57
Lavatory (public)
60
15.14
908.4
Sink
25
Dishwasher (residential)
Clothes washer (residential)
90.84
30.28
757.00
75.7
151.4
113.55b
340.65
2248.29c
227.00b
2021.29
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
55
Kitchen demand
Normal operating hours, not serving hours, are from 10:00 A.M.
until 3:00 P.M.
Equipment
No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(gph)
Total
(gph)
Vegetable sink
45
90
Double-compartment sink
60
60
Triple-compartment sink
90
90
Prerinse
45
90
Hand sink
10
Bar sink
30
30
416
416
786
Equipment
No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(L/h)
Total
(L/h)
Vegetable sink
170.33
340.66
227.1
227.1
340.65
340.65
Prerinse
170.33
340.66
Hand sink
18.93
37.86
Bar sink
113.55
113.55
1574.56
1574.56
2975.04
Shower demand
Showers are taken after gym classes and after athletic team practices.
The total number of showers is 23. Each shower head has a
flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). A worst-case scenario for usage
is estimated to be 5 showers per hour per head for 6 min each.
23 heads 2.5 gpm 6 min 5 showers/h = 1725 gph
(23 heads 0.16 L/sec 60 sec 6 min 5 showers/h
56
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
= 6624 L/h)
(This scenario would happen only after school when the athletic
teams have completed their practices.)
Possibly a better and more normal scenario to look at is the
usage after gym classes. Since time is very limited, only a few
quick showers will be taken.
23 heads 2.5 gpm 3 min 2 showers/h = 345 gph
(23 heads 0.16 L/sec 60 sec 3 min 2 showers/h
= 1324.8 L/h)
System selection factors
At this point in the design, it must be determined how the domestic hot water is to be distributed. For this example, the designer
has decided to provide two separate systems, one for the kitchen
at 140F (60) and one for the general and shower demands at
110F (43C). Since 110F (43C) water will be supplied to the
showers and a normal shower is taken at an average of 102F
(39C), the designer can compute the actual hot water usage for
the showers using the mixed water temperature formula found
in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7).
(102 40)
= 0.89
(110 40)
1725 gph 0.89 = 1535 gph
345 gph 0.89 = 307 gph
4)
= 0.89
[ (39
(43 4)
6624 L/h 0.89 = 5895.36 L/h
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
57
Kitchen demand
Size the storage capacity of the water heater(s) for approximately half of the demand and the recovery rate for
approximately 100% of the demand.
General and shower demand
There are a few factors that must be taken into account when
sizing the equipment for this demand. One is the concurrence of the general demand and the normal shower demand.
Another is the large shower demand after athletic teams practice plus the use of two clothes washers concurrent with this
demand. (The length of time for heater recovery can be longer
in this case, since there is all night to recover the tank.) For
this example, the designer has decided to provide storage capacity of approximately 50% of the total of the general demand,
534 gph (2021.29 L/h), and normal shower demand, 307
gph (1179.07 L/h), and have recovery capacity of approximately 100% of this total demand.
REFERENCES
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water systems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.
Thrasher, W. H., and D. W. DeWerth. 1993. Comparison of collected
and compiled existing data on service hot water use patterns in
residential and commercial establishments. ASHRAE Research
Project No. RP-600.
59
HOTELS AND
MOTELS
INTRODUCTION
The hot water demand for a hotel/motel depends on the facilitys
type of occupancy and the guest room, food service, and laundry
demands. Occasionally, there also will be a health club involved.
These variables are discussed below. It is the responsibility of
the designer to determine these variables through the application of engineering principles and by asking the appropriate
questions of the owners/operators of the hotel or motel.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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61
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63
Storage
The designer has decided to provide storage to accommodate the
showering of 15% of the guests simultaneously.
3938 gph 15% = 591 gal of 105F water
(15 120 L/h 15% = 2268 L of 41C water)
Since 140F (60C) water is going to be stored, the equivalent
quantity of 140F (60C) water is as follows (see Chapter 1, Equation 1.7, for the mixed temperature formula):
105 40F
= 0.65 591 gal = 384 gal
140 40F
41 4C
60 4C
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
0.80
1474.2 L
0.80
= 1842.75 L minimum
65
Assumed
140F (gph)
Assumed
180F (gph)a
320
90
320
2-compartment sink
1-compartment sink
60
30
Dishwasher prerinse
Can wash
45
45
590
320
Assumed
Assumed
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Water
Equipment
Conveyor type dishwasher
3-compartment sink
2-compartment sink
1-compartment sink
Dishwasher prerinse
Can wash
60C (L/h)
82C (L/h)a
1211.2
340.65
227.1
113.35
170.33
170.33
1211.2
2232.95
1211.2
Assume the kitchen will be in the cleanup mode for a maximum of 3 h after every meal. (Discussions with kitchen operators
suggest that 3 h is a reasonable number that incorporates the
necessary time for an extremely busy cleanup period.) Total hot
water required per hour will be 590 gph (2232.95 L/h) of 140F
(60C) water, 320 gph (1211.2 L/h) of which must be raised to
180F (82C) by a booster heater.
To evaluate the storage required, consider the equipment to be
served. You may assume that a large demand will occur when the
cleanup effort is initiated. All the sinks will be filled, perhaps requiring 140F (60C) water. The dishwasher tanks will need to be
filled initially; assume 30 gal (113.55 L), though you should check
with the manufacturer. Therefore, you will need at least 210 gal
(794.85 L) of 140F (60C) water for the initial fill of 3 sinks and a
dishwasher tank. The normal draw down after initial fill should be
no greater than the initial fill. The major running demand will be
the dishwasher and prerinse, which operate continuously. If you
wish to calculate initial fill with a water temperature lower than
140F (60C), then do so. Hands cannot be immersed in very hot
water, but it may be the practice to fill the sinks initially with very
hot water for hot soak purposes.
Selection of water heating equipment
To select a storage tank, first multiply the expected initial fill
requirement by 1.1 to provide a 10% safety factor:
210 gal 1.1 = 231 gal
(794.85 L 1.1 = 874.34 L)
67
Then select the nominal tank size by dividing 231 gal (874.34 L)
by the manufacturers published tank efficiency. (Assume 75%.)
231 gal
= 308 gal nominal storage required
0.75
874.34 L
0.75
Select the next larger size standard tank. If heaters with full demand recovery capacity are specified, the water drawn from
storage during high demand periods will be quickly replaced and
no greater storage capacity should be required. Selecting the storage tank size requires the engineers judgment.
Required recovery
For a kitchen, you may want to calculate full recovery, not taking
into consideration storage since it is normally an insignificant
percentage of the demand, particularly when a conveyor type dishwasher is used. Assume a minimum inlet temperature of 40F
(4C). Also assume that an electric booster heater is furnished to
raise the dishwasher hot water from 140 to 180F (60 to 82C).
Using the heat transfer formula from Chapter 1 (Equation 1.2),
we calculate the 140F (60C) water recovery as follows:
590 gph 8.33 Btu/gal/F (140 40F) = 491,470
Btu/h output required
[(2.23 m3/h)(4188.32 kJ/m3/K)(333.15 277.59K) =
518 927.82 kJ/h output required]
Divide the output by the efficiency of the heater to determine the
input required.
LAUNDRY DEMAND
Questions and Assumptions
This demand is driven by the equipment used and the peak operation times. For large facilities, it can be a significant demand. For
small facilities, small residential or light commercial equipment is
often used. You must check the maximum operating water temperature and the gallons (liters) per hour required by each machine.
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69
GENERAL NOTES
System Considerations
The choice of a system(s) to meet the hotel/motels hot water
demand is up to the designer. There are several factors and ideas
that should be considered:
1. Should the hotel/motel be served by a single system? Should
it be served by two systems, one serving the guest rooms and
the other serving the laundry/kitchen? Does the hotel/motel
need three separate systems?
2. What type(s) of tempering device should be installed to ensure safe delivery of the proper temperature water to the
various areas?
3. If systems are combined, what size should the combined storage tank be?
4. Is it desirable to install a crossover bypass system so that, if
one system is down, water from another system can be diverted to temporarily provide service to the down system? If
this is done, it is important to remember that a tempering
valve must be placed in a bypass for the lower temperature
system so that, when this system is temporarily used for a
higher temperature, water can be routed through the tempering valve bypass.
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Hospitals
71
HOSPITALS
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer step by step
through the procedure of designing a domestic water heating
distribution system for a hospital. It is important for the designer
to realize that there is a vast difference between designing a
domestic water heating system for a hospital and designing such
a system for any other type of building. A hospital encompasses
almost all types of hot water use, plus there are areas of operation that are unique to a hospital.
The first section of this chapter addresses design considerations and areas of concern. The second gives user group
requirements and offers an analysis to appraise. The final section
presents some design examples.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables, calculating the demand, and assuming the responsibility for laying
out an economical and efficient system to provide hot water to a
facilitys plumbing fixtures and other terminal points. The procedure presented here will help predict the minimum amount
of hot water needed by the facility.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Safety and Health Concerns
See Chapter 1 for a discussion of Legionella pneumophila
(Legionnaires disease) and scalding.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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Water
General Outline
Identify the following for each user group:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
User Groups
Patient areas
General patient areas in a hospital are typically used by people
admitted for surgical or medical procedures. Surgical patients
are people who enter the facility to have a surgical procedure
done and then remain in the facility to recover. A medical patient
is a person who enters a facility with a health ailment not requiring surgery but who requires constant and/or specialized care.
Surgical patients, early in their stay in the facility, are sponge
bathed and, per doctors orders, may use the shower facilities.
Medical patients typically have the use of the shower/bathing
facilities at all times.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Are patient rooms private or semiprivateor are wards used?
Hospitals
73
2. Does each patient room have a shower/tub, or is there a central bathing area?
3. Check whether patient bathing is assisted and, if so, how
many staff are available to provide assistance.
4. Determine the flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Many codes require 110F (43C) water to be used in the patient area to prevent scalding (refer to the discussion of
scalding in Chapter 1).
2. Due to the number of showers/bathtubs in this area, a high
use of hot water is possible.
3. In an intensive care area or isolation room, the hand washing
sink/lavatory is used more frequently than in a typical patient area.
Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medicine and simple food or drink items for patients and do their
required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is located
nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typically have sinks
in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms are in the vicinity of
the station. The clean utility room typically has a single bowl
sink while the soiled utility room typically has a double bowl
sink, a hand washing lavatory, and a flushing rim sink (also known
as a clinic sink) with a bedpan washer.
The nurses station is not a heavy hot water use area and is
typically part of another specific user group (i.e., patient areas
have their own nurses stations). In many of the newer facilities,
the nurses station is shared between departments to lower the
number of staff required. This is done commonly in smaller facilities.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area is a location where therapy that utilizes
water occurs. The therapies may involve many different temperatures of water, but all include some hot water usage. The therapy
tubs in the area may come in many sizes, from 50 to 500-gal
(189.27 to 1892.71-L) capacity or larger.
Items that should be determined include:
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Hospitals
75
Areas of concern:
1. Water temperature in the area. Typically, three temperatures
are needed, 110F (43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for
dietary use, and 180F (82C) for sanitizing purposes.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and runs
simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.
Surgical suite
The surgical suite is where the facilitys surgical procedures are
performed.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Hours of scheduled surgery and typical starting time.
2. Number of scrub sinks in the suite and the length of time
required for the staff to wash.
3. Equipment used in the area and the water temperature it
requires (e.g., an electric flash sterilizer may use hot water to
shorten the warm-up time).
4. Number of showers in the suites locker rooms.
Areas of concern:
1. The time of the suites startup. Note that the suite typically
begins operation in the A.M., sometimes early A.M. (e.g., 6:00
A.M.), which is the same time other areas of the facility are
beginning startup, i.e., during hot water peak demand.
2. The average number of emergency operations from the trauma
unit or emergency room at night.
Laundry
A hospital produces a large amount of laundry, which needs to
be cleaned. The size of the facility determines the size of the laundry department. Not all facilities have their own laundry
departments; some opt to send the laundry to outside services.
Items that should be determined include:
1. The number and size of each washing machine in the area
(pound capacity and gallons [liters] of hot water per hour per
pound [kilogram] or per cycle).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per hour
per machine.
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Hospitals
77
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Hospitals
79
Qty. GPM
Bathroom group
C
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
110
___________
GPM GPH
2.5
10
Public lavatory
0.5
10
Private lavatory
2.5
2.5
Bathtub
10
Shower
2.5
10
4.5
Floor receptor
4.5
2.5
10
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal)
15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal)
15
Laundry tub
4.5
Residential washing
machine
4.5
Residential dishwasher
4.5
Commercial dishwasher
Commercial kitchen,
single sink
Commercial kitchen,
double sink
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse
2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash
10
Sonic cleaner
4.5
Washer/disenfector
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
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Domestic W
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Water
Qty.
Bathroom group
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.16
10
Public lavatory
0.03
10
Private lavatory
0.13
0.16
0.16
Bathtub
0.44
10
Shower
0.16
10
0.28
Floor receptor
0.28
0.16
10
Small hydro-tub
Less than 378.5 L
0.95
Large hydro-tub
More than 378.5 L
0.95
Laundry tub
0.28
Residential washing
machine
0.28
Residential dishwasher
0.28
Commercial dishwasher
0.44
0.57
Commercial kitchen
single sink
0.57
Commercial kitchen
double sink
0.57
Commercial kitchen
prerinse
0.16
Hose station or
cart/can wash
0.57
10
Sonic cleaner
0.28
Washer/disenfector
0.57
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
81
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Water
105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Central sterile supply
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ F)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1):
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
GPM
GPH
Hospitals
83
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Central sterile supply
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ C)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1):
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
L/Sec
L/H
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Water
Qty. GPM
Bathroom group
tub/shower & lavatoryb,c 2.5
Public lavatoryb
0.5
2
Private lavatoryb
2.5
Single bowl sinkb
2.5
Double bowl sinkb
7
Bathtube
2.5
Showerb
Flushing rim sinkf
4.5
4.5
Floor receptorf
2.5
Scrub sink, per faucetg
Small hydro-tub
15
(less than 100 gal)d
Large hydro-tub
15
(more than 100 gal)d
Laundry tubf
4&5
Residential washing
4.5
machinef
4.5
Residential dishwasherf
Commercial dishwasherj
Triple compartment sink,
per fauceth,i
9
Commercial kitchen,
9
single sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen,
9
double sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen,
prerinseg
2.5
Hose station or
9
cart/ can washh
4.5
Sonic cleanerj
9
Washer/disenfectorj
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Min ___________
105
Use/H GPM GPH
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
10
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
6
3
7
*
*
*
*
90
30
60
45
10
*
*
*
*
*
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
Note: GPM calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. GPH calculation
is for a storage type water heating system.
(Continued)
Hospitals
85
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
hNine gpm based on in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 6.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitchen
Uses ( gph).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 6.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
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Water
Qty.
Bathroom group
tub/shower
1,2
& lavatoryb,c
1
Public lavatoryb
Private lavatoryb
1
1
Single bowl sinkb
Double bowl sinkb
1
4
Bathtube
Showerb
1
5
Flushing rim sinkf
Floor receptorf
5
Scrub sink,
6
per faucetg
Small hydro-tub
(less than 378.5 L)d 3
Large hydro-tub
(more than
378.5 L)d
3
5
Laundry tubf
Residential washing
machinef
5
Residential
5
dishwasherf
Commercial
9
dishwasherj
Triple compartment
sink per fauceth,i 7,8
Commercial kitchen
7,8
single sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen
7,8
double sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen
prerinseg
6
Hose station or
7
cart/can washh
9
Sonic cleanerj
Washer/disinfectorj
9
(L/Sec = A B
Min ___________
41
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
0.16
0.03
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.44
0.16
0.28
0.28
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.16
10
0.95
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.95
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.44
0.57 k
340.65
0.57
113.55
0.57
227.10
0.16
170.33
0.57
0.28
0.57
10
*
*
*
*
*
*
TOTALS:
(Continued)
Hospitals
87
0.13 L/sec for lavatories, and 0.03 L/sec for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.
dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
h0.57 L/sec based on DN20 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/
Uses (L/h).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 6.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
GPH
L/H
Vegetable sink
Single compartment sink
Double compartment sink
Triple compartment sink
Prescrapper (open type)
Prerinse (hand operated)
Prerinse (closed type)
Recirculating prerinse
Bar sink
Lavatories
45
30
60
90
180
45
240
40
30
5
170.33
113.55
227.10
340.65
681.30
170.33
908.40
151.40
113.55
18.93
Source: Values are extracted from Dunn et al. [1959] 1989. Chapter 4. ASPE Data
Book. Table 9.
Note: Requirements are for water at 140F (60C).
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Water
0.05
0.50
0.25
0.90
Dietary &
Food
Surgical
Service Suite
0.40
0.90
0.50
0.50
Central
Sterile Obstetrics/ Misc.
Supply Nursery Areas
0.20
0.90
0.10
0.40
0.05
0.10
Patient area
This user group is split into two areas, surgical and medical patient areas. Many patients in these areas are not ambulatory and
require assistance from the staff to use the toilet or the bathing
facilities. Many surgical patients are not allowed to use the shower
or bathing facilities until approximately the second day after surgery. Medical patients are often not allowed to use the facilities
until after their conditions improve. Because of this, many are
sponge bathed. The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by
the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
only the shower being in use (i.e., the lavatory is not in use during the same minute). Also, it is assumed that not all the patients
are using the fixtures during the same minute.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
either the shower or the lavatory being used in an hour during
Hospitals
89
peak usage time. Because the lavatory uses less water than the
shower, the factor is less than 0.50 (50%).
Nurses station
This user group is in use 24 h a day but typically is used most
heavily during shift changes. This is because of the preparation
necessary before patients can be aided.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the relationship between the staff and patients. During a peak 3h period of hot water use, the patient area is used more heavily
than the nurses station. Since many patients need assistance
using the bathing or shower facilities, staff members are in the
patient areas aiding patients and not at the nurses station using
the fixtures there.
The 0.5 (50%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on these
same issues, but because of the time staff members spend at the
nurses station organizing or distributing medicines and doing
other work, the hand washing fixtures there are heavily used.
Hydrotherapy
When in operation, this area is a large water user. The staff can
be split between the physical and hydrotherapy areas.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the cyclical use of the therapy tubs and on the assumption that
staff members also are doing physical therapy.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that during peak usage times almost all the fixtures
in this area are used. That assumes that the staff schedules water therapies during one time and physical therapies during
another.
Dietary and food service
This area is a large water user. Depending on the size of the
facility, the usage of water for food preparation and for cleaning
may overlap.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the assumption that cleaning (the washing of dishes, etc.) does
not occur in the same minute as food preparation. Also, it assumes that the sinks are filled and then work is done using an
intermittent, not a steady, water supply.
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Water
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that most of the area fixtures are used during one of
the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.
Surgical suite
Surgical procedures account for the majority of the time this area
is in use. Though the scrub sinks are used intermittently during
a procedure (e.g., staff leaving the room and returning will scrub
again), the showers and scrub sinks are typically not used concurrently.
The 0.50 (50%) usage factor for both the gpm (L/sec) and gph
(L/h) are based on the above scenario. During any 1 min or h of
the facilitys peak usage period, either the scrub sinks or the
showers are in use.
Central sterile supply
This area, which houses washing equipment, is in use during
the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.20 (20%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the assumption that some of the equipment is in a fill cycle during any 1 min. Due to the nature of equipment cycles, all the
equipment does not use water during the same minute.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
most of the equipment being used in the facilitys peak usage
hour.
Obstetrics/Nursery
This user group is in use 24 h a day. The birth process and
resting afterward typically account for the majority of
a patients time in this area. Showers are sometimes taken during labor to relax the mother, and the hand washing lavatory is
used extensively during labor by the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) gpm (L/sec) usage factor is based on usage in
the patient area. Though a patient in the obstetrics (OB)/nursery area bathes after a birth, there is no set schedule for this
because of the unpredictable nature of the birth process. Thus,
at any 1 min, only 10% of the fixtures in this area are operated.
(This is part of the reasoning for the 5% factor used for the nurses
station. Fixtures in the OB/nursery user group typically are used
by staff members, implying that those workers are not concurrently at the nurses station using fixtures there.)
Hospitals
91
The 0.40 (40%) gph (L/h) usage factor also is based on the
patient wing area. Also, many patients remain in the birthing
rooms after delivery. (Theyre not transferred to separate postpartum rooms.) Because of this, lavatories are used during labor
by the staff and bathing or shower facilities are used by patients
during the peak usage period. Both fixtures are not used extensively during the same hour.
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration, maintenance,
autopsy, the morgue)
The rest of the facility uses water but not during the facilitys peak
usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the miscellaneous areas. These areas must be taken into account, however,
because water using fixtures are available and used there.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
the assumption that only a minor number of the fixtures are
used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are used
outside of the facilitys peak usage hour.
The designer must determine the usage pattern for each miscellaneous area.
Hydrotherapy
1. What are the number and size of each tub in the area?
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
3. What hours is the department in use?
4. What is the required fill time for each tub? Are the tubs to be
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Surgical Suite
1. What are the hours of scheduled surgery and what is the
typical starting time?
2. How many scrub sinks are in the suite?
3. What other equipment is used in the area and what temperatures are required (e.g., does the electric flash sterilizer require
hot water to shorten warm-up time)?
4. How many showers are in the different locker rooms?
Laundry
1. What are the number and size of each washing machine in
the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per hour per
pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is in
operation?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?
Hospitals
93
Obstetrics/Nursery
1. Does each room have a tub/shower in it, or are there central
bathing facilities? Is there a birthing room and after the birth
are the mother and infant transported to another room?
2. Verify the shower head flow and/or tub flow/capacity.
3. What is the number of scrub sinks in the area?
4. How many flushing rim sinks are in the areas departments?
EXAMPLES
Example 6.232-Bed Hospital
The facility in question is a 32-patient-bed hospital (having 24
patient-care, 6 obstetrics, and 2 intensive care, or ICU, beds). A
facility of this size typically is located outside of a metropolitan
area. The facility is a complete care, 24 h/day hospital without a
laundry (a facility of this size typically does not produce enough
laundry to warrant its own laundry facility).
Description of user groups
Patient area
The facility has 24 patient-care beds (12 for medical patients
and 12 for surgical patients). The facility has a wing arrangement with medical patients in one wing and surgical patients
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
in the other. The rooms are single patient rooms with a shower
(2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and lavatory (2.0 gpm [0.13 L/
sec] typical) in each. There is a tub room with a single bathtub. Each wing has a clean utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5
gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and a soiled utility room (double
bowl sink, hand washing lavatory, and flushing rim sink with
bedpan washer). Each wing has a janitors closet with a receptor.
Nurses station
Because of the size of the facility, one nurses station provides service to the medical, surgical, and ICU patient beds.
This station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink at the
station for general water use. A second nurses station, for
obstetrics, has a general use sink. This station shares the
use of the drug dispensing and toilet rooms with the other
station.
An on-call room for staff members, which has a shower
and lavatory, is also provided in this area.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hips/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), and a hands/
elbows/arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]) with a hand washing lavatory in the area. The 25-gal (94.63-L) arm tank is filled using
the hip/leg tub valve. In this example, a mixing valve will be
used at a maximum flow of 15 gpm (0.95 L/sec). There is also
a shower with lavatory provided for outpatient services.
Dietary and food service
Because of the size of the facility, the dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a cold meal at night. It is a
full-service department with the following equipment: triple
compartment sink with prerinse, scrapping sink with prerinse,
dishwasher, double sink for food thawing, sink for vegetable
preparations, and a hand washing lavatory. The department
starts operation at 6:00 A.M. The department requires 140F
(60C) water at all fixtures except the hand washing lavatory,
where 110F (43C) supply water is required. A 105F (41C)
faucet outlet temperature is assumed. The dishwasher requires 180F (82C) water and the 140F (60C) water will be
Hospitals
95
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Hospitals
97
103F (39C)
6. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?
Yes, with a 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) shower head and
a 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) lavatory
Dietary and food service
1. What is the number of meals provided each day?
200
2. How many dishwashers are there and what are the type,
size, gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature required for each?
One
Hobart AM14
1.2 gal/rack at 53 racks = 64 gal/cycle (4.54 L/
rack at 53 racks = 240.62 L/cycle)
One cycle/h
140F (60C)
3. What is the number of sinks, prerinse, etc. in the area
and what is the type of each?
Triple compartment sink with prerinse
Scrapping sink with prerinse
Double sink for food thawing
Single sink for vegetable prep
A hand washing lavatory
4. Are cart/can washers used and, if so, during what hours
are they operational and what temperatures are required?
Yes
Washed after meals are served
140F (60C)
Surgical suite
1. What are the hours of scheduled surgery and what is the
typical starting time?
6:00 A.M. 12:00 P.M. typical
2. How many scrub sinks are in the suite?
Two double scrub sinks at 2.5 gpm/faucet (0.16 L/
sec/faucet)
3. What other equipment is used in the area and what tem-
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peratures are required (e.g., does the electric flash sterilizer require hot water to shorten warm-up time)?
Two sinks
Janitors receptors
Two flushing rim sinks
Steam flash sterilizer
4. How many showers are in the different locker rooms?
Two showers (1 in the locker room for each sex)
and 2 lavatories
Laundry
1. What is the number and what are the sizes of the washing machines in the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and
gallons per hour per pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
Nonefacility sends laundry out.
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is
in operation?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?
Central sterile supply
1. What are the operating hours of central sterile supply
and when does startup begin?
6:00 A.M. 4:00 P.M.
2. How many times is each piece of equipment used per hour?
Sonic cleaner (5 gph [18.93 L/h]) and washer (27
gph [102.20 L/h])
3. What equipment is in the area and what is the required
water temperature, flow rate, water quality, and pressure
for each piece?
140F (60C) is needed at the equipment.
35 psig (241.32 kPa)
120F (49C) supplied at the sink and lavatory
110F (43C) and 105F (41C) outlet temperatures,
respectively
The equipment in the area is electric.
Hospitals
99
Obstetrics/Nursery
1. Does each room have a tub/shower in it, or are there
central bathing facilities?
Individual room tub/showers and two lavatories
2. Is there a birthing room and after the birth are the mother
and infant transported to another room?
Typically, no to both questions
3. Determine the shower head flow and/or tub flow/
capacity.
2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) showers and 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/
sec) lavatories
4. What is the number of scrub sinks in the area?
None (If surgical procedure is required, patient is
transported to surgical suite.)
5. How many flushing rim sinks are in the areas departments?
It shares with the surgical patient wing.
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration,
maintenance, autopsy, the morgue)
(Refer to the description of the facility for information.)
1. What are the flow rates of the shower heads in a given
area?
2. Check the water temperatures required in the areas.
3. Determine the acceptable time delay between the hot tap
opening and the delivery of hot water. (Keep the length of
branch piping as short as possible. Discuss this issue
with all users.)
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(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Double Bowl Sink
Bathtub
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
24
2
1
1
1
1
1
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
2.5
2
2.5
2.5
7
4.5
4.5
TOTALS:
60
4
2.5
2.5
7
76
0.1
7.6
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
600
16
2.5
2.5
70
691
0.4
276
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
0.1
0.4
0.9
3.6
Qty.
24
2
1
1
1
1
1
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
0.16
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.44
0.28
0.28
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
3.84 2304.0
0.26
62.4
0.16
9.6
0.16
9.6
0.44 264
0.28
0.28
16.8
16.8
TOTALS:
4.86 2649.6
0.56
33.6
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.06
13.44
0.4
0.49 1059.84
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
101
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
2.5
10
Private Lavatory
2.5
2.5
TOTALS:
9.5
0.05
0.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
25
38
0.5
19
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
0.16
10
0.16
96
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.13
31.2
0.16
0.32
19.2
TOTALS:
0.61 146.4
0.1
0.5
0.03
73.2
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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Water
Qty. GPM
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2.5
10
2.5
25
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
0.5
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
100 Gal
2
(4 fills) 15
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
12
TOTALS:
0.25
0.75
30
0.9
103
___________
GPM GPH
30
360
30
360
0.25
27
7.5
0.9
324
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
0.16
10
0.16
96
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
0.50
18
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
378.5 Liters
2
(4 fills) 0.95
12
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
39
___________
L/Sec L/H
1.89 1368
TOTALS:
0.66 114
1.89 1368
0.25
0.25
0.17 102.6
0.9
0.9
0.47 1231.2
Hospitals
103
Qty. GPM
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
0.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
Commercial
Dishwasher
64 gphb
64
Triple Compartment
Sink
90 gphb
18
180
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
30 gphb
30
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
60 gphb
60
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
2.5
45 gphb
2.5
45
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
10
90
54.5
469
TOTALS:
0.5
0.4
0.9
0.4
0.2
4.5
21.8
0.9
422
Other
___________
GPM GPH
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Water
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Commercial
Dishwasher
0.44
64
Triple Compartment
Sink
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.03
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
18
0.44
242.24
340.65 L/hb
1.14
681.30
0.57
113.55 L/hb
0.57
113.55
0.57
227.1 L/hb
0.57
227.1
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
0.16
170.33 L/hb
0.16
170.33
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
37.85 L/hb
0.57
37.85
TOTALS:
0.03
18
0.4
0.9
0.01
16.2
3.45 1472.37
0.4
0.9
1.38 1325.13
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
105
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Shower
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet
2
2
2
2
1
4
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2
2.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
2.5
4
1
10
1
1
10
TOTALS:
4
5
5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
16
5
50
10
100
24
171
9
4.5
9
4.5
13.5
13.5
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.26
62.4
0.16
0.32
19.2
Shower
0.16
10
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.32 192
0.28
0.56
33.6
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.28
16.8
0.16
10
0.64 384
TOTALS:
1.54 657.6
0.84
50.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.77 328.8
0.42
25.2
0.5
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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Water
Qty. GPM
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Private Lavatory
2.5
2.5
2.5
4.5
1
5 gphb
Sonic Cleaner
4.5
Washer/Disenfector
110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
4.5
27 gphb
27
32
TOTALS:
4.5
10.5
4.5
4.5
13.5
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.9
9.5
0.9
4.1
2.7
28.8
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.13
31.2
0.16
0.16
9.6
0.28
Sonic Cleaner
Washer/Disenfector 1
0.28
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.28
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
16.8
18.93 L/hb
0.28
18.93
0.57 102.2
TOTALS:
0.29
40.8
0.28
16.8
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.06
36.72
0.06
15.12
0.85 121.13
0.2
0.9
0.17 109.02
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
107
Qty. GPM
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
2.5
Private Lavatory
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
15
150
12
48
27
198
TOTALS:
Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
0.1
0.4
2.7
79.2
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
(L/Sec = A B
Fixture
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
0.16
10
Private Lavatory
0.13
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.96 576
0.78 187.2
TOTALS:
1.74 763.2
0.1
0.17 305.28
0.4
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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Water
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
6
Single Bowl Sink
7
Double Bowl Sink
1
Shower
2
Flushing Rim Sink
1
Floor Receptor
2
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 1
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
1
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
2.5
4
1
1
10
1
1
10
10
TOTALS:
12
17.5
2.5
5
2.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
48
17.5
2.5
50
4.5
9
39.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
9
2.5
143
13.5
13.5
90
90
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
2.0
14.3
0.7
1.4
0.5
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
6
7
1
2
1
2
1
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.28
0.28
0.16
4
1
1
10
1
1
10
0.57
10
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.78 187.2
1.12 67.2
0.16
9.6
0.32 192
0.28
0.56
0.16
16.8
33.6
9.6
0.57 342
TOTALS:
2.54 552
0.84
50.4
0.57 342
0.05
0.1
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.13
55.2
0.42
5.04
0.03
34.2
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
109
105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
PATIENT AREA
7.6
276
NURSES STATION
0.5
19
HYDROTHERAPY
0.75
27
0.2
12
4.5
0.9
4.1
2.7
28.8
0.7
1.4
0.5
9.3
15.9
9.5
2.7
79.2
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
14.3
515
7.5
324
7.5
324
422
6.8
0.9
26.7
21.8
6.8
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
Other (103)
___________
GPM GPH
3.6
85.5
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
SUBTOTALS:
0.9
140
___________
GPM GPH
25
459
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc
16.2
314
6.2
10.7
25
459
4.4
191
GPM
GPH
52
976
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Water
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
PATIENT AREA
0.49 1059.84
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.06
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other (39)
___________
L/Sec L/H
13.44
NURSES STATION
0.03
73.2
HYDROTHERAPY
0.17
102.6
0.01
16.2
SURGICAL SUITE
0.77
328.8
0.42
25.2
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
0.06
40.8
0.06
15.12 0.17
109.02
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
0.17
325.28
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
0.13
55.2
0.42
5.04 0.03
34.2
SUBTOTALS:
1.83 2001.91
0.96
0.61
0.67
0.47 1231.2
1.38 1325.13
58.8
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b
0.61
0.67 1
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1):
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
L/Sec
1.12 1221.17
0.64
39.4
L/H
Hospitals
111
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Water
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a large hydrotherapy tub (500 gal
[1892.5 L]), 3 hip/leg tubs (100 gal [378.5 L]), arms/hips/
leg/back tubs (110 gal [416.35 L]) and a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.6]), and there is a hand washing
lavatory in the area. Mens and womens locker rooms with
showers and lavatories are provided for outpatient services.
Dietary and food service
The dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a
cold meal at night for all the patient rooms and the staff dining room. It is a full-service department with the following
equipment: triple compartment sink with prerinse, scraping
sink with prerinse, dishwasher, double sinks for food prep/
thawing, single sinks for vegetable preparation, and hand
washing sinks. The department starts operation at 6:00 A.M.
and could make up to 1200 meals a day. All fixtures require
140F (60C) water except the hand washing lavatory, which
requires 110F (43C) water. The dishwasher requires 180F
(82C) water, and the 140F (60C) supply water temperature
will be raised at the dishwater with an electric booster heater.
This facility also has a guest cafeteria, which serves three
meals a day and has the following equipment: triple compartment sink with prerinse, scraping sink with prerinse,
dishwasher, double sink for food thawing, single sink for vegetable preparation, and a hand washing sink.
Surgical/recovery suite
The facility has 24 operating rooms, each with two double
scrub sinks. The surgery department runs from 6:00 A.M. to
12:00 P.M. Monday through Friday with on-call services the
remainder of the time. The department also has general purpose sinks, flash sterilizers (steam is provided from a boiler
in the boiler room), two janitors receptors, flushing rim sinks
(one in recovery), and showers with lavatories in the mens
and womens staff locker areas. The area also has four toilet
rooms with lavatories and two dark rooms. Each dark room
has a sink and a processor, which requires tempered water.
Thermostatic mixing valves should be used to provide the
tempered 110F (43C) water.
Hospitals
113
Laundry
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot water
systems for this area.
Central sterile supply
The central sterile supply starts at 6:00 A.M. if there is scheduled surgery at that time; if not, it starts at 8:00 A.M. The
department stops at 4:00 P.M. The area has four gravity steam
sterilizers (steam is supplied from the boiler room), a sonic
cleaner, washer disinfector, cart washer, hand washing lavatories, double compartment sink with prerinse hose, and
flushing rim sink with bedpan washer. The sonic cleaner and
washer disinfector are typically used 2 cycles per hour.
Obstetrics/Nursery
The department has two delivery rooms and four separate labor rooms. Each delivery room has two scrub-up
sinks, a steam sterilizer (steam is supplied from the boiler
room), and a single wash-up sink. There is a soiled utility
room with a flushing rim sink and a single wash-up sink.
Each labor room has a toilet with lavatory.
There are three levels of nursery in this facility: one (level
I) is for the newborns requiring standard care; one (level II) is
for newborns requiring extra observation; and one (the
neonatal intensive care unit, or NICU) is for newborns requiring critical care. An isolation room is used for newborns who
need to be isolated. Each nursery has a lavatory, a single
wash-up sink, and a larger sink used to wash and bathe the
newborns. There is one shared soiled utility room with a washup sink and a flushing rim sink.
Miscellaneous areas
Same-day (outpatient) surgery is where minor surgeries are
performed as outpatient services (i.e., the patients need not
stay overnight in the facility). The area has a general use sink,
a flushing rim sink, and scrub sinks adjacent to the two operating rooms. Hours of operation are between 6:00 A.M. and
8:00 P.M.
The emergency room is in use 24 h a day. It has a scrub
sink, a flushing rim sink with bedpan washer, and a general
use sink in each of the four trauma rooms (areas used for
114
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
severely injured or critical patients). Each of the 12 examination pods is equipped with a lavatory. The pelvic exam room
has a toilet with lavatory. There are two cast rooms, each
with a lavatory.
Radiology is where X-rays are taken. The department has
two general radiology rooms, three CT scan rooms, and two
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines , each with a
flushing rim sink and a lavatory. Each procedure room is
provided with a general use sink. The area also has a janitors closet with receptor, a toilet room with lavatory, and
three dark rooms, each with a sink and a cold water film
processor.
The maintenance area has a cart wash and service sink,
both using 140F (60C) water. Also the area has male and
female staff locker rooms, each with two showers and two
lavatories.
Hospitals
115
Qty. GPM
300
2.5
10
Public Lavatory
20
0.5
Private Lavatory
20
750
7500
10
10
100
10
40
2.5
50
50
12.5
2.5
Bathtub
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
21
110
___________
GPM GPH
12.5
210
10
4.5
45
45
Floor Receptor
4.5
22.5
22.5
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
2.5
10
Residential Washing
Machine
4.5
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 5 B:
50
9
54
76.5
121.5
0.4
0.1
0.4
85.9 3184.8
7.7
48.8
859
0.1
7962
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
116
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
300
0.16
10
20
0.03
10
0.60
360
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.65
156
20
0.16
3.20
192
0.16
0.80
48
Bathtub
0.44
10
1.32
792
10
0.28
2.8
168
Floor Receptor
0.28
1.4
84
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
0.16
10
Residential Washing
Machine
0.28
0.56
201.6
4.76
453.6
Public Lavatory
TOTALS:
48.00 28 800
0.32
192
54.89 30 540
0.1
0.4 0.1
5.49 12 216
0.48
0.4
181.44
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
117
Qty. GPM
Public Lavatory
0.5
Private Lavatory
20
2.5
2.5
Bathtub
Shower
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
30
40
160
12.5
12.5
10
42
420
2.5
10
15
150
110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
100 Gal
3
fills/h
15
18
45
810
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than
100 Gal
2
fills/h
15
30
30
900
75
1710
Residential Washing
Machine
4.5
54
Residential
Dishwasher
4.5
27
36
99
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6. B:
117.5
0.25
29.5
777.5
0.9
700
0.25
9
0.9
89.1
0.25
18.8
0.9
153
118
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Private Lavatory
20
0.13
0.18 108
2.6
624
0.16
0.80
48
0.16
0.32
19.2
Bathtub
0.44
10
2.64 1584
Shower
0.16
10
0.96 576
0.28
0.56
33.6
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.56
33.6
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
100 Gal
3
fills/h
0.95
18
2.85 3078
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than
100 Gal
2
fills/h
0.95
30
1.90 3420
Machine
0.28
0.56 201.6
Residential
Dishwasher
0.28
0.56 100.8
TOTALS:
7.5 2959.2
2.24 369.6
4.75 6498
0.25
0.25
0.25
1.88 2663.28
0.9
0.9
0.56 332.64
0.9
1.19 5848.2
Hospitals
119
Qty. GPM
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
2.5
7.5
7.5
2.5
7.5
7.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
Commercial
Dishwasher
64 gphb
21
192
Triple Compartment
Sink
90 gphb
27
270
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
30 gphb
27
90
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
60 gphb
27
180
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
2.5
45 gphb
7.5
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
10
90
119
957
TOTALS:
110
___________
GPM GPH
20
17
0.4
6.8
35
0.9
31
0.4
0.9
3.6
8.1
0.4
47
135
0.9
861
Other
___________
GPM GPH
120
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
0.12
72
0.16
0.48
28.8
0.16
0.48
28.8
Floor Receptor
0.28
Commercial
Dishwasher
0.44
242.24 L/hb
1.32
Triple Compartment
Sink
Per Faucet
0.57
340.65 L/hb
1.71 1021.95
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
0.57
113.55 L/hb
1.71
340.65
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.57
227.10 L/hb
1.71
681.30
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
0.16
170.33 L/hb
0.48
510.98
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
0.57
342
0.56
33.6
10
TOTALS:
1.08 129.6
0.56
33.6
0.4
0.4
0.9
0.43 116.64
0.9
0.22
726.72
7.50 3623.6
0.4
0.9
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
121
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
10
0.5
10
50
10
2.5
25
25
2.5
30
300
Shower
110
___________
GPM GPH
12
2.5
10
4.5
18
18
Floor Receptor
4.5
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
30
2.5
10
27
27
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
75
750
140
113
0.5
70
0.5
565
0.5
13
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
0.5
13
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
10
0.03
10
0.30
10
0.16
1.60
96
0.16
0.32
19.2
1.92
Shower
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
180
12
0.16
10
0.28
1152
1.12
67.2
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.56
33.6
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
30
0.16
10
4.80 2880
TOTALS:
8.94 4327.2
1.68 100.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
4.47 2163.6
0.84
50.4
0.5
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
122
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Qty. GPM
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
4
4
2
1
0.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
10
1
1
1
2.5
45 gphb
90
1
1
1
9
4.5
9
10
5 gphb
27 gphb
9
4.5
9
90
5
27
TOTALS:
2
20
110
___________
GPM GPH
20
10
9
4.5
12
0.2
2.4
Other
___________
GPM GPH
30
0.9
27
14
0.2
2.7
9
4.5
14
0.9
12
28
0.2
5.5
212
0.9
191
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
10
1
1
1
0.12
0.64
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
4
4
2
1
0.03
0.16
0.28
0.28
72
38.4
0.32 340.66
1
1
1
0.57 10
0.28 18.93 L/hb
0.57 102.20 L/hb
0.57 342
0.28 18.93
0.57 102.20
0.56
0.28
33.6
16.8
TOTALS:
0.76 110.4
0.84
50.4
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.15
99.36
0.17
45.36
1.74 803.79
0.2
0.9
0.35 723.41
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
123
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Double Bowl Sink
Shower
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
20
30
36
8
7
18
4
0.5
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
10
60
90
20
17
2.5
10
10
10
TOTALS:
208
0.05
10
110
___________
GPM GPH
81
18
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
100
240
90
20
175
81
18
100
725
0.1
72
99
99
90
90
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
9.9
0.5
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
20
30
36
8
7
18
4
0.03
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.28
0.28
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
0.60
3.9
5.76
1.28
1.12
0.16
10
0.64 384
0.57
10
TOTALS:
Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
360
936
345.6
76.8
672
5.04 302.4
1.12 67.2
0.57 342
13.3 2774.4
0.05
0.1
0.67 277.44
6.16 369.6
0.57 342
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.31
36.96
0.02
34.2
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
124
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
PATIENT AREA
85.9 3,184.8
7.7
48.8
29.5
89.1
140
___________
GPM GPH
103
___________
GPM GPH
NURSES STATION
HYDROTHERAPY
DIETARY & FOOD
SERVICE
SURGICAL SUITE
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
6.8
70
2.4
700
3.6
8.1
565
31.5
13.5
13.5
47.6
861
27
2.7
12.2
5.5
191
72.5
4.95
9.9
0.45
18.8
153
18.8
153
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
SUBTOTALS:
10.4
204.9 4,581
41.5
181.6
53.6 1061
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc
140F
124.9 2,794.4
27.8
121
53.6 1061
11.1
90
GPM
GPH
217
3,111
Hospitals
125
41
43
60
Other (39)
______________
_____________
_____________
_____________
L/Sec
L/H
L/Sec L/H L/Sec
L/H L/Sec L/H
PATIENT AREA
5.49
12 216
0.48
181.44
2 663.28
0.56
332.64
116.64
0.22
30.24
0.84
50.4
NURSES STATION
HYDROTHERAPY
1.88
0.43
SURGICAL SUITE
4.47
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
0.15
99.36
0.17
45.36
0.35
723.41
0.67
277.44
0.31
36.96
0.02
34.2
13.09
17 536.32
2.58
677.04
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
2 163.6
1.19 5848.2
3.00 3261.24
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
SUBTOTALS:
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc
L/Sec
7.98
10 697.16
1.73
453.62
L/H
127
SPAS, POOLS,
HEALTH CLUBS,
AND ATHLETIC
CENTERS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for spas, pools, health clubs, and athletic centers.
INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
This is especially true if unique therapies or special treatments
will be performed at the facility.
Sources of information include the following:
1. The architects design documents,
2. The interior design documents,
3. The architect,
4. The interior designer,
5. The owner,
6. The spa manager or coordinator,
7. The therapist,
8. Maintenance personnel,
9. Comparisons with similar facilities, and
10. Cut sheets on each piece of equipment.
Information will be used to determine:
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
129
Shower Rooms
The locker room shower load must also be considered. Typically
showers will operate concurrently with the therapies. The quantity of showers is usually determined by the owners requirements,
the architects design, and/or code requirements. Facilities often
include areas with showers designed for specific functions, such
as family changing areas and childrens locker rooms. These areas
need to be evaluated for their use during the peak hours of operation.
The hot water requirements of the showers can be affected by
such things as:
1. Hours of operation.
2. Occupancy at different hours. It should be noted that the
occupancy will vary throughout the day. This list is only a
guide; the occupancy may vary with location and owners re-
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
quirements.
Early morning, 5:00 to 8:00 A.M.workforce, young professionals.
Late morning, 8:00 to 11:00 A.M.parents with/without
children, older or retired people.
Noon, 11:30 A.M. to 1:30 P.M.workforce, young professionals.
Afternoon, 1:30 TO 4:00 P.M.parents with children, older
or retired people.
Early evening, 4:00 to 6:00 P.M.the after work crowd,
young professionals.
Late evening, 7:00 to 9:00 P.M.families and single people.
3. Maximum flow rate of shower heads.
4. Special fixtures required.
5. Duration of showers.
6. Type of clients using the facility.
Note: It is not unusual for 25 to 50% of the showers in health
club facilities to be operating throughout the day. It is anticipated that during the peak hour 100% of the showers will operate
simultaneously.
Other Demands
There may be other demands associated with these facilities, depending on owner preferences. If any of these other services are
specified, they too must be considered in the overall hot water
calculation. These demands are usually not large and need to be
added to the overall system capacity.
1. Laundry demand,
2. Food service demand.
131
designed for both the therapies and the shower area should be
considered. If food service is also included, then this must be
considered in the calculations. If there will not be concurrent
usage, then the system can be designed according to the maximum demand during the peak hour. Consideration needs to be
given to providing two water heaters, each sized for 60% of the
total demand required.
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
133
NURSING/
INTERMEDIATE CARE
AND
RETIREMENT HOMES
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer step by step
through the procedure of designing a domestic water heating system for a nursing/intermediate care and retirement home. It is
important for the designer to realize that there is a difference between designing a domestic water heating system for this type of
facility and designing one for any other type of building.
The first section of this chapter addresses design considerations and areas of concern. The second gives user group
requirements and offers an analysis to appraise. A third section
contains worksheets, and the final section presents a design
example.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables, calculating the demand, and assuming the responsibility for laying
out an economical and efficient system to provide hot water to a
facilitys plumbing fixtures and other terminal points. The procedure presented here will help predict the minimum amount of
hot water needed by the facility.
Nursing care facilities typically have residents who require
nursing supervision in an inpatient setting. These residents generally have health issues or are frail from age, both of
which may adversely affect their mobility and ability to care for
themselves. These facilities offer 24 h per day care and typically
are regulated by the state department of health.
Intermediate care facilities typically have residents who either desire or need nursing supervision. These residents are
healthier and more mobile than the residents of nursing care
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
134
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
facilities and may still be able to care for themselves. The nursing supervision is provided for general assistance and emergency
care.
Retirement homes, as discussed in this chapter, are understood to be facilities that are either adjacent or attached to
nursing/intermediate care units. The facilities are so arranged
to enable the spouse/friend of a person in the nursing care unit
to be close by and aid in care. Residents of these facilities are
fully mobile and capable of taking care of themselves. Medical
assistance is available, however, if it is needed. Retirement homes
are similar to apartment complexes for the elderly.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Safety and Health Concerns
See Chapter 1 for a discussion of Legionella pneumophila
(Legionnaires disease) and scalding.
General Outline
Identify the following for each user group:
1. Fixtures requiring hot water,
2. Whether the fixtures are public or private,
3. Water temperature and pressure requirements for each fixture,
4. Flow rates for each fixture,
5. The usage pattern of each fixture.
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
135
User Groups
Nursing/Intermediate care facility
Resident areas
General resident areas in a nursing/intermediate care
facility typically are sleeping quarters, which may be shared
(double rooms are usual) and each of which has its own toilet
room. People living in this type of facility typically require
constant, specialized care.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Are resident rooms private or semiprivate?
2. Does each resident room have a shower/tub or is there a
central bathing area?
3. Does each room have a lavatory?
4. The flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Many codes require 110F (43C) water in the resident
area to prevent scalding (refer to the discussion of scalding in Chapter 1).
2. If the resident rooms each have a tub/shower, high hot
water usage is possible.
Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medicine and simple food and drink items for residents and do
their required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is
located nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typically have sinks in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms
are in the vicinity of the station. The clean utility room typically has a single bowl sink while the soiled utility room
typically has a double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and a flushing rim sink (also known as a clinic sink) with a
bedpan washer. There may also be a bedpan sanitizer, and if
so, the hot water requirements of this unit will need to be
addressed.
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area is where therapy using water
occurs. The therapies may involve many different temperatures of water, but all include some hot water usage. The
therapy tubs in the area may come in many sizes, from 50gal to 500-gal (189.25-L to 1892.50-L) capacity or larger.
Items that should be determined include:
1. The number and size of each tub in the area.
2. For each type of tub, the number of planned therapies
per hour.
3. The hours the department is in use.
4. Desired fill time for each tub. (Staff will fill tub as rapidly
as possible.) Also determine whether the tubs are fully or
partially filled for cleaning between therapies.
5. Water temperatures used for the therapies.
6. Whether there is a shower for bathing purposes in the
area. (It could be in use at the same time the tub is being
cleaned or refilled.)
Areas of concern:
1. Tub filling is desired to be as fast as possible.
2. Temperature is critical. (The staff will not accept an inadequate hot water supply.)
Dietary and food service
The dietary department provides three meals a day.
Most dietary departments are designed by food service consultants, who should be contacted and consulted.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. The number of meals provided for each meal or day. Consult the food service consultant.
2. The number of dishwashers and, for each, its type, size,
gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and required
temperature.
3. Number of sinks in the area and the type of each (prerinse,
etc.). Obtain water usages from the food service consultant or use Table 8.1.
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4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used and what temperatures are desired for them?
5. Are the elevated water temperatures, e.g., 180F (82C),
to be boosted at the equipment or is a separate water
heating system desired?
Areas of concern:
1. Water temperatures and pressures in the area. Typically
two and sometimes three temperatures are needed: 110F
(43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for dietary use,
and 180F (82C) for dishwashing. Some of the equipment may have higher or lower than water line pressure
requirements.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and
runs simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.
Central bathing
Central bathing is where staff members aid residents who
cannot bathe themselves and where, if individual rooms do
not have their own tubs/showers, all the residents shower/
bathe. The area typically has a shower, a residential style
tub, and a specialized bathing tub for nonambulatory residents.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. The hours of scheduled bathing and the typical starting
time.
2. The type of specialized tub and the amount of water it
requires.
3. The layout of the fixtures. (Does it match the room layout
noted above?)
Areas of concern:
1. The suites scheduled operating hours and the number of
planned baths per hour.
2. Determine the maximum number of baths that may be
performed per hour in the tub. Assume that when staff
members aid residents in bathing, the maximum number
possible will be done.
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Laundry
A nursing care facility produces a large amount of laundry.
The size of the facility determines the size of the laundry department. Not all facilities have their own laundry department;
some opt to send the laundry to an outside service.
Items that should be determined include:
1. The number and size of each washing machine in the
area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons of hot water
per hour per pound or per cycle [liters of hot water per
hour per kilogram or per cycle]).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per
hour per machine.
3. The departments start time and hours of operation.
4. The temperatures of the water used.
Areas of concern:
1. The laundry departments schedule of operation. The department commonly begins operating in the early A.M.,
which is the same time other areas of the facility begin
startup (i.e., during hot water peak demand). The filling
of the washers is typically the first thing done at startup.
The probability that the washing machines will fill simultaneously is high during startup.
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot water systems for this area. Due to the elevated water
temperatures required, separate water heating systems may
have to be used.
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and
maintenance)
The facility has many other areas with fixtures requiring hot
water beside those noted above. Most of these areas have
sinks, hand washing lavatories, and staff shower rooms.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. In areas where showers are located, the flow rates of the
shower heads.
2. The water temperatures needed in those areas (maintenance may desire 140F [60C] temperatures for cleanup
or washdown areas).
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Areas of concern:
1. The times that these areas are in use overlap the usage
times of many of the other specific user groups. Though
the fixtures may be few, they still are used and should be
considered when doing calculations.
Retirement home
Resident areas
General resident areas in a retirement home are typically private apartments.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Number of bedrooms in each apartment and thus the
number of occupants to be considered.
2. The number and types of fixture in each apartment.
3. Does each apartment have a dishwasher and/or separate
laundry area?
4. The flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Though codes may not require 110F (43C) water for this
type of facility (because of the generally adequate health
of its occupants) that water temperature might be considered to prevent scalding (see the discussion of scalding
in Chapter 1).
Laundry
Since a retirement home is similar to an apartment complex,
the facility may have a laundry room with a number of residential type washing machines.
Items that should be determined include:
1. The number of washing machines in the area and the size
of each (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons of hot water per hour per pound or per cycle [liters of hot water per
hour per kilogram or per cycle]).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per
hour per machine.
3. The rooms start time and the hours it is open for use.
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the flow from the faucet is not all hot water. Table 1.1 is used to
determine the actual amount of hot water needed at the faucet
outlet. The temperature at outlet section is split into four subsections, each having a different faucet outlet water temperature.
For the last subsection, labeled other, any temperature may be
used, but the temperature must be the same for all fixtures used
in that column. Each temperature subsection is split into two
more subsections, gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h). The equation
for each is noted on the worksheet.
When the fixtures in the user group are tabulated,
each column is added and the totals are placed at the bottom of
the sheet under totals. The user group usage factors for gpm
(L/sec) and gph (L/h) are found in Table 8.2. Each total is multiplied by the appropriate usage factor to get the user group totals,
which are used on Worksheet 8.B User Group Totals. The
user group totals are the amount of hot water predicted to be
used in a particular user group during the peak hour(s). Designers should use their best judgment when working with these
figures.
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Water
Qty. GPM
C
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom group
tub/shower & lavatory
2.5
10
Public lavatory
0.5
10
Private lavatory
2.5
2.5
Bathtub
10
Shower
2.5
10
4.5
Floor receptor
4.5
2.5
10
15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal)
15
110
___________
GPM GPH
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal)
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Laundry tub
4.5
Residential washing
machine
4.5
Residential dishwasher
4.5
Commercial dishwasher
Commercial kitchen,
single sink
Commercial kitchen,
double sink
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse
2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash
10
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8. B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
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143
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower & Lavatory
0.16
10
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.16
0.16
Bathtub
0.44
10
Shower
0.16
10
0.28
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.16
10
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 378.5 L
0.95
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 378.5 L
0.95
Laundry Tub
0.28
Residential Washing
Machine
0.28
Residential Dishwasher
0.28
Commercial Dishwasher
0.44
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse
0.16
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
10
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
TOTALS:
Usage Factors ( UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals ( UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
GPM
GPH
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Water
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
L/Sec
L/H
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Qty. GPM
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatoryb,c
Public Lavatoryb
Private Lavatoryb
Single Bowl Sinkb
Double Bowl Sinkb
Bathtube
Showerb
Flushing Rim Sinkf
Floor Receptorf
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 100 Gald
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 100 Gald
Laundry Tubf
Residential Washing
Machinef
Residential Dishwasherf
Commercial Dishwasherj
Triple Compartment Sink
Per Fauceth,i
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sinkh,i
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sinkh,i
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinseg
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Washh
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2.5
0.5
2
2.5
2.5
7
2.5
4.5
4.5
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
Based on
15
tub size
Based on
15
tub size
4.5
1
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
4.5
6
4.5
3
7 Equip. used
*
*
*
*
*
90
30
60
2.5
45
10
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
(Continued)
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Qty.
Bathroom group
tub/shower &
1,2
lavatoryb,c
Public lavatoryb
1
b
Private lavatory
1
Single bowl sinkb
1
Double bowl sinkb
1
Bathtube
4
Showerb
1
Flushing rim sinkf
5
Floor receptorf
5
Small hydro-tubd
(less than 378.5 L) 3
Large hydro-tubd
(more than 378.5 L) 3
Laundry tubf
5
Residential washing
machinef
5
Residential
dishwasherf
5
Commercial
dishwasherj
9
Triple compartment
sink per fauceth,i 7,8
Commercial kitchen
single sinkh,i
7,8
Commercial kitchen
double sinkh,i
7,8
Commercial kitchen
prerinseg
6
Hose station or
cart/can washh
7
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
0.16
0.03
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.44
0.16
0.28
0.28
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
Based on
0.95 Tub Size
Based on
0.95 Tub Size
0.28
1
0.28
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.28
3
Equip.
0.44 used
*
*
0.57 k
340.65
0.57
113.55
0.57
227.10
0.16
170.33
0.57
10
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B
(Continued)
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GPH
L/H
Vegetable sink
45
170.33
30
113.55
60
227.10
90
340.65
180
681.30
45
170.33
240
908.40
Recirculating prerinse
40
151.40
Bar sink
30
113.55
18.93
Lavatories (each)
Source: Values are extracted from Dunn et al. [1959] 1989. Chapter 4. ASPE Data
Book. Table 9.
Note: Requirements are for water at 140F (60C).
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GPM (L/Sec)
GPH (L/H)
0.10
0.30
Nurses
Station
0.05
0.50
Hydrotherapy
Dietary
& Food
Service
Central
Bathing
Misc.
Areas
0.25
0.90
0.40
0.90
0.25
0.90
0.05
0.10
Resident Rooms
Laundry
Misc. Areas
0.10
0.40
0.50
0.75
0.05
0.10
General
The gpm (L/sec) figure is based on the possibility that every hot
water using fixture will be operated in any 1 min (sec). The gph
(L/h) figure is based on the possibility that every hot water using fixture will be operated during a 1-h period.
These figures are based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h
peak period.
Nursing/Intermediate care facility
Resident area
Many residents in nursing care areas are not ambulatory and
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities.
Residents of intermediate care areas generally are ambulatory and thus can use the shower facilities without assistance.
The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
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on the fact that not all residents use their fixtures during the
same minute. Also, fixtures in this user group flow less water
per minute than fixtures elsewhere and are used for short
periods of time.
The 0.30 (30%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that fixtures in this user group use less water than
fixtures elsewhere and are used for short periods of time.
Nurses station
This user group is in use 24 h a day but typically is used
most heavily during shift changes. This is because of the
preparation necessary before residents can be aided.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the relationship between the staff and residents. During a
peak 3-h period of hot water use, the resident area is used
more heavily than the nurses station. Since many residents
need assistance using the bathing/shower facilities, staff
members are in the resident area aiding residents and not at
the nurses station using the fixtures there.
The 0.5 (50%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is also based
on these same issues, but because of the time staff members
spend at the nurses station organizing/distributing medicines and doing other work, the hand washing fixtures there
are used extensively.
Hydrotherapy
When in operation, this area is a large water user. The therapy
staff can be split between the physical therapy and the hydrotherapy areas.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the cyclical use of the hydrotherapy tubs and on the assumption that staff members are also doing physical therapy.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that during the peak usage time, almost all of
the fixtures in this area are in use. This assumes that the
staff schedules the water therapies during one time and the
physical therapies during another.
Dietary and food service
This area is a large water user. Depending on the size of the
facility, the usage of water for cooking and for cleaning may over-
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lap.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is
based on the assumption that cleaning (washing of dishes,
etc.) does not occur in the same minute as food preparation. Also, it assumes that the sinks are filled and then
work is done using an intermittent, not a steady, water supply.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that most of the area fixtures are used during one of the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.
Central bathing
When in operation, this area is a large water user. Staff members set a schedule for bathing nonambulatory residents, and
during that time only one bathing fixture is used. The worst
case scenario is when the residents are assisted by staff. This
is because the staff are on a schedule and bathe the residents based on that schedule.
The 0.25 (25%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the use of one tub at a time in each room (assuming each
room has a shower, a residential tub, and a non-ambulatory
residents bathing tub). Also taken into consideration was
the time needed for the staff to get the residents and to dry
them off.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that during peak usage time almost all of the fixtures
in this area are used.
Miscellaneous areas
The rest of the facility uses water, but not during the facilitys
peak usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the
miscellaneous areas. These areas should be taken into account, though, because water using fixtures are available and
used there.
The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the fact that a very small number of the fixtures are used
during 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that most of the fixtures in these areas are not used
during the facilitys peak usage hour.
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Retirement home
Resident rooms
The residents of a retirement home are ambulatory and do not
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities. As
noted earlier, this type of facility is similar to an apartment
building, but its residents are of a uniform age group.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the fact that when the shower is in use, the rooms
lavatory and kitchen sink are not in use during the same
minute, and not all residents are using the fixtures.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the fact that the kitchen sink and either the shower or the
lavatory are used during an hour of peak usage time.
Laundry
The laundry area of a retirement home is smaller than one
for a typical apartment building. This is because the usage
time for a retirement home laundry is more spread out over
the course of the day since residents typically do not work.
The 0.50 (50%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the assumption that when one washer starts its filling
cycle another is being filled with clothes, and the second
machines cycle begins when the first washer is still filling.
Though the two washers fill at the same time, it is assumed
that only half of the other washers are in use in the peak
moment. Also, when a resident is using the washers, the fixtures in his/her apartment are not in use.
The 0.75 (75%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
most of the washers being used during a peak usage period.
Also, there is the possibility that a resident may leave the
laundry room and go back to his/her room and use the fixtures there.
Miscellaneous areas
Though the rest of the facilitys fixtures use water, they are
not heavily used fixtures. That is because, if the facility is
separate from the nursing care facility, the staff is small. If it
is attached to the nursing care facility, staff members are
generally in the other areas. Miscellaneous areas should be
taken into account, though, because water using fixtures are
available and used there.
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The 0.05 (5%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
on the assumption that only a very small number of the fixtures are used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage
time.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
the assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are not
used during the facilitys peak usage hour.
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4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used and what temperatures are desired?
Central bathing
1. What are the hours of scheduled bathing and the typical starting time?
2. What is the number of tubs/showers?
3. What is the number of nonambulatory resident bathing tubs,
and what are their types and water demands?
4. Is there a desired temperature of the water the staff uses to
bathe residents?
Laundry
1. What are the number and sizes of the washing machines in
the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per hour per
pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is in
use?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and maintenance)
1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rates of
the shower heads.
2. What are the water temperatures needed in these areas?
3. What is the acceptable time delay between the hot tap opening and the delivery of acceptable water (due to the length of
the branch piping)?
Retirement Home
Resident areas/apartments
1. Are resident rooms single or double bedroom units?
2. Is the facility set up so that the spouse of a person in nursing
or intermediate care has priority use?
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(2.0 gpm [0.13 L/sec] typical) in each. Each wing has a clean
utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical), a
soiled utility room (double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and flushing rim sink with bedpan washer), and a janitors
closet with receptor. (There are a total of 27 lavatories, 3 single
sinks, 3 double bowl sinks, 3 flushing rim sinks, and 3 floor
receptors in the resident area.)
Nurses station
A single nurses station provides service to the three wings.
The station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink for
general use.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hip/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]), and a hand washing lavatory.
The 25-gal (94.63-L) arms tank is filled using the hip/leg tub
valve.
Dietary and food service
The dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a
cold meal at night. It is a full-service department with the
following equipment: a triple compartment sink with prerinse,
a scrapping sink with prerinse, a dishwasher, a double sink
for food thawing, a sink for vegetable preparation, and a hand
washing lavatory. The department starts operation at 6:00
A.M. Through a discussion with the food service consultant,
the designer learned that the department makes 200 meals a
day. A water temperature of 140F (60C) is required at all
fixtures except the hand washing lavatory, where 110F (43C)
water is needed. The dishwasher requires 180F (82C) rinse
water and the 140F (60C) water will be boosted at the dishwasher with an electric booster heater.
Central bathing
One of the intermediate care wings has a tub room with one
bathtub and one shower for residents private or assisted use.
The tub rooms for the nursing care wing and the second intermediate care wing each have one bathtub and shower for
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Fixture
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
27
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
4
54
110
___________
GPM GPH
2.5
7.5
7.5
2.5
7.5
7.5
4.5
13.5
13.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
13.5
13.5
27
27
69
Other
___________
GPM GPH
216
TOTALS:
140
___________
GPM GPH
231
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.3
6.9
69.3
2.7
8.1
(L/Sec = A B
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
Fixture
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
Private Lavatory
27
0.13
3.51 842.4
0.16
0.48
28.8
0.16
0.48
28.8
0.28
0.84
50.4
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.84
50.4
TOTALS:
4.47 900
1.68 100.8
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.45 270
0.17
30.24
0.3
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
166
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Private Lavatory
2.5
TOTALS:
13
0.05
0.5
0.4
6.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.13
31.2
0.16
0.32
19.2
TOTALS:
0.64
50.4
0.05
0.03
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.50
25.2
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
167
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than
100 Gal
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2
(4 fills) 15
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
30
420
30
420
TOTALS:
0.25
0.9
0.25
0.5
7.2
7.5
0.9
378
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
1
0.13
Large Hydro-Tub
2
More Than 378.5 L (4 fills) 0.95
0.13
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
39
___________
L/Sec L/H
30.28
TOTALS:
0.13
30.28
0.25
0.90
0.03
27.25
1.9
798
1.9
798
0.25
0.90
0.48 718.2
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
Commercial
Dishwasher
64
Triple Compartment
Sink Per Faucet
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
8
7
64
90 GPHb
18
180
30 GPHb
30
60 GPHb
60
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse
2.5
45 GPHb
90
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
10
90
57
514
TOTALS:
0.4
0.9
0.4
0.8
7.2
22.8
0.9
463
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
169
(L/Sec = A B
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
Fixture
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Private Lavatory
0.13
Commercial
Dishwasher
0.44
64
Triple Compartment
Sink Per Faucet
0.57
340.65 L/hb
1.14
681.30
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
0.57
113.55 L/hb
0.57
113.55
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.57
227.10 L/hb
0.57
227.10
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse
0.16
170.33 L/hb
0.32
340.66
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
0.57
342
0.13
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
31.2
0.44 1689.6
10
TOTALS:
0.13
31.2
0.40
0.90
0.05
28.08
3.6
0.40
3394.21
0.90
1.44 3054.79
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Qty. GPM
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Private Lavatory
24
Bathtub
10
21
210
Shower
Specialized Bathtub
2.5
15
10
7.5
200gphb 30
TOTALS:
64.5
0.25
16.1
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
75
400
709
0.9
638
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.39
Bathtub
0.44
10
1.32
Shower
0.16
10
0.48
Specialized Bathtub
0.95
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
93.6
792
288
1514.00
TOTALS:
4.09 2687.6
0.25
1.02 2418.84
0.90
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
171
Qty. GPM
Public Lavatory
0.5
Private Lavatory
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
20
10
40
2.5
2.5
10
2.5
25
50
110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
4.5
4.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
4.5
4.5
Laundry Tub
4.5
4.5
4.5
Residential
Washing Machine
4.5
13.5
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
81
10
TOTALS:
19.5
113
22.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
90
90
90
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
1.0
11.3
1.1
0.5
Other
___________
GPM GPH
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
0.12
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.65 156
0.16
0.16
Shower
0.16
10
0.28
0.28
16.8
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.28
16.8
Laundry Tub
0.28
0.28
16.8
Residential
Washing Machine
0.28
0.84 302.4
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
10
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
72
9.6
0.32 192
0.57 342
TOTALS:
1.25 429.6
1.70 352.8
0.57 342
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.06
42.96
0.09
35.28
0.03
0.10
34.2
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
173
Retirement home
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
24
2.5
10
60
600
24
2.5
60
60
Residential
Dishwasher
24
4.5
TOTALS:
120
0.1
12
660
0.4
264
110
___________
GPM GPH
108
324
108
324
0.1
10.8
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
0.4
130
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
24
0.16
10
3.84 230.4
24
0.16
3.84 230.4
Residential
Dishwasher
24
0.28
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
6.72 1209.6
TOTALS:
7.68 460.8
6.72 1209.6
0.10
0.40 0.10
0.40
483.84
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Qty. GPM
Laundry Tub
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
4.5
4.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
Residential Washing
Machine
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
0.5
18
108
22.5
113
0.75
11.3
84.4
(L/Sec = A B
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
Fixture
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Laundry Tub
0.28
0.28
Residential Washing
Machine
0.28
1.12 403.2
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals (UF Totals);
Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
16.8
1.40 420
0.50
0.75
0.7
315
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
175
Qty. GPM
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
2.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
1
2.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
10
2.5
12.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
TOTALS:
3.5
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.2
1.3
0.2
0.5
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
0.06
0.16
0.16
Floor Receptor
0.28
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
36
9.6
45.6
0.28
16.8
0.28
16.8
TOTALS:
0.22
0.10
0.05
0.10
0.01
4.56
0.01
1.68
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
105
___________
GPM GPH
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
6.9
69.3
NURSES STATION
0.4
6.5
HYDROTHERAPY
0.5
7.2
DIETARY &
FOOD SERVICE
0.8
CENTRAL BATHING
16.1
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
1.0
2.7
8.1
7.2
22.8
341
0.5
23.3
350
7.5
378
7.5
378
638
11.3
1.1
9.0
Retirement home
RESIDENT ROOMS
12
264
LAUNDRY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
SUBTOTALS:
0.2
1.3
37.9 1005
10.8
130
11.3
84.4
0.2
0.5
26.1
232
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc
GPM
23.1
613
17.5
155.4
23.3
350
4.4
223
GPH
68.3 1341
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
177
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other (39)
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.45
NURSES STATION
0.03
270
25.2
HYDROTHERAPY
0.03
27.25
DIETARY &
FOOD SERVICE
0.05
28.08
CENTRAL BATHING
1.02 2418.84
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
0.06
42.96
0.77
184.32
0.17
30.24
0.48 718.2
1.44 3054.79
0.09
35.28 0.03
34.2
Retirement home
RESIDENT ROOMS
LAUNDRY
0.67 483.84
0.7
315
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
0.01
SUBTOTALS:
2.42 3001.21
0.48 718.2
0.61
0.67
0.59
4.56
0.01
1.68
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b
0.61
0.67 1
0.59
TOTALSc
L/Sec
1.48 1830.74
L/H
179
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to help the designer understand
and deal with the problems of designing water heating systems
for jail and prison housing units. It is important that the designer recognize that each building is unique and work closely
with the owner, architect, and government authorities to determine how a building will operate. A buildings operation will affect
when and for how long the peak hot water demand will occur.
The first part of this chapter discusses generally some of the
design criteria and areas of special concern involved in designing
for jail and prison housing units. The second part gives two practical examples of sizing methodology, one for jails and one for
prisons.
GENERAL
The design criteria used to design hot water systems for
jail housing units differ from those used for prison housing units.
This difference is due to the fact that the facilities are used for
different purposes. Jails are used primarily to house people
awaiting trial or serving short sentences. Prisons are used to house
convicted criminals serving long prison terms. This difference
affects the prisoners daily routines, which, in turn, determine
when the facilities peak hot water demands occur.
It is required that hot water temperature for the showers and
lavatories in jails and prisons be limited to between 100 and
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
110F (38 and 43C). This temperature range has been established to prevent inmates from using hot water as a weapon.1
The generally used standard temperature is 105F (41C). Pushbutton type self-closing or timed-control valves are used to deliver
hot water of this temperature to the showers and lavatories. Occasionally an owner will require that a shower control valve that
allows some inmate control of shower water temperature be provided. New security type valves provide this feature. Hot water at
the design temperature must be furnished at the fixture because
of the lower-than-usual water temperature and the self-closing
features of inmate control valves.
The designer should take into consideration that the typical
life of a jail or prison is 50 to 100 years and that any system
installed must be accessible for replacement or repair.
Large jail facilities and all prisons have central laundry facilities and central kitchens. The hot water systems for the laundry
and kitchen areas should be separate from those for housing because these areas have very different hot water demands. For
instance, the temperature of the hot water delivered will be higher,
between 140 and 180F (60 and 82C). If a centralized water heating system is used for the general purpose and kitchen/laundry
water, then a fail-safe water tempering system must be installed
for the general purpose water.
181
Primary considerations
1. The standard recommendation of eight inmates per shower
was made so that all inmates could shower during a 1-h period. This arrangement allows an average of 7 min for each
inmate to shower. About half that time is taken up by drying
and switching inmates, leaving only about 3.5 min of actual
water usage per inmate.
2. Showers are the main factor affecting water heater size. Allowance should be made for the many lavatories in housing
units when sizing the storage tank.
3. The efficiency of storage systems varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer, but 65 to 80% is a good efficiency range to use
until you have actual data on the tank and system specified.
JAIL EXAMPLE
This is an example of a jail housing unit with six pods of 24 cells
each (one inmate per cell) and three showers per pod. Assume
that the hot water generated is 140F (60C) and the incoming
water temperature is 50F (10C).
Questions
1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time?
No
2. Will all the cell pods release their inmates for showering within
the same hour?
Yes. (This means that the design must accommodate a
1-h recovery period.)
3. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited?
Yes, to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min of water usage
4. Does the facility anticipate double bunking inmates, either
now or in the future?
No
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
P =
(Tm Tc)
(Th Tc)
where
P = Percentage of mixture that is hot water
Tm= Temperature of mixed water = 105F (41C)
Th = Temperature of hot water = 140F (60C)
Tc = Temperature of cold water = 50F (10C)
P =
105 50
55
=
= 0.61
140 50
90
183
Recommendation
Heater sizing
Two heaters should be selected, each sized to serve between 60
and 100% of the total demand. In prison housing units some
redundancy in the water heating system is necessary. The level
of redundancy should be discussed with the facilitys owners.
Storage tank sizing
If the water heater is sized to meet the recovery required to handle
the peak shower demand, the storage tank may be sized to handle
approximately 50% of the shower demand during the period of
peak use. The storage tank should be large enough to prevent
the heater from cycling on and off more than four times per hour
during off-peak hours. This requirement necessitates finding a
balance between excessive tank size and short cycling.
Calculation
771.12 gph 0.50 = 385.6 gal
(2.93 m3/h 0.50 = 1.47 m3/h)
385.6
= 481.6 gal storage tank size
0.80
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
1470 L
= 1837.5 L storage tank size
0.80
PRISON EXAMPLE
This is an example of a housing facility for 384 inmates. It has
four wings (96 inmates per wing) and each wing has four stories
(24 inmates per wing per story). A central kitchen and laundry
are located in a separate building. Shower areas are provided on
every floor of every wing, and each of these areas has three shower
heads.
185
Questions
1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time?
No
2. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited or do inmates
have control over when they shower?
Showers are limited to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min
of water usage per shower.
3. Will all of the cell pods release their inmates for show-
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
187
Calculation
2056 gph 0.50 = 1028 gal 140F hot water
(7.74 m3/h 0.50 = 3.87 m3 60C hot water)
1028 gal
= 1285 gal storage tank size
0.80 eff.
3870 L
= 4837.5 L storage tank size
0.80 eff.
Kitchen Considerations
1. The item that has the greatest effect on hot water demand is
the dishwasher. Some central kitchens do not have dining
areas, in which case all meals are shipped to the housing
units in bulk for distribution and the dishwashers are in the
housing units.
2. The temperature of the hot water going to kitchen lavatories
should not exceed 110F (43C) for safety reasons.
3. Check to see if the dishwasher has a booster heater
and determine the type of energy used (steam or electricity).
This information will help you decide whether or not to generate 180F (82C) water.
Note: Some dishwashers on the market use chemicals for
disinfecting, thus the higher water temperature is not required.
4. After dishwashers, compartment sinks are the next largest
user of 140F (60C) hot water. The higher temperature is
required to cut through grease on pots and pans. Some threecompartment sinks have booster heaters in the rinse tank to
maintain the higher temperature.
5. Other kitchen items that use hot water are the prerinse for
the dishwasher, the vegetable sinks, and the cart washdown
hose bibs.
6. Always check the kitchen consultants plans for hot water
requirements.
7. Refer to the Hospitals chapter for additional information on
kitchens.
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Laundry Considerations
1. Review the laundry consultants plans and determine the type
of washing machine/extractor used. Prison laundries are similar to hospital laundries in that they process sheets, pillow
cases, and uniforms. The size and number of machines are
normally decided by the owner or the consultant.
2. Inmates each generate about 30 lb (13.61 kg) of laundry a
week. This consists of 1 pillowcase, 2 sheets, 1 towel, and
uniforms.
3. Additionally, prison laundries usually handle the uniforms
of the correctional officers.
4. Sometimes prison laundries do laundry for outside hospitals
as a prison industry.
5. Consider the feasibility of a heat recovery system that uses
the wash-water discharge. The laundry consultant can probably advise you about this.
6. Laundry equipment suppliers are the only reliable source of
information on the hot water demands and required
temperaures of their washers. They can tell you how many
gallons (liters) of water the machines require and the maximum number of cycles per hour they will operate.
7. Washers demand their hot water fast. It is not unusual for a
2-in. (DN50) hot water line to be connected to the larger washers. Therefore, larger than normal storage capacity is needed
to handle the surges in hot water demand. One rule of thumb
is to provide 75% of the maximum hourly demand in storage;
dont provide less than 50% of that amount.
8. In 1992 a new federal law (Bloodborne Pathogen) was passed
to protect workers against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV). All detention facilities
are now under this new federal regulation. A major/critical
new standard was created by the law: When an officers uniform becomes contaminated with blood products, the officer
cannot leave his workplace with the uniform on. The facility
must clean that uniform and reissue it to the officer. The
law states further that inmate labor cannot be used when
handling blood contaminated items.
A washer and dryer for the aforementioned are required to
achieve compliance with the law. They should be located in a
space that is under the direct supervision of an officer so the
security of the officers uniforms will not be jeopardized.
Industrial Facilities
10
189
INDUSTRIAL
FACILITIES
INTRODUCTION
Industrial facility is such a general term that it would be impossible to describe each specific type. For the purposes of this
manual, the term will mean a location where any or all of the
general activities described below take place and where domestic
hot water is used for personnel washing as required by code and
for other purposes considered unrelated to process or product
that are described in this chapter. The use of hot water for process or product preparation is outside the scope of this work.
EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIALS
1. Manufacturing facilities are places where products are created, repaired, or assembled from parts or materials received
at or produced within the same facility. The products are
then finished, tested, packaged, and stored or distributed.
2. Pharmaceutical facilities are locations where products concerning medicine or drugs are created or produced from
materials or ingredients that are purified, combined, or produced in the same facility. The products are then tested,
packaged, and stored.
3. Pilot plants are facilities where experimental manufacturing
and production techniques for new products are tested on a
small scale. These plants can be either located separately or
included within larger facilities.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Industrial Facilities
191
periods and breaks. The use of hot water for other general purposes is spread throughout the workday and is occasionally
needed for emergency purposes such as spill cleanup.
Wash Fixtures
The wash fixtures for production personnel are often single, large
fixtures with multiple wash stations. These fixtures are manufactured in various standard configurations, such as circle,
semicircle, and quarter circle, and in various sizes.
Spray heads ranging from 0.5 to 0.75 gpm/station (0.03 to
0.05 L/sec/station) are available for light and heavy industrial
facilities. Some individual wash stations are not capable of independent operation, which means that the entire fixture would
have to be turned on if just one person were washing.
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Showers
If not governed by local code, shower heads should each be limited to a flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). Generally, males are
provided with group showers, while females are given the privacy
of individual shower stalls. All new and renovated installations
should be Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) compliant.
The number of shower heads is based on the number of people
expected to use the washroom at each change of shift. If no code
requirements are provided, use the clients preference. Allow for
a total of about 20 min for a shift to complete showering. In
laboratories, offices, and other similar facilities, when showers
are provided adjacent to toilet rooms (as compared to toilets adjacent to lockers and washrooms), they usually are used by
personnel finishing some form of exercise (such as jogging or
training on facility-provided equipment) during lunch time prior
to returning to work.
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Water Heater
When an instantaneous system is used, the most critical factor
to consider when selecting a water heater capable of meeting the
expected load is the minimum flow rate. No diversity factor should
Industrial Facilities
193
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
10 gpm (0.63 L/sec) and shower use is 12.5 gpm (0.79 L/sec).
The instantaneous heater should be sized to handle a demand of
22.5 gpm (1.42 L/sec).
Storage Tank
Systems that require close temperature control and flow a large
amount of hot water at a steady rate over an extended period of
time do not require large storage tanks. If a large storage tank is
provided, there is a good probability that the water temperature
will be lowered, which may be unacceptable. It would be better to
select a relatively small storage tank to act as a stabilizer against
demand surges, have a water heater recovery rate approximately
equal to demand, and use a blending valve. This arrangement
will ensure a steady supply of hot water at a constant temperature, which will allow for good modulation.
Manufacturing Facilities
Manufacturing work is divided into two types, dirty work and
clean work. (See explanation under Washrooms and Toilets
above.) Workers engaged in clean activities generally do not take
showers at the end of a shift, whereas many workers emerging
Industrial Facilities
195
Pharmaceutical Facilities
Pharmaceutical facilities include many different areas, such as
production areas, clean rooms, sterile areas, and often laboratories and animal facilities associated with the testing and quality
control of products. In general, there is little use of potable hot
water in the production areas. Because spills may contain biological matter or chemicals not permitted to be treated as regular
waste, spills are cleaned up with mops or rags, which are then
placed in receptacles for proper disposal. Where sterility is required, special antibacterial cleaners are used. These are sprayed
on exposed piping, walls, floors, and ceilings and wiped up by
hand. Large accidental spills of liquid product are often cleaned
up with dedicated wet vacuum equipment, which is carried on
carts that do not leave the areas where they are stored. In noncritical areas, hose stations often are provided for room wash
down. These are usually supplied with cold water and steam, or
hot and cold water. Potentially harmful bacteria are isolated in
special areas of the facility where bacteria kill drainage systems
are in place. The equipment and piping for clean in place and
steam in place systems do not use domestic hot water.
Laboratory sinks generally do not use much hot water. When
only laboratory sinks are considered, the use of standard code
obtained water fixture units leads to oversized systems. Glass
and small equipment washers and sterilizers often do use hot
water. Where sterility is required, a final rinse of purified water,
which does not use potable water as feedwater, will be used.
Small wash sinks or lavatories are provided at the entrances to
clean and sterile rooms for personnel to use for washing prior to
putting on sterile or clean clothing. These sinks are used primarily by production personnel at the beginning and end of shifts,
but visitors and inspectors also must wash up.
Animal facilities often use a large amount of hot water for
cage washing and room wash down. Another potential hot water
use is for a slurry system, which disposes of shredded bedding.
Animal facilities usually have routines with set times for the cages
and rooms to be cleaned. Animal areas with integral cage washing machines should be provided with dedicated hot water
generators.
It is common to wash and sterilize vials, stoppers, and bottles
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prior to use or reuse. When the washing of relatively large quantities of glassware is required, it is common practice to have a
prewash area to remove most of the gross contaminants prior to
placement in a sterile washing machine. Another arrangement is
to use potable hot water for prewashing and distilled or purified
water for the final sterile wash.
Industrial Facilities
197
Central Utilities
In fossil fuel power plants, toilet rooms typically are located adjacent to areas where workers normally are required to be present
for extended periods of time. These areas can be far apart, and
each location may require an individual water heater. Central
locker rooms with wash-up fixtures and toilets are provided.
Nuclear power plants must be separated from all other facilities primarily for safety reasons. The control room of a nuclear
power plant must have the fixtures and piping secured and designed to withstand the movement and oscillation of an
earthquake that is twice the magnitude of the largest earthquake
recorded in the area. Decontamination to remove low levels of
radiation from both personnel and equipment will be provided.
This often involves personnel taking cold showers first to close
the pores of the skin to prevent radioactive particles from entering the body. After readings of acceptable levels of radiation are
achieved, hot showers may be taken. In equipment decontamination areas sinks and scrub brushes with detergent are used to
remove low levels of radioactive deposits from equipment. Water
is used in these areasand could be used in significant volumes
and at significant flow rates during planned shutdowns and emergency situations. A complete list of potential problems should be
given in a facilitys safety analysis report, which describes all
normal operating and potential emergency operating conditions.
Laboratories
General laboratory rooms almost always have sinks. Hot water
use at these sinks is usually light. Washers and sterilizers for
glassware and small equipment are located in different parts of
the laboratory complex and use hot water at random intervals.
To ensure an ample supply of hot water, a worst case scenario
(based on discussions with the owner) should be used to calculate storage and recovery capacity. Animal facilities are discussed
above, under pharmaceutical facilities.
Warehouses
Warehouses require hot water use only in toilet rooms. Separate
toilet rooms usually are provided for staff and drivers (who are
nonstaff). The toilet rooms for drivers often are used heavily for
short periods of time.
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Ready-Mix Concrete
Hot water is used to make concrete when the air temperature falls
below 30F (1C). When the ambient temperature is between 0
and 30F (18 and 1C), hot water is used to bring the mixture to
a temperature of about 65F (18C). When the ambient temperature is below 0F (18C), it is used to bring the mixture to 70F
(21C). The higher temperatures are necessary to prevent the concrete from freezing before it sets and to allow proper hydration of
the mixture. The added heat also gives the concrete a greater early
strength. Hot water also serves to warm aggregate in cold weather
Industrial Facilities
199
to prevent it from freezing into chunks. Along with air temperature, the size of the aggregate used affects the desired temperature.
Be aware, though, that water that is too hot may produce flash
setting of the concrete.
The amount of water used to mix concrete is determined by
weight. A generally accepted rule is that half the weight of the
cement (not including sand or aggregate) should be water. That
is approximately 11 gal (41.64 L) of water per 90 lb (40.82 kg) of
cement or 30 gal (113.56 L) of water to make 1 yd3 (0.765 m3) of
cement. Aggregate also has some moisture in it, and accepted
practice allows 5 gal (18.93 L) for this moisture. This means that
an actual figure of 25 gal (94.64 L) of water is required to make 1
yd3 (0.765 m3) of concrete. Be aware that concrete trucks are
provided with water tanks with capacities of 150 gal (567.81 L)
to add water to the mix when required.
It is recommended practice to load trucks with about q of
the proper amount of water at the batch plant and to add the
rest of the water during the trip to the site. Once the water is
added, a maximum delivery time of 1 h is allowed. It is common practice to store hot water at 180F (82C), with individual
plants using their own methods for correctly proportioning the
hot and cold water for each batch to meet specific requirements.
As a guide, Table 10.1 gives storage tank sizes in relation to the
successive fast filling of trucks of various sizes. Table 10.2 gives
suggested recovery capacities for the water heating equipment of
trucks of different sizes at various filling intervals.
1
2
3
4
5
6
6 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
350
(2)350
1000
1500
2000
2000
8 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
350
700
1050
1400
1750
2100
400
750
1000
1500
2000
2000
l0 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
400
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
500
1000
1500
2000
2000
2000a
l2 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
450
900
1350
1800
2250
2700
500
1000
1500
2000
(2)1500
(2)1500
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6.3 m3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(L)
(L)
7.3 m3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(L)
(L)
8.8 m3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(L)
(L)
1200
1350
1350
1500
1500
2000
1 700
2000
2300
(2)1350
2700
3000
3000
4000
3 400
4000
3400
4000
4000
4000
4600
6000
5 100
6000
4500
6000
5300
6000
6100
8000
6 800
8000
5700
8000
6600
8000
8000
8000
8 500
(2)6000
9000
8000a
10 200
(2)6000
6800
8000
8000
8000
8 yd3
10 yd3
12 yd3
Time
GPH ____________
Min. Input
GPH ____________
Min. Input
GPH
Min. Input
GPH ____________
Min. Input
____________
Between
Fills
Hot
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
(min) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH)
10
2100 3,060,000
22.0
2400 3,510,000
25.2
2700 3,940,000
28.4
1050 1,530,000
11.0
1200 1,750,000
12.6
1350 1,970,000
14.2
20
900 1,315,000
9.4
35
515
752,000
5.4
600
875,000
9.2
685 1,000,000
7.2
762 1,112,000
8.0
50
360
525,000
3.8
420
612,000
6.4
480
5.0
540
5.7
700,000
788,000
Industrial Facilities
201
6.3 m3
7.3 m3
8.8 m3
____________________ ____________________ ____________________
L/H
Min. Input
____________
Hot
Gas
Oil
Watera (W)
(L/h)
L/H
Hot
Watera
Min. Input
L/H ____________
Min. Input
____________
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
(W)
(L/h) Watera (W)
(L/h)
10
6813
7949
896 580
83.3
20
3407
3974
448 290
41.6
4542
47.7
512 750
5 110
577 210
53.8
35
1949
2271
256 375
34.8
2593
293 000
27.3
2 884
325 816
30.3
50
1363
1590
179 316
24.2
1817
205 100
18.9
2 044
230 884
21.6
11
SPORTS ARENAS
AND STADIUMS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is meant to guide the designer through the procedures and methodology needed to perform the design of domestic
hot water systems and the decisionmaking for water heater selections for sports arenas and stadiums. There are many functions
performed in sports arenas and stadiums that must be accounted
for in the design and selection process. Remember that no two
facilities will be alike.
Areas that may be encountered in sports arenas and stadiums that require domestic hot water include the following:
Home team showers (may need multiple team/different
sports facilities),
Visitor team showers (may need multiple team/different
sports facilities),
Club house commercial laundries,
Home team laundry room,
Visitor team laundry room,
Concessionaires laundry room,
Concessions,
Grounds service area,
Janitors closets,
Private suites,
Kitchens,
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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Public toilets,
Private toilets,
Administration areas,
Training rooms,
Stadium club bar,
First aid rooms,
Staff toilets for ticket booths,
Photo labs,
Emergency eyewash, and
Emergency showers.
GATHERING INFORMATION
Before proceeding with any design, the designer must go on a
fact finding mission to gather the information needed to perform
the design. Following are some sample questions that may need
to be asked. The designer needs to develop a list of questions for
each particular project.
1. What are the system demands for the restrooms, concession
areas, locker rooms, training areas, kitchen, dinning areas,
and laundry areas?
2. What water temperatures are desired or required for this
project120, 140, 160 or 180F (49, 60, 71, or 82C)?
3. What are the duration of peak demands and the length of
time between each peak for all fixtures requiring domestic
hot water?
4. How many showers are available? How many people will use
them? What are the estimated peak period of area operation,
the average shower time, the next peak hour demand after
the initial peak demand, the maximum gpm, and the delivered temperature at shower heads. It is important to remember
the potential of dump loads in some areas, such as the team
showers, where the players can be expected to shower as
quickly as possible after the game. Consideration must also
be given for multi-game play and events on the same day.
This presents the designer with a challenge to provide the
most cost-effective recovery-to-storage ratio.
5. In the training room areas, what kind of hot water using equipment/fixtures will be used? How often will they be used and
Spor
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205
what will be the peak operational time? Determine the number of fills per hour per equipment and the quantity of hot
water required for each piece of equipment.
6. In the kitchen and concession areas, what kinds of equipment/fixtures will be used and what will be the total peak
operational period? Is normal operational time prior to, during, and/or after game activities?
7. What are the local codes that apply on this project?
8. Are utilities, such as water and electricity, and fuels available for this project? What are their relative costs? Can they
be obtained on an uninterruptible basis?
9. Will the owner have a residence in the facility?
10. Will this facility have a building management system?
11. What is the projected facility usageyear-round, summer, or
months usedand what is the projected downtime between
events?
12. What is the temperature of the domestic water service into
the facility?
13. What are the special equipment needs, such as for ice resurfacing (e.g., Zambonis)?
SYSTEM DESIGN
Design Considerations
Once the designer has gathered all the information and answered
all the necessary questions, and the owner has approved the floor
plans, the next step is to calculate the hot water demand and
evaluate the types of systems that would be appropriate for the
project. Following are other design considerations the designer
should consider:
1. It is very important to establish the entire pipe routing with
the approved floor plans.
2. Some energy codes restrict the use of hot water in certain
areas.
3. Consider using security type showerheads in the players home
and visitors shower rooms.
4. Mount shower heads at a minimum of 6 ft 6 in. in home and
visitors shower rooms.
5. Consider using metering or infrared faucets in public areas.
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Food service areas normally use 140F (60C). Booster heaters maybe be required to accomplish higher water
temperatures. Check with the owner or operator.
Showers normally require 120F (49C) to the fixture (minimum) if a pressure balancing or thermostatic mixing valve is
installed to provide an operating differential.
Spor
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207
consider using some type of expansion joint in the piping system to prevent the pipe from breaking due to building
movement. There may also be a need for intermediate expansion joints for long runs of piping at other areas of the building.
2. Care should be taken to make sure that the hot water pipes
and water heaters are in areas that are accessible for service.
Too often, limited space is provided for equipment.
3. Do not run hot water piping in areas subject to freezing. If it
is absolutely necessary to do so, provide heat tape or some
other method of eliminating the freezing problem and slope
all affected piping to drain.
4. Consider that the usable storage capacity of a vertical storage tank may be 75 to 80%. Check with the tank
manufacturer. For large tanks, installing a tank-circulating
pump to circulate the water continually can increase the percentage of usable storage capacity. Horizontal tank usable
storage capacity may be up to 10% less than that of a vertical
tank.
5. Insulate all the hot water piping supply and circulating pipes
in the system in accordance to local, state, and federal codes.
6. Make sure to coordinate with the appropriate discipline on
voltage and phase for electric water heaters and combustion
air requirements and flue routing for fossil-fuel fired water
heaters.
7. Check for seismic requirements.
Types of System
To meet diverse heating requirements, one or more of the following system configurations may be considered.
Central hot water system
In the central hot water system, the designer can establish a
primary hot water piping loop of a 120 to 140F (49 to 60C)
throughout the facility. Through the use of mixing stations, the
temperature can be reduced to accommodate specific equipment
or fixtures to satisfy their hot water requirements. The central
system can serve the showers, concessions, kitchen, public
restrooms, training rooms, laundry rooms, and first aid rooms.
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Assumptions
On most projects, the designer will not get all the questions answered and, therefore, will have to make some assumptions in
the design and piping layout. It is good practice to note all these
assumptions in a letter to the owner and architect for their review and comments. Look for opportunities to find a central
location for the hot water heaters, keeping in mind accessibility
and simple piping layouts.
Design the showers for a 2.5 or 3.0 gpm (0.16 or 0.19 L/sec)
demand. Be aware of regulations affecting the selection of the
flow rate.
Spor
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Sports
209
Table 11.1 represents most of the plumbing fixtures and equipment for these types of facility that require hot water.
Type of
Fixture
Private suites
Lavatory
Bar sink
105
120
41
49
Lavatory
105
41
Sink
120
49
Lavatory
105
41
Training room
Sink
120
49
Lavatory
105
41
Whirlpool
110
43
Hydrotherapy
110
43
140160
6071
Sink
120
49
Column showers/
showers
110
43
Lavatory
105
41
Fertilizers/pesticides Emergency
storage rooms
eyewash
80
27
Public toilets
Lavatory
105
41
Break rooms
Sink
120
49
Concessions
Sink
120
49
Kitchens
Sinks /lavatories
Dishwasher
120/105
140180
49/41
6082
Laundry
Shower
Washing
machines
roomsa
Private toilets
Remarks
Check with
operator
Check with
local health
dept. for
requirements
Check with
local health
dept. for
requirements
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SYSTEM SIZING
Sizing Parameters
Before proceeding with examples, we must set some parameters
for domestic hot water loads (showers):
1. Determine the number of shower heads.
2. Determine the number of people showering.
3. Allow a minimum of 5 min/shower.
4. Determine the expected length of time for showers to operate, as follows:
(11.1) no. of people
min/shower = total expected time
no. of shower heads
of shower operation if
all people shower
during peak period.
5. Determine total gpm (L/sec) flow rate for showers, as follows:
(11.2) no. of shower heads gpm flow rate = total gpm flow rate
for showers
6. Determine the temperature of water, F (C), to be used at the
shower head.
7. Determine the gallons (liters) of hot water demand for showers at the required temperature and time of operation, as
follows:
(11.3) total shower total shower = gal (L) required at desired
time
gpm (L/sec)
temperature, F (C), for
showering peak demand of
determined minutes
8. Estimate turnaround time. Be sure to add turnaround time
when determining the total time during which hot water is
used.
Note: Add a little time in for turnaround. Use a diversity factor
where applicable. Evaluate the system to determine if there
will be a dump load, with most of the demand being utilized in
a fraction of an hour. If this is the case, be sure to calculate
recovery on the basis of gallons per hour (liters/hour). For
example, if the system requires 200 gal (757 L) in 30 min, the
recovery rate will be 400 gph (1514 L/h).
Spor
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Sports
211
Lavatories
Showers heads
Service sinks
Kitchen sinks
(double comp.)
Bar sinks
Laundry tubs
Hydrotherapy tubs
Whirlpools
Commercial washing
machines
Commercial dishwasher
Bradley wash fountains
GPH
L/H
4
150b
15
681
20
60
76
227
600 (2,271)
6000 or 1250
gals for 12.5 min.c
120 (454)
60 (227)
30
20
100a
100a
80a
113.6
76
378.5
378.5
303
180 (681)
40 (151)
400 (1514)
200 (757)
320 (1211)
50a
10
189
38
50 (189)
100 (378.5)
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213
110 40F
70F
=
= 0.7
140 40F
100F
43 4.4C = 38.6C
( 60
4.4C
55.6C
= 0.7
Therefore,
1850 gal 0.7 = 1295 gal of 140F water
(7949 L 0.7 = 5564.5 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the tempering
stations for the showers and hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools.
Storage tank size (for showers, hydrotherapy tubs, and
whirlpools)
To determine the tank size required, divide 1295 gal (5564.5 L)
of 140F (60C) water by the percent of usable storage. If we
assume 80% usable storage, then we should select a tank
with a capacity of approximately 1619 gal (6954 L).
Note: The percent usable storage capacities of tanks vary.
Contact your local tank manufacturer for specific information.
Recovery requirements (for showers, hydrotherapy tubs,
and whirlpools)
This is to be determined based on the frequency and duration
of the shower plus additional equipment load requirements.
energy output = 1295 gph 8.33 lb/gal (140 40F)
= 970,862 Btu/h
[energy output = 5564.5 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
= 309 386 kJ/h output]
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then input
must be 1,213,577 Btu/h (386 733 kJ/h) if 1295 gph
(5564.5 L) are used each hour.
Water heater requirements (based on hour after hour for
shower operation):
recovery = 1295 gph (5564.5 L/h) at
40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C)
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215
Lavatories
Showers heads
3
1
Service sinks
Kitchen sinks
(double comp.)
Pantry sinks
Laundry sinks
Arm tubs
Whirlpools
Commercial washing
machines
Wash fountains
1
1
1
1
2
6
GPH
L/H
4
150b
15
681
10
60
38
227
36 (136)
1350 or 500 gals (5110
or 1893 L)
for 25 minc
30 (113.6)
60 (227)
6
8
35a
100a
120a
23
30
132.5
378.5
454
10
38
6 (23)
8 (30)
35 (132.5)
100 (378.5)
240 (908.5)
60 (227)
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total gph (L/h) for arm tub and whirlpool = 135 gph
(511 L/h) (from the hot water demand table)
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 25 min in this example is the
bare minimum.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for arm tubs and whirlpools for this example. The demand will be met by storage. Should 2 fills/
h be required, the designer must have the total gph (L/h)
recovery of arm tubs and whirlpools 2 to meet the second fill within 30 min.
How is the shower load to be met? We will use a combination of storage and recovery, keeping in mind that we must
allow for storage tank draw efficiency. If we decide to meet
total demand with storage: 562.5 gal (2129 L) at 110F (43C)
at the shower head and 135 gal (511 L) at 110F (43C) for
arm tubs and whirlpool, stored water temperature at 140F
(60C). Using the mixed water temperature formula in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7):
110 40F = 70F = 0.7
140 40F
100F
43 4.4C
38.6C
=
( 60
4.4C
55.6C
= 0.7
Therefore,
697.5 gal 0.7 = 488.25 gal of 140F water
(2640 L 0.7 = 1848 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the tempering stations for the showers, arm tub, and whirlpool.
To determine the tank size required, divide 488.25 gal
(1848 L) of 140F (60C) water by the percent usable storage
capacity. If we assume 80% usable storage capacity, then we
should select a tank with a capacity of approximately 610 gal
(2309 L).
Note: Percent usable storage capacities vary. Contact your
tank manufacturer for specific information.
Recovery requirements
This is to be determined based on the frequency and duration
of the shower plus additional equipment load requirements. If
Spor
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7. 1 pantry sink.
8. 2 service sinks.
9. 6 wash fountains.
GPH
L/H
Lavatories
Showers heads
5
150b
19
568
Service sinks
Laundry sinks
Commercial washing
machines
Whirlpool
Wash fountains
Arm tub
10
8
120a
38
30
454
60 (227)
1500 or 500 gal (5678
or 1893 L) for 20 minc
20 (76)
8 (30)
240 (454)
100a
10
35a
378.5
38
132.5
100 (378.5)
60 (227)
35 (132.5)
Spor
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219
= 0.7
Therefore,
635 gal 0.7 = 444.5 gal of 140F water
(2404 L 0.7 = 1683 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the tempering stations for the showers, arm tub, and whirlpool.
Storage tank size
To determine the tank size required, divide 435 gal (1647 L)
of 140F (60C) water by the percent usable storage capacity.
If we assume 80% usable storage capacity, then we should
select a tank with approximately 543.75 gal (2058 L).
Note: Percent usable storage capacities vary. Contact your
tank manufacturer for specific information.
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Recovery requirements
This is determined based on the frequency and duration of
the showers plus additional equipment load requirements. If
showers are required hour after hour, then minimum recovery must be the shower load demand recovered over a period
of 1 h. If the second hour is not required but the third hour
is, the recovery can be reduced by 50%. If neither the second
nor the third hour is required, then the recovery can be 33%
of shower and additional equipment load requirements.
energy output = 435 gph 8.33 lb/gal (140 40F)
= 362,355 Btu/h output
[energy output = 1647 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
= 91 573 kJ/h output]
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then the input
must be 452,944 Btu/h (114 467 kJ/h) if 488.25 gph (1848
L/h) are used each hour.
Water heater requirements (based on hour after hour for
shower operation)
recovery = 435 gph (1647 L/h) at
40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C)
storage = 544 gal (2059 L)
Note: Storage requirement capacity remains the same even
though peak demand time may vary. The designer may choose
to increase or decrease storage or recovery, balancing the two
as necessary to arrive at a cost-effective system that will fit
into the space available.
Laundries
12
221
LAUNDRIES
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer through
the procedure of designing a domestic water heating system
for a commercial/institutional/industrial laundry.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables and
calculating the demand affecting such a system. The procedure
presented here will help predict the amount of hot water required
to meet both the hourly demand and momentary peak demands
of a laundry. Before completing the final design, the designer
should verify the laundry equipment requirements with the equipment manufacturers.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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STORAGE
Unless otherwise directed by the owner, assume that all the washers will operate simultaneously. Provide an amount of hot water
storage equivalent to 50 to 75% of the hourly demand. Evaluate
the operating characteristics of the washers before deciding on
the amount of storage.
RECOVERY
The water heating system should be designed for full recovery of
the hourly demand.
EXAMPLE 12.1
A hospital laundry has three 135-lb (61-kg) and two 75-lb (34kg) washers which use 160F (71C) water for sanitation and blood
removal. The washer manufacturers data indicate that all washers require 2 gal (7.57 L) of hot water per hour per pound (kilogram).
(3 135 lb) + (2 75 lb) = 555 lb total capacity
[(3 61 kg) + (2 34 kg) = 251 kg total capacity]
555 lb 2 gph/lb = 1110 gph of 160F water
(251 kg 7.6 L/h = 1907.6 L/h of 71C water)
The laundry equipment manufacturer suggests usable storage of
between 50 and 75% of hourly demand. For this example, well
choose 60%.
60% 1110 gal = 666 gal
Laundries
223
Miscellaneous Facilities
13
225
MISCELLANEOUS
FACILITIES
RELIGIOUS FACILITIES
Kitchen
Many religious facilities have assembly areas, usually with adjacent kitchens. These kitchens range from full, commercial type
facilities to minimal rooms where general food warming and preparation will occur.
If there will be a dishwasher in the kitchen, it may be a major
determinant of the size of the water heater. If there will be a
commercial dishwasher and it has a hot water rinse cycle (in lieu
of a chemical rinse), a booster heater may be required to provide
the sanitizing temperature (180F [82C]) required (residential
and some institutional type dishwashers have a built-in heater).
If the capacity of the dishwasher is not available, the hot water
requirements for the dishwasher can be estimated from Chapter
4, Table 4.5.
If the kitchen will have a utensil cleaning sink (sometimes
called a pots and pan sink) and a hand washing sink, Table 4.4
in Chapter 4 can be used to determine the kitchen demand.
Baptistries
Baptismal fonts that range in size from 400 to 1200 gal (1514 to
4543 L) are required to be maintained at near skin temperature,
between 94 and 105F (34 and 41C); use 100F (38C) for design
purposes. Depending on the use of the font, the water will either
be maintained in the font or filled and drained for each use.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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Water
Toilet Rooms
The toilet room usage can be sporadic but will produce intermittent heavy loads. Depending on the size and location of the toilet
room, hot water can be supplied by the buildings domestic water heating system or from a point-of-use heater.
Other Considerations
The designer needs to evaluate additional hot water usage, such
as gymnasiums, pools, activity rooms, meeting rooms, classrooms,
day-care facilities, residences, and administrative offices.
Miscellaneous Facilities
227
Toilet Rooms
Many times toilet rooms are located in remote areas of the grocery story, away from the food preparation areas. Consideration
should be given to providing a point-of-use water heater.
Other Considerations
Due to the quantity of refrigeration equipment in this type of
facility, the designer should consider the opportunity for heat
reclamation. This is a common method of preheating water in a
grocery store and can be a substantial energy saving factor.
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Water
RETAIL CENTERS
There are two primary considerations for retail centers or shopping malls: the large anchor or department store and the smaller
general retail establishments. For determining hot water demand
in large anchor stores, the designer needs to consider the inclusion of a restaurant, administrative offices, and general facilities.
Concepts for many of these areas can be found throughout this
manual.
For the general retail establishment, hot water is primarily
for use in toilet rooms and demand is driven by hand washing.
The number and type of plumbing fixtures, including those using hot water, are governed by local building codes. Each tenant
will usually have, and be responsible for, his/her own domestic
hot water system. For general public use toilet rooms, a point-ofuse water heater may be appropriate.
Miscellaneous Facilities
229
must be able to remove the fat, grease, flour, etc. The food preparation area usually has at least one hot water hose bibb or mixing
faucet to use for wash down and cleanup. The hot water demand
load for wash down and cleanup is generally not concurrent with
the other hot water demands.
Toilet Rooms
Typically all hot water demands are met by a single heater. However, a point-of-use water heater should be considered for the
public toilet rooms in fast food establishments.
OFFICE BUILDINGS
The number and type of plumbing fixtures required for an office
building are governed by local building codes. Hot water demand
is usually determined by the quantity of hand washing fixtures.
Based on the location and size of loads in a building, a single
water heater can serve an individual fixture, a toilet room, multiple toilet rooms, or the entire building.
Special tenant requirements (e.g., mini health clubs, food service, day care, cleaning, retail shops, medical and/or dental offices)
should be considered individually. In many instances, the tenant
is responsible for his or her own domestic hot water system.
Section
II
EQUIPMENT
The material presented in the majority of chapters in this section
is drawn from information and documents received from numerous manufacturers. In order to provide balanced, unbiased, and
complete coverage, ASPE made every effort possible to solicit information from all applicable equipment manufacturers. The
chapters reflect that effort to the extent that manufacturers responded. For some chapters, such as Chapter 17, there was only
limited manufacturer input, and the limitations of the material
in these chapters are obvious.
Manufacturers may submit additional information, data, documents, and new innovations for this section at any time. All
submitted materials will be considered and incorporated as appropriate. As new editions of this work in progress are issued
in future years, this equipment section will develop into a complete compendium of domestic water heating equipment
possibilities to assist the design engineer.
14
233
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
It has been determined through field studies that the correct
sizing and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriateness of the hot water maintenance system. If the hot water
maintenance system is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria
are wrong and the temperature of the hot water distributed to
the users of the plumbing fixtures is below acceptable standards.
Additionally, a poorly designed hot water maintenance system
wastes large amounts of energy and potable water and creates
time delays for those using the plumbing fixtures. This chapter
addresses the criteria for establishing an acceptable time delay
in delivering hot water to fixtures and the limitations of the length
between a hot water recirculation system and plumbing fixtures.
It also discusses the temperature drop across a hot water supply
system, types of hot water recirculation system, and pump selection criteria, and gives extensive information on the insulation of
hot water supply and return piping.
BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers decision was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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Water
235
1
1
1
Copper
Pipe
Type L
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
0.012
0.025
0.043
0.065
0.093
0.285
0.445
0.655
0.884
1.14
0.013
0.027
0.045
0.068
0.100
0.204
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.077
0.106
0.860
1.140
1.680
2.280
2.720
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.078
0.106
0.210
0.290
0.420
0.590
0.710
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Water
Nominal
Diameter
(mm)a
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Water
(L)
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
DN15
0.045
0.129
0.049
0.204
0.061
0.390
0.061
0.099
DN20
DN25
DN32
DN40
0.095
0.163
0.246
0.352
0.202
0.297
0.401
0.517
0.102
0.170
0.257
0.379
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.106
0.170
0.291
0.401
0.517
0.762
1.034
1.233
0.106
0.170
0.295
0.401
0.132
0.191
0.268
0.322
GPM
L/Sec
2.0
0.5
0.25 gal/cycle
2.5
2.5
1.3
0.03
0.946 L/cycle
0.16
0.16
2.4 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
1.87 aver
7.5 aver
0.15 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.12 aver
0.47 aver
237
0.5
1.5
2.5
4.0
10
25
10
25
10
25
10
25
Copper
Pipe
in.
in.
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
0.03
0.10
0.16
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
0.25
3.1
7.6
Copper
Pipe
DN15
DN22
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
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239
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241
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Domestic W
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Water
Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The pointof-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long distance away from the temperature maintenance system. The
243
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Domestic W
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Water
Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various individual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Furthermore, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate factory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is included. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjustment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.
245
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247
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249
250
Domestic W
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Water
1 in. or Less
12 in.
24 in.
5 & 6 in.
8 in. or
Larger
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
DN25 or
Less
DN32DN50
DN65DN100
DN200 or
Larger
13
25
25
40
40
40
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
251
1
1
1
2 or less
2
2
3
4
6
8
10
Insulation
Thickness
(in.)
Heat Loss
(Btu/h/
linear ft)
1
1
1
1
1
a
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
10
10
13
13
24 or less
16
12
16
19
27
32
38
Surface
Temperature
(F)
68
69
69
70
69
74
70
67
68
69
69
69
69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65F and annual average
wind speed of 7.5 mph.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.
Insulation
Thickness
(mm)
25
25
25
25
25
13a
25
38
38
38
38
38
38
Heat Loss
(W/m)
7.7
9.6
9.6
12.5
12.5
23.1 or less
15.4
11.5
15.4
18.3
26.0
30.8
36.5
Surface
Temperature
(C)
20
21
21
21
21
23
21
19
20
21
21
21
21
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 18C and annual average
wind speed of 12 km/h.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.
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Water
Tank
Size
(gal)
50
100
250
500
1000
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/
ft2 of tank surface.
Tank
Size
(L)
200
400
1000
2000
4000
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of
tank surface.
system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.
(14.1)
q = 60rwcT
[q = 3600rwcT]
253
where
60
3600
q
r
w
c
T
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
min/h
sec/h
piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
change in heated water temperature (temperature of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
= c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]
q
(14.2) gpm
L/sec
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Domestic W
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Water
255
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the hot water systems total heat losses by totaling the various losses:
A. Hot water supply piping losses
B. Hot water return piping losses
C. Hot water storage tank losses
Total system heat losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h
3050 W
527 W
222 W
3799 W
3577 W
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Domestic W
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Water
2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in.
(DN15) pipe, 25 ft (7.6 m) of average in. (DN22) pipe, and
75 ft (22.9 m) of average 1 in. (DN28) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
100 ft 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss
25 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 250 Btu/h piping loss
75 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 750 Btu/h piping loss
1800 Btu/h piping loss
[30.5 m 7.7 W/m =
7.6 m 9.6 W/m =
22.9 m 9.6 W/m =
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the systems total heat losses:
A. Hot water supply losses
B. Hot water return losses
C. Hot water storage tank losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h
3050 W
528 W
222 W
3800 W
257
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
259
circulating pump until the hot water return system temperature drops by approximately 10F [5.5C]. With this method,
when there is a large consumption of hot water by the plumbing fixtures, the circulating pump does not operate.
3. A time clock is used to turn the pump on during specific
hours of operation when people are using the fixtures. The
pump would not operate, for example, at night in an office
building when nobody is using the fixtures.
4. Often an aquastat and a time clock are used in conjunction
so that during the hours a building is not operating the time
clock shuts off the circulating pump, and during the hours
the building is in use the aquastat shuts off the pump when
the system is up to the desired temperature.
AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fixtures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give consideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.
INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of someone getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
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Water
It is recommended that all hot water supply and return piping be insulated. This recommendation exceeds some code
requirements. See Table 14.4 for the minimum required insulation thicknesses for all systems.
If the insulated piping is installed in a location where it is
subjected to rain or other water, the insulation must be sealed
with a watertight covering that will maintain its tightness over
time. Wet insulation not only does not insulate, it also releases
considerable heat energy from the hot water piping, thus wasting energy. Furthermore, the insulation on any outdoor lines that
is not sealed watertight can be plagued by birds or rodents, etc.,
pecking at the insulation to use it for their nests. In time, the
entire hot water supply and/or return piping will have no insulation. Such bare hot water supply and/or return piping will waste
considerable energy and can seriously affect the operation of the
hot water system and water heaters.
The minimum required insulation thicknesses given in Table
14.4 are based on insulation having thermal resistivity (R) in the
range of 4.0 to 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.028 to 0.032 m2
[C/W] mm) on a flat surface at a mean temperature of 75F
(24C). Minimum insulation thickness shall be increased for
materials having R values less than 4.0 ft2 h (F/Btu) in.
(0.028 m2 [C/W] mm) or may be reduced for materials having
R values greater than 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/
W] mm).
1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insulation thickness may be reduced as follows:
261
Actual R
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water systems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9.
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
263
28. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association. 1982. Retrofit of Building Energy Systems and Processes.
29. Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design. 2d ed.
30. Steele, Alfred. 1988. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
31. Wen-Yung, W. Chan, and Milton Meckler. 1983. Pumps and pump
systems. In American Society of Plumbing Engineers Handbook.
Section
II
EQUIPMENT
The material presented in the majority of chapters in this section
is drawn from information and documents received from numerous manufacturers. In order to provide balanced, unbiased, and
complete coverage, ASPE made every effort possible to solicit information from all applicable equipment manufacturers. The
chapters reflect that effort to the extent that manufacturers responded. For some chapters, such as Chapter 17, there was only
limited manufacturer input, and the limitations of the material
in these chapters are obvious.
Manufacturers may submit additional information, data, documents, and new innovations for this section at any time. All
submitted materials will be considered and incorporated as appropriate. As new editions of this work in progress are issued
in future years, this equipment section will develop into a complete compendium of domestic water heating equipment
possibilities to assist the design engineer.
14
233
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
It has been determined through field studies that the correct
sizing and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriateness of the hot water maintenance system. If the hot water
maintenance system is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria
are wrong and the temperature of the hot water distributed to
the users of the plumbing fixtures is below acceptable standards.
Additionally, a poorly designed hot water maintenance system
wastes large amounts of energy and potable water and creates
time delays for those using the plumbing fixtures. This chapter
addresses the criteria for establishing an acceptable time delay
in delivering hot water to fixtures and the limitations of the length
between a hot water recirculation system and plumbing fixtures.
It also discusses the temperature drop across a hot water supply
system, types of hot water recirculation system, and pump selection criteria, and gives extensive information on the insulation of
hot water supply and return piping.
BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers decision was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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235
1
1
1
Copper
Pipe
Type L
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
0.012
0.025
0.043
0.065
0.093
0.285
0.445
0.655
0.884
1.14
0.013
0.027
0.045
0.068
0.100
0.204
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.077
0.106
0.860
1.140
1.680
2.280
2.720
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.078
0.106
0.210
0.290
0.420
0.590
0.710
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Nominal
Diameter
(mm)a
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Water
(L)
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
DN15
0.045
0.129
0.049
0.204
0.061
0.390
0.061
0.099
DN20
DN25
DN32
DN40
0.095
0.163
0.246
0.352
0.202
0.297
0.401
0.517
0.102
0.170
0.257
0.379
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.106
0.170
0.291
0.401
0.517
0.762
1.034
1.233
0.106
0.170
0.295
0.401
0.132
0.191
0.268
0.322
GPM
L/Sec
2.0
0.5
0.25 gal/cycle
2.5
2.5
1.3
0.03
0.946 L/cycle
0.16
0.16
2.4 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
1.87 aver
7.5 aver
0.15 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.12 aver
0.47 aver
237
0.5
1.5
2.5
4.0
10
25
10
25
10
25
10
25
Copper
Pipe
in.
in.
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
0.03
0.10
0.16
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
0.25
3.1
7.6
Copper
Pipe
DN15
DN22
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.
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239
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241
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Water
Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The pointof-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long distance away from the temperature maintenance system. The
243
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Water
Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various individual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Furthermore, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate factory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is included. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjustment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.
245
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247
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249
250
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Water
1 in. or Less
12 in.
24 in.
5 & 6 in.
8 in. or
Larger
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
DN25 or
Less
DN32DN50
DN65DN100
DN200 or
Larger
13
25
25
40
40
40
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
251
1
1
1
2 or less
2
2
3
4
6
8
10
Insulation
Thickness
(in.)
Heat Loss
(Btu/h/
linear ft)
1
1
1
1
1
a
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
10
10
13
13
24 or less
16
12
16
19
27
32
38
Surface
Temperature
(F)
68
69
69
70
69
74
70
67
68
69
69
69
69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65F and annual average
wind speed of 7.5 mph.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.
Insulation
Thickness
(mm)
25
25
25
25
25
13a
25
38
38
38
38
38
38
Heat Loss
(W/m)
7.7
9.6
9.6
12.5
12.5
23.1 or less
15.4
11.5
15.4
18.3
26.0
30.8
36.5
Surface
Temperature
(C)
20
21
21
21
21
23
21
19
20
21
21
21
21
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 18C and annual average
wind speed of 12 km/h.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.
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Water
Tank
Size
(gal)
50
100
250
500
1000
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/
ft2 of tank surface.
Tank
Size
(L)
200
400
1000
2000
4000
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of
tank surface.
system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.
(14.1)
q = 60rwcT
[q = 3600rwcT]
253
where
60
3600
q
r
w
c
T
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
min/h
sec/h
piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
change in heated water temperature (temperature of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
= c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]
q
(14.2) gpm
L/sec
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255
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the hot water systems total heat losses by totaling the various losses:
A. Hot water supply piping losses
B. Hot water return piping losses
C. Hot water storage tank losses
Total system heat losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h
3050 W
527 W
222 W
3799 W
3577 W
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2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in.
(DN15) pipe, 25 ft (7.6 m) of average in. (DN22) pipe, and
75 ft (22.9 m) of average 1 in. (DN28) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
100 ft 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss
25 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 250 Btu/h piping loss
75 ft 10 Btu/h/ft = 750 Btu/h piping loss
1800 Btu/h piping loss
[30.5 m 7.7 W/m =
7.6 m 9.6 W/m =
22.9 m 9.6 W/m =
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the systems total heat losses:
A. Hot water supply losses
B. Hot water return losses
C. Hot water storage tank losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h
3050 W
528 W
222 W
3800 W
257
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259
circulating pump until the hot water return system temperature drops by approximately 10F [5.5C]. With this method,
when there is a large consumption of hot water by the plumbing fixtures, the circulating pump does not operate.
3. A time clock is used to turn the pump on during specific
hours of operation when people are using the fixtures. The
pump would not operate, for example, at night in an office
building when nobody is using the fixtures.
4. Often an aquastat and a time clock are used in conjunction
so that during the hours a building is not operating the time
clock shuts off the circulating pump, and during the hours
the building is in use the aquastat shuts off the pump when
the system is up to the desired temperature.
AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fixtures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give consideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.
INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of someone getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
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It is recommended that all hot water supply and return piping be insulated. This recommendation exceeds some code
requirements. See Table 14.4 for the minimum required insulation thicknesses for all systems.
If the insulated piping is installed in a location where it is
subjected to rain or other water, the insulation must be sealed
with a watertight covering that will maintain its tightness over
time. Wet insulation not only does not insulate, it also releases
considerable heat energy from the hot water piping, thus wasting energy. Furthermore, the insulation on any outdoor lines that
is not sealed watertight can be plagued by birds or rodents, etc.,
pecking at the insulation to use it for their nests. In time, the
entire hot water supply and/or return piping will have no insulation. Such bare hot water supply and/or return piping will waste
considerable energy and can seriously affect the operation of the
hot water system and water heaters.
The minimum required insulation thicknesses given in Table
14.4 are based on insulation having thermal resistivity (R) in the
range of 4.0 to 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.028 to 0.032 m2
[C/W] mm) on a flat surface at a mean temperature of 75F
(24C). Minimum insulation thickness shall be increased for
materials having R values less than 4.0 ft2 h (F/Btu) in.
(0.028 m2 [C/W] mm) or may be reduced for materials having
R values greater than 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/
W] mm).
1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insulation thickness may be reduced as follows:
261
Actual R
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water systems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9.
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Domestic W
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263
28. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association. 1982. Retrofit of Building Energy Systems and Processes.
29. Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design. 2d ed.
30. Steele, Alfred. 1988. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
31. Wen-Yung, W. Chan, and Milton Meckler. 1983. Pumps and pump
systems. In American Society of Plumbing Engineers Handbook.
15
265
SELF-REGULATING
HEAT TRACE
SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
A hot water self-regulating heat trace system can be used for
prompt delivery of hot water at the fixtures. A heating cable system is one of several accepted methods of providing prompt
delivery of hot water. (See Chapter 14.)
Todays buildings are more architecturally complex than those
built a decade ago and make ever increasing demands on the interstitial space occupied by HVAC ductwork, mechanical piping,
communication wiring, and electrical conduits. This, combined
with the need to conserve energy and water, challenge engineers
to provide cost-effective, energy-efficient domestic hot water systems. Maintaining the temperature of a domestic hot water system
may entail establishing a means to continuously recirculate the
water via pumps, valves, and additional piping. An alternative
method is to use self-regulating heat trace systems.
Water conservation has become a major concern in the past
few years. The need to conserve water has led to requirements
for the use of low-flow fixtures, including faucets, showers, and
water closets. The water wastage that occurs when cooled water
is dumped down the drain while the user is waiting for hot water
to flow can no longer be tolerated. In addition to wasting a precious resource, this practice incurs extra energy costs to heat
the water and waste treatment costs to process the wasted water. The ability to keep a pipe warm close to the point of use is of
particular interest with the low-flow fixtures used today.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Electric heat tracing systems replace heat lost through the thermal insulation on hot water supply piping to maintain the water
at desired nominal temperatures, eliminating the need for insulated recirculation lines, pumps, and balancing valves. Preventing
the hot water from cooling also ensures that hot water is readily
available when it is needed.
An electrical heat tracing system is not a substitute for a
complete, efficient domestic hot water system. It does not eliminate the need for an efficient water heater. What a heat tracing
system does is provide another approach to the design and installation of a hot water system. It does this by simplifying the
hot water distribution system, thereby minimizing the amount of
piping required. Items such as additional piping and balancing
valves are unnecessary.
In a heat trace system, a self-regulating heating cable is attached directly to the hot water supply piping and insulated. A
self-regulating heating cable adjusts its power at each point along
its length to maintain nominal temperature throughout the piping system. Electrical energy input is controlled by the cables
construction to maintain the required water temperature at the
fixtures. No return piping or circulation pump is required.
Successful installation of a heat tracing system requires
coordination among the various tradespeople involved. Plumbers
and electrical and insulation contractors must be made aware of
the specific requirements affecting each others work.
The information in this chapter will help the designer understand electric heat tracing as it applies to hot water systems.
With this information, a designer should be able to:
1. Compare the merits of heat tracing and a recirculation system based on the requirements of a specific project.
2. Identify the extent of piping requiring heat tracing.
267
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Only Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., listed electric heat tracing
systems for hot water temperature maintenance should be used.
(Note: Thirty mA ground fault equipment protection is to be used
for all hot water heat tracing circuits.) These tested and approved
systems are based on self-regulating heating cables that are specifically designed for hot water temperature maintenance. (See
Figure 15.1.) Heat is delivered through a carbon matrix heating
element that responds to temperature changes. Whenever the
temperature in the heat traced piping begins to rise, the cable
automatically reduces its heat output. Conversely, when the water
temperature begins to drop the cable reacts by increasing its
heat output. This self-regulating feature occurs along the entire
length of a heat tracing circuit to ensure that each point receives
the amount of heat necessary to maintain thermal equilibrium.
Heating cables, self-regulating or otherwise, intended for pipe
freeze protection or general temperature maintenance should not
be used for hot water temperature maintenance, since their performance has not been matched to the requirements of hot water
applications.
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269
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A hot water temperature maintenance system (such as the one
shown in Figure 15.2) typically includes the following components:
1. Self-regulating heating cable.
2. Power connection kit.1
3. Tee/inline splice kit (permits 2 or 3 cables to be spliced together).
4. Cable end termination.
5. Attachment tape (secures cable to pipe, use at 12 to 24 in.
[305 to 610 mm] intervals).
6. Electric heat tracing label (peel and stick label that attaches
to insulation vapor barrier at 10 ft [3.05 m] intervals, or as
required by code or specification).
7. Fiberglass thermal insulation and vapor barrier.2
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(gpm)
15
20
25
30
40
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
23
15
11
9
8
6
6
30
20
15
12
10
9
8
38
25
19
15
13
11
9
45
30
23
18
15
13
11
60
40
30
24
20
17
15
271
6.1
7.6
9.1
12.2
23
15
11
9
8
6
6
30
20
15
12
10
9
8
38
25
19
15
13
11
9
45
30
23
18
15
13
11
60
40
30
24
20
17
15
48
64
80
97
129
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6.1
7.6
9.1
12.2
1420
1895
2365
2870
3815
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Heating cable systems do not require system balancing. Often
they are used in buildings with significant lengths of return piping relative to the lengths of supply piping or in hot water systems
requiring multiple circulation loops.
Heating cable systems may not be economical in buildings
with doughnut configurations and small amounts of return piping. Such systems still may be selected, however, if the designer
wishes to eliminate flow balancing.
273
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Water
Hospitals,
Nursing Homes,
Prisons
Hospitals,
Hotels, Condos,
Prisons, Schools
Kitchens,
Laundries
105 (42)
(2427)
7280
120 (49)
140 (60)
(2227)
Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.
275
THERMAL INSULATION
While frequently overlooked, thermal insulation plays a critical
role in ensuring that hot water is available at the point of use.
This is true for both recirculation and heat traced hot water
systems.
The standard design for heat traced piping (the design that
manufacturers design guides are based on) utilizes fiberglass thermal insulation with a kraft paper vapor barrier. Thicknesses range
from 1 to 2 in. (25.4 to 50.8 mm) based on line diameter. If a heat
traced hot water system is designed to use only one cable for each
temperature range, the thickness of the insulation will vary.
Manufacturers of hot water heat tracing systems have established insulation schedules that outline the thicknesses required
to keep the heat loss within the desired range. Note that in these
schedules the insulation on piping 1 in. (DN35) in diameter and
smaller is oversized to allow space for the heating cable.
After the installation of the heating cable and thermal insulation is completed, the piping is identified with stick-on labels to
note the presence of electric heat tracing. This labeling gives notice to facility maintenance workers that heating cable has been
installed under the insulation should any pipe maintenance or
renovations be required.
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reach the point of use may be beyond the levels considered acceptable for the facility. To remedy this situation, simply heat
trace closer to the point of use.
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Heat Exchangers
16
279
HEAT
EXCHANGERS
INTRODUCTION
The basic process behind the heating of water is heat exchange,
whereby heat from a hot substance (the heating medium) is given
to a colder substance or medium, in this case water. This heat
exchange between a heating medium and water usually takes
place in a piece of equipment called a heat exchanger that is
specifically designed and manufactured to efficiently and costeffectively transfer heat from one medium to another.
This section discusses the basic construction, operation, configuration, and selection of various types of heat exchanger and
offers insights into their advantages, disadvantages, and application.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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DEFINITIONS
Heating Medium
A heating medium is any substance used to heat another substance to a higher temperature. In the case of heat exchangers
used to heat domestic hot water, the heating mediums are generally fluids or fuels. There are exceptions to this rule, however,
such as electrical energy, which is used to heat a solid wire, or
element, which then directly transfers heat to the water by contact. Examples of heating mediums include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Steam.
Water.
Gas.
Oil.
Electricity.
Solar energy.
Geothermal energy.
Refrigerants.
Approach
The term approach is used to describe how close the outlet
temperature of the water to be heated comes to (or approaches)
the inlet temperature of a fluid heating medium.
Heat Exchanger
This term refers to a device specifically designed and constructed
to efficiently transfer heat energy from a hot substance to a colder
one.
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281
Countercurrent
This term is used to describe a situation where the liquid heating
medium in a heat exchanger flows in a direction opposite to that
of the fluid to be heated.
Temperature Cross
A temperature cross occurs when the liquid being heated has
an outlet temperature that falls between the inlet and outlet temperatures of the heating medium; this is possible only when flows
are 100% countercurrent.
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The most common type of heat exchanger, the shell and tube,
can be found in almost every type of application. In recent years,
the plate and frame has emerged as a viable alternative to the
shell and tube.
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Heat Exchangers
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quired. Typical applications include refrigerant evaporators/condensers, ammonia refrigeration, and cases where aggressive or
corrosive fluids are present.
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289
hot and cold media in the unit. The plate and frame unit has a
tendency to weep through the gasket interface. The weeping normally stops after the gaskets reset or the unit is brought back up
to operating temperatures. Basically, if the application requires
a low probability of leakage, the better choice is a prime surface
or shell and tube design rather than a plate and frame.
While gaskets may be a weakness in a plate and frame unit,
being able to expand its thermal capacity merely by adding channel plates to an existing unit is one of its major strengths. If it is
known that a particular application will be expanded in the future, a plate unit is by far the easiest and most economical design
to use.
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INDIRECT FIRED
WATER HEATERS
INTRODUCTION
An indirect water heater is a fluid-to-fluid heat exchanger that
uses one hot fluid to heat a second colder fluid. The hot fluid can
be anything, such as freon or ammonia from an air conditioning
compressor, but most often is water heated by a boiler or a direct
fired unit. In homes and offices, the liquid heated is usually potable domestic cold water, but indirect water heaters can also be
used to heat pool water or melt snow. Since they do not contain
a firebox or electrical element for heating, they have no need of a
separate flue or fuel line, which reduces related installation and
construction costs.
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
There are two basic types of indirect water heater on the market
today, which are distinguished primarily by the location of the
boiler water.
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This design innovation has led to considerably improved performance and faster recovery due to the larger heat transfer
surface. However, the same dump limitation applies. Early models of this type of water heater were prone to corrosion at the top
of the tank due to oxygen accumulation, but current versions
are vented to prevent this problem. Nevertheless, the constant
refilling of the tank with fresh water makes all storage indirect
water heaters susceptible to two other major causes of tank failurethermal stress and scaling.
Thermal stress results because the 90 to 100F (32 to 38C)
temperature fluctuations that occur on a daily basis cause tank
linings and dissimilar metals to expand and contract at different
rates. This expansion and contraction eventually leads to cracking. Over time, oxygen contained in the fresh water attacks these
cracks and corrodes the tank. Fresh water also contains mineral
salts, which precipitate out as the water is heated and attach
themselves to the hottest surface available. Regardless of whether
the hottest surface is the coil containing the boiler water or a portion of the tank wall, scale buildup steadily erodes heat transfer
efficiency.
The chart in Figure 17.2 illustrates how dramatically the rate
of scale formation increases as temperatures rise above 140F
(60C). At this temperature in residential use, their average
lifespan ranges anywhere from 7 to 12 years, depending on water conditions. For water heaters in commercial use, the life
expectancy is considerably shorter.
In summary, while both of these storage tank designs are
capable of delivering water at high temperatures, their consistent operation at temperatures above 140F (60C) will result in
significantly faster scale formation, rapidly deteriorating heat
transfer efficiency, and much shorter life expectancies.
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First, the potential for scaling and corrosion in the boiler water tank has been virtually eliminated because it is filled with
dead boiler water circulating in a closed loop. Once the loop is
filled, the small amount of makeup water added over time is not
enough to cause problems, provided the loop is properly vented.
Scaling inside the coils is prevented by the accelerated flow of the
potable water whenever hot water is drawn. By using several
coils of relatively small diameter, high output levels are possible
with little pressure drop. Since this type of indirect water heater
does not develop scale, even at higher temperatures, it is often
used in applications where 180F (82C) water is needed for sanitizing (e.g., automatic dishwashers, hospital laundries, and food
processing equipment).
Second, a tankless coil typically used a single, finned coil
immersed in the boiler water. Since both sides of each fin or rib
on the coil were considered part of the available heat transfer
surface, efficiency was expected to be high. In reality, the fins
and ribs trapped pockets of static water which acted like a layer
of insulation and hindered the heat transfer process. Scale collected in the valleys, compounding the problem. Wherever coils
were tightly wrapped or touching, heat transfer surfaces were
either unavailable or starved of boiler water. In comparison, the
new instantaneous water heater design makes use of multiple
smooth coils in loosely overlapping bundles to maximize the
amount of available heat transfer surface. The addition of turbulent flows inside and outside the coil boosts the heat transfer
efficiency into the high 90% range and raises the overall operating efficiency to new levels. The turbulence also scrubs the coils
clean of any scale buildup. As a result, instantaneous indirect
water heaters are projected to last 20 or more years.
WATER CONDITIONS
Obviously, the quality and condition of the potable water supply
will affect the performance of a water heater, direct or indirect. In
general, if the water supply has a pH value close to 7, neither
highly acidic nor heavily alkaline, any indirect water heater will
function properly. However, when high acidity is encountered and
cannot be modified using water treatment equipment, indirect water
heaters with copper coils may be adversely affected. Conversely,
very alkaline water will cause storage tank type indirect water heaters to accumulate scale much more rapidly. Particulate matter in
suspension or otherwise contained in the potable water supply
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should be filtered out before the water enters either type of indirect water heater. Sediment will quickly accumulate in and clog
up the storage tank type or sandblast the coils of the instantaneous indirect water heater, causing damage.
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ELECTRIC WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE AND
BOOSTER
INTRODUCTION
An electric water heater is an appliance for heating water that is
to be used for purposes other than space or central heating (for
instance, cooking, dish and cooking utensil washing, clothes
washing, lavatories, baths, and showers).
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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COMPONENTS
Other than controls, the following are the principal components
of an electric water heater.
The Tank
In electric tank type water heaters, the tank serves the purpose
of hot water storage.
Linings are generally used in steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. (Tank materials other than steel are also
available.) An additional means of protecting a tank against corrosion is the use of a sacrificial anode. With the insertion of a
sacrificial anode, such as an aluminum or magnesium rod in the
tank, the primary electrolytic reaction occurs between the anode
and the other exposed dissimilar metals within the tank. The
anode is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. The anode
should be replaced as it approaches decomposition to ensure
continued protection of the tank.
Tank Fittings
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections normally are threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe
inlet and outlet connections. A fitting that enables the replacement of the sacrificial anode also is usually provided. In addition
to the inlet and outlet fittings, there are threaded nipples for
the insertion of immersion type elements, thermostats, temperature-pressure relief valves, and high limits. Residential and
light-duty commercial tanks have brackets on the outside for
surface-mounted thermostats and high limits.
A fitting for the insertion of a drain cock is required on all
domestic and commercial water heater tanks to allow easy drainage of the tank and removal of foreign matter that may accumulate
on the tank bottom.
Figure 18.1 illustrates a typical residential or commercial
electric water heater and shows the location of some of
the fittings on the tank.
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Dip Tube
A dip tube is used with all tank water heaters that have the cold
water inlet located at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent excessive
mixing of cold and hot water as the hot water is used. The relationship between the length of the dip tube and the height of the
tank determines the amount of usable hot water that can be
drawn from the tank at any one time (the tank draw efficiency). A
dip tube that is too short will cause excessive mixing of cold
water at the top of the tank, which can cause the hot water to be
delivered at a lower than desired temperature. In the past, dip
tubes were made of metal, but presently most dip tubes are made
of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, high-density plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature prevents the tank from being siphoned in case the cold water supply
is cut off. In such a situation, the tank would be siphoned only to
the level of the anti-siphon hole, where the siphoning action would
be stopped.
Elements
Electric water heating technology has been through only minor
changes since its inception. That is because immersion elements
are considered 100% efficient. Only the wattage of the elements
has been increased over the years to shorten recovery times.
Two types of elementwraparound and immersionhave been
used, with immersion type elements representing the overwhelming majority. Wraparound elements, as their name implies, wrap
around the outside of the tank in a channel. This type of element
heats from the outside and is used primarily in high lime areas to
prevent scaling and premature element failure. Immersion elements, as their names implies, are immersed in the water and are
made in several styles: blade, single-loop, and multi-loop. (Figure
18.2 shows the types of electric water heater element.)
Element construction
Element construction is essentially the same, regardless of wattage or sheath surface area. As Figure 18.3 illustrates, the principle
components of an element are the electrical terminals, flanges,
sheath, magnesium oxide, and resistance wire.
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The magnesium oxide is used as an electrical insulator between the resistance wire and sheath as well as a conductor of heat.
The resistance wire is made of nichrome (nickle chrome) and
is of an appropriate length and diameter (ohm rating) to draw a
certain wattage (producing a predictable amount of heat) at a
given voltage. (Table 18.1 charts the relationship among the watt-
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Rated
Voltage
600
750
1000
1250
1500
2000
2500
120
208
240
277
23.2
72.1
92.8
128
18.6
57.7
74.3
102
13.9
43.3
55.7
76.7
11.1
34.6
44.6
61.4
9.28
28.6
37.1
51.2
6.96
21.6
27.8
38.4
5.57
17.3
22.3
30.7
Rated Wattage
Rated
Voltage
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
120
208
240
277
480
4.64
14.4
18.6
25.6
76.8
12.4
15.9
21.9
65.7
10.8
13.9
19.2
57.5
9.61
12.4
17.1
51.1
8.65
11.1
15.3
45.7
7.85
10.1
14.0
41.8
7.2
9.28
12.8
38.4
Element operation
In an electric element, thermal energy is produced when voltage
is applied to the nichrome wire. The heat energy produced is
conducted through the magnesium oxide and copper or incoloy
sheath into the water. Once the thermal energy enters the water,
it is distributed throughout the tank by convection.
Residential electric water heaters are normally furnished with
dual elements that are wired for non-simultaneous operation (only
one element operates at a time; the upper element operates first
on a cold start). Electric water heaters may be specified with the
elements wired for simultaneous operation (both elements operate at the same time). The designer should be sure to check the
total connected load with the electrical engineer.
Most electric water heaters currently produced use immersion type electric elements, which are considered 100% efficient.
There are two kinds of such element, distinguished by the material used in their sheathing.
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High Limit
This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the
tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit safety
device is used. It is set to open at 190F, 5F (88C, 3C).
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Immersion Controls
Thermostat
An immersion well, remote bulb thermostat is used to regulate
the temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures
generally are adjustable from approximately 120 to 180F (49 to
82C). Immersion thermostats have a differential of 5F (3C)
and are excellent units to use when precise temperatures are
important. Multiple thermostats may be used.
High limit
This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the
tank. Usually an immersion well, remote bulb high limit is used.
It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually adjusted to
open.
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Wiring circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many
of the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Wiring Circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many of
the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.
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Immersion Thermostat
A direct immersion bulb thermostat is used to regulate the
temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures generally are
adjustable from approximately 140 to 185F (60 to 85C). Immersion thermostats have a differential of 2F (1C) and are
excellent units to use when precise temperatures are important.
(See Figure 18.6.)
Wiring Circuits
Circuits are convertible between single and three-phase voltages.
Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors to link
control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Ratings
All heaters shall be rated according to the following standards:
1. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.
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Ga
ater Heater
Instantaneous With Separate TTank
ank
Gass W
Water
Heater
19
311
GAS WATER
HEATERS
INSTANTANEOUS
WITH
SEPARATE TANK
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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ater Heate
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GAS WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE
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TANKS
As previously explained, the tank in a tank type water heater serves
the dual purposes of heat exchange and hot water storage. Also, it
must be able to withstand water pressure in compliance with the
codes and regulations of whatever authority has jurisdiction.
The storage of hot water in the tank accelerates corrosion.
Linings are generally used with steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. Tank materials other than steel are also
available.
A second method of protecting the tank is the sacrificial anode.
When a sacrificial anode such as a magnesium rod is inserted in
the tank, corrosive action occurs between the anode and
any exposed metals in the tank. The anode, being higher on the
galvanic scale, is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. In
some instances, anode rods are not installed because they have
a detrimental effect on the tank lining. Figure 20.2 illustrates a
residential gas water heater containing one type of sacrificial
anode. An anode such as this should be replaced as it approaches
decomposition to ensure continued protection of the tank.
One disadvantage of the underfired tank is its propensity for
depositing sediment on the bottom of the tank. The harder the
water, the greater the potential for this problem.
TANK FITTINGS
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections are normally threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe inlet
and outlet connections. A fitting enabling the replacement of the
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ater Heate
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DIP TUBES
A dip tube is used on all tank water heaters in which the cold
water inlet is at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
incoming cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent the
mixing of cold and hot water. In all tank water heaters, the water
at the top of the tank, under cycling and intermittent standby
conditions, attains a higher temperature than water at the bottom of the tank. The variation between the two temperatures
depends on heater design and dip tube length. A dip tube that is
too short will cause excessive mixing of the cold and hot water,
which will reduce the tank draw efficiency.
In the past, dip tubes were made of metal, but presently most
dip tubes are made of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, highdensity plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature prevents the tank from being siphoned. Figure 20.4 shows the
operation of the dip tube under normal operating conditions and
under conditionssuch as occur when the cold water supply is
shut off or a line breaksnecessitating anti-siphoning action.
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(A)
(B)
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ater Heate
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(C)
(D)
Figure 20.1 Location and Types of Flue:
(A) Internal Flue Tank, (B) External Channel Flue Tank,
(C) Floating TankExternal Flue, (D) Multiple Flue
Multiple Burner, Commercial Water Heater.
Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.
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ater Heate
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BURNERS
Burner assemblies are designed to ensure that gas and air are
properly mixed for combustion. Burners vary greatly in design
and construction, but all have:
1. An inlet air orifice. Varies with the type of gas and the normal
range of gas pressure.
2. A means of controlling air intake. For primary air burners, air
intake control may be fixed or variable (air shutter).
3. A mixing tube or mixing area. Allows gas and air to mix before
or during burning.
4. Ports. Control the gas flame pattern to improve burning characteristics and distribute the flame in relation to the tank
and/or heat exchanger area.
A few of the more common types of burner found in gas water
heaters are illustrated in Figure 20.5.
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ater Heate
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321
Air inlets must cover a range wide enough to allow the airgas mixture to be properly adjusted for different gas, pressure,
and altitude conditions. Note: Designers should be sure to consult the manufacturers recommendations for derating burners
as necessitated by high altitudes.
VENTING SYSTEMS
A venting system is required to transfer the products of combustion to
the outside. The venting system of a water heater consists of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Draft Hoods
A draft hood is used with almost every water heater not equipped
with a draft regulator or power vent (positive pressure) system.
The draft hood is designed to minimize the effects of:
1. Updrafts. It prevents excessive updrafts through the burner
compartment.
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ater Heate
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The operation of a vertical draft hood under downdraft conditions is illustrated in Figure 20.7.
Vent Connections
The ideal venting system has vent pipe connections that rise
vertically from the draft hood through the roof to the outside and
terminate in a vent cap, which protects the vent from stoppage
and minimizes the effects of downdraft.
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Where lateral runs are required to connect with chimney installations, the lateral runs should be kept to the minimum
required length. They should slant upward, at a minimum of
in./linear ft (a 2% angle), in the direction of normal flue gas flow.
The connection of a vent to a chimney should be smooth on the
interior surface. The vent pipe should not project into the chimney interior. Consult local codes or National Fuel Gas Code NFPA
54 for details. (See Figure 20.8.)
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ater Heaters
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325
HEAT PUMP
WATER HEATERS
INTRODUCTION
The heat pump water heater uses modern refrigeration technology. In both residential and commercial applications, this type of
water heater can heat water more efficiently and thus is more
cost-effective than an electrical resistance heater. In the right
commercial applications, the energy savings can be significant. A
residential heat pump water heater has a refrigeration system
much like that of a refrigerator. The heat pump water heater
uses this system to transfer heat from a warm airstream to water. A typical residential heat pump water heater can heat water
to a temperature of 130F (54C). A typical commercial heat pump
water heater can heat water to a temperature of 160F (71C).
Heat pump water heaters operate on the principle of recovering
heat from an air source. For this type of water heater to operate,
there must be a warm air source (35F [1.7C] or higher). The
heat pump water heater consists of two heat exchangers and a
refrigeration compressor. The first heat exchanger is usually located in the airstream with the waste heat and acts to recover
this wasted heat. The compressor pumps the recovered heat from
the airstream to the other heat exchanger, which is associated
with a storage tank, for the heating or preheating of domestic hot
water. This is where the heater gets its nameheat is pumped
from one location to another. The refrigeration compressor uses
the refrigeration systems hot gas for pumping. In the right locations, a heat pump system can provide simultaneous water
heating and space cooling or refrigeration.
Heat pump water heaters use a vapor compression cycle
similar to that of a refrigerator to remove heat from an airstream
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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flowing through the evaporator and transfer it to water. Hot, highpressure refrigerant gas is routed from the compressor to the
heat exchanger associated with the storage tank. This exchanger
is either one that the entering cold water flows through (remote
type) or one at the water storage tank to which entering cold
water is piped (integral type).
The temperature of the hot gas in commercial refrigeration
systems is usually around 200F (93C) or higher and is ideal for
heating domestic water. There are several combined heat exchanger and tank designs. Some have less of a pressure drop
through the heat exchanger than others. Some have coils immersed in the tank while others have coils that wrap around the
tank, and one has a heat exchanger plate that surrounds the
water storage tank.
The refrigerant is cooled and condensed when it heats the
water. The refrigerant liquid then passes through capillary tubing (an expansion device), which causes the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant to drop. The refrigerant gas then
enters the evaporator coil where it absorbs heat from the air passing through the coil and evaporates. The compressor evacuates
the cool, evaporated refrigerant gas and compresses it to a high
pressure and temperature to repeat the process.
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ater Heaters
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ENERGY SOURCES
Electricity is the primary source of energy for the refrigeration
system components of a heat pump water heater, for instance,
the compressor, pumps, and fans. Air is the heat source for the
heat pump water heater. All integral type and most remote type
heat pump water heaters use a water storage tank equipped with
backup electric resistance elements to meet peak hot water demand. If electricity rates are excessive, the tank can be ahead of
a gas fired water heater.
Heat pump water heaters remove heat from an airstream and
put it, along with heat from the electrical power they consume,
into water. A heat pump water heater can produce the same
amount of hot water as an electric resistance water heater using
only one quarter to one half the electrical power. The heat pump
water heater also provides space cooling and dehumidification
as a result of the water heating, a result that is often beneficial to
the customer.
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ater Heaters
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APPLICATIONS
The heat pump is an excellent choice for a water heater when
certain conditions are met. The building should have a use for
simultaneous water heating and space cooling or refrigeration.
The concurrence of the water heating and space cooling loads is
important. In a good heat pump water heater application, the
water heating load occurs over a long period of time, giving the
heat pump water heater an extended run time. There should be
a use for the space cooling or refrigeration load throughout the
year, and the temperature of the heat pump water heaters evaporator must be maintained above freezing.
If natural gas is expensive or unavailable locally, the heat
pump water heater may be the most cost-efficient choice for heating water. A heat pump water heater makes the most economic
sense when natural gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), oil, and electric resistance heat are expensive.
A poor heat pump water heater application is one in which
all or some of the above conditions are not met. The customer
has no use or only limited use for the space cooling byproduct.
The building has a water heating load that occurs over a short
period of time, giving the heat pump water heater a limited run
time and requiring that the backup electric elements be energized during most of the run time. When the backup electric
resistance elements are energized most of the time, the advantages of a heat pump water heater are limited. Also, if low-cost
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ater Heaters
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natural gas, LPG, oil, or electric resistance heat are readily available, the heat pump water heater loses its relative cost-efficiency.
Possible commercial heat pump/heat recovery water heater
applications are restaurants, grocery stores, and other buildings
with large refrigeration loads and high demands for hot water.
The commercial refrigeration units of such buildings usually have
condensing units, located on the roof or beside the building, that
reject the heat produced by the refrigeration process. In a commercial heat recovery application, the refrigeration hot gas line
has a bypass valve that sends the refrigeration hot gas to the
double-wall heat exchanger in the water storage tank. When the
thermostat in the water storage tank indicates that the water
has reached its set point, the bypass valve sends the hot gas to
the condenser on the roof where the excess heat is rejected.
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ater Heater
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STEAM WATER
HEATERS
INTRODUCTION
Instantaneous Water Heaters
A steam, instantaneous water heater is a device that utilizes steam
to heat water to a specific temperature. It is able to supply this
tempered water without delay in volumes up to the water heaters
maximum capacity. Because of its ability to supply hot water
instantly, storage tanks usually are not required with this type of
water heater, providing the water heater is sized to handle the
maximum demand.
A steam, instantaneous water heater can be used for any application that requires domestic or process hot water and has steam
as an available energy source. Such applications include: shower
rooms, washrooms, dishwashing areas, laundries, and food processing plants. The types of facility these applications are found in
include: industrial plants, petrochemical plants, schools, universities, apartments, hotels, motels, and restaurants.
Generally speaking, there are two main types of steam, instantaneous water heater available today: the feedback unit and
the feed-forward unit.
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
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ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
FEEDBACK UNITS
A feedback unit is a water heater that controls hot water temperature by sensing hot water in either a tank or exit piping and
feeding back a signal to the steam control device. Such units are
reactive, depending on a change in water temperature for their
control. This need to react to change causes a lag in the control
Steam W
ater Heater
Water
Heaterss
335
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
FEED-FORWARD UNITS
A feed-forward unit is a water heater that controls hot water
temperature by sensing the difference between the inlet and outlet water pressures. This differential pressure is an indication of
demand. The greater the differential pressure, the greater the
demand for hot water. Such units are proactive, rather than reactive, in terms of their control of outgoing water temperature.
There is no lag time associated with this method of control because with it a unit responds to demand rather than to something
Steam W
ater Heater
Water
Heaterss
337
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
a pressure reducing valve must be used and sized to supply adequate volumes of steam at delivery pressures between 2 and 15
psig (14 and 103 kPa). Steam volume requirements must be studied to determine whether the steam available at the units location
is adequate. Steam mains are sized to handle the maximum volume of steam required by any instantaneous device experiencing
substantial pressure drops due to equipment and valve restrictions. Steam volume requirements are provided in the
manufacturers feed-forward capacity charts and depend on the
sizes and condensing rates of the units used.
For all the benefits of a feed-forward unit, there also are a few
shortcomings. First, because the differential pressure control valve
on a feed-forward unit is not temperature activated, the unit requires that two things delivered to the unit remain constant. One
is steam pressure, which ensures a constant temperature in the
shell of the heat exchanger. The other is entering water temperature. A constant steam pressure is generally not difficult to
maintain, but a constant inlet water temperature may be. This
means that preheating the inlet water with a heat recovery system or energy conservation device, as is is done with a feedback
system, cannot be done. Sudden changes in inlet water temperature can affect the output water temperatures of the feed-forward
unit once it has been adjusted. Seasonal temperature changes of
the water are generally not a problem. These changes occur so
slowly that they are not noticed by the user. If, however, seasonal changes are undesirable to the user, a quick and simple
readjustment of the unit will solve the problem. With a typical
domestic hot water temperature of 120 to 140F (49 to 60C), for
every 3F (2C) inlet water temperature change, the outlet temperature change with a feed-forward unit will be 1F (1C) in the
same direction.
Steam W
ater Heater
Water
Heaterss
339
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Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The following are system design criteria:
The heat exchanger must be sized on gpm not gph when a
storage tank is not provided. The maximum instantaneous flow,
not the diversified flow, must be used.
The heat exchanger should have the domestic water in the
shell and the steam in the bundle. This will provide for the load/
lag flywheel required to maintain a uniform delivery temperature.
Heat exchanger selection should include local, state, and federal code provisions.
Steam W
ater Heater
Water
Heaterss
341
Example 22.1
A hot water system is required for 1110 gph (4202 L/h) of 160F
(71C) water from a 50F (10C) cold water system. The maximum fixture demand is 43 gpm (2.7 L/sec).
Gph method (with storage tank)
1110 gph 8.33 (160 50F) = 1017.5 Mbh
[4202 L/h 4.186 (71 10C) = 1 073 519 kJ/h]
Gpm method (using maximum connected flow)
43 gpm 500 (160 50F) = 2365 Mbh
[2.7 L/sec 15 071 (71 10C) = 2 495 207 kJ/h]
Expansion TTanks
anks
23
343
EXPANSION
TANKS
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to show the designer how to size
an expansion tank for a domestic hot water system and to explain the theory behind design and the calculations. The following
discussion is based on a diaphragm or bladder type expansion
tank, which is the one most commonly used in the plumbing
industry. This type of expansion tank does not allow the water
and air to come in contact with each other.
When water is heated, it expands. If this expansion occurs in
a closed system, dangerous water pressures can be created. A
domestic hot water system can be a closed system. When hot
water fixtures are closed and the cold water supply piping has
backflow preventers or any other device that can isolate the domestic hot water system from the rest of the domestic water
supply, a closed system can be created. (See Figure 23.1[a].)
The water pressures can quickly rise to a point at which the
relief valve on the water heater will unseat, hence relieving the
pressure but also compromising the integrity of the relief valve.
(See Figure 23.1[b].) A relief valve installed on a water heater is
not a control valve but a safety valve. It is not designed or intended for continuous usage. Repeated excessive pressures can
lead to equipment and pipe failure and personal injury.
An expansion tank, when properly sized and connected to a
closed system, provides additional system volume for water expansion while ensuring a maximum desired pressure in a domestic
hot water system. It does this by utilizing a pressurized cushion
of air. (See Figure 23.2[a] and [b].)
344
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
(a)
(b)
Expansion TTanks
anks
345
(a)
(b)
346
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
EXPANSION OF WATER
A pound of water at 140F (60C) has a larger volume than the
same pound of water at 40F (4.4C). To look at it another way,
the specific volume of water increases with an increase in temperature. Specific volume data show the volume of 1 lb (1 kg) of
water for a given temperature and are expressed in ft3/lb (m3/
kg). When the volume of water at each temperature condition is
known, the expansion of water can be calculated.
(23.1) Vew = Vs2 Vs1
where
Vew = expansion of water, gal (L)
Vs1 = system volume of water at temperature 1, gal (L)
Vs2 = system volume of water at temperature 2, gal (L)
Vs1 is the initial system volume and can be determined by calculating the volume of the domestic hot water system. This entails
adding the volume of the water heating equipment with the volume of piping and any other part of the hot water system.
Vs2 is the expanded system volume of water at the design hot
water temperature. Vs2 can be expressed in terms of Vs1. To do
that, we must look at the weight of water at both conditions.
The weight of water at temperature 1 (T1) equals the weight of
water at temperature 2 (T2), or W1 = W2. At T1,
W1 =
Vs1
VSP1
where
VSP = specific volume of water at a specified
temperature condition (see Table 23.1 for
specific volume data).
Similarly, at T2,
W2 =
Vs2
VSP2
Expansion TTanks
anks
347
Specific Volume,
ft3/lb (m3/kg)
40 (4.4)
50 (10)
0.01602 (0.0010013)
0.01602 (0.0010013)
60 (15.55)
70 (22.1)
0.01604 (0.0010027)
0.01605 (0.0010032)
80 (26.7)
90 (32.2)
0.01607 (0.0010045)
0.01610 (0.0010064)
100 (37.8)
110 (43.3)
0.01613 (0.0010082)
0.01617 (0.0010107)
120 (48.9)
130 (54.4)
0.01620 (0.0010126)
0.01625 (0.0010157)
140 (60)
150 (65.6)
0.01629 (0.0010181)
0.01634 (0.0010214)
160 (71.1)
0.01639 (0.0010245)
Vs1 =
VSP1
Vs2
VSP2
(VSP
VSP )
2
, then
(VSP
VSP )
2
Vew = Vs1
V
(VSP
VSP )
2
VSP
1)
(VSP
2
, or
s1
348
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Example 23.1
A domestic hot water system has 1000 gal (3785.4 L) of water.
How much will the 1000 gal (3785.4 L) expand from a temperature of 40F (4.4C) to a temperature of 140F (60C)?
From Table 23.1:
VSP1 = 0.01602, at 40F (0.0009, at 4.4C)
VSP2 = 0.01629, at 140F (0.001017, at 60C)
Using Equation 23.2:
Vew = 1000
0.01629
1
( 0.01602
)
0.0010181
1)
( 0.0010013
Vew = 64.0 L]
Note: This is the amount of expansion of the water and should
not be confused with the size of the expansion tank needed.
EXPANSION OF MATERIALS
Does the expansion tank receive all of the water expansion? The
answer is no because not just the water is expanding. The piping
and water heating equipment expand with increased temperature as well. So any expansion of material results in less of the
water expansion being received by the expansion tank. Another
way of looking at it is as follows:
(23.3) Venet = Vew Vemat
where
Venet = net expansion of water seen by the
expansion tank, gal (L)
Vew
Expansion TTanks
anks
349
(23.4)
where
Example 23.2
A domestic hot water system has a water heater with a volume of
900 gal (3406.86 L) and is made of steel. It also has 100 ft (304.8
m) of 4 in. (101.6 mm) piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 2 in. (50.8 mm)
piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 1 in. (38.1 mm) piping and 300 ft
(91.44 m) of in. (12.7 mm) piping. All the piping is copper.
Assuming that the initial temperature of water is 40F (4.4C)
and the final temperature of water is 140F (60C), (A) how much
will each material expand, and (B) what is the net expansion of
water that an expansion tank would see?
A. Utilizing Equation 23.5, for the steel (material no. 1):
Vmat1 = 900 gal
350
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
Volume of Pipe,
gal/l ft (L/m)
(12.7)
(19.1)
0.02
0.03
(0.249)
(0.472)
1
(25.4)
1 (32.5)
0.04
0.07
(0.495)
(0.869)
1 (38.1)
2
(50.3)
0.10
0.17
(1.243)
(2.113)
2 (63.5)
3
(76.2)
0.25
0.38
(3.104)
(4.718)
4 (101.6)
6 (152.4)
0.67 (8.32)
1.50 (18.629)
8 (203.2)
2.70 (33.533)
Expansion TTanks
anks
351
BOYLES LAW
We have determined how much water expansion will be seen by
the expansion tank. Now it is time to look at how the cushion of
air in an expansion tank allows us to limit the system pressure.
Boyles Law states that, at a constant temperature, the volume occupied by a given weight of perfect gas (including, for
practical purposes, atmospheric air) varies inversely as the absolute pressure (gage pressure + atmospheric pressure). It is
expressed by:
P1V1 = P2V2
How does this law relate to sizing expansion tanks in domestic
hot water systems? The air cushion in the expansion tank
allows a space for the expanded water to go. The volume of air
in the tank will decrease as the water expands and enters the
tank. As the air volume decreases the air pressure increases.
Utilizing Boyles Law, we can determine what the initial volume of air (size of expansion tank) needs to be based on (A) the
initial water pressure, (B) the desired maximum water pressure,
and (C) the change in the initial volume of air. In using the above
equation, we realize that the pressure of the air equals the pressure of the water at each condition and we make the assumption
that the temperature of the air remains constant at condition 1
and condition 2. This assumption is reasonably accurate if the
352
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
P2Venet
(P2 P1)
(Note: Absolute pressure is the gage pressure, psig, plus atmospheric pressure, e.g., 50 psig = 64.7 psi in absolute pressure
[344.5 kPa = 445.78 kPa].)
Venet = net expansion of water, gal (L)
P2
Expansion TTanks
anks
353
Example 23.3
Looking further at the domestic hot water system described in
Example 23.2, if the cold water supply pressure is 50 psig (344.5
kPa) and the maximum desired water pressure is 110 psig (757.9
kPa) (the relief valve setting is 125 psig [861.25 kPa]), what size
expansion tank is required?
In example 23.2 we determined that Venet equals 15 gal (56.78
L). Converting the given pressures to absolute and utilizing Equation 23.8 we can determine the size of expansion tank needed:
V1 =
15
= 31 gal
(1 64.7/124.7)
[V
56.78
= 117.3 L
(1 445.78/859.18)
Note: When selecting the expansion tank, make sure the tanks
diaphragm or bladder can accept 15 gal (56.78 L) of water
(Venet).
354
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
SUMMARY
Earlier in this chapter the following was established,
Equation 23.2:
Vew = Vs1
VSP
1)
( VSP
2
Equation 23.6:
Venet = Vew [Vmat1 1 (T2 T1) + Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]
In Equation 23.2, Vs1 was defined as the system volume at condition 1. Vs1 can also be expressed in terms of Vmat.
Vs1 = Vmat1 + Vmat2
Making this substitution and combining the equations, we get
the following:
(23.9) Venet = (Vmat1 + Vmat2)
VSP
1) [V
( VSP
2
mat1
1 (T2 T1) +
V1 =
Venet
(1 P1/P2)
where
Venet
Vmat
VSP
V1
INDEX
Index Terms
Links
1-bedroom apartments
retirement homes
water demand
157
26
1 -compartment sinks
hospital example work-sheets
84
86
100
108
115
123
112
79
80
hourly demand
65
87
jailusage
kitchen requirements
103
183
50
87
151
142
147
149
165
168
171
175
103
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples
2-bedroom apartments
retirement homes
water demand
157
26
2 -compartment sinks
central sterile supply
95
55
hospital example
112
113
84
86
100
106
108
115
79
80
73
Index Terms
Links
65
87
kitchen requirements
50
87
151
142
147
149
165
168
173
211
103
119
52
53
87
147
149
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate
3-compartment sinks
booster heaters for
187
fast-food restaurants
228
high schools
hospital example
55
112
84
86
hospital worksheets
79
80
hourly demand
65
kitchen requirements
50
151
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
142
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
168
339
340
65
30
30/3 guideline
30 mA ground fault equipment
33
30
267
Index Terms
Links
32-bed hospitals
example
worksheets
93
100
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement home
example
158
gathering information
161
176
worksheets
164
234
111
A
absolute pressures
equations
352
gases
351
access to equipment
281
xxi
295
226
xxi
192
272
248
Index Terms
Links
administration areas
hospitals
77
82
83
157
163
99
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
138
religious facilities
226
retirement homes
140
204
17
multifamily buildings
and
30
after-hours at schools
47
130
21
130
288
air
air intake control in burners
319
321
343
351
cushions in expansion
tanks
entrapped in recirculating
systems
259
327
93
Index Terms
Links
332
alkalinity of water
heat pump systems and
332
295
334
altitudes
DSH systems and
gas burners and
4
321
329
xxi
xxi
15
16
xxi
Energy Conservation in
New Building Design
261
261
16
New Information on
Service Water Heating
261
Pipe Sizing
261
261
261
Index Terms
Links
American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
15
16
16
261
xxi
261
Energy Conservation in
Plumbing Systems
262
Insulation
262
Piping Systems
261
261
Pumps
262
57
261
341
262
xxi
192
ammonia
in indirect fired water
heaters
291
refrigeration
288
228
Index Terms
Links
Anding, Craig
xix
Andrews, Steven M.
xix
195
332
anti-siphoning features
300
antibacterial cleaners
195
315
319
236
approach temperature
defined
280
heat exchangers
281
284
283
aquastat controls
288
258
340
arms/hips/leg/back tubs
94
112
art rooms
46
214
Index Terms
Links
73
athletic centers
calculating demand
130
gathering information
127
128
130
shower rooms
129
352
gases
351
269
247
315
318
77
91
autopsy rooms
considerations
93
gathering information
99
82
83
average demand
calculating for apartment
building example
32
26
61
Index Terms
Links
B
backflow preventers in closed
systems
343
332
bacteria
biological growth on
drains
332
Legionnaires Disease
14
pharmaceutical plants
195
baffles
gas water heaters
316
282
xix
ballrooms in hotels
59
baptistries
225
bar sinks
demand
87
high school
55
kitchen requirements
151
209
185
barometric dampers
321
211
204
Index Terms
Links
base-mounted centrifugal
circulating pumps
258
214
285
37
bathroom groups
hospital example work-sheets
84
86
79
80
100
107
115
142
147
149
173
bathtubs
delivered hot water temperatures
faucet flow rates
12
236
fill times
74
136
79
80
84
86
100
91
94
112
142
147
149
170
173
obstetrics areas
77
93
in patient rooms
73
91
107
115
hydrotherapy
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
95
156
Index Terms
Links
bathtubs (Cont.)
therapy tubs
73
335
bedpan washers
73
95
113
332
77
93
198
bladder-type expansion
tanks
343
300
blocked flues
322
blood removal
hospital laundry example
222
on prison uniforms
188
188
245
128
boilers
combination heating/
DHW boilers
33
334
135
Index Terms
Links
booster heaters
controls
306
defined
297
308
dishwashers
48
64
74
112
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
137
prison kitchens
185
187
67
Boyles law
351
211
270
209
Breese, James L.
xix
258
Btu/h ratings
33
building management
systems in sports arenas
building movement
205
207
283
282
319
259
Index Terms
Links
60
69
Byrley, Tom
14
Byron, R. C.
xix
61
C
cable end termination. See
termination
cafeterias in schools
52
227
92
79
80
84
86
103
119
122
123
142
147
149
168
171
hourly demand
65
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples
school kitchens
48
326
46
267
322
108
Index Terms
Links
285
Carpenter, S. C.
37
cart washers
hospital example work-sheets
84
86
103
119
122
123
74
92
96
79
80
137
142
108
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement homes
147
149
154
156
157
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples
168
171
prison kitchens
187
287
xxi
111
181
185
center flues
313
159
gathering information
162
hospitals
73
91
137
152
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes
157
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
obstetrical use
170
176
77
Index Terms
Links
207
212
206
95
113
considerations
76
gathering information
92
usage factors
90
82
83
106
122
worksheet examples
central systems for schools
central utility generating facilities
98
109
47
190
197
centrifugal circulating
pumps
258
285
316
check valves
on loops
245
339
190
196
12
187
285
children
locker rooms for
129
22
124
Index Terms
Links
chimneys
324
churches
225
circuit breakers
heat pump systems
332
267
273
273
274
191
circulating pumps
baptistries
226
centrifugal circulating
pumps
258
in circulation systems
239
controls
258
flow rates
257
head capacity of
257
258
266
257
sizing
249
341
207
339
254
37
classrooms
religious facilities
schools
226
46
49
52
Index Terms
Links
195
73
94
111
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
clean work
135
191
194
74
92
cleaning
hydrotherapy tubs
therapy rooms
128
283
281
315
cleanup activities
fast-food restaurants
228
grocery stores
227
64
66
229
287
closed systems
dangerous water pressures
343
recirculating systems
258
214
capacity
221
high schools
215
217
54
Index Terms
Links
84
hotel laundries
68
jailusage
86
183
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
schools
sport arenas and stadiums
student dormitories
138
49
209
41
203
196
349
349
Cohen, Arthur
262
coin-operated laundries
39
354
40
285
cold leakage
288
cold showers
197
261
198
column showers
209
combination aquastat/time
clock controls
259
combination heating/DHW
boilers
33
Index Terms
Links
241
combustion
air requirements
thermal efficiency and
207
4
commercial dishwashers
commercial spray-type dishwashers
12
conveyor dishwashers
50
demand
65
79
80
84
142
55
65
67
86
103
119
147
149
50
55
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
168
recovery and
67
school kitchens
48
211
239
325
326
commercial laundries
gathering information
221
208
211
12
206
water temperatures
commercial water heaters
defined
297
313
Index Terms
Links
38
57
281
compressors
electric
327
325
203
concrete plants
198
205
206
concurrent usage
hospital areas
77
schools
49
condensation
dew points and
206
331
15
282
condensors
heat pump systems
331
330
condo hotels
61
16
conservation laws
37
contaminated laundry
76
188
209
Index Terms
Links
contamination
cross-contamination in
heat exchangers
284
197
285
contraction
indirect fired water heaters
293
283
control circuits
306
controls
booster heaters
coverage in this manual
domestic hot water systems
306
308
1
15
303
332
recirculating pumps
258
convection
plate-type heat exchangers
285
283
convenience stores
226
329
61
considerations
70
defined
59
65
62
258
Index Terms
Links
17
327
328
329
295
262
Historical Perspective of
Corrosion by Potable
Waters in Building
Systems
262
copper piping
expansion
349
312
267
235
244
copper sheaths
302
262
237
303
293
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
295
pump fixtures
258
336
330
Index Terms
Links
corrosion (Cont.)
storage tanks
314
288
285
costs
delays in hot water and
238
heat exchangers
284
288
heat pumps
328
331
life-cycle costs
278
oversizing and
37
25
countercurrent
281
CPVC piping
235
237
xxi
111
cross-contamination in heat
exchangers
284
69
CT scan rooms
95
cupro-nickel components
114
312
28
D
daily water demand
multifamily buildings
19
26
Index Terms
Links
Danenhauer, Greg
xix
dark rooms
112
Daugherty, Larry
xix
198
204
day-care facilities
office buildings
229
religious facilities
226
234
245
37
decontamination
chemical processing
plants
196
197
dehumidification, heat
pumps and
327
328
245
266
270
275
72
235
237
234
results of
238
333
278
12
Index Terms
Links
demand
commercial laundries
221
238
211
270
57
60
monitoring in existing
systems
28
24
patterns in multifamily
buildings
19
pay-as-you-go systems
and
25
school calculations
49
35
23
229
department stores
desk phones in hotels
228
60
dew points
condensation and
206
15
DeWerth, D. W.
38
xxi
DHW Modeling
37
57
Index Terms
Links
37
237
Diamond, R.
38
343
337
352
227
hospitals
32-bed hospital example
94
112
considerations
74
gathering information
92
requirements table
87
usage factors
89
worksheet examples
82
83
119
124
59
64
136
151
hotels
97
103
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement homes
156
159
gathering information
162
worksheet examples
168
office buildings
229
schools
47
130
75
176
50
206
109
Index Terms
Links
differential pressure
diaphragm mixing valves
337
336
321
dip tubes
300
315
316
194
196
318
4
191
139
12
236
high schools
54
55
84
86
103
74
92
112
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and
295
jail usage
182
manufacturers data
64
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
136
156
prison kitchens
185
187
religious facilities
225
retirement apartments
158
school classrooms
49
school kitchens
47
94
209
333
50
52
53
Index Terms
Links
dishwashers (Cont.)
student dormitories
disinfectors
41
95
113
122
84
86
106
79
80
disposable tableware
48
233
208
district-supplied steam
334
diverting valves
340
38
xxi
16
controls
15
12
15
13
Index Terms
Links
15
17
thermal efficiency
thermal expansion
15
37
37
272
50
dormitories
heat trace system plans
277
institutional dormitories
42
student dormitories
39
181
186
292
284
287
double-wall protection
279
331
doughnut configurations,
heat trace systems and
272
Index Terms
Links
downdrafts
draft hoods and
323
322
240
draft diverters
321
draft hoods
321
draft regulators
321
drain cocks
298
draining tanks
315
331
241
315
332
drawdowns
laundry equipment
68
sinks
66
drawings
273
320
dry firing
303
331
dump loads
indirect fired water heaters
293
showers as
193
192
210
showers
Dutt, G.
62
181
185
37
Index Terms
Links
E
ease of access to equipment
281
262
efficiency
heat pumps
thermal
328
4
260
286
288
75
92
327
330
booster type
297
306
components
298
elastomer gaskets
electric flash sterilizers
electric heat trace systems.
See self-regulating heat
trace systems
electric resistance hot water
heaters
electric water heaters
continuous flow
controls
heat recovery
308
6
303
5
storage type
297
207
electrical terminals on
immersion elements
300
Index Terms
Links
electricity
heat pump usage
327
267
as heating medium
185
280
elementary schools
45
52
Ellis, L. Richard
xix
emergency eyewashes
204
209
185
75
xxi
95
111
204
end termination
273
205
energy conservation
100 ft. length criteria and
234
265
266
233
336
261
Energy Conservation in
Plumbing Systems
262
261
37
113
Index Terms
Links
262
259
xxi
286
equations
absolute pressure
352
254
demand
baseball team locker
room examples
elementary schools
football stadiums
215
218
53
212
55
hospital laundries
222
62
hotel laundries
68
181
prisons
186
210
41
expansion
Boyles law
351
materials expansion
349
tank materials
348
354
water expansion
346
354
Index Terms
Links
equations (Cont.)
heat transfer
mixed water temperatures
piping heat loss
68
6
252
31
341
183
260
equipment
electric water heaters
297
expansion tanks
343
heat exchangers
279
325
291
311
manufacturers information
231
recirculating domestic
hot water systems
233
265
333
sterilization
76
93
313
195
equipment ratings
34
erosion, velocity
244
Index Terms
Links
(ERs)
Estimating Hot Water Use in
Existing Commercial Buildings
37
xxi
286
332
22
130
204
examples
32-bed hospital
93
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
home
158
300-bed hospital
111
baseball stadium
214
circulation rate
254
5
52
expansion tanks
353
football stadium
211
foundry facility
193
high school
hospital laundry
54
222
65
62
Index Terms
Links
examples (Cont.)
hotel laundry service
68
institutional dormitory
42
jail
181
materials expansion
349
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement home
147
prison
184
7
35
4
341
39
traditional multifamily
building
water expansion
31
348
206
49
expansion tanks
Boyles law
351
defined
343
examples
349
material expansion
348
types
343
use of
15
353
346
experimental laboratories.
See laboratories
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms
Links
An Experimental Study of
Competing Systemsfor
Maintaining Service Water
Temperature in Residential Buildings
external channel flues
262
313
extracurricular activities
48
eyewashes, emergency
204
317
209
F
factory preset automatic flow
control valves
247
129
130
heat pumps
327
refrigeration units
332
fans
fast-food restaurants
228
205
metering faucets
205
non-metering faucets
236
236
194
feed-forward units
components
336
338
recirculation systems
339
333
Index Terms
Links
feedback units
steam water heaters
333
types
335
Fehrm, Al
262
209
334
fiberglass insulation
heat trace systems
267
recirculating systems
275
269
275
74
91
156
204
209
250
13
245
139
12
233
236
47
72
kitchens
64
49
78
128
205
temperature at
usage patterns
72
130
78
Index Terms
Links
140
300
75
92
313
317
95
112
79
80
111
84
86
100
108
115
142
147
149
165
171
175
95
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
flow baffles, U-tube removable
bundles and
282
244
balancing valves
245
in circulation systems
239
248
247
245
248
257
memory stops
248
272
244
339
112
105
Index Terms
Links
flow rates
clothes washers
221
21
dormitory fixtures
40
245
236
257
3
72
339
48
51
158
210
sterilization equipment
76
93
16
therapeutic facilities
128
worksheets
flow restrictors in prisons
77
78
184
flue gases
condensation and
206
mixture control
321
flues
flue routing
207
313
venting systems
321
190
198
93
Index Terms
Links
320
73
95
113
79
80
84
86
100
108
115
121
142
147
149
165
171
93
113
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
obstetrics area
outpatient surgery
113
surgical suites
112
340
fonts, baptismal
225
194
39
40
194
fast-food restaurants
228
196
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
295
333
329
defined
190
design issues
196
105
Index Terms
Links
211
38
283
190
288
foundries
190
Frankel, Michael
xix
Freehill, Mina
xx
197
193
freezing
areas subject to
207
328
267
291
257
full-condensing equipment
17
full-service kitchens
48
332
G
gage pressures
equations
352
gases
351
Index Terms
Links
5
88
laundry demand
221
worksheets
140
270
88
81
78
worksheets
84
86
140
221
320
315
319
15
dip tubes
315
313
318
311
313
tank fittings
314
tanks
314
venting systems
321
318
Index Terms
Links
gases
flame patterns
flue gases
319
320
as heating medium
280
volume of
351
285
288
hospital examples
96
115
74
hospital laundries
75
72
hospital worksheets
78
64
60
hotel laundries
67
gathering information
jails
181
laundries
221
91
nursing/intermediate care
facilities
134
156
nursing/intermediate
care facility example
obstetrics/nursery areas
161
77
prisons
185
retirement homes
157
127
204
60
61
Index Terms
Links
49
53
54
30
generation systems in
apartment buildings
geographical variances in demand
34
25
280
285
12
195
globe valves
339
287
Goldner, Fredric S.
xix
37
95
113
grocery stores
226
331
203
192
193
guest rooms
examples
62
hotel types
59
69
gym classes
46
gymnasiums
226
48
55
57
Index Terms
Links
H
hand sinks
central sterile supply
central sterile supply areas
113
95
fast-food restaurants
228
grocery stores
227
73
high schools
55
112
73
kitchens
50
52
53
miscellaneous hospital
areas
77
nurses stations
89
94
135
138
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
obstetrics areas
prisons
temperatures
hands/elbows/arms tubs
90
184
75
94
112
159
hard water
heat pump systems and
332
312
334
hastelloy
285
xxi
188
225
Index Terms
Links
head assemblies
282
130
gathering information
127
128
in office buildings
229
health concerns
13
71
approach
280
288
279
countercurrent
281
defined
279
flues as
313
325
heating mediums
280
291
selection factors
288
334
temperature cross
281
terminology
280
types
281
heat exchangers
340
heat loss
equations
252
recirculating systems
250
254
storage tanks
255
256
Index Terms
Links
330
benefits
328
considerations
17
criteria
331
defined
325
drawbacks
328
327
329
332
326
maintenance
332
327
requirements
331
332
313
68
285
3
286
Index Terms
Links
267
265
illustrated
268
273
selecting cables
274
heating mediums
266
269
280
Henriques, V. C. Jr.
13
xxi
herringbone corrugation
285
188
high altitudes
DSH systems and
gas burners and
high-demand facilities
4
321
35
17
multifamily buildings
and
30
70
298
303
23
high schools
defined
45
examples
54
kitchen demand
55
shower demand
55
56
hip/leg tubs
94
112
159
Index Terms
Links
262
xxi
holding kitchens
48
203
322
188
214
276
320
horizontal-to-vertical draft
hoods
322
207
16
hose stations
grocery stores
227
79
80
84
86
119
122
142
147
168
171
103
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
149
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples
hospitals
32-bed example
93
300-bed example
111
274
108
Index Terms
Links
hospitals (Cont.)
heat trace system plans
276
277
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
kitchen hot water requirements table
laundries
295
87
222
71
84
81
78
72
hot tubs
295
61
38
82
83
109
61
70
in nursing/intermediate
care worksheets
176
59
design considerations
70
food service
64
guest rooms
60
274
276
laundry service
67
resorts
60
333
124
Index Terms
Links
69
65
multifamily buildings
27
74
91
137
154
hours of operation
central bathing areas
157
92
food service
64
hospital laundries
92
hydrotherapy units
74
91
136
156
laundries
76
138
139
158
92
222
sterile supply areas
76
surgical suites
75
therapeutic facilities
92
129
human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV)
xxi
188
265
hybrid systems
considerations
17
multifamily buildings
and
30
hydro showers
128
hydrotherapy
32-bed hospital example
94
159
112
Index Terms
Links
hydrotherapy (Cont.)
gathering information
91
hospital requirements
73
96
161
152
153
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
school requirements
136
48
209
tub temperature
129
usage factors
79
80
89
82
83
109
124
86
102
117
147
149
176
worksheet examples
84
167
hydrotherapy tubs
football stadium example
212
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
142
211
worksheet examples
167
hypalon
286
I
ice machines, heat pumps
and
327
ice rinks
heat recovery systems
329
resurfacing
205
Index Terms
IEW 90.1 standard (ASHRAE)
immersion controls
Links
16
305
305
315
318
immersion elements
construction and operation
300
storage tanks
298
305
262
258
incoloy sheaths
302
303
332
40
6
pressure differences in
steam feed-forward
systems
336
314
318
291
280
temperature of
222
Index Terms
Links
291
as heat exchangers
291
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
293
291
water conditions
295
329
191
239
191
defined
188
design considerations
190
example
193
192
showers
192
333
storage tanks
194
types of
188
wash stations
191
194
194
industrial laundries
gathering information
221
in prisons
188
190
infrared faucets
205
198
initial costs
heat exchangers
288
Index Terms
Links
328
66
351
initial volumes
air cushions in expansion
tanks
351
346
319
inlet fittings
298
inmates
double bunking
181
186
184
186
redundancy in systems
and
185
showers for
180
248
instantaneous systems
apartment building example
baptistries
32
226
311
193
293
Index Terms
Links
192
instantaneous-coil-in-a-boiler
water heaters
multifamily buildings
294
30
point-of-use heaters
242
335
333
32
institutional dormitories
295
42
institutional laundries
delivered hot water temperatures
gathering information
12
221
insulation
gas water heaters
316
267
piping
250
recirculating systems
259
269
275
275
207
vent pipes
321
Insulation
262
326
331
xxi
111
73
158
central bathing
137
159
Index Terms
Links
133
136
gathering information
156
161
hydrotherapy
136
159
kitchen requirements
table
151
laundries
138
miscellaneous areas
160
nurses stations
135
159
resident areas
135
158
usage factors
152
135
worksheet examples
140
147
worksheet totals
144
176
313
316
160
165
262
internal fusing in
wiring circuits
305
306
International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical
Officials
262
258
isolation rooms
73
isolation valves
feed-forward steam systems
337
331
Index Terms
Links
J
jails
auxiliary equipment
182
design considerations
179
examples
181
gathering information
181
276
life cycle of
180
janitors closets
46
277
203
xix
45
Justin, Lawrence G.
xix
K
kitchen sinks
flow rates
40
79
80
care/retirement homes
142
147
211
nursing/intermediate
student dormitories
41
84
86
103
119
worksheet examples
149
168
kitchens
cooling functions of heat
pumps
327
Index Terms
Links
kitchens (Cont.)
demand
hospital requirements
table
87
79
hotel example
65
80
180
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
136
151
prisons
184
187
schools
46
47
50
205
209
55
57
small hospital example
sports arenas and stadiums
gathering data for requirements
94
203
47
274
multiple kitchens
64
69
residential
42
water temperature
Kokko, J. P.
Konen, Thomas
43
206
37
262
L
L/h. See liters per hour (L/h)
labels in heat trace systems
269
laboratories
197
defined
190
in hospitals
77
91
93
99
Index Terms
Links
laboratories (Cont.)
pharmaceutical plants
195
sinks
195
testing laboratories
198
82
83
336
instantaneous steam
feedback systems
336
335
31
large hospitals
111
324
laundries
delivered hot water temperatures
12
demand
apartment buildings
36
coin-operated
39
40
hospital considerations
75
92
113
222
79
80
hospital worksheets
84
86
67
institutional dormitories
42
hospital example
jails
98
43
180
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
138
157
160
nursing/intermediate
care worksheets
176
295
Index Terms
Links
laundries (Cont.)
prison industrial
laundries
188
prisons
180
184
185
188
retirement apartments
139
155
158
164
208
209
163
221
174
schools
46
130
203
student dormitories
39
gathering information
98
274
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and
295
manufacturer specifications
68
69
recover requirements
222
333
storage tanks
222
wash cycles
40
75
222
214
215
217
flow rates
236
laundry tubs
79
80
142
147
171
174
211
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
149
nursing/intermediate
Index Terms
Links
lavatories
delivered hot water temperatures
12
demand
87
214
215
79
80
107
115
42
43
180
184
50
151
142
147
88
94
217
hospital worksheet
examples
institutional dormitories
jails and prisons
kitchens
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes
patient areas
149
135
schools
49
52
209
211
73
student dormitories
41
54
84
flow rates
40
236
333
86
leaks
cold leakage
288
copper piping
244
173
Index Terms
Links
14
length of branches
delays in hot water and
234
270
life cycles
costs
278
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
lime deposits
295
294
300
349
284
298
xxi
330
314
laundry demand
221
worksheets
140
xxi
32
applying
26
23
25
33
31
35
load calculations
alternative systems
17
32
34
340
Index Terms
Links
75
92
care laundries
138
157
139
nursing/intermediate
16
locker rooms
hospitals
96
114
industrial facilities
191
shower rooms
129
203
214
75
92
surgical suites
loops
check valves on
245
244
lounges
160
265
235
low-pressure steam
337
xxi
271
330
M
magnesium oxide immersion
elements
300
114
Index Terms
Links
main lines
heat trace systems
270
276
maintenance
accessibility of heat exchangers
281
281
245
287
332
nursing/intermediate care
systems
planning for repairs
sports arenas and stadiums
163
40
207
315
128
maintenance areas
hospitals
77
91
93
99
nursing/intermediate
care systems
138
retirement homes
140
157
337
228
205
manholes
315
manicures
128
258
129
96
Index Terms
Links
manufacturing facilities
188
massage therapy
128
194
74
92
136
156
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
meat processing facilities
mechanical circulation, stratification and
194
16
321
Meckler, Milton
262
204
office buildings
229
prisons
185
schools
46
shower rooms
209
129
medical patients
72
medication rooms
73
94
111
medium-sized apartment
buildings
31
meeting rooms
hotel types
religious facilities
59
226
303
245
285
metering faucets
205
248
236
135
Index Terms
Links
Mettelstaedt, Bernie
xix
Meyer, Randy
xix
31
middle schools
45
Miller, Julius E.
xix
Milligan, N. H.
37
mineral facilities
196
129
mining facilities
190
38
miscellaneous areas
hospitals
32-bed hospital example
95
113
gathering information
93
usage factors
91
99
worksheet example
totals
worksheet examples
82
83
108
123
138
157
109
124
158
164
nursing/intermediate
care
48-bed nursing care
facility example
160
gathering information
163
user groups
152
154
worksheet example
totals
176
worksheet examples
171
retirement homes
140
155
175
miscellaneous facilities
225
Index Terms
Links
56
253
74
181
51
206
6
69
319
337
262
285
mop sinks
41
49
morgues
77
91
considerations
93
gathering information
99
82
Moritz, A. R.
83
13
21
130
22
207
MRI machines
114
Mulder, Bernie
xix
300
Index Terms
Links
multifamily buildings
centralized systems
25
239
demand determination
24
demographic profiles
23
examples
31
35
274
laundries in
36
26
patterns of demand
19
26
potential traps
36
retrofitting
28
333
multifunction full-condensing
equipment
17
multilevel facilities
276
multiple flues
313
204
17
320
multiple systems
high school considerations
56
81
hotels
69
schools
47
272
Index Terms
Links
N
National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel
Inspectors (NBBPVI)
15
xxi
17
xxi
17
324
xxi
natural convection
283
185
16
330
15
xxi
Neeck, James T.
xix
113
354
17
261
262
xxi
17
301
302
113
22
xxi
non-metering faucets
236
303
286
Index Terms
Links
nonambulatory patients
bathing tubs for
137
157
nonurban hotels
noon-time demand in spas
152
154
61
130
nourishment rooms
hospitals
73
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
NR (nitrile rubber)
135
xxi
286
xxi
197
94
159
111
characteristics
73
gathering information
91
89
82
96
156
161
83
101
109
152
153
156
124
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes
135
159
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
166
176
Index Terms
Links
158
central bathing
137
defined
133
136
gathering information
156
159
161
274
hydrotherapy
136
159
kitchen requirements
table
151
laundries
138
miscellaneous areas
160
nurses stations
135
159
resident areas
135
158
usage factors
152
135
worksheet examples
147
165
worksheet totals
144
176
worksheets
140
160
O
OB (obstetrics).
See obstetrics/nursery areas
OBrien, Tim
xix
obstetrics/nursery areas
32-bed hospital example
95
113
gathering information
93
obstetrics (OB)
xxi
99
Index Terms
Links
90
82
83
107
115
worksheet examples
109
occupancy rates
in hotels
70
in retirement homes
139
129
328
28
229
xxi
330
as heating medium
280
refineries
190
on-call rooms
94
Oil
on-demand controls
111
258
xxi
258
281
288
124
Index Terms
Links
190
orifices in burners
320
260
outgoing water
pressure differences in
steam feed-forward
systems
336
298
280
outlet fittings
outpatient surgery
output energy in formulas
314
318
298
314
318
95
113
49
77
oversizing
avoiding in multifamily
buildings
25
costs and
37
xvii
P
P. See hot water multiplier
pain threshold
13
pantries
185
pantry sinks
214
paper mills
196
215
218
Index Terms
Links
130
particulate fouling
indirect fired water heaters and
295
281
282
patient areas
hospitals
32-bed hospital example
93
111
gathering information
72
91
96
usage factors
88
82
83
109
100
115
worksheet example
totals
worksheet examples
nursing homes
worksheet example
totals
176
worksheet examples
165
38
25
37
peak demand
alternative systems
17
33
hospital laundries
76
90
hospital worksheets
81
124
Index Terms
Links
61
institutional dormitories
43
multifamily buildings
19
25
26
327
resort hotels
60
128
204
student dormitories
39
surgical suites
75
26
26
Pearlman, M.
pedicures
38
128
129
269
114
351
37
209
Petes Plugs
248
petrochemical facilities
333
petroleum refineries
190
pH values
295
See also
alkalinity of water; hard
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms
Links
pH values (Cont.)
water
pharmaceutical facilities
188
195
207
112
photography labs
196
89
198
204
153
188
244
261
piping
expansion
259
heat loss
254
328
270
heating
235
348
349
331
instantaneous point of
use heaters
243
insulation
250
205
steam systems
338
surface temperature
251
237
untraced piping
278
vent pipes
323
volumes table
350
weight of
235
259
339
Index Terms
Links
Piping Systems
261
285
285
approach temperatures
and
281
281
284
approach temperatures
and
288
281
287
281
285
prime surface
heat ex-changers
285
287
plumbing drawings
273
262
261
point-of-use applications
defined
242
grocery stores
227
270
208
temperature
206
Index Terms
Links
pools
calculating demand
130
gathering information
127
128
130
religious facilities
226
shower rooms
129
populations
by apartment size
26
demographic profiles
23
density of population
23
hotel considerations
70
multifamily buildings
23
schools
47
48
130
working tenants in
multi-family buildings
ports in gas burners
22
319
320
261
post-birthing rooms
77
postsurgery rooms
111
93
190
198
225
xxi
306
Index Terms
Links
269
273
power plants
190
321
197
281
preheating
inlet water in feed-forward
systems
338
222
prerinse sinks
central sterile supply areas
113
demand
65
food services
92
84
87
86
103
119
122
hospitals
92
112
kitchens
50
52
53
151
147
149
156
55
187
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
homes
142
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
168
prisons
187
schools
50
52
53
prescrapper sinks
50
87
151
244
Index Terms
Links
247
pressure
Boyle's law
351
343
equations
354
257
281
326
72
312
instantaneous indirect
water heaters and
295
137
measuring devices
248
sensing in feed-forward
steam units
sterilization equipment
336
76
93
pressure-balanced shower
valves
209
pressure-formed sheets in
heat exchangers
pressure measuring devices
285
248
332
15
298
315
37
Index Terms
Links
319
285
principal's toilets
printing and publishing facilities
46
190
196
prisons
design considerations
179
example
184
gathering information
185
274
kitchens
187
laundries
188
life cycle of
180
276
277
84
86
100
115
123
79
80
72
redundancy in systems
and
185
186
work-release programs
186
105
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
142
147
149
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
165
204
209
72
91
203
209
336
135
156
Index Terms
Links
26
process fluids
281
130
196
352
31
84
86
102
115
hospital usage factors
79
72
institutional dormitories
42
80
43
236
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
142
147
171
175
public restrooms
160
149
nursing/intermediate
schools
sports arenas and stadiums
publishing facilities
49
204
209
190
196
Pumps
electric
327
head capacity
257
103
Index Terms
Links
Pumps (Cont.)
with separate tanks
311
recirculation pumps
257
refrigeration units
332
335
339
types of circulating
pumps
258
Pumps
262
262
195
180
Q
quality of water. See water
quality
quarter circle wash stations
191
R
R factor (thermal resistivity)
radiology departments
260
95
260
320
196
re-gasketing maintenance
287
334
198
rebates, utility
328
114
Index Terms
Links
259
circulation systems
239
commercial, industrial,
and large residential
projects
239
controls
258
234
245
257
242
insulation
259
length of systems
234
258
point-of-use heaters
242
problems
233
pump types
258
238
243
254
249
335
338
16
stratification and
42
44
238
50
87
216
219
151
Index Terms
Links
5
63
213
15
grocery stores
227
heat pumps
328
329
hotel kitchens
67
hotels
62
300
312
43
222
222
prison laundries
188
sanitizers
194
showers and
57
128
335
292
stratification and
16
112
recovery systems
329
redundancy in systems
185
refrigerants
as heating medium
280
Index Terms
Links
refrigerants (Cont.)
refrigerant-based water
heating systems
17
refrigerant evaporators/
condensers
refrigeration heat reclaim systems
288
329
See also
heat pump water heaters
considerations
17
grocery stores
227
refrigeration pressure/temperature
controls
regional plumbing codes
332
16
relationships in steady-state
heat balance formula
relief valves
standards
unseating of
religious facilities
15
343
225
remodeling buildings
heat trace systems and
272
multifamily buildings
28
305
remote evaporators
327
326
327
158
160
331
Index Terms
Links
161
164
135
152
156
155
157
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
176
religious facilities
226
retirement homes
139
205
173
residential dishwashers
delivered hot water temperatures
flow rates
12
236
79
80
hospital worksheets
84
86
117
142
147
149
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
173
retirement apartments
158
325
326
residential laundries
delivered hot water temperatures
flow rates
hospital example work-sheets
jails and prisons
12
236
84
86
115
142
147
149
171
174
180
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate
care worksheet examples
117
Index Terms
Links
139
158
302
resistance wires
300
335
restaurants
fast-food
food kiosks
228
39
331
329
in multifunction buildings
40
36
in shopping malls
228
333
retail spaces
in multifunction buildings
36
in office buildings
229
in shopping malls
228
130
retirement homes
48-bed example
160
defined
134
gathering information
157
161
kitchen requirements
table
151
Index Terms
Links
139
155
160
miscellaneous areas
140
155
158
resident areas
139
155
160
worksheet examples
147
173
worksheet totals
144
176
worksheets
140
262
retrofitting buildings
heat trace systems and
272
multifamily buildings
28
return pipes
check valves and
245
in circulation systems
239
entrapped air
259
head capacity
of circulating pumps
257
insulation
260
266
sizing
249
320
rinse requirements
for dish-washing
rise in temperature
risers in heat trace systems
48
5
276
270
275
160
Index Terms
Links
S
sacrificial anodes
298
314
315
safety concerns
feed-forward steam systems
337
hospitals
71
scalding
13
332
1
Salisbury, Brian D.
xix
salt baths
129
Saltzberg, Edward
xix
262
same-day surgery
95
113
xviii
xx
Sampler, Donald L.
sanitization
food processing plants
194
grocery stores
227
222
sanitizing dishwashers
12
75
scalding
codes and
135
337
73
safety concerns
13
scaling
heat exchangers
288
332
293
295
instantaneous indirect
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
318
Index Terms
Links
scaling (Cont.)
water heaters and
295
lime deposits
294
334
300
185
schools
calculating demand
49
52
expansion
49
gathering information
47
general considerations
47
274
54
47
50
population
47
48
showers
48
51
333
56
types of
45
science rooms
Scott, J.Joe
scraping sinks
46
49
xviii
xx
112
scrub sinks
emergency rooms
95
hospital example
112
79
80
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms
Links
142
93
113
surgical suites
75
usage factors
90
worksheet examples
113
105
92
108
115
123
worksheets
Sealine, David A.
seasonal sports arenas
84
86
xviii
xx
262
205
seasonal temperatures of
water
338
330
20
secondary schools
45
205
sediment
296
seismic requirements
207
self-closing valves
180
198
247
48
314
332
267
circuit lengths
273
components
269
defined
242
266
design considerations
272
273
121
Index Terms
Links
266
276
identifying pipes
270
insulation
275
maintenance temperatures
274
overview
265
performance variables to
consider
266
piping design
275
selecting cables
274
terminology
278
265
191
91
semiprivate rooms
hospital patient rooms
72
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
senior high schools
sensors for steam water heaters
135
156
45
334
57
261
room examples
214
215
flow rates
236
service sinks
baseball team locker
schools
sports arenas and stadiums
218
49
211
Index Terms
Links
261
190
300
198
262
282
approach temperatures
and
288
281
281
284
337
340
tank heaters
283
280
282
shift changes
industrial plants
190
nurses stations
89
wash-up duration
153
192
Index Terms
shop rooms in schools
shopping malls
Links
46
228
short-circuited water in
loops
244
showerheads
in calculations
51
62
236
205
211
showers
calculating demand
210
compared to bathing
37
12
demand
baseball team locker room
examples
214
emergency showers
204
212
217
high schools
55
92
112
79
80
90
100
105
107
121
123
hospital worksheets
84
86
hotels
59
61
hydrotherapy areas
74
92
industrial facilities
191
192
42
43
institutional dormitories
jails and prisons
180
115
Index Terms
Links
showers (Cont.)
nursing/intermediate care facilities
142
147
149
156
157
nursing/intermediate
care worksheets
170
171
173
obstetrics areas
77
90
93
patient rooms
73
91
94
184
185
prisons
95
135
schools
46
shower rooms
48
51
206
208
130
181
129
128
204
77
student dormitories
41
surgical suites
75
dump loads
193
duration
62
equations
181
flow rates
40
47
Legionnaires Disease
and
14
333
129
185
Index Terms
Links
showers (Cont.)
water temperature
winter vs. summer demand
206
20
shutoff valves
in circulation systems
239
247
gas
315
244
silverware washers
318
50
300
130
single systems
69
52
236
84
86
74
92
hourly demand
65
66
kitchens
48
laboratories
119
50
195
miscellaneous hospital
areas
77
Index Terms
Links
sinks (Cont.)
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
136
138
156
50
54
315
319
49
schools
48
service sinks
49
209
surgical suites
95
siphoning, preventing
300
sitz baths
77
37
238
30
heat exchangers
340
331
312
xvii
25
28
249
storage tanks
183
systems
baseball team locker
room examples
215
218
Index Terms
Links
systems (Cont.)
concrete processing water tanks
199
dormitory systems
39
hospital systems
71
59
189
179
laundries
221
miscellaneous facilities
225
multifamily buildings
19
25
nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
home systems
133
school systems
45
127
203
38
14
135
320
Index Terms
Links
xxi
30
small hospitals
93
small hotels
70
Smith, Jean B.
xx
snap-action surface-mounted
high limit safety devices
303
snap-action surface-mounted
thermostats
303
snap gaskets
287
social areas
160
73
94
111
95
113
122
79
80
84
86
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
135
solar energy
as heating medium
280
17
306
106
327
329
330
Index Terms
Links
spas
calculating demand
130
gathering information
127
128
130
shower rooms
129
46
128
35
specialized tubs
nonambulatory patients
137
worksheet examples
170
346
354
38
spills
flue gas spillage
322
pharmaceutical plants
195
sponge bathing
88
sports arenas
baseball stadium example
214
commercial laundries in
208
demand assumptions
208
design traps
206
211
gathering information
204
sizing systems
210
205
types of systems
207
Index Terms
Links
203
water temperatures
206
sports teams
46
spot cooling
327
48
55
214
commercial laundries in
208
demand assumptions
208
design traps
206
211
gathering information
204
sizing systems
210
205
types of systems
207
usage areas
203
water temperatures
206
77
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
138
staff toilets
hospitals
73
111
nursing/intermediate
care facilities
135
209
204
Index Terms
Links
stainless steel
in heat exchangers
285
pump fittings
258
288
320
320
279
16
205
16
258
steam
as heating medium
185
tank heaters
283
282
341
185
steam mains
338
steam sterilizers
95
280
112
113
340
example
341
feed-forward units
336
feedback units
334
333
338
Index Terms
Links
333
types
333
steamers
48
steel mills
190
steel piping
235
349
Steele, Alfred
262
237
sterile areas
hospital sterile supply
areas
pharmaceutical plants
76
195
sterilization
pharmaceutical plants
requirements for dish-washing
195
48
sterilizers
75
Stevens, Kris
xx
92
95
15
30
26
storage rooms
209
333
297
dip tubes
300
elements
300
tank fittings
298
tanks
298
197
Index Terms
Links
335
319
defined
313
dip tubes
315
313
tank fittings
314
tanks
314
venting systems
321
318
318
291
295
storage tanks
applications
apartment building
example
34
219
213
57
hotel kitchens
66
hotels
62
industrial facilities
institutional dormitories
194
43
jail example
183
laundry requirements
222
multifamily buildings
26
prison example
student dormitories
63
185
186
41
corrosion
314
dip tubes
300
Index Terms
Links
315
298
expansion formulas
348
expansion tanks
343
fittings
298
314
heat loss
252
326
314
318
255
256
311
linings
298
335
333
stratification
16
300
283
314
42
44
16
207
stores
convenience stores
226
329
grocery stores
227
331
malls
228
supermarkets
226
329
330
strainers
for fixed orifices and venturis
245
331
42
overview
16
44
Index Terms
Links
stresses
on indirect fired water
heaters
293
on pipes
259
student dormitories
39
student toilets
46
studio apartments
26
suite hotels
61
20
supermarkets
226
329
330
17
245
in circulation systems
239
insulation
260
276
298
303
surface-mounted thermo-stats
298
303
251
surgical patients
72
92
surgical suites
32-bed hospital example
95
112
considerations
75
gathering information
97
Index Terms
Links
90
105
121
82
83
109
46
158
swiss showers
129
273
278
38
T
T & P relief valves
tableware
tank draw efficiency
243
48
300
283
tank-within-a-tank indirect
fired water heaters
292
32
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
295
124
Index Terms
Links
tankless systems.
See instan-taneous systems
tanks. See storage tanks
tape in heat trace systems
Tarbutton, George B.
269
xx
tax credits
328
Taylor, H.
38
teachers lounges
46
teachers workrooms
46
49
269
273
xxi
280
temperature
condensation and
15
12
5
354
6
266
large differences in
283
294
64
78
requirements
concrete
gathering requirements
198
47
274
76
92
Index Terms
Links
temperature (Cont.)
hospital user groups
72
78
hospital worksheets
81
84
86
hydrotherapy
74
92
136
156
138
222
179
kitchens
137
187
laundries
76
92
nursing/intermediate
care laundries
138
prison kitchens
187
showers
210
special therapeutic
needs
128
204
scalding
13
sterilization
76
206
93
system temperature
range
278
worksheets
140
335
temperature cross
defined
281
284
283
temperature differential
drops in system temperature range
in heat recovery equations
278
5
Index Terms
Links
262
332
15
298
315
5
335
69
225
269
electrical terminals on
immersion elements
300
end termination
273
273
terminology
heat exchangers
280
278
testing laboratories.
See laboratories
thawing food
fast-food restaurants
228
grocery stores
227
Index Terms
Links
therapy services
calculating demand
130
128
128
206
therapy tubs
73
91
261
4
260
thermal expansion
allowing for
15
293
piping
259
refrigerant liquids
326
tank materials
348
283
293
thermodynamic properties of
water
347
258
336
thermostatic capsules
339
74
112
209
Index Terms
Links
thermostats
electric water heaters
303
316
332
315
storage tanks
298
317
318
267
Thrasher, W. H.
38
57
threaded nipples
298
314
339
340
ticket booths
204
209
259
time-delay sequencers
306
three-way thermostatic
capsules (diverting valves)
26
48
180
titanium
285
262
toilets
fast-food restaurants
229
grocery stores
227
industrial facilities
191
prisons
184
Index Terms
Links
toilets (Cont.)
public
42
religious facilities
226
shopping malls
228
46
staff toilets
73
training rooms
204
trauma rooms
113
travelers hotels
tray cleaning
60
43
209
61
227
36
233
233
206
243
199
94
284
281
281
tube velocity
282
tubes, weight of
235
111
157
284
xxi
280
Index Terms
Links
turbulence
in heat exchangers
286
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
turnaround time for showers
295
210
U
U-tube bayonet-type heat
exchangers
335
284
282
234
xxi
16
267
278
262
uniforms
blood on
188
laundries and
188
234
331
Index Terms
units of measurement in formulas
university steam water systems
unrecirculated tanks
Links
3
333
16
untraced piping
278
321
239
urban hotels
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
240
61
194
user groups
hospitals. See also under
specific groups (i.e., nurses
stations, surgical suites)
32-bed hospital
example
93
300-bed example
124
111
109
defined
72
gathering information
72
91
laundries
75
92
98
total worksheets
81
109
124
usage factors
88
worksheet examples
84
worksheets
78
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes. See also under
specific groups (i.e., nurses
stations, patient areas)
48-bed facility example
158
defined
134
gathering information
134
161
113
Index Terms
Links
144
usage factors
152
worksheet examples
147
worksheets
140
176
165
225
227
228
50
utilities
laundries
222
rebates
328
205
utility plants
190
197
V
vapor barriers in heat trace
systems
vapor compression
269
325
vegetable sinks
demand
87
55
kitchen requirements
151
prison kitchens
187
school kitchens
50
52
53
velocity
erosion
244
in recirculating systems
244
vent caps
321
321
323
Index Terms
Links
vents
gas water heaters
316
pipe connections
323
317
321
245
322
323
320
vertical-to-horizontal draft
hoods
322
207
16
128
129
38
203
viton
286
217
voltage
electric water heaters
207
resistance of elements
302
volumes
of materials
354
of water
346
volumetric expansion
354
349
W
waiting for hot water. See
delays in hot water
Ward, John R.
xx
Index Terms
wards in hospitals
warehouses
Links
72
190
197
325
48
wash cycles
averages
222
dormitory laundries
40
75
222
227
wash fountains
baseball team locker room
examples
214
example
193
211
215
218
192
industrial facilities
191
193
348
as heating medium
280
volume of
346
Index Terms
Links
water (Cont.)
weight of
346
266
270
217
218
water conservation
delays in hot water and
238
energy conservation
234
265
laws
wastage tables
37
271
346
water hammer
336
water heaters
applications
baseball team locker
room examples
215
212
industrial facilities
192
institutional dormitories
43
jail example
183
distances to fixtures
233
expansion
348
types
electric water heaters
297
heat exchangers
279
325
291
instantaneous gas
heaters with
separate tanks
311
Index Terms
Links
242
recirculating domestic
hot water systems
233
297
self-regulating heat
trace systems
265
333
313
129
water quality
hospital sterilization
93
312
76
190
198
water velocities in
recirculating systems
244
302
180
260
21
multifamily buildings
19
21
monitoring demand
28
Index Terms
Links
19
seasonal demand
20
289
weight
of heated water
of piping or tubes
346
235
286
334
262
Wentz, Thomas A.
xx
Werden, R. G.
38
195
whirlpool baths
baseball team locker room
examples
214
212
hotel demand
sports arenas and stadiums
Whitworth, Patrick L.
217
61
209
211
xx
Wilcox, Greg
262
Windsor, Tod
262
winter season
monitoring demand during
28
water demand
20
305
Index Terms
Links
work-release programs in
prisons
186
130
22
worksheets
hospitals
32-bed hospital examples
100
109
300-bed examples
115
124
84
78
worksheet totals
81
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
48-bed examples
164
147
worksheet totals
144
worksheets
140
173
wraparound elements
300
Y
year-round sports arenas
205
Z
Zamboni machines
205
zinc plating
303