BIL 3013 English Grammar - Reviewed C YES

English Grammar|i
MODULE
BIL 3013 : ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Coordinator
Napisah Kepol (Dr.)
Editor
Napisah Kepol (Dr.)
Authors
Napisah Kepol (Dr.)

Tunku Mohani Tunku Mohtar (Professor Dato Dr.)
Abdul Ghani Abu (Dr.)
FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND COMMUNICATION

UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS
2012
English Grammar|ii
Copyright 2012 by Napisah Kepol, Tunku Mohani Tunku Mohtar & Abdul Ghani Abu
Copyright 2012 by Pusat Pengajian Luar, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without
permission in writing from the authors and Pusat Pengajian Luar, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
English Grammar|iii
CONTENTS
vii - x
COURSE GUIDE
UNIT 1
UNIT 2
UNIT 3
Tenses
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Overview of Basics of Grammar
Tenses
Simple Present Tense
Simple Past tense
Simple Future Tense
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Future Perfect
Present Progressive
Past Progressive
Future Progressive
Present Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Future Perfect Progressive
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
1
1
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
15
16
17
17
18
18
Auxiliary Verbs, Subject-Verb Agreement and Negation

Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Main Verbs and Auxiliary Verbs
Primary Auxiliary Verbs
Modal Auxiliaries
Subject-Verb Agreement
Negation
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
23
23
23
26
28
32
36
38
39
40
41
Nouns, Determiners, pronouns

Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Nouns
Countability
Determiners
Pronouns
44
44
44
46
48
51
English Grammar|iv
UNIT 4
UNIT 5
UNIT 6
UNIT 7
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
56
57
59
60
Adjectives and Adverbs

Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Adjectives
The Order of Adjectives
Adverbs
Degree of Comparison
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
62
62
62
67
68
69
71
71
73
74
Gerunds and Infinitives

Learning Outcomes
Introduction
What are Gerunds and Infinitives?
Verbs Followed by Gerunds Only
Verbs Followed by Infinitives Only
Verbs Followed by Either Gerunds or Infinitives
Gerunds as Objects of Prepositions
Verb + Pronoun/Noun Phrase + Infinitive
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
76
76
76
77
79
81
83
84
86
87
88
88
Prepositions
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Forms of Prepositions
Meanings of Prepositions
Positions of Prepositions
Prepositional Phrases
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
92
92
92
93
95
96
99
100
101
102
Questions
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Statement-Question Conversion
104
104
104
English Grammar|v
UNIT 8
UNIT 9
UNIT 10
UNIT 11
Yes-No Questions
Wh- Questions
Tag Questions
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
106
109
112
114
115
116
117
The Passive Voice

Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Passive Verbs
Using the By-phrases
Using Passive Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
119
119
119
123
125
126
127
128
128
Coordinating Conjunctions
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Ways of Using Coordinating Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
131
131
131
133
135
136
136
137
137
Logical Connectors
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Classification of logical Connectors
Positions of Logical Connectors
Subordinating Connectors
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
139
139
141
148
148
150
151
154
154
Conditional Sentences
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Types of Conditional Sentences
Form and Meaning
Summary
158
158
159
160
169
English Grammar|vi
UNIT 12
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
169
172
173
Relative Clauses
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
How is a Relative Clause Formed?
Types of Relative Clauses
Reduced relative Clauses
Summary
Self Assessment
References
Answer Key
176
176
177
181
183
185
186
189
189
English Grammar|vii
_____________________________________________________________________________________
COURSE GUIDE
_____________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|viii
INTRODUCTION
This guide provides information that will help you to understand the requirements and contents of the
course. It will also assist you to find your way through the module that has been prepared for you.
TARGET GROUP
The course is offered all students enrolled in the B.Ed. in TESL programme at Universiti Pendidikan
Sultan Idris. This module, however, had been prepared for students taking the programme through the
Long Distance Learning mode.
STUDY HOURS
Each credit hour is equivalent to 40 study hours. Since the course is worth three credit hours, you have
to allocate a total of 120 hours of study time for it. The following table provides an estimate of the
number of study hours for the learning activities required for the course.
Learning Activities
Reading the module, revising and completing the tasks

Face-to-face Tutorials
Online Tutorial
Forum
Video P & P (MyGuru3)
Total
Study Hours
Face-to Face
Individual
Study
75
10
10
5
20
10
110
120
COURSE DESCRIPTION
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
1. Analyse English grammar in terms of form, meaning and use. (C4)
2. Distinguish grammatical rules that guide the production of forms and meaning. (P1)
3. Exemplify correct language use and forms in various contexts and situations. (A5)
4. Think critically in discussing aspects of grammar. (CT3)
English Grammar|ix
SYNOPSIS
This course is designed to enable students to acquire a deeper knowledge and understanding of the
formal features of English. It provides much of the essential corpus to enable students to use the
language correctly and appropriately inside and outside the classroom. This module will be taught in
meaningful contexts.
CONTENTS
The module consists of 12 units. Each unit will focus on one or more grammar points. The following
table contains a brief description of the topic(s) covered in each unit.
UNIT
1
TOPICS
Tenses
The unit begins by providing an overview of the basic elements of grammar. This will be
followed by a focus on tenses where you will learn about the twelve tenses used in the
English language.

In this unit, you will learn about the main verb and the auxiliary verb. You will also learn
how to apply the subject-verb agreement rule and how to negate sentences.
Nouns, Determiners and Pronouns

This unit provides information about the various types of nouns, determiners and pronouns.
You will learn how to modify nouns using determiners and how to use pronouns to replace
nouns.

This unit focuses on the types of adjectives and adverbs. You will learn about the positions
of adjectives and adverbs and how to use them as modifiers.

In this unit, you will learn about the verbs that are followed by gerunds and infinitives and
how to use them appropriately.
Prepositions
This unit will help you to understand the meanings of prepositions and how to form and use
prepositional phrases.
Questions
This unit provides information about Yes-No questions, Wh- questions and tag questions.
You will be guided on how to form and use these three types of questions.
The Passive Voice

This unit focuses on the passive voice. You will learn how to convert active verbs to the
passive voice and how to use the by-phrases and the passive modals.
English Grammar|x
9
In this unit, you will learn about coordinating conjunctions including the paired conjunctions
that are commonly used in the English language. You will also learn how to use the
conjunctions to combine parallel units or constituents in sentences.
10
Logical Connectors
In this unit, you will learn about various logical connectors that are used to combine clauses
or provide coherence to sentences. This includes subordinating conjunctions.
11
This unit focuses on the four types of conditional sentences: zero, type 1, type 2 and type 3
conditionals. You will learn the meaning of each type and how to form and use them
appropriately.
12
Relative Clauses
This unit helps you to differentiate between defining and non-defining relative clauses. You
will also learn about relative pronouns and how to form relative clauses using them.
Information about reduced relative clauses is also included.
ASSESSMENT
Assessment
Percentage
Test
20
Task 1
Task 2
Forum
Final Examination
15
15
10
40
Total Marks
100
Mode
The test will be conducted during
the second face-to-face meeting.
Offline
Offline
Online forum
The final examination will be
conducted at the centres.
ICONS
This icon indicates an explanation or description about a

topic or sub-topic.
LEARNING POINTS
A
Exercise 1
This icon is used to label practice exercises that follow the

explanations or descriptions of topics in each unit.
English Grammar|xi
SELF ASSESSMENT
This icon indicates the sections where self-assessment

exercises or activities are provided for you to test your
understanding of the topic or topics presented in each
unit.
English Grammar|1
UNIT 1
Tenses
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the unit, students should be able to:
1. Identify the twelve tenses of English.
2. Form verbs using each of the twelve tenses accurately.
3. Identify the expressions of time and frequency that occur with tenses.
4. Use each tense appropriately.
INTRODUCTION
Overview of Basic Grammar
Grammar refers to the structures of a language, what they mean and how they are used. A basic
knowledge of grammar involves knowing what parts of speech exist in the language, how phrases are
formed, the most common types of clauses and the most common types of sentence structures. Let us
review these basic elements of grammar.
Parts of speech
In the English language, there are basically eight parts of speech:
Parts of Speech
Examples
noun
book, key, cat, girl, apple, office, warmth
verb
write, run, cry, drink, wish, dream
adjective
clever, happy, thin, new, white, super
adverb
slowly, very, extremely, never, too
pronoun
he, they, hers, mine, she, we, I
preposition
on, in, under, towards, across, over
determiner
a, the, little, two, much, some
conjunction
and, so, although, but, because, if
English Grammar|2
Phrase
Phrases are formed by combining the parts of speech together. Some examples of phrases are:
adverb + adjective
= adjective phrase
very + happy
= very happy
adjective + noun
= noun phrase
clever + cat
= clever cat
Clause
The two most common clauses in the English language are the independent and dependent clauses.
These clauses are originally sentences that have been combined using a conjunction. Therefore a
sentence is called a clause when it becomes part of a longer sentence. For example, in the following
sentence,
He was sad because he lost his bicycle.
He was sad is an independent clause and because he lost his bicycle is a dependent clause. The
independent clause is labeled as independent because it is a complete sentence on its own. The
dependent clause is not a complete sentence and has to be attached to an independent clause in order to
make it complete.
He was sad because he lost his bicycle.
Independent
Clause
Dependent
Clause
Sentence
There are three common types of sentences in the English language. These sentences are:
Simple sentence
My father is a kind man.
Compound sentence
My father is a kind and generous man.
Complex sentence
My father donates a lot of money to the poor because he is a

generous man.
English Grammar|3
Having a good grasp of these elements of basic grammar will help you to understand and follow the topics
in this module.
In this unit, we will start with a topic on tenses.
LEARNING POINTS
Tenses
Tenses are used on verbs. They tell us the time that an event or action happens. There are twelve
tenses in English. These tenses are as follows:
Tenses
Simple present
Simple past
Simple future
Present perfect
Past perfect
Future perfect
Present progressive
Past progressive
Future progressive
Present perfect progressive
Past perfect progressive
Future perfect progressive
Examples
brush, brushes
drive, drives
brushed
drove
will brush
will drive
have / has brushed
have / has driven
had brushed
had driven
will have brushed
will have driven
am / is / are brushing
am / is /are driving
was / were brushing
was / were brushing
will be brushing
will be driving
have / has been brushing
have / has been driving
had been brushing
had been driving
will have been brushing
will have been driving
In the rest of this module, we will look at these tenses one by one.
English Grammar|4
Simple Present
The present simple tense is used to describe events or actions that are habitual or factual. Habitual actions
refer to those that occur as a habit or on a regular basis.
I take the bus to school.
Mira takes the bus to school, too.
The store opens at 8 oclock every morning.
The earth is round.
A
Exercise 1
Fill in the blanks in the passage below.
I dont have a car so I (0) _______take______ (take) the bus to school every day. I always (1)
___________________________ (wait) for the bus at the bus stop not too far from my house. It (2)
____________________________ (take) me about ten minutes to walk to the bus stop. I usually (3)
____________________________ (take) the 6:30 a.m. bus so that I can get to school on time. My school
(4) _________________________ (start) at 7:15 am and the bus ride (5) _________________________
(take) about ten minutes. That (6) ___________________________ (leave) me with plenty of time to get
ready for my classes.
A good friend of mine also (7) _____________________________ (take) the same bus to school
every morning. She (8) _____________________________ (get) on the bus at the third stop after mine. It
(9) ____________________________ (be) always nice to have a friend to chat with on the bus. When we
(10) ____________________________ (be) at school, we (11) _____________________________ (be)
usually
too
busy
to
chat
with
each
other.
Travelling
on
the
____________________________ (give) us the chance to catch up with each other.
bus
together
(12)
English Grammar|5
A
Exercise 2
List the words or phrases that indicate that the simple present tense should be used. The first one has been
done for you.
1. _every day______________________
2. _______________________________
3. _______________________________
4. _______________________________
Simple Past
A verb that comes in the form of the simple past tense describes an event or action that happened or has
been completed in the past. Usually, the time at which it happened or was completed is known.
I took the bus to school yesterday.
The store opened at 8 oclock yesterday morning.
Albert Einstein was a genius.
I visited Paris last year.
A
Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verbs in brackets.
Yesterday, I was late for school. I (0) _____waited__________ (wait) for more than half an hour before it
finally came. When I (1) ___________________________ (ask) the bus driver what happened, he told me
that the bus had broken down soon after he started driving. He (2) ________________________ (have) to
call a mechanic who managed to repair it quite quickly. Apparently, that (3) _________________________
(be) not the first time the bus broke down. The driver (4) __________________________ (tell) me that he
had to send it to the workshop on Wednesday the previous week because of another problem. He had
noticed that the bus was making a funny sound the week before. He (5) _________________________
English Grammar|6
(become) concerned but did nothing. When the noise (6) ___________________________ (become)
louder last Wednesday, he had no choice but to send it to the workshop. The mechanic (7)
_________________________ (tell) him that the bus was due to break down any moment. It (8)
_________________________ (be) lucky for him that he sent it to the workshop at that time. Otherwise, he
would be stranded with a broken bus on the side of the road.
A
Exercise 4
List the words or phrases that indicate that the simple past tense should be used. The first one has been
done for you.
1. _yesterday______________________
2. _______________________________
3. _______________________________
4. _______________________________
5. _______________________________
Simple Future
The simple future tense is used on verbs that show actions or events that have not happened yet but will
happen in the future.
I will take the bus to school tomorrow.
The store will open at 8 oclock tomorrow morning.
He will be the next president of our Language Club.
I will visit Thailand next month.
English Grammar|7
A
Exercise 5
Complete the sentences using the simple future tense.
1. My
mother
has
just
been
promoted
to
managerial
position.
She
_______________________________ (start) in her new position next month.

2. I _________________________________ (finish) my assignment soon.
3. My friends just missed the bus. They ____________________________________ (have) to take
the taxi instead.
4. If we dont take care of our environment, it __________________________________ (bring)
negative consequences in the long run.
5. They ________________________________ (send) us the books in a few weeks time.
6. My uncle _________________________________ (not, reveal) his plan to anyone.
7. _________________ you ____________________ (help) me to open this box?
8. I dont think it _____________________________ (rain) tomorrow. It has been dry for the past
few days.
Present Perfect
The present perfect tense is used for events or actions that happen before other events, actions, or time.
She has already left for school.
Ashraf has washed his car. It looks like new now.
I have already seen the latest Batman movie.
My parents have travelled the world extensively.
A
Exercise 6
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verbs given in brackets.
1. A:
I have something for Misha. Where is she?
English Grammar|8
B:
She ______________ already __________________ (leave) for school.
A:
Isnt it a bit too early for school? ___________________ she _______________________

(eat) her breakfast?
B:
Yes, she _________________________________ (eat) her cereal and drank her glass of
milk, just like you asked.
A:
2. A:
Good.
I ________________ never __________________________ (see) snow before. I
_____________________ never ________________________ (be) to a cold country.
B:
I havent either. I _______________________ only _______________________ (be) to

warm countries.
3. A:
__________________ you ______________________ (meet) the new teacher yet?
B:
No, I havent. Have you?
A:
Yes. Shes very friendly. You should meet her.
4. A:
Dina and Johan ___________________________________ (break) off their engagement.
B:
Really? Since when?
A:
Im not sure but I heard from Siti that they __________________________________

(agreed) to split up amicably.
B:
Thats a shame. They made such a nice couple.
Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense expresses events or actions that happened before other events, actions or time in
the past.
She had already left for school when her father called.
Ashraf had looked at a few models before he chose his new car.
They had written a letter before making the phone call.
My mother had already prepared lunch by the time we arrived.
English Grammar|9
A
Exercise 7
Complete the following sentences. Use the past perfect tense.
1. When I looked at the tree, the birds _________________ already ______________________ (go).
2. I
called
my
friend
after
noticed
that
___________________
accidentally
______________________ (take) her book with me.

3. Winning the competition was a big surprise. I _________________________________ (not,
expect) to win at all.
4. Before the interview, I _________________________________ (read) up on the company. So, I
did not have a problem answering the questions asked by the interviewers.
5. By the time we arrived home, the rain _________________________________ (stop).
6. Before he saved my life, I ___________________ never _____________________ (be) proud of
my brother for anything.
7. Josh was happy when he saw Jane. They ____________________________________ (not,
meet) for two years.
Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense expresses events or actions that will happen before other events or actions in the
future or by a particular time.
I will have taken the bus to school by the time you get here.
She wont have gone yet. Its too early.
Ten oclock is too late. The shop will have closed by then.
They will have completed the project by the end of the month.
English Grammar|10
A
Exercise 8
For each sentence, write another sentence using the future perfect tense. The first one has been done for
you.
1. Dont call me after 9pm. I will have gone to bed already.
2. Dont worry about food. Jack _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Did you say youre coming at eight? The show _________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Were moving too slowly. The driver _________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Lets wait for Jane before we look for a job. She ________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. They are celebrating their wedding anniversary next week. They ___________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Come back next week. I ___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Present Progressive
An event or action that is in progress at the present time can be expressed using the present progressive
tense. The event or action happened before now, is still happening now and will probably end sometime in
the future.
I am taking the bus to school now.
She is living with her parents for the time being.
Asif is reading a book on political science.
Mohamad and Amir are looking for their names in the list.
English Grammar|11
A
Exercise 9
Complete the sentences using the present progressive tense.
1. Akmal _________________________________________ (not, listen) to you now because he is
busy daydreaming.
2. The police _________________ still ______________________________ (investigate) the case
now.
3. The teachers ___________________________________________ (celebrate) Teachers Day
today.
4.
I _______________________________________________ (write) a poem for my mother. She

will be celebrating her birthday tomorrow.
5. Yoon _______________________________________ (look) for a partner to join the competition.

Are you interested?
6. Everyone __________________________________________ (prepare) for the final exams which
start next week.
7. My cat ________________________________________ (sleep) under the car again. I have to
train it not to sleep there because its dangerous.
8. Angeline _________________________________________ (study) at Universiti Pendidikan
Sultan Idris while her friend, Sharifah, _______________________________________ (pursue)
her degree at Perdana University.
Past Progressive
The past progressive tense is used when describing an event or action which was in progress at a certain
point of time or when another event or action happened in the past.
He was eating breakfast when he suddenly choked.
The uninvited guest turned up as Nurul was preparing dinner for her family.
Jayanthi and Nisha were chatting on Facebook at 8 oclock last night.
We were laughing uncontrollably after we heard my fathers joke.
English Grammar|12
A
Exercise 10
Fill in the blanks with the past progressive tense.
1. Siti _____________________________________ (study) in the library at 9 oclock last night.
2. I _____________________________________ (wonder) if I could see you on Monday.
3. I _____________________________________ (hope) that you would help me to catch the thief.
4. Mila ____________________________________ (take) a shower when the blackout occurred.
5. They met Kristina as they ___________________________________ (go) up to the second floor.
6. The pipe burst when the men ___________________________________ (dig) a hole in the
ground.
7. You
didnt
hear
her
say
it
because
you
__________________
too
busy_______________________ (talk) with Michael.

8. My car __________________________________ (have) a problem, so I couldnt leave until it was
fixed.
Future Progressive
The future progressive is used to show an event or action that will be in progress at a specific time in the
future.
They will be travelling together to Sabah.
She will be driving to school at this time tomorrow.
You shall be working with Linda on this assignment.
Shah and Farah will be getting married next Saturday.
English Grammar|13
A
Exercise 11
Using the following time expressions, write what will be happening in your life. Use the future progressive
tense.
1. soon
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. next week
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. in the very near future
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. at this time tomorrow
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. later this evening
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Present Perfect Progressive

The present perfect progressive tense is used for events or actions that are in progress recently or for a
certain period of time.
English Grammar|14
I have been taking the bus to school for two years now.
She has been living in Kuantan since 2008.
They have been chatting on the phone for a long time.
Mikhail has been going to the coffee shop a lot lately.
A
Exercise 12
Dialogue A
A:
I ________________________________________ (think) about taking the children on a field trip

to the zoo. It will be a learning trip for them. What do you think?
B:
I think thats a good idea. Theyll love it.
A:
I think so too. They _______________________________________ (behave) very well for the

past two years so I think we should take them out as a reward. The zoo will be a good learning
environment for them.
B:
Actually, they _________________________________________ (ask) me if we could take them

out on a trip. I told them that we might be able to plan something for them.
A:
Well,
we
should
go
ahead
and
plan
the
trip
then.
__________________________________________ (show) them pictures of animals, birds and

fish since they started school here so theyll be thrilled to see some of them for real.
Dialogue B
A:
Khalida ________________________________________ (miss) classes quite frequently now.
B:
I heard that she ________________________________________ (feel) well. I think she has a

problem with her back.
A:
Yes, she ____________________________________________ (complain) about it for the past

three months.
A:
Has she been to the doctor?
English Grammar|15
B:
I think she ______________________________________________ (get) treatment from the clinic

here. Her parents _____________________________________________ (also, take) her to a
homeopathist.
A:
She should see a specialist. Problems with the back should be properly checked.
B:
Yeah. We should try to persuade her to see one.
Past Perfect Progressive

The past perfect progressive tense is used for an event or action that was in progress before another event,
action or time in the past. Usually, the duration of the first event is stated.
I had been walking to school for three years before I decided to take the bus.
Rita had been talking on the phone for two hours when her mother stopped her.
Mei Ling had been complaining about her laptop for ages before it finally broke down yesterday.
My uncle had been suffering from cancer before he died.
A
Exercise 13
Fill in the blanks with the past perfect or past perfect progressive form of the verb where appropriate.
It
was
past
midnight.
(0)
___hadnt
realized____
(realize)
that
(1)
________________________________________ (write) nonstop for the past three hours. I (2)

________________________________________ (promise) myself that I would somehow send this novel
to the agent the next day. When I saw him the week before, he assured me that he would get it published. I
was
desperate
to
get
some
of
my
work
published.
Luck
(3)
________________________________________ (not, be) with me for the past three years. I (4)
________________________________________
(work)
very
hard
and
(5)
________________________________________ (complete) several novels and pieces of writing. I (6)

________________________________________ (send) them all to my agent and he (7)
________________________________________ (give) me the same answer that there was a lot of
competition out there. Perhaps my agent (8) ___________________________________________ (not,
English Grammar|16
work) as hard as I had. Maybe it was time for me to look for a new one. If he could not get this novel
published, he had better be looking for a new job.
Future Perfect Progressive

The future perfect progressive tense is used for events or actions that will be in progress for a certain
period of time before another event or action takes place.
I will have been walking to school for three years by next November.
He will have finished reading the book before the due date.
They will have started practising by the time you get there.
A
Exercise 14
Fill in the blanks using the future perfect progressive form of the verb in the sentences below.
1. Jasmin ________________________________________ (study) at UPSI for three years by next
semester.
2. They _________________________________________ (live) in Ipoh for ten years by next
December.
3. Little Amirah ______________________________________ (sleep) for three hours by the time
you arrive.
4. When I start my new job next month, I _________________________________________ (teach)
for five years.
5. She ______________________________________________ (watch) television for two hours
before she starts doing her homework.
6. My father ___________________________________________ (work) for the company for 35
years before he retires in March.
7. They ____________________________________________ (travel) the world for more than two
years by the time you join them next year.
English Grammar|17
Summary
There are twelve tenses in English grammar. These tenses tell us the time when an action or event
happens. Each tense is used for different purposes. The form of the verb changes depending on which
tense is used. It is important to use the correct tense that corresponds to the meaning intended of the
action or event.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verbs given.
I am twenty years old now. I cant believe how fast time flies. It (0) _____felt__________ (feel) like it was
only yesterday when I was still a teenager. I (1) ________________________________ (love) being a
teenager, especially being fifteen and sixteen. I can remember the carefree days when all I had to do was
to go to school, study for the exams, eat, and play. Now that I (2) ___________________________ (be) no
longer a teenager, I have more responsibilities. I still do all the things that I used to do as a teenager but I
also have to manage my own money, do my own laundry, cook, and take care of my own transport.
I am a young adult studying in a university. I dont earn my own money yet but I (3)
______________________________________ (learn) to manage my scholarship and the monthly
allowance that my parents give me. Although the amount from the scholarship and allowance is not big, it
(4) _____________________________________ (train) me to value money and to spend it wisely.
I (5) __________________________________________ (also, cook) my own meals. I (6)
_________________________________________ (learn) to cook some dishes from my mother before I
left for university. I am glad I did that because I can save more money by cooking my own meals. I (7)
______________________________________ (cook) simple dishes so it doesnt take too much time off
my studies.
As for the laundry, that is the easiest part. I just send it to the Laundromat. The money that I save
from my meals pays for the laundry services.
English Grammar|18
Transport
is
also
easy.
When
was
teenager,
my
parents
(8)
_________________________________________ (drive) me around. Now, I either take the university

buses or I (9) _____________________________________ (use) public transport. I also walk a lot. I (10)
______________________________________________ (think) of buying a bicycle. Maybe I (11)
_____________________________________________ (buy) one next semester.
Being a young adult is interesting but nothing compares to being a teenager. I still think that my teenage
years (12) ____________________________________________ (be) the best time of my life.
REFERENCES
Azar, B. S. (2009). Understanding and Using English Grammar (4th Ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
Seaton, A. (2007). Focus on Grammar. Singapore: Learners Publishing.
Eastwood, J. (2008). Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Larson-Freeman, D. (Series Ed.). (2007 2008), Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning and
Use (series 1 4). Heinle & Heinle.
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
wait
takes
take
starts
takes
leaves
Exercise 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
every day
always
usually
every morning
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
takes
gets
is
are
are
gives
English Grammar|19
Exercise 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
asked
had
was
told
became
became
told
was
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
yesterday
the previous week
the week before
last Wednesday
at that time
Exercise 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
will start
will finish
will have
will bring
5.
6.
7.
8.
will send
will not reveal
Will you
will rain
Exercise 6
1. A:
I have something for Misha. Where is she?
B:
She has already left (left) for school.
A:
Isnt it a bit too early for school? Has she eaten (eat) her breakfast?
B:
Yes, she has eaten (eat) her cereal and drank her glass of milk, just like you asked.
A:
Good.
2. A:
I have never seen (see) snow before. I have never been (be) to a cold country.
B:
I havent either. I have only been (be) to warm countries.
3. A:
Have you met (meet) the new teacher yet?
B:
No, I havent. Have you?
A:
Yes. Shes very friendly. You should meet her.
4. A:
Dina and Johan have broken (break) off their engagement.
B:
Really? Since when?
A:
Im not sure but I heard from Siti that they have agreed (agree) to split up amicably.
B:
Thats a shame. They made such a nice couple.
English Grammar|20
Exercise 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
had already
had taken
had not expected
had read
5. had stopped
6. had been
7. had not met
Exercise 8
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dont call me after 9pm. I will have gone to bed already.

Dont worry about food. Jack will have bought enough for everyone.
Did you say youre coming at eight? The show will have started by then.
Were moving too slowly. The driver will have driven off by the time we get there.
Lets wait for Jane before we look for a job. She will have finished her studies by the end of the
year.
6. They are celebrating their wedding anniversary next week. They will have been married for ten
years then.
7. Come back next week. I will have ordered more magazines for you.
Exercise 9
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
is not listening, is busy daydreaming.

are still investigating
are celebrating
am writing
is looking
is preparing
is sleeping
is studying, is pursuing
Exercise 10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
was studying
was wondering
was hoping
was taking
were going
were digging
were too busy talking
was having
Exercise 11
Example sentences:
1. I will be meeting my old friend soon.
2. I will be singing at the show next week.
English Grammar|21
3. I will be driving my own car to school in the very near future.

4. I will be enjoying the sunset in Langkawi at this time tomorrow.
5. I will be discussing the matter with my parents later this evening.
Exercise 12
Dialogue A
A:
I have been thinking about taking the children on a field trip to the zoo. It will be a learning trip for
them. What do you think?
B:
I think thats a good idea. Theyll love it.
A:
I think so too. They have been behaving very well for the past two years so I think we should take
them out as a reward. The zoo will be a good learning environment for them.
B:
Actually, they have been asking me if we could take them out on a trip. I told them that we might be
able to plan something for them.
A:
Well, we should go ahead and plan the trip then. I have been showing them pictures of animals,
birds and fish since they started school here so theyll be thrilled to see some of them for real.
Dialogue B
A:
Khalida has been missing classes quite frequently now.
B:
I heard that she has not been feeling well. I think she has a problem with her back.
A:
Yes, she has been complaining about it for the past three months.
A:
Has she been to the doctor?
B:
I think she has been getting treatment from the clinic here. Her parents have also been taking her
to a homeopathist.
A:
She should see a specialist. Problems with the back should be properly checked.
B:
Yeah. We should try to persuade her to see one.
Exercise 13
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
had been writing

had promised
had not been
had been working
had completed
had been sending
had been giving
had not been working
Exercise 14
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
will have been studying

will have been living
will have been sleeping
will have been teaching
will have been watching
will have been working
English Grammar|22
7. will have been travelling

Self Assessment
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
loved
am
have learned
trains
have also been cooking
had learned
(7) cook
(8) drove
(9) use
(10) am thinking
(11) will buy
(12) were
English Grammar|23
UNIT 2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Differentiate between verbs that function as an auxiliary verb and as a main verb.
2. Use auxiliary verbs and main verbs correctly in sentences.
3. Apply the subject-verb agreement rule in sentences.
4. Negate sentences correctly.
INTRODUCTION
Main Verbs and Auxiliary Verbs
In Unit 1, when we were learning about tenses, we were focusing on the verbs that carry the tenses. Verbs,
as we know, are words of action, feeling, perception or state. The verbs that we saw in Unit 1 either
functioned as a main verb or an auxiliary verb in the sentences that they appeared in. This is true for all
verbs.
Main Verb
When a verb is functioning as a main verb, it will appear in a sentence in two different ways:
1. by itself with no other verbs in a sentence
The cat eats fish.
She put the book on the table.
The girl draws a picture of a bird.
2. with other verbs in a verb phrase.
The cat is eating fish.
She has put the book on the table.
The girl can draw a picture of a bird.
English Grammar|24
When a verb occurs with other verbs in a sentence, the combination forms a verb phrase. In a verb phrase,
there will be one verb which functions as the main verb and another verb which functions as an auxiliary
verb.
Verb phrase: is eating
The word eating is the main verb. The main verb provides the main meaning of the verb phrase.
Auxiliary Verb
Look at the other verb in the same example.
Verb phrase: is eating
The other verb is is and this verb is called an auxiliary verb. It helps to give specific information about the
main verb eating. There can be more than one auxiliary verb in a verb phrase.
The cat has been eating fish again.
The words has and been are auxiliary verbs.
I will have been waiting for two hours by the time you arrive.
The words will, have and been are auxiliary verbs.
A
Exercise 1
Underline the main verbs in the following sentences.
1. Jane works hard for her money.
2. He should go to the gallery more often.
3. He stopped when he heard a noise.
4. Teachers have been encouraged to further their studies.
5. We dont like violent movies.
6. There are many flies in this town.
7. I am looking for a job.
English Grammar|25
A
Exercise 2
Underline the auxiliary verb(s) in the following sentences.
1. The garage is always locked.
2. Khairul will be calling for a meeting to discuss the new plans.
3. Mrs. Chong did talk to Jimmy about the problem. She told me about it herself.
4. Prema has gone to the store to buy some sugar.
5. The shops should be closing soon.
A
Exercise 3
Identify the main and auxiliary verbs in the sentences given. Write the verbs in the appropriate box.
Auxiliary Verb
Main Verb
Example:
Jenny has been dating Jake for a year now.
1. Haikal adores his baby sister.
2. There is a bird on the roof.
3. She was singing one of her favourite songs.
4. I will arrive at the airport early in the morning.
5. They were unhappy with the results of the competition.
6. I have been trying to call you since yesterday.
7. Sally will have been working there for five years by
next month.
8. My niece changes jobs every other year.
has been
dating
English Grammar|26
LEARNING POINTS
Auxiliary Verbs
The Primary Auxiliary Verbs
So far, we have looked at four verbs that can function as auxiliary verbs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
be
have
do
modal verbs
In this section, we will look at the first three verbs only. The fourth, modal verbs, will be learned in the
following section.
The three primary auxiliary verbs, be, have, and do, have different forms depending on the tense and
the subject used in the sentence that they appear in. We are going to learn more about how to apply the
subject verb agreement rule while learning about the three auxiliary verbs in this unit.
The forms of the be, have and do verbs are as follows:
Present tense
Past tense
be
am, is, are
was, were
have
has, have
had
do
do, does
did
A
Exercise 4
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verbs given.
1. I ____________________________ (be) feeling very sleepy.
2. Rafael __________________________ (do) take the CD away. Initially, I thought someone else
did.
English Grammar|27
3. Your father _______________________________ (have, be) asking for you. Go and visit him
tomorrow.
4. I ____________________________ (do) like durians very much and I love its smell!
5. The children ________________________________ (be) getting restless. We have to do
something.
6. I saw you at the mall yesterday. You _________________________________ (be) buying some
shoes.
7. Shereen _________________________________ (be) taking a course in marine biology at
Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
8. Why __________________________________ (do) we have to leave? It is so much fun here.
9. Balkis and Hakim ______________________________________ (have) rejected the job offer
from the American company.
10. I ______________________________________ (have) finished writing the term paper before I
started studying for the exam.
A
Exercise 5
Write three sentences using each of the verbs given. Use the verbs as auxiliary verbs in your sentences.
Be
1. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Have
1. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|28
2. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Do
1. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Modal Auxiliaries
Modal auxiliaries add a social and logical function to the main verbs that they are attached to. They indicate
the speakers feelings about whether something is permissible, advisable, or necessary, likely, possible,
probable or certain.
The modals are:
can
could
may
might
shall
should
will
would
must
Like other auxiliaries, a modal auxiliary is used in combination with a main verb. The main verb remains in
the base form regardless of the subject of the sentence, in other words, the subject-verb agreement rule
does not apply to verb phrases containing modal auxiliaries. Modal auxiliaries do not carry tense either.
He may come back for a visit tomorrow.
I will see you soon.
She should call her mother more often.
English Grammar|29
They can leave any time they want.
Social Function of Modals

Modals are used in social interactions such as seeking and giving permission, advice and suggestions and
making requests.
Asking for permission
The modal may is normally used for seeking and giving permission.
May I see you for a moment?
You may leave if you have finished your work.
Making a request
The modals can, could, will and would can be used to make a request.
Can you switch on the lights? Its getting dark in here.
Will you help me carry these books to the car?
You can make the same requests more polite by changing the modals to could or would.
Could you turn the volume down, please?
Would you help me carry these books to the car?
Giving advice
Different modals can be used to give advice, depending on the relationship between the persons giving and
receiving the advice. The following examples show the modals used in a decreasing degree of authority of
the speaker over the person receiving the advice.
You will see a doctor.
You must see a doctor.
You should see a doctor.
You might / could see a doctor.
(Strong authority)
(Weak authority)
The use of will indicates that the speaker has a strong authority over the person receiving the advice.
Making suggestions
The modals used for making a suggestion are shall should and could.
English Grammar|30
What can we do to improve our marks?

Shall we ask our lecturer?
Maybe we should form a study group.
We could get help from our other friends.
Logical Function of Modals
Modals are also used for making inferences and predictions. When used for making inferences and
predictions, each modal expresses a certain degree of certainty. Absolute certainty does not require the
usage of a modal, in which case the simple present tense is used, for example, it is Shalinis birthday
tomorrow.
Making inferences
When making an inference or a guess, varying degrees of certainty can be expressed using different
modals. In the following examples, the modals show a decreasing degree of certainty.
Whose bag is this?
It will be Shidas.
It must be Shidas.
It should be Shidas.
It may be Shidas.
It could / might be Shidas.
The modal will shows a strong degree of certainty in the inference made and could and might shows a
weak degree of certainty.
Making predictions
Modals are also used in making predictions about what is going to happen.
Lee Chong Wei will win the game tomorrow.
Lee Chong Wei should win the game tomorrow.
Lee Chong Wei may win the game tomorrow.
Lee Ching Wei could / might win the game tomorrow.
The modal will expresses a strong degree of certainty (100%) and could and might express a weak
degree of certainty.
Negated Modals
When negated, the modals can and could express a strong degree of certainty.
That could be the answer. (uncertain)
English Grammar|31
That cant/couldnt be the answer. (100% certain)

Using Modals to Refer to the Past
When referring to the past, modals are used in combination with the perfective tense.
Chong may have missed his bus. He is seldom late.
(Chong has arrived but he was late, the reason being that he may have missed his bus.)
We could have had a better holiday if it hadnt rained so much.
(We went for a holiday and it rained a lot during the holiday. So we did not have a good holiday.)
Other Examples:
You should have studied harder for yesterdays exam.
My father would have driven us there if we had asked.
She must have eaten breakfast already.
A
Exercise 6
Complete the conversations below. Use the appropriate form of the modal auxiliaries.
1. Neeta:
I forgot to bring my pen. _______________________________ I borrow yours?
Rose:
Sure. Heres my pencil case. Help yourself. How do I start writing?
Neeta:
You ___________________________________ (list) down your ideas for a start.

Then, you ___________________________________ (try) to group them into
themes.
2. Zain:
I wonder who ________________________________________ (send) her the

flowers.
Bibi:
Let me guess. It ______________________________________ (be) Zack

because he likes her. Or it _______________________________________
____________________(be) Joe because he likes her too. Another possibility is,
she _____________________________________ (buy) them herself because
she did before.
English Grammar|32
Zain:
No, she ______________________________________ (buy) them herself. I saw

a note in the flowers.
3. Jane:
I wonder if I _______________________________________ (bring) an umbrella

with me today.
May Ling:
I think you ______________________________. It ________________________

____________________(rain) later in the afternoon just like it did yesterday.
Jane:
In that case, I _______________________________ (bring) it with me then.
Subject-verb Agreement
The subject-verb agreement rule is applied on the subject and the verb of a sentence. The form of the verb
depends on the subject of the sentence. If the subject is singular, the verb must be in the singular form. If
the subject is plural, the verb must be in the plural form.
Singular Subject:
The boy rides his bicycle to school every day.
She is painting the beautiful scenery outside.
Plural Subject:
The boys ride their bicycles to school every day.
They are painting the beautiful scenery outside.
Main Verb
For sentences with main verbs only, the verb agrees with the subject according to the following patterns.
Subject
I, We, You, They
He, She, It
Verb
eat, walk, smile, drink
eats, walks, smiles, drinks
Auxiliary Verb
When the verb phrase in a sentence contains an auxiliary verb and a main verb, the subject verb
agreement rule is applied on the first auxiliary verb only. Look at the following patterns.
English Grammar|33
Be Verb:
Present Tense
Subject
I
We, You, They
He, She, It
Past Tense
Subject
I, He, She, It
We, You, They
Auxiliary Verb
am
are
is
Main Verb
eating, walking, smiling, drinking
Auxiliary Verb
was
were
Main Verb
Have Verb:
Present Tense
Subject
I, We, You, They
He, She, It
Past Tense
Subject
I, We, You, They
He, She, It
Auxiliary Verb
have
have been
has
has been
Auxiliary Verb
had
had been
Main Verb
eaten, walked, smiled, drunk
Main Verb
Do Verb:
Present Tense
Subject
I, We, You, They
He, She, It
Past Tense
Subject
I, We, You, They
He, She, It
Auxiliary Verb
Main Verb
Auxiliary Verb
Main Verb
do
does
did
English Grammar|34
A
Exercise 7
Apply the subject-verb agreement rule to the auxiliary verbs given in brackets. Write the correct form of the
verbs in the blanks provided.
1. All the computers _____________________________ (be) breaking down at the same time.
2. I hope you ______________________________ (be) telling me the truth.
3. The teacher _______________________________ (have) given us more homework to do.
4. You would know what to do if you _________________________________(have) listened more
carefully.
5. They _________________________________ (have) been informed about the new procedure.
6. Shiela ___________________________________ (do) look a bit like her grandmother.
7. I ________________________________ (be) enjoying a mug of coffee when I got the news.
8. We _______________________________ (be) hoping to catch a glimpse of Tun Dr Mahathir
Mohammad but we couldnt. The place was too crowded.
9. Jillian _____________________________________ (be) helping Hilda to do her homework at the
moment.
10. They
_______________________________________
(do)
not
complain
about
the
accommodation that was provided to them.
A
Exercise 8
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs given.
1. Nurul _________________________________________ (be, learn) how to drive a car.
2. Hayati ___________________________________________ (go) to the library to borrow some
books.
3. They ____________________________________________ (prepare) to go home.
English Grammar|35
4. No one ____________________________________________ (cook) chicken rendang better than

my mum.
5. My cousins ________________________________________________ (live) in Singapore since
they were born.
6. I ____________________________ already _____________________________ (check) the
dictionary before I used the word in my essay.
7. He ________________________________________ (chat) on Facebook every day.
8. I ___________________________________________ (count) on you to back me up.
9. All the cars ______________________________________________ (move) very fast when the
accident happened.
10. My dads old car always ___________________________________________ (break) down in the
middle of the road.
A
Exercise 9
Write sentences using the subjects given below.
Main verb only
1. Rahimah _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. The students ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Be Verb
1. He ____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Your friends ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|36
Have Verb
1. I _____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. It _____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Negation
English sentences are negated by using a negation marker. There are several negation markers in English.
Some of them are not, no, never, neither and nor.
In this unit, we will learn about the most common negation marker which is not. In sentences containing
verb phrases initiated by an auxiliary verb, not is placed after the auxiliary verb. If there is more than one
auxiliary verb, then not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
I will write a letter to your teacher.
I will not write a letter to your teacher.
I have read this poem already.
I have not read this poem yet.
She has been eating well for the past two weeks.
She has not been eating well for the past two weeks.
Sentences with a main verb only

Sentences containing only a main verb can also be negated. If the main verb is the be verb, then not is
placed after the be verb.
He is a teacher.
He is not a teacher.
They were happy here.
They were not happy here.
However, if the main verb is not a be verb, then an auxiliary verb has to be added before the sentence
can be negated. The auxiliary verb that can fulfil this function is do.
They like it here.
They do not like it here.
English Grammar|37
Ben cooks his own meals.

Ben does not cook his own meals.
My sister met her favourite author at the bookstore.
My sister did not meet her favourite author at the bookstore.
Contracted not
The negation marker not can be contracted especially in speech and informal writing.
I will not write a letter to your teacher.
I wont write a letter to your teacher.
She is not a writer.
She isnt a writer.
She has not been eating well for the past two weeks.
She hasnt been eating well for the past two weeks.
Ben does not cook his own meals.
Ben doesnt cook his own meals.
A
Exercise 10
Rewrite the following sentences and insert not (or the contracted form nt) where appropriate.
1. Badrul is an engineer at the construction company.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. She gave the audience her best performance.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. I have cleaned all the windows in the house.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|38
4. He will be visiting his fiance in France next month.

______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. They are very concerned about their childs education.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. The athlete is slowing down in the final lap of the race.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Her mother should work hard to support her family.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. We have been seeing each other for a long time.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9. Who wants to be rich and famous?
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
10. You can just walk to the counter and ask.
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Summary
Verbs can function as main verbs or auxiliary verbs in a sentence. As a main verb, it occurs on its own in a
sentence. As an auxiliary verb, it occurs with the main verb to form a verb phrase. There can be more than
one auxiliary verb in a verb phrase.
The subject-verb agreement rule is applied to the subject and verb of a sentence. The rule states that a
singular subject must occur with a singular verb and a plural subject must occur with a plural verb. In a
sentence with an auxiliary verb, the rule is applied to the subject and the auxiliary verb, not the main verb. If
there is more than one auxiliary verb, the first auxiliary will have to agree with the subject.
English Grammar|39
English sentences can be negated by adding a negation marker after the verb. The most common negation
marker in English is not. Not is placed after the auxiliary verb in a verb phrase. If there is more than one
auxiliary verb in the verb phrase, then not is placed after the first auxiliary verb. In a sentence with no
auxiliary verb, the auxiliary do has to be added to the main verb. Not is then placed after the auxiliary
do.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Write the auxiliary verb(s) that can occur with the main verb in each sentence.
1. I met Aina when I _________________________________ shopping at the market.
2. Vasathi _______________________________ not care much about her marks.
3. The old man __________________________________________ complaining about his son all
day long.
4. We ________________________________ enjoying ourselves at the beach now.
5. There ___________________________________ been three robberies at the bank so far this
year.
6. Aiman ___________________________________ running off to the cinema.
7. She ______________________________________ leaving for Taipei soon.
8. They ________________________________________ gone to the river bank for a picnic.
9. The orang utans ____________________________________________ given a new home in the
conservatory.
10. You __________________________________________ write your name down if you want to be
included in the team.
English Grammar|40
Test 2
Choose the correct answer from the options given.
1. The bird ____________ chirping nonstop this morning.
a) is
b) are
c) were
2. Our last holiday ______________ interrupted by the heavy thunderstorm coming in from the north.
a) having been
b) have been
c) had been
3. We ______________ leaving for Pangkor Island now.

a) are
b) is
c) am
4. Lolita ____________ already _____________ in her application to the university.

a) have sent
b) hassent
c) have send
5. Dave ______________ to work every morning.

a) doesnt drive
b) not drives
c) dont drive
6. You _____________ speaking too fast for me to understand you properly just now.
a) is
b) was
c) were
7. They _____________ to pick up their daughter at school.

a) has gone
b) have gone
c) is going
8. My father ______________ regularly to the local charity.

a) donating
b) donate
c) donates
9. I ____________ happy with the results of the competition.

a) am
b) is
c) are
10. Mike ____________ talking on the phone when the lights suddenly went out.
a) were
b) was
c) am
REFERENCES
Education.
English Grammar|41
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Jane works hard for her money.

He should go to the gallery more often.
He stopped when he heard a noise.
Teachers have been encouraged to further their studies.
We dont like violent movies.
Exercise 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The garage is always locked.

Khairul will be calling for a meeting to discuss the new plans.
Mrs. Chong did talk to Jimmy about the problem. She told me about it herself.
Prema has gone to the store to buy some sugar.
The shops should be closing soon.
Exercise 3
Auxiliary Verb
Haikal adores his baby sister.
There is a bird on the roof.
She was singing one of her favourite songs.
I will arrive at the airport early in the morning.
They were unhappy with the results of the competition.
I have been trying to call you since yesterday.
Sally will have been working there for five years by next
month.
My niece changes jobs every other year.
was
will
have been
will have been
changes
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
am
did
has been
do
are
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Main Verb
adores
is
singing
arrive
were
trying
working
were
is
do
have
had
English Grammar|42
Exercise 5
Example sentences:
She was feeling a bit nauseous then.
I have lived there for as long as I can remember.
My mother doesnt think badly about you.
Exercise 6
1. Neeta:
Rose:
Neeta:
2. Zain:
Bibi:
Zain:
3. Jane:
May Ling:
Jane:
I forgot to bring my pen. Can I borrow yours?

Sure. Heres my pencil case. Help yourself. How do I start writing?
You could list down your ideas for a start. Then, you can try to group them into
themes.
I wonder who could have sent her the flowers.
Let me guess. It could have been Zack because he likes her. Or it could have
been Joe because he likes her too. Another possibility is, she may have bought
them herself because she did before.
No, she cant have bought them herself. I saw a note in the flowers.
I wonder if I should bring an umbrella
with me today.
I think you should. It may rain later in the afternoon just like it did yesterday.
In that case, I will bring it with me then.
Exercise 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
are
are
has
had
have
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
does
was
were
is
did
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
hadchecked
chats
am counting
were moving
breaks
Exercise 8
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
is learning
has gone
are preparing
cooks
have been living
English Grammar|43
Exercise 9
Example sentences:
Main verb only
1. Rahimah walks with a slight limp.
2. The students work hard to earn good grades.
Be
1. He is happy with the way things are going in his life now.
2. Your friends were talking in an unacceptable manner.
Have
1. I have seen all Steven Spielbergs movies.
2. It has come to my knowledge that you have been missing classes regularly.
Exercise 10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Badrul is not an engineer at the construction company.

She did not give the audience her best performance.
I havent cleaned all the windows in the house.
He will not be visiting his fiance in France next month.
They are not very concerned about their childs education.
The athlete is not slowing down in the final lap of the race.
Her mother shouldnt work hard to support her family.
We have not been seeing each other for a long time.
Who doesnt want to be rich and famous?
You cant just walk to the counter and ask.
Test 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
was
does
has been
are
have
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
is
will be, is
have
have been, are
can, should
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
c)
b)
c)
a)
b)
Test 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
a)
c)
a)
b)
a)
English Grammar|44
UNIT 3
Nouns, Determiners, Pronouns
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Classify the different types of nouns.
2. Differentiate between countable and non-countable nouns.
3. Identify the different types of determiners.
4. Use the different types of determiners to modify nouns.
5. Use the different types of pronouns appropriately.
INTRODUCTION
A noun is a word that is used to identify or name a person, animal, thing, place or idea. It can function as a
subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, and an object complement in a sentence.
There are many different kinds of nouns in English. Generally, they can be classified into two main groups:
common nouns or proper nouns. The nouns that can come under common nouns are concrete nouns,
abstract nouns, mass nouns, and collective nouns.
Nouns can also be classified by whether they are countable or not. Nouns such as books, for example,
can be counted but nouns such as warmth are not countable.
Nouns can be modified by determiners and replaced by pronouns.
LEARNING POINTS
Nouns
Common Nouns
A common noun is a general name for a person, thing and place. Some of these nouns are countable and
some are uncountable. There are several types of common nouns as listed below.
English Grammar|45
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun refers to things that have a physical form and can be perceived through our five senses.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are concrete nouns:
The garden is beautiful.
They rode their bicycles to the train station.
I cannot believe that you read my diary.
The doctor prescribed some medicine for my sore neck.
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun refers to something that does not have a physical form. It cannot be perceived through
our five senses.
Life is so precious.
Getting a good education is important to most people.
The company hires people with a passion for humanistic work.
Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.
Mass Nouns
Mass nouns are things that exist in liquid or mass form. Generally, mass nouns are uncountable and
appear in the singular form. When the subject-verb agreement rule is applied, these nouns take the
singular form of the verb.
I need some water to quench my thirst.
Keep your luggage light when you travel.
This cake dough needs more flour.
Collective Nouns
A collective noun refers to a group of things, animals, or persons. The members of the group are usually
perceived as a whole entity but they can also be perceived individually. How you perceive the members of
the group determines the verb that you have to use with the collective noun.
The police are searching for the robbers.
The government is reviewing the policy on the training of teachers.
Our team has won the game.
Proper Nouns
A proper noun is the special name of a particular thing, person, or place.
Kuala Lumpur is a big city.
English Grammar|46
Wong Mei Ling is my mothers name.

I would like to visit the Eiffel Tower in Paris one day.
Countability
All the different types of nouns above can also be grouped according to whether they can be counted or
not. Those that can be counted are called count nouns and those that cannot are called noncount nouns.
There are also nouns that can be both countable and uncountable.
Count Nouns
A count noun refers to things that can be counted. It can be used in the singular form and the plural form
depending on its quantity. When the subject-verb agreement rule is applied, a noun in the singular form
takes a singular verb and a plural noun takes a plural verb. Concrete nouns and collective nouns are count
nouns.
A bird is perched on the fence behind our house.
The class has chosen to stay an extra hour.
A herd of cattle is coming this way.
We can use the article a, an and numbers in front of count nouns, for example, a bird, two birds, a
class, and two classes.
Noncount Nouns
A noncount noun refers to things that cannot be counted. Mass, abstract and proper nouns are generally
count nouns but some can function as noncount nouns in certain contexts. Noncount nouns appear in the
singular form and take the singular verb. The articles a and an and numbers cannot precede noncount
nouns.
Too much sugar is bad for our health.
Meena carries a lot of baggage with her when she travels.
Her hair is long and thick.
Both Countable and Non-Countable Nouns
Some concrete, mass, abstract, and proper nouns can be both countable and uncountable depending on
how they are perceived.
Countable
Youll be able to find plenty of stones at the river
bank.
Non-Countable
This wall is made of stone.
English Grammar|47
We want to order a cake for Jasmins birthday.

(one cake)
There is cake in the fridge.

(food substance which is cake)
Many lives were lost in the war.

(specific peoples lives)
People should live life to the fullest.

(life in general)
The Johnsons are here.

(members of the Jonhson family)
I saw Mr. Johnson at the supermarket just now.

(the man whose name is Mr Johnson)
A
Exercise 1
Write sentences containing the nouns as indicated.
1. Common
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Concrete
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Abstract
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Mass
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Collective
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
6. Proper
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|48
A
Exercise 2
Explain the difference in meaning between the following sentences.
1. Get us some coffee, please.
Get us two coffees, please.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. This recipe needs some cheese.

This recipe needs two cheeses.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Determiners
Determiners are words that appear in front of a noun and have a reference or limiting function.
There are several types of determiners. In this section, we will learn about the following types: articles,
demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners and quantifiers.
Articles
The English articles are a, an, the and zero article. The articles a, an and zero are called indefinite
articles while the is called the definite article. All these articles can be used generically or nongenerically.
English Grammar|49
Indefinite Articles
Indefinite articles have a nonspecific or generic meaning. A nonspecific noun refers to a noun whose
identity is not specified. When an article expresses a generic meaning, it refers to a thing (or things) that
represents a whole group.
Lets adopt a cat. (nonspecific)
Lets adopt cats. (nonspecific)
In the two sentences above, the identity of the nouns are unknown to both the speaker and listener.
A cat is a domestic animal. (generic)
Cats are domestic animals. (generic)
In these sentences, the nouns refer to a member or members of a class of animals.
Indefinite articles can also be used with nouns that are specific to the speaker but not to the listener.
I saw a cat there.
There was a child on the swing.
The Definite Article
The article the is more commonly used with specific nouns. It can also be used to express a generic
meaning. A specific noun refers to something or someone that both the speaker and listener know.
I saw the cat there. (specific)
The book is on the table. (specific)
The cat is a domestic animal. (generic)
The book will be replaced by the computer in the future. (generic)
In the first and second sentences, the cat and the book are known to both the speaker and listener. In the
third and fourth sentences, the cat, the book and the computer refer to all cats, books and computers in
general.
Demonstrative Determiners
Demonstrative determiners are this, that, these and those. This and that are used with singular
nouns while these and those are used with plural nouns. These determiners express a sense of
nearness and distance, either in terms of space, time or sequence.
I will take these eggs here. (space)
I dont want those potatoes. (space)
This meal is better than that lunch we had yesterday. (time)
This book is better than that one. (sequence)
English Grammar|50
Possessive determiners
The possessive determiners in English are my, your, our, their, his, her and its. These
determiners show possession. It indicates who or what something belongs or is closely related to.
This is her book.
I have lost my pendrive.
Your sister is waiting for you in the lobby.
Wahida and Gan have consulted their lecturer about the assignment.
Quantifiers
Another type of determiner is called quantifiers because they express amount and quantity. Some
examples of quantifiers are many, much, more, few, little, several, no, every, some, either
and enough. Some quantifiers are phrasal such as a lot of, a great deal of, only a few of and a
number of.
Few people know about the new caf.
No student is allowed to take the book home.
Many plants have been destroyed by the heavy rain.
There are a lot of people on the field.
We can take only a few of the courses each semester.
Combining Determiners
All the types of determiners that we have looked at are classified as core determiners. Determiners can be
used in sequence by combining a core determiner with a predeterminer or/and postdeterminer. In addition
to being a core determiner, certain types of quantifiers can also function as predeterminers and
postdeterminers.
All this work is making me tired.
Those other forms have to be processed too.
Her other two weaknesses are cake and ice-cream.
Other examples are shown below.
Predeterminer
both
all
double
Core Determiner
our
this
a
several
these
his
the
Postdeterminer
first
last
few
other
other
English Grammar|51
A
Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate determiner.
1. Heres ___________________________ file you were looking for.
2. I like ____________________________ chairs. Lets go over there.
3. He has _____________________________ brothers and sisters.
4. She will ask ____________________________ mother to accompany her to the show.
5. There was _____________________________ milk left in the fridge so I used it to make
___________________________ omelette.
6. Do you like ______________________________ dress or __________________________ one?
7. Give me ______________________________ ice. It will soothe ___________________________
bruise on her leg.
8. Sarah is ______________________________ au pair working for __________________________
American company.
9. ________________________________ emu is related to ______________________________
ostrich. They are _______________________________ large flightless birds.
10. _____________________________ ___________________________ books will go into this box.
_____________________________ ___________________________ two books over there will
go into ____________________________ box.
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that refer to nouns. The noun that is being referred to by the pronoun is called the
antecedent. All nouns can be replaced by pronouns. The main types of pronouns are personal pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and relative pronouns.
English Grammar|52
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns can be grouped into subject pronouns, object pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive
pronouns and reciprocal pronouns.
Subject Pronouns
A subject pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence.
He is an honest man.
They are happy to meet their old friends again.
She was surprised to see him there.
The subject pronouns are I, we, you, he, she, it, and they.
Object pronouns
When used as the object in a sentence, the pronouns take a different form, except for you and it.
I have to see them soon.
The teacher gave it to her.
We will call you when a decision has been made.
Here are all the object pronouns: me, us, you, him, her, it, and them.
The corresponding forms are shown in the table below:
Subject
Pronouns
I
We
You
He
She
It
They
Object
Pronouns
me
us
you
him
her
It
them
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun is used to show possession or ownership. This pronoun can function as a
determiner or as a pronoun replacing a possessive noun phrase. In the section on determiners, we have
learned how a possessive pronoun is used as a determiner. In this section, we focus on the other use of
the possessive pronoun.
English Grammar|53
As a possessive pronoun, it takes the following forms: mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, and theirs. Here are
some examples of possessive pronouns used to replace noun phrases.
This is my bag.
This bag is mine.
Take your bag.
Take yours.
Her book is better than mine.
Hers is better than mine.
Reflexive
Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence but not in the same way that subject pronouns
do. Reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis, as the object of a verb, and as the object of a preposition.
The headmistress called me herself. (for emphasis)
He hurt himself in the game. (as the object of a verb)
He lives by himself in a little apartment uptown. (as object of a preposition)
Reciprocal
The two reciprocal pronouns used in English are each other and one another. These pronouns refer to
plural subjects in sentences.
They love each other very much.
The brothers and sisters take care of one another.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Like possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns can also have two functions. They can be used as
determiners in front of nouns or as pronouns replacing a noun phrase. We have learned how they are used
as determiners in the section on determiners. In this section, we focus on the other function. The following
examples show how they are used as pronouns replacing noun phrases.
I want to watch this movie.
I want to watch this.
Take these shoes, not those shoes.
Take these, not those.
English Grammar|54
Indefinite Pronouns
The indefinite pronouns are compound forms such as something, anybody or everyone. They refer to
an indefinite thing or person. They can be used as the subject or object in a sentence. The following list
contains the indefinite pronouns used in the English language.
someone
anyone
no one
everyone
something
anything
nothing
everything
somebody
anybody
nobody
everybody
I didnt see anyone there.

Everybody was involved in the campaign.
Nobody cares about the way you look.
Interrogative pronouns
Another type of pronoun is interrogative pronouns. These pronouns are used to refer to interrogative noun
phrases.
I dont know which house you are talking about.
I dont know which you are talking about.
Whose bag is this?
Whose is this?
Other interrogative pronouns are what, who, and whom. As you can see in the second example, these
pronouns are also used to ask questions.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used at the beginning of a modifying clause in a complex sentence. Relative
pronouns share the same form as interrogative pronouns. There are five relative pronouns that can be used
to refer to an antecedent: who, which, whose, whom, and that. Here are some examples of relative
pronouns used in sentences.
The boy who spoke to me yesterday is here.
Were going to watch the movie that won the best film award.
We will be learning more about relative clauses in the final unit of this module.
English Grammar|55
A
Exercise 4
Fill in the blanks with a suitable pronoun.
1. We understand _______________________________ very well.
2. We couldnt inform people about it. We ______
3. _________________________ were in the dark about the situation.
4. These look similar. I cant differentiate which is _________________________________.
5. Rozita is looking forward to the competition. _______________________________ is very excited
about it.
6. Your hair looks disheveled. Why dont __________________________________ comb it?
7. There are many things __________________________________ we need to discuss.
8. Please talk to your father. You owe it to __________________________________.
9. All of you should help _________________________________. Use _______________________
collective creativity to the fullest.
10. I wonder why we have to do _____________________________ work. _____________________
is just ridiculous.
11. Jasmin kicked _____________________________ sister out from her house. I would never do that
to ____________________________ own sister. Would you do that to _____________________?
A
Exercise 5
Write sentences using the determiners and pronouns as indicated.
1. Demonstrative determiner
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|56
2. Demonstrative pronoun
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Possessive determiner
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Possessive pronoun
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary
Nouns are words that refer to things, people, animals, places and ideas. Nouns can be classified into two
big groups, namely, common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns can be further classified into
concrete, abstract, mass, and collective nouns. Nouns can also be grouped according to their ability to be
counted. Nouns that can be counted are called count nouns and those that cannot be counted are called
non-count nouns.
Nouns can be modified by groups of words called determiners. There are several types of determiners, four
of which were presented in this unit. These determiners are articles, quantifiers, possessive and
demonstrative determiners. When these determiners are combined with nouns, they form noun phrases.
Nouns or noun phrases can also be replaced by a group of words called pronouns. Pronouns are used in
order to avoid repetition. Several types of pronouns are personal, demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative
and relative pronouns. Personal pronouns can be grouped into subject, object, possessive, reflexive and
reciprocal pronouns.
English Grammar|57
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Identify the types of the italicized nouns in the following sentences.
common
proper
abstract
mass
concrete
collective
countable
Example:
There is plenty of love in this house.
1.
Sharifah is very conscious of her appearance.
2.
I havent seen Wei Ling for quite a while now.
3.
Two groups of students from two different universities are

visiting our campus today.
4.
I love mashed potatoes with brown gravy.
5.
Can you take the car out of the garage?
6.
The Davidsons are coming for tea.
7.
Well have two coffees, please.
8.
We need a few potatoes for this dish.
9.
Thank you very much for your kind hospitality.
10.
The Kremlin was powerful in Russia at one time.
non-countable
Types of Nouns
common, abstract,
non-countable
English Grammar|58
Test 2
Write sentences using the nouns given. Underline the noun phrases that you created.
1. courage
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. stones
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. government
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. sister
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. juice
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
6. mountain
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Test 3
Write sentences using the types of pronouns indicated below.
1. demonstrative
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. object
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|59
3. reflexive
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. indefinite
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. reciprocal
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
6. relative
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
7. possessive
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
Education.
English Grammar|60
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
Example sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
There are many students at the canteen.

The children are having a picnic.
I can feel the warmth in their welcome.
Please take the garbage out.
The team of footballers will compete in tomorrows game.
I will be going to Paris next month.
Exercise 2
1. In the first sentence, coffee is uncountable and refers to the liquid substance. In the second
sentence, it refers to cups of coffee.
2. In the first sentence, cheese is uncountable and refers to the food substance called cheese. In the
second sentence, types of cheese are being referred to, eg., Brie, Cheddar.
Exercise 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
the
those
many, several
her
a little, the
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
this, that
some, this
an, an
The, the, both
These two, The other, that
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
that
him.
one another, your
this, This
her, my, yours
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
each other
ourselves
which.
She
you
Exercise 5
Example sentences:
1. These magazines are out of date.
2. I dont want to read those.
3. That is our house over there.
4. That house over there is ours.
English Grammar|61
Test 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Common, abstract, non-countable

Proper, non-countable
Common, collective, countable
Common, mass, non-countable
Common, concrete, countable
Proper, countable
Common, mass, countable
Common, concrete, countable
Common, abstract, non-countable
Common, collective, non-countable
Test 2
Example sentences:
1. His courage is amazing.
2. These little stones are suitable for the garden.
3. The government is planning an anti-smoking campaign.
4. Ill speak to my sister about it.
5. Weve run out of juice.
6. The highest mountain in the country is Mount Kinabalu.
Test 3
Example sentences:
1. We need those for the house.
2. I have to tell him about the problem.
3. I want to see it for myself.
4. There is something I want to show you.
5. They fight each other.
6. Thats the girl whom youll be meeting.
7. This is mine and that is yours.
English Grammar|62
UNIT 4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the types of adjectives and adverbs.
2. Identify the positions of adjectives and adverbs in sentences.
3.
Differentiate between adjectives and adverbs with the same form.
4. Use adjectives and adverbs correctly and appropriately.

5. Express comparison using comparatives and superlative forms.
INTRODUCTION
An adjective and an adverb are two of the parts of speech in the English language. An adjective is used to
modify a noun. It is usually placed before the noun but it can also be placed after the noun in a postnominal
position or in the predicate of the sentence.
An adverb belongs to a group of modifying structures called adverbials. There are many types of adverbs.
An adverb is usually described as a verb modifier. However, depending on its type, an adverb can also be
used to modify an adjective or another adverb.
Some adjectives and adverbs are gradable and can be used to express comparison. The degree of
comparison is expressed through comparative and superlative forms.
We will also learn about adjectives and adverbs that have the same form in this unit.
LEARNING POINTS
Adjectives
An adjective is a word used to describe or modify a noun. An adjective provides information about the noun
that it modifies. The kinds of information that adjectives provide are as follows:
English Grammar|63
Information about
Opinion
Size
Shape
Condition
Age
Colour
Origin
Material
Examples of Adjectives
pretty, nice, ugly, bad, naughty
big, small, medium, gigantic
square, triangle, oval, round
torn, chipped, broken, tattered
young, old, new
red, white, black, purple
Malaysian, Asian, British, Italian
plastic, concrete, silk, woolen,
Positions of Adjectives
Adjectives can be used in three positions in a sentence. These positions are attributive, predicative and
post-nominal.
Attributive
When an adjective premodify nouns, they occupy the attributive position. This means that it appears in front
of the noun that it modifies. An attributive adjective is part of a noun phrase.
big dog
handsome prince
Malaysian style
Some adjectives can appear in the attributive position only, which means that they can never be placed in
the predicative position. The asterisks indicate that the sentences are ungrammatical
main reason
rightful heir
previous chapter
total failure
*The reason is main.

*The heir is rightful.
*The chapter is previous.
*The failure is total.
Predicative
An adjective can also post-modify a noun in a sentence. In this case, the adjective is used after the noun
that it modifies. In the predicative position, the adjective is part of the predicate of the sentence. It appears
after a linking verb as a complement. Some examples of linking verbs are feel, be, appear, taste,
grow, smell, sound, and seem.
She seemed upset by the changes in the schedule.
The weather is wet and windy.
The lecture was interesting.
English Grammar|64
As the case with the attributive position, some adjectives can only be predicative. Here are some examples:
The baby is awake.
Santini feels unwell.
I am fine.
The fish is alive.
Postnominal
An adjective in the postnominal position appears directly after a noun.
The man involved has been questioned by the police.
I need something cool.
The boy thinks it funny.
She makes him happy.
A
Exercise 1
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate adjective.
1. You have to make the activity _____________________________ so that the students will enjoy it.
2. Pandelela Rinong is a _______________________________ diver.
3. I feel ________________________________ when I go on _______________________________
holidays.
4. Studying in a long distance programme is __________________________________ for me.
5. The only answer ___________________________________ is obvious, isnt it?
6. The scenery at the lake became stunningly __________________________________ at sunset.
7. This soup tastes ____________________________________! What did you put in it?
8. Tina was ___________________________________ when she saw the state of her
___________________________________ house.
9. His lips turned __________________________________ as a result of staying in the swimming
pool for too __________________________________.
10. Dont try to be __________________________________ with me. Youll regret it.
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A
Exercise 2
Write sentences using the adjectives given as indicated.
1. Odd
Attributive:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Predicative:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Postnominal:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2.
Sleepy
Attributive:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Predicative:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Postnominal:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Powerful
Attributive:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Predicative:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Postnominal:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Intensifiers
Adjectives are often intensified or softened with adverbs such as extremely, very, quite, rather, somewhat,
fairly. Adverbs with this function are called intensifiers.
The soup is very salty.
The room was too dark.
We were a little late for the meeting.
I can't stand the rather odd smell of her perfume.
Present and Past Participle Adjectives
Another group of adjectives that is frequently used in English is the participle adjectives. These adjectives
have a present or past participle ending. They are used in the same way that the other adjectives are used.
They can also occupy the attributive, predicative or postnominal positions in a sentence.
That was a boring topic.
The topic was boring.
He made the topic boring.
Here are more examples of participle adjectives:
Present Participle
Past Participle
smiling
pouring
daring
surprising
amazing
exhausting
exciting
relaxing
interesting
loving
boiled
dried
painted
surprised
amazed
exhausted
excited
relaxed
interested
loved
A
Exercise 3
Use the words given in brackets to form adjectives.
1. Dont wake the ________________________________ (sleep) baby.
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2. I am _______________________________ (bore). I need something to stimulate my mind.

3. I want to see the _________________________________ (talk) bird. I want to hear it talk.
4. Azizah has just arrived on a long-haul flight from London. She is ___________________________
(exhaust).
5. Is there anyone _________________________________ (interest) in joining the army? They are
recruiting now.
6. The chicken curry looks _________________________________ (invite). I want to have some.
7. My daughter has a very _________________________________ (charm) smile which she uses
on me to get what she wants.
8. Adele is the latest _________________________________ (sing) sensation. Her voice is
magnificent.
9. Shasha feels ________________________________ (neglect). Her husband does not have much
time to spend with her.
10. Life in the city is _____________________________________ (amaze). I love every minute of it.
The Order of Adjectives

Adjectives can be used in combination. We can use more than one adjective before a noun. There are
general principles for using adjectives in combination.
opinion
size
shape
condition
age
colour
origin
Material
beautiful
small
round
cracked
old
blue
Chinese
porcelain
a beautiful old vase

a small round blue vase
a beautiful small round cracked old blue Chinese porcelain vase
The most common combination contains two adjectives. A combination of more than three adjectives is
seldom used.
English Grammar|68
Adverbs
Adverbs provide information about how, where or when an action happens. They are placed before or after
the verbs that they modify. Some adverbs can also be used to modify adjectives and other adverbs.
Adverbs belong to a group of modifying structures called adverbials. Also in this group are prepositional
phrases and subordinating clauses. We will only focus on the single word and simple adverbial phrases in
this unit. Prepositional phrases and subordinating clauses will be dealt with in Units 6, 10 and 11.
Types of Adverbs
Adverbs
Manner
Time
Frequency
Place
Direction
Degree
Probability
Examples
quickly, carefully, slowly,
suddenly, cheerfully
today, yesterday, all morning,
next week, now, then
every day, annually, once a
year, seldom, always, usually
everywhere, there, here,
outdoors, overhead
northwards, here, there,
outside, back, down, up
very, so, extremely, too, really
probably, maybe, certainly,
perhaps, surely
Sentences
The children went to the playground cheerfully.
Rita walked to the podium slowly.
They have been discussing all morning.
I will see you then.
We visit the museum once a year.
We seldom talk on the phone.
Those bugs are flying everywhere.
We want to exercise outdoors.
Come here.
Lets go outside.
This skirt is too small for me.
There is a really big mosquito on your shoulder.
Maybe its not too late to say sorry to him.
He is certainly going to the meeting in Bangkok.
Positions of Adverbs
Adverbs can occupy three different positions in a sentence. These positions are called initial, medial, or
final. Some adverbs can take the initial position only and some can take the final position only. Adverbs of
manner and probability can usually take all three positions. Adverbs of time, place and direction take the
final position. Adverbs of degree are used to modify nouns and therefore appear before nouns. Adverbs of
frequency are varied. Some, such as annually and every day, can take the final position only while others,
such as always and seldom, take the medial position only.
Carefully, he signed the letter. (initial)
He carefully signed the letter. (medial)
He signed the letter carefully. (final)
Adverbs and Adjectives with the Same Form
Some adverbs and adjectives have the same form. There are not many adverbs and adjectives in this
category. Some examples are hard, early, high, late, right, deep, fast and wrong.
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Adverb
Adjective
They studied hard for the exam.

She came early for the meeting.
The plane flew high in the sky.
They went deep into the river.
The exam was hard.

She was early.
The plane was high in the sky.
They went to the deep end of the river.
A
Exercise 4
Identify whether the italicized word is an adjective or adverb.
1. They had always wanted to set the birds free.
_____________________
2. They were happy when the birds were free.
_____________________
3. Everything turned wrong on that day.
_____________________
4. Everything was done wrong.
_____________________
5. He arrived late last night.
_____________________
6. He was late.
_____________________
7. It must be done the right way.
_____________________
8. It must be done right.
_____________________
9. Go straight along this road.
_____________________
10. This road is straight.
_____________________
11. He talks very fast.
_____________________
12. He was too fast for me to follow.
_____________________
Degree of Comparison
Some adjectives and adverbs are gradable meaning that they can be used for comparison. Comparison
can be expressed using the inflections -er and -est or words such as more, or less.
Comparative Form
When comparing two nouns, we use the comparative form. The comparative form uses the inflections -er
and the words more and less to show differences in degree or extent.
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Adjectives
His shoes are dirtier than mine.
I have never seen anything uglier than the bull dog.
Its more practical to walk than to drive in a congested city.
The first holiday package is less attractive than the second package.
Adverbs
I wake up earlier on weekdays than on weekends.
Have you seen anyone who cooks faster than my sister?
I eat more slowly than Hanisah.
He speaks English less fluently than his brother.
Superlative form
The superlative form is used to compare three or more nouns. The superlative is formed using the
inflections -est and the words most and least.
Adjectives
Perlis is the smallest state in Malaysia.
The Petronas twin towers are no longer the tallest buildings in the world.
The new robot is the most intelligent among them all.
Among the three boys, Ali is the least discouraged.
Adverbs
Among his friends, Ali drives the fastest.
Which plane can fly the highest?
She eats the most slowly among us all.
It was obvious that Vi Vian was the one who performed the most skillfully.
A
Exercise 5
Fill in the blanks with appropriate comparative or superlative adjectives or adverbs.
1. Lets climb Mount Everest, the _________________________________ mountain in the world.
2. Those who can climb the ________________________________ will get some rewards.
3. Nothing is more __________________________________ than doing charity work.
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4. Helping other people is the most _______________________________________ work that I have

ever done.
5. Among the two of you, tell me who can run _______________________________________?
6. Among the four of you, who can throw the javelin the ___________________________________?
7. That road is the __________________________________. Dont take it.
8. Alicia likes to take things easy. She doesnt do things ___________________________________.
9. Find the _____________________________________ way out of this mess. I dont want to waste
time.
10. It is ______________________________________ to take this route than that one.
Summary
Adjectives are words used to modify nouns. Adjectives can appear in three different positions in a
sentence: attributive, predicative, and postnominal. When an adjective is attributive, it appears before the
noun. A predicative adjective appears after a linking verb, while a postnominal adjective appears
immediately after the noun before the verb. A change of position can sometimes result in a change of
meaning.
Adverbs are usually used to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb. There are several kinds of adverbs:
adverbs of place, time, manner, direction, degree, frequency and probability. Adverbs can appear in the
initial, medial or final position in a sentence.
Some adjectives and adverbs are gradable. The comparative form is used when comparing between two
things or people and the superlative form is used when comparing among more than two things or people.
Some adjectives and adverbs share the same form.
Self Assessment
Test 1
Explain the differences in meaning between the sentences in each pair.
1. The boys were amazed.
The boys were amazing.
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. He was boring.
He was bored.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Test 2
Write sentences using the given adjectives as indicated.
1. Colourful
Attributive:
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Predicative:
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Responsible
Attributive:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Predicative:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Postnominal:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Suitable
Attributive:
________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
Predicative:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Postnominal:
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Test 3
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate adverb.
1. The music from the neighbours house was ____________________________ loud. We had to tell
them to turn down the volume.
2. The most embarrassing moment of my life _________________________________ ended.
3. The passage was ________________________________ narrow for the car to pass through.
4. People who are diabetic have to inject themselves with insulin ____________________________.
5. My dad was a kind man. He _____________________________________ got angry with anyone.
6. I ____________________________________ needed water after eating the spicy Mexican food.
7. Our new neighbours welcomed us _______________________________________ to their house.
8. After the fight, nobody dares to go _______________________________________ anymore.
9. If you want to volunteer your services, please come _____________________________________.
10. _______________________________________ you should talk to the teacher first before making
a complaint.
REFERENCES
Education.
English Grammar|74
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
Example answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
lively
professional
excited, adventurous
perfect
possible
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
beautiful
horrible
devastated, ransacked
blue, long.
funny
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
inviting
charming
singing
neglected
amazing
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
adjective
adverb
adverb
adjective
adverb
adjective
Exercise 2
1. Sleepy
Attributive:
Put the sleepy baby to bed.
Predicative:
The baby looks sleepy.
2. Odd
Attributive:
That was an odd conversation.
Predicative:
That conversation was odd.
Postnominal: Something odd happened this morning.
3. Powerful
Attributive:
Mohamad Nazri is a powerful man.
Predicative:
Mohamad Nazri is powerful.
Postnominal: We need someone powerful to support us.
Exercise 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
sleeping
bored
talking
exhausted
interested
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
adverb
adjective
adjective
adverb
adverb
adjective
English Grammar|75
Exercise 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
highest
highest
satisfying
satisfying
faster
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
farthest
farthest
hurriedly
easiest
easier
Test 1
1. In the first sentence, something made the boys experience the feeling of amazement, for example,
something that they saw. In the second sentence, the boys were the ones who created that feeling
of amazement in other people, for example, through their skill or behaviour.
2. In the first sentence, the subject he made other people feel bored through something that he did
or through his personality. In the second sentence, the subject he experienced boredom himself
as a result of something that he saw or did. Something made him feel the boredom.
Test 2
1. Colourful
Attributive:
I want to buy that colourful bag.
Predicative:
The house was colourful.
2. Responsible
Attributive:
Jessie is a responsible mother.
Predicative:
Jessie is responsible.
Postnominal: The woman responsible for the felony has been sentenced.
3. Suitable
Attributive:
Teoh seems suitable for the job.
Predicative:
Teoh is a suitable person for the job.
Postnominal: The person suitable for the job is Teoh.
Test 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
extremely, very, so
suddenly
too
daily, once a day
seldom, rarely, never
desperately
warmly, enthusiastically, happily
there, out, outside
forward, here
Perhaps, Maybe,
English Grammar|76
UNIT 5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify verbs that can be followed by gerunds only.
2. Identify verbs that can be followed by the infinitive only.
3. Distinguish the difference in meaning between verbs followed by either a gerund or an infinitive.
4. Use gerunds and infinitives correctly in sentences.
INTRODUCTION
What are gerunds and infinitives?
A gerund is a word that originates from a verb. Its form is verb + ing, for example, swimming. As it looks
like a verb that is used to mark the progressive tense, it is always mistaken for one. Compare the following
sentences:
I love swimming.
I am swimming now.
The word swimming appears in both sentences. The word swimming in the first sentence is called a
gerund, not a verb. In the second sentence, swimming is a main verb and it occurs with the auxiliary be.
As you have learned in Unit 2, this combination marks the progressive tense. Therefore, swimming is not
a gerund in this sentence.
A gerund has the same function as a noun. It can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence.
Swimming is my favourite sport. (Subject)
I love swimming. (Object)
My favourite sport is swimming. (Complement)
An infinitive is a verb in its base form. The base form of the verb means that the verb is not marked for
tense, number or person. In this unit, we are going to learn about the to-infinitive, in other words, we will
focus on the infinitive phrase which is made up of to plus the base form of a verb, for example, to swim.
English Grammar|77
The infinitive can also be used like a gerund. For example, the sentence I love swimming can also be
expressed using a to-infinitive as in the following sentence:
I love to swim.
LEARNING POINTS
Verbs followed by gerunds only
Some verbs can only occur with a gerund and not an infinitive. Some other verbs can be followed only
by an infinitive but not a gerund. There are also some verbs that can be followed by either a gerund or
an infinitive. In this section, we are going to look at verbs that are followed by a gerund only. Here are
some examples:
enjoy
avoid
finish
admit
complete
dislike
suggest
miss
deny
propose
mind
mention
risk
consider
keep
He denies breaking the vase.

We kept ringing the door bell until somebody opened the door.
I miss playing with my little brother.
A
Exercise 1
In each pair of sentences, identify the gerund by writing G in the appropriate space.
1. Katrina is reading about the latest celebrity gossips.
__________
English Grammar|78
Katrina loves reading about the latest celebrity gossips. __________

2. I like going to the cinema.
__________
I am going to the cinema.
__________
3. They are making a mistake.

They admit making a mistake.
__________
__________
4. She prefers keeping it a secret.
__________
She is keeping it a secret.
__________
5. We stopped playing when it rained.
__________
We were playing when it rained.
__________
A
Exercise 2
Pair the verbs with suitable gerunds. Then write sentences using each combination of the verbs and
gerunds.
1. suggest
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. dislike
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. propose
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. keep
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. finish
____________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
6. deny
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Verbs followed by infinitives only

The verbs listed below are examples of verbs that can be followed only by an infinitive.
decide
fail
plan
want
agree
claim
wish
ask
learn
hope
refuse
need
struggle
offer
demand
A
Exercise 3
Pair the verbs with suitable infinitives. Then write sentences using each combination of the verbs and
infinitives.
1. wish
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. refuse
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. claim
____________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. demand
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. struggle
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
6. fail
____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
A
Exercise 4
Write I in the spaces after sentences containing an infinitive and G after sentences containing a gerund.
1. The course helps to prepare us for the examination.
_____________
2. My friends went out as soon as they finished doing their assignments.

3. They choose to be excluded from the discussions.
4. She refused to go to the clinic.
___________
____________
____________
5. This work requires building a good relationship with your team mates.
6. We couldnt help laughing when we heard the news.
__________
____________
7. The cyclists aim to reach their destination in a months time.
____________
8. The teacher suggests solving the problem in a different way.
____________
9. Mira couldnt afford to lose in the competition again.
____________
10. The hydroelectric project involves building a small dam near the village.
____________
English Grammar|81
A
Exercise 5
Write a gerund or an infinitive in the blanks provided.
1. They practiced _____________________________ (say) their lines many times to get them right.
2. He failed ____________________________ (explain) the answer clearly.
3. My father suggests ______________________________ (visit) the National Science Centre this
weekend.
4. Bob decided not __________________________________(reveal) his new plans to his wife yet.
5. All the children enjoy ________________________________ (go) to the zoo.
6. Anita promised ____________________________(meet) me at the nursery in two weeks time.
7. He delayed ______________________________ (go) to the dentist.
8. Everyone avoided _______________________________ (meet) the boss after his outburst this
morning.
Verbs followed by either gerunds or infinitives

There are also verbs that can occur with either a gerund or an infinitive. The words listed below are some
examples of these kinds of verbs.
prefer
like
begin
love
hate
start
bother
intend
neglect
propose
continue
need
These verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive without any change in meaning.
He prefers studying alone. (gerund)
He prefers to study alone. (infinitive)
I love going to the market on Sunday. (gerund)
English Grammar|82
I love to go to the market on Sunday. (infinitive)

However, there are also verbs that can be followed by either a gerund and an infinitive that would result in a
change of meaning. There are not many verbs in this category. Here are some of them:
stop
forget
regret
remember
try
He tried to call you. (but the phone was faulty)

He tried calling you. (but you were not in)
In the first sentence, the call did not get through because the phone was faulty. In the second sentence, the
call got through and the caller was informed that the person he was calling was not in.
As can be seen in the examples above, the infinitive can be used for an intended action and the gerund can
be used for an action that has been done or fulfilled. You can use this as a guide to help you to understand
the difference in meaning between sentences using a gerund and an infinitive.
A
Exercise 6
Explain the difference in meaning between the sentences in each pair.
1. I forgot meeting her in Jakarta.
I forgot to meet her in Jakarta.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. He tried climbing the roof to repair the leak.
He tried to climb the roof to repair the leak.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|83
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
A
Exercise 7
For each verb, write a sentence that shows an intended action and a sentence that shows a fulfilled action.
1. stop
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. remember
a. ___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Gerunds as Objects of Prepositions

So far we have seen gerunds being used as the object of the verb. Gerunds are also used as the object of
the preposition.
I look forward to hearing from you soon.
I am used to drinking coffee in the morning.
Some young people dream of migrating to the West.
He is capable of taking care of himself.
English Grammar|84
A
Exercise 8
Complete the sentences using a gerund as the object of the prepositions given.
Example: Her manager praised her for speaking the truth.
1. He is scolded for _________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. They are thinking of ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. The manager objects to __________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. I will stop my sister from ___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Henry was accused of ____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Charanjit and Nadia are responsible for _______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Leela is excited about _____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. I was tired of ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Verb + Pronoun/Noun Phrase + Infinitive

Pronouns or noun phrases can be used in between some verbs followed by infinitives. Here are some
examples:
ask
teach
need
English Grammar|85
tell
beg
want
persuade
cause
force
invite
expect
remind
My father expects me to do well in the final examination.

I want you to follow my instructions properly.
The teacher told Kim to write her poem on the board.
The government troops forced the demonstrators to disperse.
A
Exercise 9
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate pronoun or noun phrase.

1. My baby son needs _____________me___________ to be with him.
2. Meera convinced ____________________________________ to go with her to the party.
3. The traffic police reminded ______________________________________ to drive safely during
the festive season.
4. The robbers warned ________________________________________ to keep quiet.
5. They hired __________________________________________ to look after their ailing mother.
6. The student asked __________________________________________ to be lenient when
marking his paper.
7. Who told ______________________________________ to take off the lid?
8. I allowed _____________________________________ to use the computer in my room.
English Grammar|86
A
Exercise 10
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate infinitive.

1. I will tell him _________to repair_______ the wall soon.
2. The police ordered us _____________________________ as soon as possible.
3. You cannot force me _______________________________ something that I dont like.
4. The coach encouraged the players ________________________________ on winning the game.
5. She urged her classmates ____________________________________ to the charity fund.
6. Soo Lin begged Marina _____________________________________ her.
7. Lee invited them ________________________________________ him in the discussion.
8. I didnt want him _______________________________________ me after the unpleasant
incident.
Summary
A gerund originates from a verb. It is formed by adding -ing to a verb. Grammatically, gerund functions as
a noun. It can be placed in positions usually occupied by nouns. When a gerund follows a preposition, it is
functioning as the object of the proposition.
An infinitive refers to the combination of the particle to and a verb. The verb that follows to must be in
the base form. Like a gerund, an infinitive can be placed after a verb in a sentence. Pronouns or noun
phrases can also be placed in between the verb and the infinitive.
Some verbs can be followed only be a gerund and other verbs only by an infinitive. There are also verbs
that can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive without any change in meaning. However, there are
some verbs that can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive that will result in a change of meaning.
English Grammar|87
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Fill in the blanks with a gerund or an infinitive.
People who want (1) ________to teach______________ (teach) English must have a good knowledge of
the language. This includes having a good knowledge of grammar. Teachers without a good knowledge of
grammar risk (2) ___________________________________ (teach) their students erratic grammar. These
teachers will not be able (3) _______________________________ (correct) their students errors because
they themselves tend (4) __________________________________ (make) the same errors that the
students make. When this happens, there is no proper (5) ______________________________ (teach)
and (6) _________________________________ (learn) taking place. Teachers must make the effort (7)
_________________________________ (master) at least the basics of grammar. A good knowledge of
grammar allows them (8) _________________________________ (use) the language accurately and
fluently. A teacher who is confident in his or her knowledge of English has a better chance of (9)
_____________________________ (help) their students (10) ____________________________ (learn) it
more successfully.
Test 2
In the blanks provided, write intended if the action indicated by the gerund or infinitive in the sentence is
intended and write fulfilled if the action is fulfilled.
1. He regretted telling Sally about his date with Sue. By tomorrow, everyone in the school will be
talking about it. __________________________
2. I forgot to bring the text book. Can I borrow yours? ______________________________
3. We regret to inform you that our company will cease its operation effective May 1st of this year.
___________________________
4. They have stopped calling at our house. We miss them so much. __________________________
English Grammar|88
5. She remembers working day and night trying to make ends meet. She hopes she will not have to
go through it again. ___________________________
6. They stop to stare at the unexpected display of bright lights in the sky. It is a sight not to be missed.
______________________________
7. He tried pulling the nail out with all his might. It still wouldnt budge. _________________________
8. Im glad I remembered to buy the buttons for my mum. Otherwise, I would have to go out again.
_____________________________
9. My grandfather forgot taking his medicine this morning. I was with him when he took it. His memory
is failing him. ________________________________
10. Lets try to be kind to everyone that we meet today. Lets fill the day with good deeds.
__________________________________
REFERENCES
Education.
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Katrina loves reading about the latest celebrity gossips.

I like going to the cinema.
They admit making a mistake.
She prefers keeping it a secret.
We stopped playing when it rained.
_____G_____
_____G_____
_____G_____
_____G_____
_____G_____
English Grammar|89
Exercise 2
Example answers:
1. suggest
+
________going__________
They suggest going to the museum for the school trip.
2. dislike
+
_______doing___________
3. propose
+
_______building_________
4. keep
+
_______talking__________
5. finish
+
_______painting_________
6. deny
+
_______calling__________
Exercise 3
Example answers:
+
________to share___________
1. wish
I wish to share this reward with you.
2. refuse
+
________to let______________
+
________to own_____________
3. claim
4. demand
+
________to see_____________
5. struggle
+
________to understand_______
6. fail
+
________to do______________
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I
G
I
I
G
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
G
I
G
I
G
5.
6.
7.
8.
going
to meet
going
meeting
Exercise 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
saying
to explain
visiting
to reveal
Exercise 6
1. In the first sentence, the action of meeting the lecturer had happened (fulfilled) but the speaker
could not recall it. In the second sentence, the speaker had intended to meet his lecturer but forgot
to do so.
2. In the first sentence, the speaker had succeeded in climbing the roof (fulfilled) in order to repair the
roof. In the second sentence, the speaker had intended to climb the roof to repair the roof but had
not succeeded in doing so, eg, he fell off the ladder.
English Grammar|90
Exercise 7
1. stop
a. The tourists stopped to look at the flowers. (intended)
b. The tourists stopped looking at the flowers. (fulfilled)
2. remember
a. I remembered to check the engine before driving off. (intended)
b. I remembered checking the engine before driving off. (fulfilled)
Exercise 8
Your sentences must include a gerund after the prepositions given.
Exercise 9
Example answers:
1. My baby son needs ______me_____ to be with him.
2. Meera convinced Raina to go with her to the party.
3. The traffic police reminded the public to drive safely during the festive season.
4. The robbers warned the shopkeeper to keep quiet.
5. They hired a nurse to look after their ailing mother.
6. The student asked the teacher to be lenient when marking his paper.
7. Who told you to take off the lid?
8. I allowed him to use the computer in my room.
Exercise 10
Example answers:
1. I will tell him _______to repair_______ the wall soon.
2. The police ordered us to leave as soon as possible.
3. You cannot force me to do something that I dont like.
4. The coach encouraged the players to focus on winning the game.
5. She urged her classmates to donate to the charity fund.
6. Soo Lin begged Marina to forgive her.
7. Lee invited them to join him in the discussion.
8. I didnt want him to see me after the unpleasant incident.
Test 1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
to teach
teaching
to correct
to make
teaching
(6) learning
(7) to master
(8) to use
(9) helping
(10) to learn
English Grammar|91
Test 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Fulfilled
Intended
Intended
Fulfilled
Fulfilled
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Intended
Fulfilled
Intended
Fulfilled
Intended
English Grammar|92
UNIT 6
Prepositions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Classify the forms and types of prepositions.
2. Identify the positions of prepositions.
3. Form sentences using prepositional phrases with different roles.
4. Use single-word and complex prepositions correctly and appropriately.
INTRODUCTION
Prepositions have a wide range of meanings. The most common meanings show a spatial or temporal
relationship between the object of the preposition and the other words in a sentence. Some prepositions
also show abstract relationships. Prepositions have two forms which are simple prepositions and complex
prepositions.
Besides preceding a noun, noun phrase, pronoun or gerund, prepositions can also appear at the beginning
or end of sentences. When they appear before a noun, noun phrase, pronoun or gerund, they form
prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases have an adjectival, adverbial or complementary role in
sentences.
LEARNING POINTS
Forms of Prepositions
Simple Prepositions
Many of the most common prepositions are single-word prepositions. These prepositions are called simple
prepositions. The following list shows some of the common simple prepositions.
English Grammar|93
to
at
in
on
by
of
up
as
for
into
with
over
after
until
under
since
from
down
about
below
during
behind
across
inside
beyond
before
around
against
through
towards
between
opposite
Complex Prepositions
A complex preposition is a combination of a preposition with other prepositions or words. Some examples
are listed below.
out of
all over
next to
up to
on to
due to
such as
away from
in front of
in between
in spite of
because of
on account of
In place of
on top of
Meanings of Prepositions
The most common meanings indicated by prepositions are spatial and temporal. However, there are many
prepositions which convey other more abstract meanings.
Space
There is a book on the table.
They went to the beach together.
Ill meet you at the library.
He ran across the yard.
Put the book in the bag.
Temporal
The lecture will be held on Monday.
It is a quarter to eight. We close at eight oclock sharp.
Ill meet you at seven oclock in the evening.
We are behind time. We have to hurry up.
Abstract
They are on holiday in the Bahamas.
Both are them are good at badminton.
You have to keep yourself up to date.
This is a book about grammar.
English Grammar|94
She has been under a lot of stress.
A
Exercise 1
Put in on, at and in in the spaces where appropriate.
1. What should I look _____________________, this red circle or the yellow square?
2. She is writing a book _____________________ astronomy.
3. They will be here _____________________ fifteen minutes.
4. I need something to stand _______________________. I cant see from here.
5. Were meeting ________________________ the caf. Do you want to join us?
6. You have to speak _______________________ English more often.
7. Christmas falls __________________________ 25th December every year.
8. Set the temperature ________________________ 180C. Bake the cake ___________________
the oven for one hour.
9. The cat pounced _______________________ the mouse and held it _____________________ its
mouth.
10. My daughter was born ________________________ 1:45 pm ____________________ the
General Hospital _______________________ Penang.
A
Exercise 2
Choose an appropriate complex preposition from the list above to complete the sentences.
1. Dont let her walk _________________ ________________ you.
2. We were working on the project ___________________ __________________ September last
year.
3. The flight was delayed _____________________ ____________________ the heavy rain.
English Grammar|95
4. Mat and Iris seemed calm ___________________ ___________________ ________________

their misfortune.
5. Im not used to being _____________________ ____________________ home.
6. She behaves differently ___________________ ___________________ _________________
her friends.
7. The Mini Cooper is parked _____________________ ____________________ a BMW and a
Volkswagen.
8. There are many species of fish, ____________________ ____________________ the trout and
sea bass.
9. I believe hes ____________________ ____________________ town. I dont see his car where
its usually parked.
10. She has to take care of her family and her parents-in-law _________________ _______________
____________________ the heavy workload in the office.
Positions of Prepositions
Before Nouns, Noun Phrases, pronouns and Gerunds
Prepositions are usually found before nouns, noun phrases, pronouns or gerunds. In this position, they
introduce a prepositional phrase. A noun, noun phrase, pronoun or gerund that follows a preposition
functions as the object of the preposition.
The glass of water is mine.
We will leave at 4:00 pm.
She took many pictures during the gathering.
The little girl took the puppy out of the box.
I am going with them.
Give the shirt back to him.
They are interested in hosting the show.
Farah thanked Anis for helping her with her homework.
At the Beginning or End of Clauses or Sentences
Some prepositions can also appear at the beginning or end of clauses or sentences. Three of the most
frequent clauses or sentences in which prepositions appear in these two positions are questions, relative
clauses and infinitives. Prepositions at the beginning of sentences are used in more formal sentences.
English Grammar|96
Questions
To whom did you speak?
At which juncture were you the most distracted?
Whom/Who did you speak to?
Which building are you in?
Relative Clauses
That was the shop in which I met Raha.
The trophy, for which he has been fighting, is now in the hands of his opponent.
He was the man that I spoke to.
She is the girl whom he argued with.
Infinitives
My nephew bought a coin album in which to put his collection of coins.
I cant decide with whom to stay.
The surface is glossy. Tell us what you used to cover it with.
I dont know what Im supposed to look for.
Prepositional Phrases
Form
As described in the previous section, a prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and a noun, noun
phrase, pronoun and gerund.
Preposition + noun
Preposition + noun phrase
Preposition + pronoun
Preposition + gerund
by train
on the table
with her
of swimming
Roles
Prepositional phrases serve different roles in a sentence. They can function as an adjective modifying a
noun, as an adverbial or as a sentence complement.
Adjectival
In this role, the prepositional phrase provides more information about the noun that it modifies.
He is looking for a cat with green eyes.
The road near the river is dangerous.
The leftover food from last nights dinner is in the fridge.
English Grammar|97
Adverbial
As an adverbial, the prepositional phrase provides more information about the verb, such as the time, place
and manner in which something was done, among other things.
Call me again in the morning.
He first met his wife at a party.
She was offered a ride by her new colleague.
They left in a hurry.
Complementary
When functioning as a complement, the prepositional phrase is needed to complete the sentence. It comes
after linking verbs or certain intransitive verbs (verbs which do not take an object such as live, sit, and lay).
Hazwan is in his office.
He is not with us.
Jaswant lives in Kuala Lumpur.
My parents arrive in the evening.
A
Exercise 3
Form your own prepositional phrase as indicated. Then write a sentence using the prepositional phrase that
you have formed in the space provided.
1.
Sentence:
Preposition
Noun
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2.
Sentence:
Preposition
Noun Phrase
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|98
3.
Sentence:
Preposition
Pronoun
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4.
Sentence:
Preposition
Gerund
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5.
Sentence:
Preposition
Noun
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
6.
Sentence:
Preposition
Noun Phrase
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|99
A
Exercise 4
Identify the roles of the prepositional phrases (adjectival, adverbial, complementary) in the sentences.
1. He walked to the station.
_________________________
2. She likes to stop for a cup of coffee.
_________________________
3. The girl by the window is my niece.
_________________________
4. We will leave at noon.
_________________________
5. They left the day after yesterday.
_________________________
6. This question is way beyond my capability.
_________________________
7. We were interrupted by the lady behind us.
_________________________
8. The song on the radio is my favourite.
_________________________
9. Nobody likes being in the dark.
_________________________
10. We havent seen each other since 2010.
_________________________
Summary
A preposition is a word which shows the relationship between its object and other nouns or words in a
sentence. Prepositions have a spatial, temporal or abstract meaning. Simple prepositions consist of single
words while complex prepositions consist of a combination of more than one preposition or a preposition
plus other words.
Prepositions usually appear before a noun, noun phrase, pronoun or gerund to form a prepositional phrase.
They can also appear at the beginning or end of clauses or sentences.
When prepositions are used in sentences, they fulfil either one of three roles: adjectival, modifying a noun;
adverbial, providing more information about the verb; or complementary, completing sentences with linking
and certain intransitive verbs.
English Grammar|100
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Complete the sentences using appropriate prepositions.
1. I am tired _____________________ writing all these sentences.
2. I have an appointment _____________________ the dentist ____________________ Thursday.
3. Ill buy the dress _______________________ you.
4. The Queens speech will be broadcasted _______________________ the radio and TV.
5. He was leaning ____________________________ the wall for support.
6. She has been ____________________________ a lot. Give her time to recuperate.
7. _________________________ what time was the suspect last seen?
8. I have never been __________________________ Moscow. I would like to go one day.
9. We have nobody ____________________________ whom we can talk.
10. Who am I speaking ___________________________, please?
11. I would like the lady ____________________________ red to step onstage, please.
12. When are you going ________________________ the seminar? Is it _______________________
Friday?
13. They were disappointed ___________________________ the way things were done here
___________________________ the school.
14. To be a good student takes a lot __________________________ effort. You have to read many
books _____________________________ the subjects you are taking, which means you have to
go _____________________________ the library frequently.
15. The house ___________________________ _______________________ mine has been used
____________________________ a methadone lab. I didnt know _________________________
it until it came out __________________________ the papers yesterday.
English Grammar|101
Test 2
Write sentences containing prepositional phrases that show the roles indicated.
1. Adjectival
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Adverbial
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Complementary
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Adjectival
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Adverbial
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
6. Complementary
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
Education.
English Grammar|102
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
at
on
in
on
at
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
in
on
at, in
on, in
at, at, in
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
in front of
in between
such as
out of
on top of
Exercise 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
all over
up to
because of
in spite of
away from
Exercise 3
Example answers:
1. by bus (preposition + noun)
We are going to Singapore by bus.
2. among the best (preposition + noun phrase)
Lee Chong Wei stands among the best in the world.
3. with them (preposition + pronoun)
I am happy when Im with them.
4. of going (preposition + gerund)
She is thinking of going to Japan next month.
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Complementary
Adverbial
Adjectival
Adverbial
Adverbial
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Complementary
Adjectival
Adjectival
Complementary
Adverbial
of
with, on
for
over
against
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
with
Test 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
to
in
to, on
by, at
English Grammar|103
6. through
7. At
8. to
Test 2
Example sentences:
1. Adjectival
The man in the white suit wants to see you.
2. Adverbial
She found the brooch in the drawer.
3. Complementary
The mice turned into horses for Cinderella.
14. of, about, to

15. next to, as, about, in
English Grammar|104
UNIT 7
Questions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the three types of questions learned.
2. Form each type of question correctly.
3. Provide appropriate answers to the different types of questions.
4. Use each type of questions correctly and appropriately.
INTRODUCTION
A question is used to request for missing information or to ask for confirmation. When writing a question we
should always end the sentence with a question mark (?). In writing a question, the verb of the sentence
should be placed at the beginning of the question unlike statements which start with subjects. Generally,
there are three different types of questions Yes-No questions, WH-questions and Tag questions
LEARNING POINTS
Statement-Question Conversion
In a statement, we have the subject of the statement followed by the verb. For example:
Aida is walking to the class.
In the sentence above, Aida is the subject and is walking is the verb phrase. In a question, part of the verb
phrase or the auxiliary verb will be moved to the beginning. Remember to use the question mark at the end
to indicate that it is a question. In the example above, the verb phrase will be divided into two parts. The
first part of the verb phrase should be moved to the beginning of the question in order to get the following
question:
English Grammar|105
Is Aida walking to the class?

If the verb phrase has more than two words, then only the first word in the verb phrase is moved to the
beginning of the question.
Statement: The man has been working for two days.
Question: Has the man been working for two days?
Study the following sample questions.
Statement: The bird had died.
Question: Had the bird died?
Statement: The teachers are singing at the karaoke lounge.
Question: Are the teachers singing at the karaoke lounge?
Statement: The businessman has sold the shop.
Question: Has the businessman sold the shop?
Statement: The businessman has been selling exotic food.
Question: Has the businessman been selling exotic food?
So far we have discussed a statement with more than one word verb. What if there is only a one-word verb
like in the following statement?
Amira is a student.
In order to change the statement to a question, the verb has to be moved to the beginning of the statement.
Use a question mark at the end of the statement.
Is Amira a student?
A
Exercise 1
Change the following statements to questions.
1. He is a soldier.
_______________________________
English Grammar|106
2. They are working together.

_______________________________
3. She has stopped reading.
_______________________________
4. They were thinking about working late.
_______________________________
5. Ali had been studying in the library.
_______________________________
6. They will go for a holiday.
_______________________________.
7. Tammy has completed her assignment.
________________________________
8. They had divided the tasks for the project.
_________________________________
9. Tan should join the society to get new friends.
____________________________________
10. We may arrive late for the ceremony.
_____________________________
Yes-No Questions
Questions with the Verbs Do or Have
When forming questions in the present simple tense, use the verb do, or have. The auxiliary verb is
placed before the subject.
Do
If there is one verb in the statement and the verb is do, switch the positions of the subject and verb.
I
do.
Do
I?
You
do.
Do
you?
English Grammar|107
They
do.
Do
they?
We
do.
Do
we?
He
does.
Does
he?
She
does.
Does
she?
It
does.
Does
It?
Have
If there is a have verb in the statement, switch the positions of the verb and the subject. In American
English, it is more common for the Americans to use Do you have....
I
have
(got) a pen.
Have
(got) a pen?
You
have
(got) a pen.
Have
you
(got) a pen?
They
have
(got) a pen.
Have
they
(got) a pen?
We
have
(got) a pen.
Have
we
(got) a pen?
He
has
(got) a pen.
Has
he
(got) a pen?
She
has
(got) a pen.
Has
she
(got) a pen?
It
has
(got) a pen.
Has
it
(got) a pen?
So far, you have to switch the positions of the subject and the verb in a question. However, with Do
...have...?, you do not have to switch their positions. The verb do must be placed at the beginning of the
question, i.e. before the subject Take a look at the following examples.
I
have a hobby.
Do
have a hobby?
You
have a hobby.
Do
you
have a hobby?
They
have a hobby.
Do
they
have a hobby?
We
have a hobby.
Do
we
have a hobby?
He
has a hobby.
Does
he
have a hobby?
She
has a hobby.
Does
she
have a hobby?
It
has a hobby.
Does
it
have a hobby?
English Grammar|108
If the tense is in the past, you have to use did instead of do or does.
He
went to the class.
Did
he
go to the class?
They
bought the house.
Did
they
buy the house?
She
carried the boxes.
Did
she
carry the boxes?
forgot to lock the

door.
Did
forget to lock the door?
You
copied the
sentences.
Did
you
copy the sentences?
It
barked every
morning.
Did
it
bark every morning?
We
took the bus home

yesterday.
Did
we
take the bus home

yesterday?
If there is one verb, and the verb is not a form of be, to form a question, add the correct form of the verb
'do' at the beginning. Do not switch the positions of the subject and the verb.
He
studies history.
Does
he
study history?
She
studies history
Does
she
study history?
You
study history
Do
you
study history?
They
study history.
Do
they
study history?
We
Study history
Do
we
study history?
Answers to Yes-No Questions

You can provide a Yes or No answer for these questions.
Take a look at the following question:
Are you a student at UPSI?
Yes, I am/ Yes, I am a student at UPSI.
No, I am not/ No, I am not a student at UPSI
English Grammar|109
A
Exercise 2
Write your answers for the following questions.
1. Do you have a hobby? ______________________________________________
2. Does she have a family? _____________________________________________
3. Do you know a foreign language? ______________________________________
4. Do they like to come in? _____________________________________________
5. Does he want to study? _____________________________________________
6. Did we order the food? ______________________________________________
7. Did she buy the car? _______________________________________________
8. Did he call the ambulance? __________________________________________
9. Did you register for his course? _______________________________________
10. Did they go to the movie? ___________________________________________
Wh- Questions
WH-questions require answers which can be either a description or an opinion, and are more useful in
eliciting information.
There are eight WH-questions - what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why and how that can be
used to elicit particular kinds of information.
what
when
where
which
who (whom)
whose
why
how
to ask for information about something

to ask about the time that something happened or will happen
to ask questions about place or position
to ask for information about one of a limited number of things
to ask about someone's identity
to ask about possession
to ask for a reason
to ask about the way in which something is done
English Grammar|110
WH-word
Verb
Information
Answer/Response
What
is
Your name?
My name is Aida.
When
is
the exam?
The exam is on Thursday.
What
are
the courses ?
The courses are literature and grammar.
Where
are
you from?
I am from Kulai, Johor.
Which (one)
Is
your car?
That Viva is mine.
Who
is
your best friend?
My best friend is Monique.
Why
are
you crying?
I lost my money.
How
are
you?
Im fine, thank you.
Please take note that the shorter version for I am is Im.

What, which and whose can be used with or without a noun as a question word. Take a look at the
following questions.
What time is it?
Which car is yours?
Whose web site is this?
=
=
=
What is the time?

Which is your car?
Whose is this web site?
Whom can only be used to elicit information about the object of the sentence. Although using whom would
be grammatically correct, we normally use who instead because it doesnt sound so formal.
For example,
"Whom did you see?" would normally be expressed as "Who did you see?"
Who, what, which and whose can all be used to elicit information about the subject or object of the
sentence.
For example,
If the answer is "I ate the apple.", the object question would be "What did you eat?" and the subject
question would be "Who ate the apple?"
Questions about Objects
Object questions ask about the object of a sentence. The word order of the question must be changed and
the question requires the use of the auxiliary verb 'do'.
English Grammar|111
For example,
If the answer is "I caught the bus to Ipoh.", the question would be "Which bus did you catch?"
If the answer is "I bought a new car yesterday.", the question could be "What did you do yesterday?"
Questions about Subjects
These are questions that we ask to find out about the subject. When, what, which, who or whose
refer to the subject. The question word comes before the verb without the use of the auxiliary or the helping
verb.
For example,
If the answer is "The train to Arau was late.", the question would be "Which train was late?"
If the answer is "I won the competition.", the question could be "Who won the competition?"
Questions about Objects
What did you do today?
Which talk show did you like best?
Who did I call?
Questions about Subjects
What happened today?
Which movie is the best?
Who called me?
A
Exercise 3
Write the verbs in full.
1. Why (you carry) _____________________ a bag full of money?
2. Where (you find) _______________________ it just now?
3. What (you do) ______________________at home yesterday?
4. Where (you live) ______________________?
5. What (your name is) _______________________?
6. How (you find) _______________________ my lost handphone?
7. Why (you steal) _______________________ the money?
English Grammar|112
8. What (you write) ________________________ in your application form?

9. Where (you keep) _________________________ the boxes?
10. When (you arrive) _________________________ at the airport?
Tag Questions
A tag question is a brief question that follows a statement in which the person asking it is seeking
confirmation or denial of the statement.
A tag question is a question that is added onto the end of a sentence. It is a statement followed by a miniquestion. It is common to use tag questions when the person making the statement expects the listener to
be in agreement.
A tag question following a negative statement is usually in the affirmative, while a tag question following a
positive statement is usually in the negative. A negative tag question is answered in the affirmative (such as
"yes") if the responder is in agreement. Notice that tag questions are often used to ask for information or
help, starting with a negative statement.
The use of tag questions is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. In using a tag question, a
speaker gives his idea while asking a question at the same time. As with other kinds of questions, a
speaker usually uses a rising intonation at the end of a tag question.
Study the following examples.
You don't know of any good restaurants, do you?
You couldn't help me with my homework, could you?
You haven't got a bike which I can use, have you?
Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice. With rising intonation, it
sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't require a
real answer.
A speaker uses the falling intonation for a tag question when he is making an observation, commenting on
something rather than making sure his information is correct.
Speakers use tag questions chiefly to make sure their information is correct or to seek agreement.
Functions and examples
1. Tag questions are usually used to confirm information.
English Grammar|113
This menu is not very expensive, isn't it?

That novel was fantastic, wasn't it?
2. Tag questions are used when the speaker is usually already sure of the answer and just want
confirmation (falling intonation with the tag question).
3. Tag questions are usually used to check information.
You haven't got the money, have you?
You don't know where the class is, do you?
The function is tomorrow, isn't it?
4. Often, a rising intonation is used with tag questions
Important Reminders When Using Tag Questions
1. In the present tense, if the subject is 'I', you have to change it to either 'are' or 'aren't' in the tag.
I'm supposed to go now, aren't I?
2. With 'let's', the tag question is 'shall we.
Let's go to the hall, shall we?
3. When giving instructions, the tag question is 'will you'.
Close the door, will you?
4. A positive tag question is used if a sentence contains a negative word such as never, hardly,
nobody.
Nobody lives in this room, do they?
You've never lied to me, have you?
5. When the subject is nothing, I is used in the tag question.
Nothing important happened, did it?
6. When the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone, or everyone,
they is used in the tag question.
Nobody asked for the money, did they?
7. If the main verb in the sentence is 'have, it is more common to use 'do' in the question tag.
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You have a car, don't you?

8. With used to, didn't is commonly used in the tag question.
You used to come here often, didn't you?
9. Positive question tags are used after positive sentences to express a reaction such as surprise or
interest.
You're moving to UMS, are you?
A
Exercise 4
Write the correct tag questions.
1. You arent going to the hotel, ___________________?
2. Ismail is going back tomorrow, _______________________?
3. We are going to Kota Bharu with them, _______________________?
4. She wont give any comments, _________________________?
5. They arent going to tell us their secret, __________________________?
6. You will be back this afternoon, _________________________?
7. He told you the whole story, __________________________?
8. Lets go back to the hotel,________________________?
9. Nobody rented this apartment, ___________________________?
10. We used to come here, ________________________?
Summary
When we want to ask Yes-No questions we can use do/does, am/is/are or have/has as question
words. We use do or have or am with personal pronouns (I), we use does or has or is with
third person singular pronouns (he, she, it) and with singular noun forms. We use do, have or
English Grammar|115
are with other personal pronouns (you, we, they) and with plural noun forms. Yes-No questions
with the be verb are created by moving the be verb to the beginning of the sentence. In other words,
the subject and the verb change their positions in the statements to form questions.
Wh- questions are used to elicit information about something. There are eight question words that can
be used to form wh- questions: what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why and
how.
When deciding whether to use a negative or a positive tag in a tag question, the most important point to
remember is the tag should be the opposite of the stem.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Change the following statements to Yes-No questions and Wh- questions.
1. He is a teacher.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. We are studying for the exam.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. They are coming for the game.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. She is smiling at you.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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5. You are working late today.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Test 2
Write the verbs in full.
1. Why (you carry) _____________________ the umbrella?
2. Where (you find) _______________________ the key?
3. What (you do) ______________________in class last night?
4. Where (you put) ______________________ the diary?
5. What (your hobby is) _______________________?
Test 3
Write the correct tag questions.
1. They arent going to tell us the real reason, _____________________?
2. We should be going back now, _______________________?
3. They are going home this month, _________________________?
4. You were going to do it, _____________________?
5. She will be paying for the food, ______________________?
REFERENCES
Alexander, L.G. (1988). Longman English grammar. Beijing, China: Longman.
Azar, B.S. (2003). Fundamentals of English grammar (3rd Ed.). New York: Longman.
Barr P, Clegg J and Wallace C (1981) Advanced Reading Skills. London: Longman.
Gaudart,H., Hughes, R. & Michael, J. (1998). Towards better English grammar. ShahAlam,
Selangor:Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn Bhd.
English Grammar|117
Murphy, R. (2004). English grammar in use (3rd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Murphy, R. (2007). Essentials grammar in use (3rd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ur, P. (1988). Grammar practice activities: A practical guide for teacher. United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Is he is a soldier?
Are they working together?
Has she has stopped reading?
Were they thinking about working late?
Had Ali been studying in the library?
Will they go for a holiday?
Has Tammy completed her assignment?
Had they divided the tasks for the project?
Should Tan join the society to get new friends?
Will we arrive late for the ceremony?
Exercise 2
Accept appropriate and acceptable answers.
Exercise 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Why do you carry a bag full of money?

Where did you find it just now?
What did you do at home yesterday?
Where do you live?
What is your name?
How did you find my lost handphone?
Why did you steal the money?
What did you write in your application form?
Where did you keep the boxes?
When did you arrive at the airport?
Exercise 4
1. You arent going to the hotel, are you?
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Ismail is going back tomorrow, is he?

We are going to Kota Bharu with them, arent we?
She wont give any comments, will she?
They arent going to tell us their secret, are they?
You will be back this afternoon, wont you?
He told you the whole story, didnt he?
Lets go back to the hotel, shall we?
Nobody rented this apartment, do they?
We used to come here, didnt we?
Test 1
Change statements to questions.
1. Is he a teacher?
2. Are we are studying for the exam?
3. Are they coming for the game?
4. Is she is smiling at you?
5. You are working late today?
Test 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why did you carry the umbrella?

Where did you find the key?
What did you do in class last night?
Where did you put the diary?
What is your hobby?
Test 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
They arent going to tell us the real reason, are they?

We should be going back now, shouldnt we?
They are going home this month, arent they?
You were going to do it, werent you?
She will be paying for the food, wont she?
English Grammar|119
UNIT 8
The Passive Voice
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Differentiate active verbs from passive verbs.
2. Form passive verb phrases correctly.
3. Change active sentences to passive sentences correctly.
4. Use the passive voice correctly and appropriately.
INTRODUCTION
The term passive is used in describing verb phrases which contain BE + participles like was killed and
has seen. These passive verbs plus by-phrases can be found in passive sentences.
LEARNING POINTS
Passive Verbs
The main features of passive sentences
Look at the following sentences.
The man buys a book. (Active)
A book is bought by the man. (Passive)
Both sentences have similar meaning. The object in an active sentence (a book) becomes the subject
in a passive sentence. The subject in the active sentence (The man) now becomes the object of the byphrase in the passive sentence. The by-phrases can be optional at times.
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Forms of the Passive Sentence

To form passive sentences, a sentence must contain BE + past participle. Study the following sample
sentences. The sentences must also contain by-phrases as well.
Simple present
Active
Farmers grow rice.
Passive
Rice is grown by farmers
Present progressive
Active
They are selling bicycles.
Passive
Bicycles are being sold by them
Present perfect
Active
He has bought the cake.
Passive
The cake has been bought by him.
Simple past
Active
She swept the floor.
Passive
The floor was swept by her.
Past perfect
Active
She had swept the floor.
Passive
The floor had been swept by her.
Future
Active
Ali will plan the visit.
Passive
The visit will be planned by Ali.
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A
Exercise 1
Change the following active verb phrases to passive.
1. Cleans
______________________
2. Takes
_______________________
3. Buys
_______________________
4. Sold
_______________________
5. Took
_______________________
6. Has taken
_______________________
7. Have mailed
_______________________
8. Has promised -
_______________________
9. Will sell
_______________________
10. Will paint
_______________________
Passive forms for the present and past progressive

The passive form for the present progressive is:
Am/is/are
being +
past participle
For the past progressive, the passive form is as follows.

Was/were
being +
past participle
Now, study the following sample sentences.

Present progressive
Active
They are selling bicycles.
Passive
Bicycles are being sold by them
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Past progressive
Active
They were taking the hostages in a hurry.
Passive
The hostages were being taken by them in a hurry.
Passive in Transitive and Intransitive Sentences

A transitive verb is a verb which is followed by an object which can be a noun or a pronoun. On the other
hand, an intransitive verb is not followed by an object. Examples of intransitive verbs are:
agree, die, happen, rise, appear, exist, laugh and seem.
Study the following sentences. You can see that for sentences with intransitive verbs, they do not have
equivalent passive sentences.
Transitive
Active
He mailed the forms.
Passive
The forms were mailed by him
Intransitive
Active
He laughs.
Passive
(not possible)
Active
The bird died.
Passive
(not possible)
A
Exercise 2
Change the following sentences with active verbs to the passive voice.
1. They have written the book.
_________________________________________________________
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2.
Shasha is buying a book.

_________________________________________________________
3. We took the books.

_________________________________________________________
4. Ali has taken his leave suddenly.
_________________________________________________________
5. Ismail is collecting the money.
_________________________________________________________
6. She bakes a cake.
_________________________________________________________
7. He had bought an apartment recently.
_________________________________________________________
8. The students will buy the food later.
_________________________________________________________
9. You are sweeping the floor.
_________________________________________________________
10. Mira has eaten the cake.
________________________________________________________
Using the By-phrases

Now, look at the following sentence.
Saran Kaur swept the floor.
For the sentence above, if we write the passive form for the verb in the sentence, the sentence will be:
The floor had been swept by Saran Kaur.
Note that in some instances, the subject in the active sentence or the doer (Saran Kaur) can be left out in
the passive sentence. This implies the information is not important for the understanding of the sentence.
Thus, we can have a sentence without its by-phrase but which is still correct and appropriate. In this case,
the key point is whether the floor has been swept or not.
The floor had been swept.
English Grammar|124
We should also take note that in passive sentences, there is a possibility that there is no by-phrase when
the doer is not known or is too general. In this case, the by-phrase can be left out since it is not important or
it will not affect the understanding of the sentences. In the following sentence, the focus is not on the doer
but rather when the house was built. Therefore, even if the writer leaves out the doer, the sentence is still
acceptable.
Active:
Someone built the house last year.
Passive:
The house was built last year by someone

The house was built last year.
Note that at times, the by-phrases cannot be deleted when the intention is to focus on the subject or the
doer in the active sentences. For example, in the following sentences, the writer wants to focus on the
different doer of the sentences. In other words, the by-phrases add significant pieces of information.
This cake was baked by my aunt. That one was baked by my sister.
A
Exercise 3
Change the following sentences with active verbs to passive.
1. Tina shuts the door.
______________________________________________________________
2. Somebody left the food on the table.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Many countries plant rubber trees.
_______________________________________________________________
4. The singer sang the song.
________________________________________________________________
5. Salman has destroyed the house.
_________________________________________________________________
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6. Someone sold the car.

__________________________________________________________________
7. She has washed the room.
___________________________________________________________________
8. We have painted the house.
___________________________________________________________________
9. She had changed her name permanently.
___________________________________________________________________
10. He had marked the papers.
___________________________________________________________________
Using Passive Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Modal auxiliary verbs can be used in the passive form as well. The form to be used is as follows:
Modal +
BE
Past Participle
Study the following examples.

Active
Passive
Mira will write the letter.
The letter will be written by Mira.
Mira can write the letter
The letter can be written by Mira
Mira should write the letter.
The letter should be written by Mira.
Mira ought to write the letter.
The letter ought to be written by Mira.
Mira must write the letter.
The letter must be written by Mira.
Mira may write the letter.
The letter may be written by Mira.
Mira might write the letter.
The letter might be written by Mira.
Mira shall write the letter.
The letter shall be written by Mira.
Mira would write the letter.
The letter would be written by Mira.
Mira could write the letter.
The letter could be written by Mira.
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A
Exercise 4
Change the following sentences with active verbs to passive.
1. Sally can cook our dinner.
_________________________________________________
2. Tan may buy the hotel.
__________________________________________________
3. We must visit our parents.
__________________________________________________
4. They should give the schedule early.
__________________________________________________
5. He ought to clean the place.
__________________________________________________
6. She could buy her dress at the mall.
__________________________________________________
7. Sam might sell his new house.
__________________________________________________
8. Ani shall report the problem soon.
__________________________________________________
9. Kumari will buy her plane tickets this weekend.
__________________________________________________
10. They may take the balls from the store.
__________________________________________________
Summary
By studying this unit, you should be able to write sentences using verb phrases in the passive form. Be
aware that intransitive verbs do not have the passive equivalent and that there are options to leave out the
by-phrase in the passive sentences.
English Grammar|127
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Write passive sentences.
1. Siti wrote a memo to him.
________________________________________________________
2. Ani was taking the garbage out.
________________________________________________________
3. Mr Ooi slept for two hours.
________________________________________________________
4. Someone left the bag on the floor.
________________________________________________________
5. Ani will write the notes.
________________________________________________________
6. Shahir could spend the money.
________________________________________________________
7. The school ought to give more holidays to students.
________________________________________________________
8. We should be cleaning the room.
________________________________________________________
9. Someone took the bag by mistake.
_______________________________________________________
10. They painted the house last week.
________________________________________________________
English Grammar|128
REFERENCES
Alexander, L.G. (1988). Longman English grammar. Beijing, China: Longman.
Azar, B.S. (2003). Fundamentals of English grammar (3rd Ed.). New York: Longman.
Barr P, Clegg J and Wallace C (1981) Advanced Reading Skills. London: Longman.
Greenbaum, S. & Nelson, G. (2009). An introduction to English grammar (3rd ed.) Harlow: Pearson
Longman.
Ur, P. (1988). Grammar practice activities: A practical guide for teacher. United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Cleans - is cleaned
Takes - is traken
Buys - is bought
Sold - is sold
Took - is taken
Has taken
- has been taken
Have mailed - have been mailed
Has promised - has been promised
Will sell
- will be sold
Will paint
- will be painted
Exercise 2
1. Ramli has written the book.
The book has been written by Ramli
2. Shasha is smiling.
(no equivalent)
3. We took the books.
English Grammar|129
The books were taken by us.

4. It happens suddenly.
(no equivalent)
5. Ismail is collecting the money.
The money is being collected by Ismail.
6. She bakes a cake.
A cake is being baked by her
7. He had bought an apartment recently.
An apartment had been bought by him recently.
8. The students will buy the food later.
The food will be bought by the students later.
9. You are sweeping the floor.
The floor is being swept by you.
10. Mira has eaten the cake.
The cake has been eaten by Mira.
Exercise 3
1. Tammy shuts the door.
The door is shut (by Tammy).
2. Somebody left the food on the table.
The food was left (by somebody) on the table.
3. Many countries plant rubber trees.
Rubber trees are planted (by many countries.)
4. The singer sang the song.
The song was sung (by the singer.)
5. Some people have destroyed the house.
The house has been destroyed (by some people.)
6. Someone sold the car.
The car was sold (by someone.)
7. She has washed the room.
The room has been washed (by her.)
8. We have painted the house.
The house has been panted (by us.)
9. They had changed her name permanently.
Her name had been changed
10. He had marked the papers.
The papers had been marked.
Exercise 4
1. Sally can cook our dinner.
Our dinner can be cooked by Sally.
2. Tan may buy the hotel.
The hotel may be bought by Tan
3. We must visit our parents.
English Grammar|130
Our parents must be visited by us.

4. They should give the schedule early.
The schedule should be given by them early.
5. He ought to clean the place.
The place ought to be cleaned by him
6. She could buy her dress at the mall.
Her dress could be bought by her at the mall.
7. Sam might sell his new house.
His new house might be sold by Sam.
8. Ani shall report the problem soon.
The problem shall be reported by Ani soon.
9. Kumari will buy her plane tickets this weekend.
Her plane tickets will be bought by Kumari this weekend.
10. They may take the balls from the store.
The balls may be taken by them from the store.
Test 1
1. Siti wrote a memo to him.
A memo was written by Siti to him
2. Ani was taking the garbage out.
The garbage was being taken out by Ani.
3. Mr Ooi slept for two hours.
(no equivalent passive sentence)
4. Someone left the bag on the floor.
The bag was left on the floor by someone.
5. Ani will write the notes.
The notes will be written by Ani.
6. Shahir could spend the money.
The money could be spent by Shahir.
7. The school ought to give more holidays to students.
More holidays to students ought to be given by the school.
8. We should be cleaning the room.
The room should be cleaned by us.
9. Someone took the bag by mistake.
The bag was taken by someone by mistake.
10. They painted the house last week.
The house was being painted by them last week.
English Grammar|131
UNIT 9
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Identify conjunctions in sentences.
b. Identify the similarities and differences in meaning between or among conjunctions.
c. Produce sentences using appropriate conjunctions.
d. Use conjunctions correctly and appropriately.
INTRODUCTION
Coordination or conjunction is a process of combining two similar constituents such as two words, phrases,
clauses or sentences. This is usually done to prevent repetition and to provide clarity. In English, the
process of deletion or ellipsis is common.
LEARNING POINTS
The easiest way to conjoin or combine similar parts or constituents in sentences is to use coordinating
conjunctions, which are and, or, nor, so, but, yet and for.
The meanings of these conjunctions are described in the table below (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman,
1999:472).
Conjunction
Meaning
and
Plus
(present similar ideas)
Sample sentences
Ramli and Ah Seng are going into business together.
English Grammar|132
but
Shows contrast
yet
But at the same time
so
therefore
Neither man had much money, so they decided to work together.
for
Because
I hope they succeed, for this has been a dream come true for
both men.
(Give a reason)
or
One or the other
He is very hardworking, but Hakim is lazy.

Amy is lazy, yet well intentioned
They are determined to make it or to decide to quit the army.
(give alternatives)
nor
Combines two negative

sentences, both are
true
Ali doesnt give up easily,nor does Hasan.
Take a look at the following sample sentences.

Amira woulkd like to have hot chocolate or iced tea.
Tan must finish his homework or he will be punished by the headmaster.
Cikgu Ramli is hot-tempered but friendly.
Tammy is short but she can run very fast.
Mom arrived home early, so she cooked something for dinner.
The horse is a favourite, so many people place their bet on her in the race.
Sita closed the gate for there was no other things to do.
Farah is very happy for she has completed her homework.
He is small in size yet he could kick the ball very far.
Just take note that the word for is often used as a preposition, not as a coordinating conjunction.
You have to be careful in using so as a coordinating conjunction. Sometimes, you need to use a
semicolon instead of a comma when you want to join two independent clauses. When yet is used as a
coordinating conjunction, it carries meaning like but.
Take note that when you want to join two independent clauses, you may use a comma to separate them or
to show a contrast. Here are some examples:
Asfah wants to cook dinner, but she has trouble memorizing her recipes.
Peter is a considerate leader, but difficult to please.
However, some writers may want to delete the comma if the two independent clauses are quite short. So,
you can have sentences like:
Amira has great driving skills but she does not like going out.
English Grammar|133
A
Exercsie 1
Use appropriate coordinating conjunctions in the following sentences.
1. Anita prepares her dish nicely __________ beautifully.
2. Ah Lim went into the garden ___________ he trims the flowers.
3. She is friendly ___________ she is very stingy.
4. Beth will have hot tea ___________ hot coffee.
5. My sister is late __________ she took a taxi to her office.
6. They stop the race ___________ the weather is getting really bad.
7. The school is still in session ___________ the students are no longer interested in studying.
8. The cost of the house is too high ___________ it is a valuable property.
9. Shila is either going to study here in KL ___________ taking a break for a few months.
10. Belinda starts preparing for her exams early ___________she really wants to score in the exam.
Ways of Using Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are used to combine similar units or constituents in sentences. Examples using
and are illustrated in the following sentences.
Farah likes rice and fried noodles.
They bought the books and the pencils.
Steve is big and strong.
Anna ran and hid behind the bush.
She swam fast and ran quickly.
He kicked the ball over the fence and into the house.
Mom combs her hair neatly and beautifully.
Tia bought several maps and did her shopping.
She jumped into the pool and she began to swim.
(noun + noun)
(noun phrase + noun phrase)
(adjective + adjective)
(verb + verb)
(verb phrase + verb phrase)
(preposition + preposition)
(adjective + adjective)
(clause + clause)
(sentence + sentence)
Take note that when more than two items are combined together, the conjunction is usually omitted before
each item except the last conjunction. Take a look at the next sentence.
Hani prefers to buy a hamburger, an ice-cream and a cup of iced tea at the fast food restaurant.
English Grammar|134
In writing, usually a comma is used to separate all items with the exception of the last one. Writers also
usually omit the first conjunction in a series of two conjunctions such as those in the following examples:
Remmy bought, (and) then drove the car to Port Dickson.
Shana likes to make new friends, (and) so she always takes part in the afternoon activities.
She wants him to teach her English every weekend, (and) yet she wont pay for the lessons.
A
Exercise 2
Rewrite the following sentences by using conjunctions
1. Saniah walks quickly. Saniah runs quickly.
___________________________________________________________________
2. David trims the trees. David cuts the grass.
___________________________________________________________________
3. Kumari walks around the shop. Kumari runs into the house.
___________________________________________________________________
4. She writes the composition neatly. She writes the composition beautifully.
___________________________________________________________________
5. He walks into the hall. He begins to play sepak takraw.
___________________________________________________________________
6. Sam works hard for his final project. Sam studies hard for the final exam.
___________________________________________________________________
7. Raimey can score many goals. Ranjit can can score many goals.
_________________________________________________________________
8. Swee Lan picks up the bag. Swee Lan placed the bag in the cupboard.
_________________________________________________________________
9. He throws the ball over the fence. He throws the ball into the drain.
_________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|135
10. She rushed into the car. She began to drive the car.
_________________________________________________________________
Correlative Conjunctions
Apart from simple conjunctions, you can also use complex conjunctions such as both and. The
following sentence shows how it can be done.
Victor is both strong and energetic.
Besides bothand, coordinating correlatives include either or, neithernor, and not onlybut
also.
Study the following sentences.
We either like it or hate it.
Sharmila usually likes to have either a cup of hot tea or a glass of plain water.
Driving carelessly is not only stupid but also suicidal.
Bee Eng likes to buy not only several dresses but also several pairs of shoes of matching
colours.
Although she was helpless, she neither asked for help nor tried getting help from her landlord.
Both students neither write the answers to the questions nor try to draw diagrams for
explanations.
To surprise her more, her parents not only bought expensive dresses, but also made a special
reservation at the restaurant.
Ziana Zain usually not only sings several songs but also gives away prizes to the lucky guests.
A
Exercise 3
Write sentences using the given correlative conjunctions.
1. bothand
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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2. not onlybut also

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. eitheror
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. neithernor
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Summary
In this unit, you have learned about conjunctions. There are three main groups of conjunctions, namely
coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions and subordinate conjunctions. You have learned how
and when to use these conjunctions correctly and when you can omit some of the conjunctions.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Fill in the blanks with appropriate conjunctions.
1. The referee walks into the field _____________________blows his whistle.
2. Maria is beautiful ____________________ not very kind.
3. Ali will have a cup of hot tea _____________________hot coffee.
4. Her pet is cute _____________________ she is not very friendly.
5. _____________________ the bus arrives, the bus conductor will make an announcement.
6. Kathy will buy expensive dresses ____________________ she has extra money.
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7. The customers were making a lot of noise ___________________ they were the only ones in the
cafeteria.
8. Many boys _______________ girls attend this famous school.
9. __________ Malim __________ Hasnan will play in the final match.
10. They were coming __________________ they were not invited to attend the school function.
REFERENCES
Celce-Murcia, M & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The grammar book An ESL/EFL teachers course (2nd
ed.). New York: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Harris, R. (2009). Conjunctions. Available from: http://www.virtualsalt.com/conjunct.htm. Accessed on 20th
September 2011.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G.and J. Svartvik. (1990). A grammar of contemporary English. (9th ed).
London: Longman.
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Anita prepares her dish nicely and beautifully.

Ah Lim went into the garden and he trims the flowers.
She is friendly but she is very stingy.
Tok Mat will have hot tea or hot coffee.
My sister is late so she took a taxi to her office.
They stop the race for the weather is getting really bad.
The school is still in session but the students are no longer interested in studying.
The cost of the house is too high but it is a valuable property.
Shila is either going to study here in KL or taking a break for a few months.
Belinda starts preparing for her exams early for she really wants to score in the exam.
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Exercise 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Saniah walks and runs quickly.

David trims the trees and cuts the grass.
Kumari walks around the shop and runs into the house.
She writes the composition neatly and beautifully.
He walks into the hall and begins to play sepak takraw.
Sam works hard for his final project and for the final exam.
Raimey and Ranjit can can score many goals.
Swee Lan picks up and placed the bag in the cupboard.
He throws the ball over the fence and into the drain.
She rushed into the car and began to drive the car.
Exercise 3
Any appropriate and grammatical sentences are acceptable.
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
She was upstairs when the fire broke out.

They were late coming to school because of the bus.
They were having their dinner while watching the game on television.
Shah will buy a hamburger whenever he stops by at a fast food restaurant.
She will come to work on weekends if she gets paid.
All students have to assemble in the hall so that they can listen to the headmasters speech.
Although she is not feeling tired, her boss advises her to take a short break.
Mother was washing the dishes while listening to the radio.
Intan wore her favourite dress whenever she went for her meetings.
They came to the room as soon as they heard the noise.
Self-Assessment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The referee walks into the field and blows his whistle.
Maria is beautiful but not very kind.
Ali will have a cup of hot tea or hot coffee.
Her pet is cute but she is not very friendly.
Whenever the bus arrives, the bus conductor will make an announcement.
Kathy will buy expensive dresses if she has extra money.
The customers were making a lot of noise as though they were the only ones in the cafeteria.
Many boys and girls attend this famous school.
Either Malim or Hasnan will play in the final match.
They were coming even though they were not invited to attend the school function
English Grammar|139
UNIT 10
Logical Connectors
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the different logical connectors
2. Join sentences correctly using logical connectors.
3. Fill out logical connectors correctly in texts given.
4. Write sentences using appropriate logical connectors.
INTRODUCTION
A logical connector is a word or phrase that combines two clauses or sentences to show a particular
relationship. It links ideas from one clause or sentence to the next. It also serves as a transition between
the clause or sentence it introduces and a previous clause or sentence. The relationship between the
clauses or sentences can be classified as that of addition, time, result or purpose, condition, illustration,
comparison or contrast.
For example, the two sentences (a) and (b) can be combined to form another sentence (c).
(a) It rained heavily last night.
(b) The whole village was flooded.
(c) It rained so heavily last night that the whole village was flooded.
The connector so..that shows the result or effect of the heavy rain on the village.
(a) The road up Frasers Hill is narrow. .
(b) It is very winding.
(c) The road up Frasers Hill is narrow. Furthermore it is very winding.
The connector furthermore shows additional information about the road up Frasers Hill. Notice that it is
placed in the second sentence. It joins the two ideas in (a) and (b).
The Importance of logical connectors
Logical connectors are important because they help you to understand the organization of sentences in a
reading passage. Hence, they help you to answer the questions correctly. They also add sophistication to
the composition you write. In addition, it gives the paragraphs a logical flow or coherence.
English Grammar|140
Use of logical connectors

Look at this text : Text A
Dilah was not feeling well that day. She decided to ask for leave from her employer. Her employer
was very strict and fastidious. He did not want any of his workers to be absent from work. He refused
to allow her to leave the office. He told her to get some medicine from the office medical box. Dilah
did as she was told. She fainted right in front of her employer. He had to get her to the hospital. Dilah
was given two days off.
Now read this version: Text B
Since Dilah was not feeling well that day she decided to ask for leave from her employer. However,
her employer was very strict and fastidious. Moreover, he did not want any of his workers to be
absent from work. So, he refused to allow her to leave the office. Instead, he gave her some tablets
which Dilah took and swallowed. When she collapsed right in front of him, her employer had to get
her to the hospital. Consequently, Dilah was given two days off.
Which text is better?
Other logical connectors can be used to make the text interesting.
For example:
As Dilah was not feeling well that day she decided to ask for leave from her employer. But her
employer was very strict and fastidious. Furthermore, he did not want any of his workers to be
absent from work. Therefore, he refused to allow her to leave the office. Nevertheless, he gave her
some tablets which Dilah took and swallowed. When she collapsed right in front of him, her employer
had to get her to the hospital. Hence, Dilah was given two days off.
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LEARNING POINTS
Classification of logical connectors
Logical connectors can be classified as follows.
Classification
Type
Examples
1.
Addition
and, besides, moreover, furthermore, additionally, in addition.
2.
Time
3.
Contrast
4.
Purpose
as, while, until, when, whenever, before, after, since, later,

meanwhile, soon, then, afterwards, during.
however, nevertheless, though, although, even though, while, on the
other hand, despite, in spite of.
so that, in order to, so as to.
5.
Reason
as, for, since, because, because of, due to.
6.
Result /effect
7.
Comparison
so, thus, therefore, so that, hence, consequently, as a result, for

this reason.
likewise, similarly, much as, just like.
8.
Illustration
for example, for instance, such as, like.
9.
Sequence
10.
Condition
first, firstly, second, secondly, next, then, after, after that, finally,
lastly, in conclusion.
if, even if, otherwise, unless, in case, provided (that)
You can use the logical connectors to join two sentences or ideas. You can also use different logical
connectors to show the same function.
He could not come because he was ill
Since he was ill he could not come.
The two sentences (a) and (b) show reason
Now look at these examples:
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She must buy a ticket if she wants to watch the show.

She must buy a ticket unless she does not want to watch the show.
The two sentences (a) and (b) show condition. However, the structures are slightly different.
A
Exercise 1
Match the sentence parts in column A with those in column B.
1. Hamzah was tired
a. unless she wakes up early.
2. Nora is not working
b. besides, she has a part-time job.
3. Lucy will be late for her class
c. so he went to bed early.
4. Shes really very busy attending courses
d. as a result, she obtained the highest marks.
5. He was driving so fast
e. therefore, she is in trouble now.
6. She likes to cook spicy dishes
f. however, she spends a lot of money.
7. Leela studied very hard,
g. moreover, it improved his memory.
8. Didi did not take her mothers advice,
h. that he went off the road at a road bend.
9. The medication helped him recover
i. furthermore, it will be profitable.
10. The project he proposed is excellent
j. for example, curry, kurma and tom yam.
English Grammar|143
A
Exercise 2
Look at how each type of logical connectors is used. Then construct a sentence of your own, following each
example given.
Addition: to introduce the addition of an idea or information.
Example 1:
Maria reads a lot of books; furthermore, she writes very often in the editorial section
of the newspaper.
Your sentence:.
Example 2:
Her argument was interesting; besides, it was informative.
Your sentence:
Example 3:
His athletic skills are excellent; moreover, he is an excellent football player.
Your sentence: ..
Time: to introduce the time of an action

1.
The band played as the President arrived
2.
She went home after she cleaned up the office.
Example 3:
We waited until it was time to go home
Your sentence:
Contrast: to contrast ideas or show opposition
Example 1:
He speaks Malay very fluently although he is a Korean.
Your sentence: .
Example 2:
The students made a lot of noise despite the teachers warning
Your sentence: .
Example 3:
He walks with a limp; nevertheless, he runs very fast.
English Grammar|144
Your sentence: ..
Purpose: to show purpose

Example 1:
James woke up early so that he could catch the 6 a.m train.
Your sentence: .
Example 2:
They have made Malaysia their second home so as to enjoy the warm weather in the
country.
Your sentence: .
Example 3:
He took part in the race in order to win the cash prize.
Your sentence:
Reason: to show reason or the cause of

Example 1: She could not contact us because her telephone was out of order.
Your sentence: .
Example 3: He wears a disguise since he does not want us to recognize him
Your sentence: .
Result: to show the result or effect of something

Example 1:
Hassan jogs every morning; thus, he is very fit
Your sentence: .
Example 2: My brother studied hard every day; therefore, he passed the examination with flying
colours.
Your sentence:
Example 3: He has travelled to many countries; consequently, his knowledge of the world is vast.
Your sentence:
Comparison: to introduce a similar idea

Example 1: Jogging without a doctors advice is tiring; similarly, it can be harmful to your health.
Your sentence: ..
Example 2: Television is an educational tool much as books are.
English Grammar|145
Your sentence: ..
Example 3: Just like snails, tortoises move very slowly.
Your sentence:
Illustration: to show example

Example 1:
Many animals, such as bears, are killed for their fur.
Your sentence: ..
Example 2: Aishah has some good qualities; for example, she is very generous.
Your sentence: .
Example 3: we can visit several interesting places; for instance, the national park, the limestone caves
and the turtle sanctuary.
Your sentence: .
Sequence: to show order or arrangement

Example 1:
To maintain good hygiene, firstly, we need to have regular baths.
Your sentence: ..
Example 2:
After taking a good bath we need to wipe ourselves using clean towels.
Your sentence:
Example 3: We walked for several hours; finally, we reached the Orang Asli village.
Your sentence: .
Condition: to show a condition that has to be fulfilled.
Example 1: He must work hard, if he wants to pass.
Your sentence: ..
Example: We must hurry. Otherwise, we will miss the train.
Your sentence:
Example: 3: I will lend you my book provided you return it next week.
Your sentence: ..
English Grammar|146
You can combine two sentences using a logical connector. However the logical relationship can be seen in
the way sentences are organized. Examine these two sentences:
The bus broke down.
I was late for my class.
What is the relationship between these two sentences? You can find it out by looking at the logical
connector used to link them.
The bus broke down; therefore, I was late for my class.
In this sentence the result is stressed. My being late to class was the result of the bus breaking down.
Now look at this sentence:
I was late for my class because the bus broke down.
In this sentence the reason is stressed. The reason for my coming late to class was the bus breaking down.
A
Exercise 3
Identify the logical connectors you can use to join each pair of sentences. Then choose one and construct
the sentence.
1. The medicine made him healthier. It improved his memory.
2. The examination is very difficult. You must study very diligently.
3. We had difficulty following the lecture. We cannot understand the lecturers foreign accent.
.
4. He submitted his assignment. The due date was already over.
5. She loves planting flower plants. They are roses, lilies, daisies and alamanda.
.
English Grammar|147
6. He is feeling hot. He has a fever.
7. They played their very best. They lost the game.

..
8. Azim won all the sports events he took part in. He was nominated sportsman of the year.
..
9. He injured himself on purpose. He could be excused from attending the meeting.
..
10. She is very good at modern dancing. Her brother is excellent at traditional dancing.
..
A
Exercise 4
Fill the blank in each sentence with the correct logical connector.
1. Ayob has applied to go to university; __________ , his twin brother has decided to look for
employment.
2.
Suresh likes to collect kettles from Asian countries _____________, Cambodia, Thailand and
Indonesia.
3. Malik is a keen photographer; _____________ he has a diploma in photography.

4. Chai Sim never misses his classes; _____________ he performs well in examinations.
5. _______________ his brother, Nathan intends to set up a business organization.
6. Prices of food and clothing are very high in Kuala Lumpur; . renting a house is very
expensive.
7. My uncle is 70 years now; .. he maintains his health by exercising.
8. Professor Ramlan is an outstanding scientist; . he is highly respected.
9. Lalitha writes short stories; . she writes articles for a local newspaper.
10. Tsunamis can be very destructive, the tsunami which occurred in 2004 in
Acheh killed thousands of people.
English Grammar|148
Logical connectors can also be classified as coordinating connectors and subordinating connectors.
Positions of Logical Connectors

Logical connectors can occur at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence. The punctuation used depends
on the position of the connector.
At the beginning
Sometimes logical connectors are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Usually it occurs in the second
sentence or clause after some information is given in the first part. When placed in this position, they are
usually followed by a comma.
My uncle is eighty years old. However, he still works on his farm.
My eighty-year-old uncle is very healthy. Moreover, he has excellent eye sight.
In the middle
A connector may occur in the middle of a sentence but at or near the beginning of a second clause. It is
usually preceded by a comma.
My uncle, though eighty years old, still works on his farm.
Connectors show the relationship between ideas, thus binding the points in your argument.
At the end
A connector can occur at the end of a sentence. Usually, it is in the second sentence after some
information is given in the first sentence. It is usually preceded by a comma.
He has a fever. He has gone to work, though.
Some teenagers engage themselves in dangerous activities. They take drugs, for example.
Subordinating Connectors
(Examples: because, after, since, as, although, if, when)
Subordinating connectors are used to introduce a dependent clause which is joined to an independent
clause to form a complex sentence.
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An independent clause can stand on its own.

Jim enjoys doing work online. His sister hates it.
Although Jim enjoys working online, his sister hates it.
Dependent clause
Independent clause
A dependent clause cannot stand on its own.

There are two positions for the dependent clause. Notice below:
1. If the dependent clause comes before the independent clause, use a comma after it.
Although Rohi likes watching films, her sister hates it.
Because she hates reading reference books, she never progresses in her studies.
2. If the dependent clause comes after the independent clause, do not use a comma.
I love browsing the internet although you never like it
You never browse the internet because you hate it.
A
Exercise 5
Join each pair of sentences using logical connectors. Place the logical connector in different positions:
(a) at the beginning of the sentence
(b) in the middle of the sentence
Example:
Jim did not get the job. He had the necessary qualifications.
(a) Although Jim had the necessary qualifications, he did not get the job.
(b) Jim did not get the job although he had the necessary qualifications.
English Grammar|150
(i)
Shidah passed the examination. She studied very hard.

(a) ..
(b) ..
(ii)
Wai Ling speaks French fluently. She has written a few books on how to speak French.
(a) ..
(b) ..
(iii)
Mohsin woke up late yesterday. He missed the first lecture.
(a) ..
(b) ..
(iv)
Zoyah goes to the market very early. She is able to get fresh vegetables.
(a) ..
(b) ..
(v)
The monitor looked after the class. The teacher was attending a meeting.
(a) ..
(b) ..
Summary
A logical connector is used to combine two clauses or sentences to show a particular relationship. It links
ideas from one clause or sentence to the next. It also serves as a transition between the clause or
sentence it introduces and a previous clause or sentence. The relationship between the clauses or
sentences can be classified as that of addition, time, result or purpose, condition, illustration, comparison or
contrast.
Logical connectors are important because they help you to understand the organization of sentences in a
reading passage. Hence, they help you to answer the questions correctly. They also add sophistication to
the composition your write. In addition, it gives the paragraphs a logical flow or coherence. Logical
connectors can be used at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence.
English Grammar|151
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Identify the type of logical connector used in each sentence.
Type of connector
Sentences
1. Although the traffic was heavy, we arrived on time.
2. He did not stop to rest; therefore he was the first to reach the peak
3. She did not answer the first question because it was too difficult.
4. Remy has met a lot of famous people, such as the Prime Minister.
5. The house she has chosen is comfortable, besides, it is spacious.
6. We waited until everyone arrived.
7. The players kept on playing in spite of the rain.
8. Maya called the police, then she went to help her neighbour.
9. Sue looked after her baby sister while her mother was cooking.
10. The farmers offered prayers so that the crop will yield a good harvest.
Test 2
Each of the sentences below contains a sentence connector that is incorrectly used. Rewrite the sentence
using the correct sentence connector.
1.
Aida is usually very happy; besides, today she looks very sad.
.......
2.
We are not staying in the hotels however the rooms are very expensive.
3.
The sea looked cool and calm such as we were tempted to rush in and swim.
4.
She chose to live by the sea although she could see the ships go by.
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5.
Chan likes to compete in the car race thus his sister who competes in the bicycle race.
Test 3
Complete each sentence with any appropriate sentence connector.
1.
The train leaves in five minutes, we can catch it if we run.
2.
My grandfather could not sleep last night .. he had a bad toothache.
3.
He planted a few trees in front of his house there is some shade.
4.
He is brilliant to have entered the university at an early age; ., his sister who is
now studying medicine at Cambridge University.
5.
Zamri is rich enough to own a Mercedes, .. his father is a successful

business man.
Test 4
Complete each of the sentences below. Use a suitable sentence connector in each sentence. You must not
use the same sentence connector more than once.
1.
They have very little money .
2.
Its very hot today ...
3.
She speaks very fluent English
4.
He studies very hard ..
5.
Jasim travels around the world a lot .
6.
Kasim was very disappointed with his test results ..
7.
Nathan likes watching television
8.
The show was cancelled .
9.
He stopped playing football
10.
Gan is very careful with money .
Test 5
Join each pair or group of sentences using an appropriate sentence connector.
1.
I cant go fishing because I have a class to attend. I need to get a new fishing rod.
English Grammar|153
2.
Dali is musically talented. He plays the violin with the symphony orchestra. He often plays the
saxophone with a jazz group.
3.
You have made a few serious errors in your essay. You need to correct those errors now.
4.
My mother bought some new scarves when we went shopping. My sister bought a few new
dresses.
5.
Kazim felt very thirsty and tired after the race. He drank a lot of mineral water.
Test 6
Use the sentence connectors given to complete the text below.
therefore
when
for instance
because
in addition
hence
however
while
such as
as
Water is a commodity that is available in most places. , in some places water is scarce.
.. in some places torrential rain causes floods, some areas are dry with prolong drought. We
often take water for granted. Some people ., leave taps on unattended, some water
their plants generously, and some wash their vehicles as though water is free. water is
scarce, life becomes a misery. Crops can hardly grow .. they depend on water to thrive.
food is insufficient to support any form of life. The lack of water ., derives
people of means of cleaning themselves. People may resort to any source of water even in mud holes
they are driven by acute thirst.
Under such conditions, people are
vulnerable to diseases cholera and typhoid.

Test 7
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate sentence connectors.
a. Daril:
Amin:
b. Teacher:
I went to your house yesterday, Amin, .. you were not at home.

Oh, I was working late. it rained heavily.
Hanif, please keep the class quiet . I return.
Hanif:
Yes, teacher. Can we work on our project .. youre away?
Teacher:
Yes, certainly.
c. Fuza:
The game will start ............... the invited guest arrives.
English Grammar|154
Julia:
I hope it starts soon. . I will be late for my appointment tonight.
d. Ramlan:
Samad has been making losses. .. he intends to wind up his business.
Din:
He needs to get good financial advice .. he really gives up.
e. Ai Kin:
These vegetables are fresh. they are home-grown.
Kim Lan:
You must be a keen gardner, your mother.
REFERENCES
Broukal, M. (2005). Grammar: Form and function. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Frodesen, J & Eyring, J. (2000). Grammar Dimensions: Form, meaning and use. Boston, MA.: Heinle &
Heinle.
Murphy, R. (2007). English grammar in use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swan, M. & Walter, C. (2001). The good grammar book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Werner, P. K. & Nelson, P. N. (2002). Mosaic 2: Grammar. New York: McGraw Hill.
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1c
2f
3a
4b
5h
6j
7d
8e
9g
10 - i
Exercise 2
Answers can be checked against the sentences given in the exercise.
English Grammar|155
Exercise 3
Suggested answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The medicine made him healthier; furthermore, it improved his memory.

The examination is very difficult, so, you must study very diligently.
We had difficulty following the lecture because we cannot understand the lecturers foreign accent.
He submitted his assignment; however, the due date was already over.
She loves planting flower plants, such as roses, lilies, daisies and alamanda.
He is feeling hot because he has a fever.
Although they played their best they lost the game.
Azim won all the sports events he took part in; as a result he was nominated sportsman of the year.
He injured himself on purpose so that he could be excused from attending the meeting.
She is very good at modern dancing, similarly her brother is excellent at traditional dancing.
Exercise 4
Suggested answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
however
for example
moreover
therefore .
Just like
furthermore
however
hence
furthermore
for example
Exercise 5
1. Shidah passed the examination. She studied very hard.
(a) Because she studied very hard, Shidah passed the examination
(b) Shidah passed the examination because she studied very hard.
2. Wai Ling speaks French fluently. She has written a few book on how to speak French.
(a Besides speaking French fluently, Wai Ling has written a few books on how to speak French.
(b) Wai Ling speaks French fluently besides writing a few books on how to speak French.
3. Mohsin woke up late yesterday. He missed the first lecture.
(a) As Mohsin woke up late yeasterday, he missed the first lecture.
(b) Mohsin missed the first lecture as he woke up late yestarday.
4. Zoyah goes to the market very early. She is able to get fresh vegetables.
(a) In order to be able to get fresh vegetables, Zoyah goes to the market very early.
English Grammar|156
(b) Zoyah goes to the market early in order to be able to get fresh vegetables.
5. The monitor looked after the class. The teacher was attending a meeting.
(a) While the teacher was attending a meeting, the monitor looked after the class.
(b) The monitor looked after the class while the teacher was attending a meeting.
Test 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Contrast
Result
Reason
Example
Addition
6. Time
7. Contrast
8. Time
9. Time
10. Purpose
Test 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Aida is usually very happy; however, today she looks very sad.
We are not staying in the hotels because the rooms are very expensive.
The sea looked so cool and calm that we were tempted to rush in and swim.
She chose to live by the sea so that she could see the ships go by.
Chan likes to compete in the car race just like his sister who competes in the bicycle race.
Test 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
however
because
so that
just like
furthermore
Test 4
Suggested answers:
1. They have very little money, however they manage to live without getting any help.
2. Its very hot today, so we must not spend too much time outside.
3. She speaks very fluent English, therefore we can employ her as a language teacher.
4. He studies very hard so that he can enter university.
5. Jasim travels around the world a lot in order to gain knowledge and experience.
6. Kasim was so disappointed with his test results that he refused to see anyone.
7. Nathan likes watching television, similarly his sister enjoys watching video films.
8. The show was cancelled because the sponsors decline to pay.
9. He stopped playing football so that he could concentrate on his studies.
10. Gan is very careful with money while his brother spends money easily.
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Test 5
Suggested answers:
1. I cant go fishing because I have a class to attend; furthermore I need to get a new fishing rod.
2. Dali is musically talented, for example, he plays the violin with the symphony orchestra and the
saxophone with a jazz group.
3. You have made a few serious errors in your essay; so you need to correct those errors now.
4. My mother bought some new scarves when we went shopping, similarly my sister bought a few new
dresses.
5. Kazim felt very thirsty and tired after the race; therefore he drank a lot of mineral water.
Test 6
Water is a commodity that is available in most places. However, in some places water is scarce. While in
some places torrential rain causes floods, some areas are dry with prolong drought. We often take water for
granted. Some people for instance, leave taps on unattended, some water their plants generously, and
some wash their vehicles as though water is free. When water is scarce, life becomes a misery. Crops can
hardly grow because they depend on water to thrive. Hence food is insufficient to support any form of life.
The lack of water, in addition, deprives people of means of cleaning themselves. People may resort to any
source of water even in mud holes as they are driven by acute thirst. Under such conditions, people are
therefore vulnerable to diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
Test 7
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
however / moreover
until / while
when / otherwise
so / before
because / just like
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UNIT 11
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the different kinds of conditional sentences in English.
2. Use each conditional word correctly and appropriately to express conditions.
3. Complete sentences using the appropriate conditional words.
4. Construct questions using conditional forms.
INTRODUCTION
A conditional sentence is a statement that describes a condition and a result that follows. Conditional
sentences are very common in daily conversations. The most common kind of conditional sentence
contains two clauses. One is the dependent clause or the subordinate clause. The subordinate clause
usually starts with the word if. It is sometimes called the if clause. It expresses a condition.
The other one is the independent clause or the main clause. The main clause is the clause without the I. It
shows the result that follows when the condition is fulfilled. In other words, the condition in the main clause
I will visit you can only take place if a certain condition If I have time is fulfilled.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
(condition)
If I have time,
MAIN CLAUSE
(result)
I will visit you
The if clause usually comes first, but the order of the two clauses is generally not important because the
meaning is the same. So we can move the if clause to the end of the sentence like this:
I will visit you if I have time.
When the if clause come first, you place a comma after it. A comma is not required if the main clause is
placed first. Compare the following sentences.
a. I will visit you if I have time.
b. If I have time, I will visit you.
English Grammar|159
LEARNING POINTS
Types of Conditional Sentences
There are basically three types of conditional sentences. They are classified based on their meanings: real,
predictive, and imaginative conditional sentences.
Conditional sentences are usually divided into three main types:
1. Real conditional (zero and first type of conditional sentences)
2. Unreal conditional referring to the present or future (second type of conditional sentences)
3. Hypothetical or unreal conditional referring to the past (third type of conditional sentences).
Zero conditional
This conditional states something that is always or generally true. It can also be used to give commands,
directives or directions.
If you heat an iron rod, it expands.

If you drop a cork in water, it floats.
If iron is wet, it rusts.
If I have time, I iron my clothes.
If I fall asleep, wake me up.

If the water boils, turn the flame off.
If the light turns green, start talking.
Type 1
This conditional tells you that the condition (in the if clause) is possible. It and also very likely that it will
occur. The main clause tells you what will happen as a result. This conditional is known as Type 1.
If he likes the book, he will buy it.

If she is late, we may have to leave without her.
If the alarm goes off, the security guard will come.
If she misses the bus, she will be late for her class.
If you get up early, we can go for a walk.
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Type 2
This condition tells you that the condition is possible but is unlikely to happen. The main clause tells you
that. It is also used to give advice or to make a suggestion.
If he liked the book, he would buy it.

If you followed the directions carefully, you would find the hotel easily.
If she held the bat correctly, she would hit the ball.
If they rested for a while, they would regain their energy.
If he entered the essay competition, he would win a prize.
Type 3
This condition is impossible to take place because it refers to a past event.
If he had liked the book, he would have bought it.

If you had followed the directions carefully, you would have found the hotel easily.
If she had held the bat correctly, she would have hit the ball.
If they had rested for a while, they would have regained their energy.
If he had entered the essay competition, he would have won a prize.
Form and meaning

Type 0 (Zero Type) Conditional
The present tense is used in both the condition and the result.
If Clause (If + Simple Present)
Main Clause ( Simple Present)
If you put water in the freezer,
it turns into ice.
If you turn the tap on,
water flows out.
If you eat too many doughnuts
you get sick
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Question form
Main Clause (Simple Present)
If Clause (Simple Present)
Does the ice melt
if you put it in the sun?
Does he play games
if he is not working?
Do you get yourself a drink
if you are thirsty?
What happens
if you put ice in the sun?
What does he do
if he is not working ?
What do you do
if you are thirsty?
A
Exercise 1
For each sentence below, fill in the blanks with the correct verb forms.
1. If you . water, it .
A.
B.
C.
D.
heats / boils
heats / boil
heat / boils
heat / boil
2. If we .. the colours blue and yellow, we .. green.

A.
B.
C.
D.
mix / get
mixes / gets
mix / gets
mixes / get
3. If Irene . Japanese, she . in Japan.

A.
B.
C.
D.
speak / lives
speaks / live
speak / lives
speaks / lives
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4. If it , the game .. cancelled.

A.
B.
C.
D.
rain / is
rains / is
rain / are
rains/ are
5. If my parents .. to town, we lunch outside.

A.
B.
C.
D.
come / has
comes / has
come / have
comes / have
A
Exercise 2
Match the sentences in Part A with those in Part B.
Part A
Part B
1. If the weather is hot
a. the leaves scatter all around the garden
2. If you are tired
b. your skin becomes dry
3. If the wind blows
c. she gets up at six oclock
4. If you remember her address
d. take a rest.
5. If she goes to work
e. let me know as soon as possible
Type 1 Conditional
The present tense is used in the conditional clause and will/may/can/must + infinitive in the result clause.
An imperative can also be used to give a directive or instruction.
If Clause (If + Simple present)
Main Clause (Modal + Infinitive verb)
If it rains,
we may cancel the game.
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If you finish sweeping the floor,
you can go out.
If you are in Bangkok,
you must go to the floating market.
Question form
Main Clause (Modal + infinitive verb)
If Clause (If + Simple Present)
Will Aziz pass the examination
if he studies hard?
Can Steven join the youth club
if he is over twenty-one years old?
Should Nina inform the Principal
if she wants to leave the school?
What must you do
if you want to study in a university?
Who will take care of your parents
if you go overseas?
How can she pay
if she has no money?
A
Exercise 3
For each sentence below, fill in the blanks with the correct verb forms. Use the Type 1 Conditional.
1. If he . too much, he ill.
A. eats / is
B. eats / are
C. eats / will be
2. The Police him if they . him.
A. arrest / catch
B. arrest / will catch
C. will arrest / catch
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3. Air pollution worse in our town if the number of cars .. .

A. is / increase
B. are / increases
C. will be / increases
4. We .. miss the show if the bus . late.
A. will / arrives
B. will / arrived
C. would / arrives
5. I . let you know if Muna . to join us for dinner tomorrow.

A. will / agree
B. will / agrees
C. would / agrees
6. If the weather . fine, we .. on a picnic.
A. is / can go
B. are / will go
C. is / would go
7. Zainab . us Arabic if she . the time.
A. will teach / has
B. will teach / had
C. would teach / has
8. Dora . a party at her house if her father her to.
A. holds / will allow
B. will hold / allows
C. holds / has allowed
9. If Dani and Jamal . soon, they . watch the show.
A. arrive / can
B. arrives / will
C. arrived / will
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10. If the furniture .. old, we .. it away.

A. is / can give
B. are / will give
C. was / can give
11. Who . the room if we a party here?
A. will decorate / held
B. will decorate / hold
C. can decorate / held
12. What .. she .. if no one her?
A. will / do / help
B. will / do / helps
C. will / does / help
A
Exercise 4
Complete the sentences by putting the verbs into the correct forms. Use Type 1 Conditional.
1. If he . (hurry), he .. (catch) the last bus home.
2. If it (rain) tomorrow, we . (not, go) on a picnic.
3. If you (wait) a little longer, you (see) the director.
4. Nora and Siti . (decorate) the room if Joe and Kim (arrange) the furniture.
5. If they all .. (perform) their best, the show ..(be) a great one.
6. If you . (be able, not) to sleep, you . (read) a story book.
7. If they .. (study, not) hard, they (pass, not) the examination.
8. Hassan . (go) to Bangkok next month if he . (be able, get) a cheap flight.
9. How Hamid . if he .. no money?
10. If Latif (learn) Mandarin, he in China?
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Type 2 Conditional
The past tense is used in the conditional clause and would/could/should/might + infinitive in the result
clause.
If Clause (If + Simple Past)
Main Clause (Modal +infinitive)
If I saw Karen,
I would tell her the good news.
If Azim completed his work,
he could join us for tea.
If the teacher came,
she might let us use the computers.
Question form
Main Clause (Modal + Infinitive)
If Clause (If + Simple Past)
Would she let me in

Would Roni buy the watch
Would the police arrest him
if I arrived late?
if he knew it was an imitation?
if he told the truth?
How would she react

Why would she get angry
What would his mother say
if she found out the truth?

if you apologise to her for not inviting her?
if he told her he is going overseas?
A
Exercise 5
Complete the text below using the words in brackets correctly. Use Type 2 Conditional.
1. If he . (go) to the carnival, his fans . (get) his autograph.
2. If I .. (have) more time, I (attend) a course in business management.
3. If they .. (be) rich, they . (stay) at a five-star hotel.
4. Jasmi . (pass) the examination if he . (study) harder.
5. If we.. (know) their address, we . (visit) them.
6. My father . (buy) a new car if he enough money.
7. The birds . (gather) around you if you (feed) them.
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8. The monkeys . (grab) your bag if you . (go) too near to them.
9. What she . (do) if her neighbours (not, help) her.
10. How they . (travel) if they (not, have) any travel
documents.
Type 3 Conditional
The past perfect tense is used in the conditional clause and would have/could have/might have + past
participle in the result clause.
If Clause (If Clause + Past Perfect)
Main Clause (Would have/could have/might

have/should have + Present Participle)
If you had met her,
you might have liked her.
If the principal had seen you,
she could have detained you.
If the police had caught the suspect,
they would have questioned him.
Question
Main Clause (Would have + Present Participle) If Clause (If Clause + Past Perfect)
Would she have contacted you
Would Hans have completed the work
Would you have come
if you had left a message?

if Jasli had not helped him?
if I had not informed you?
What would Yusni have done

How would Loh An have explained
What would he have done with the money
if the police had arrived late?

if his brother had kept the information?
if he had won the competition?
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A
Exercise 6
Complete each sentence by using the correct verb form. Use Type 3 Conditional.
1. I didnt know Jan was in hospital. If I (know), I (visit) her.
2. Ranjit reached the station just in time to catch the 9 oclock bus to the city. If he
(miss) it, he .. (miss) the interview.
3. We took a taxi to the hotel, but the traffic was bad. It . (be) quicker if we
(take) the commuter.
4. Im glad you reminded me about the farewell dinner. I.(forget) it if you .
(not, remind) me.
5. You did not go the party last night. If you . (attend) it, you .. (meet) a lot
of people.
6. He crashed his car in an accident yesterday. He .. (not, crash) his car in that accident if he
. (not, drive) very fast.
7. I forgot to bring my camera when I went on holiday. If I .. (bring) my camera, I
(take) a lot of photographs.
8. I wanted to buy some durians last night but the seller did not want to reduce the price. I .
(buy) some durians last night, if the seller (reduce) the price.
9. he .. (get) the job if he (dress up) properly?
10. How .. she (feel) if you (scold) her?
A
Exercise 7
Complete the sentences below with your own words. Use Type 3 Conditional.
1. If our players .. we would have won the game.
2. Our team .. in better form if they harder a month before.
3. If all of them , the party . enjoyable.
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4. If Mariam early, she .. her flight.

5. If she .. the story, she .. you
6. She . the pyramids if she . Egypt.
7. If he .. hard enough, he .. to a more senior post.
8. If he at the wheel, he . the accident.
9. If Samsul (drive) very slowly, would he .. (meet) an accident?
10. What .. Preema . (do) if her brother . (not, pay) her fees.
Summary
Conditional sentences are very commonly used in our daily conversations. They play an important role in
grammar. They describe a condition and the result that follows. There are four types of conditional
sentences. They are zero conditional, type 1 conditional, type 2 conditional and type 3 conditional. They are
categorized according to the situations in which they are used. The zero conditional is used when
describing situations which are habitual or generally true. They are also used to make suggestions, give
directives or instructions or commands. The first conditional is used to talk about a future situation that is
possible. The second conditional is used to talk about a future situation that is unlikely to happen and also
to give advice. The third conditional is used when the situation cannot be fulfilled because the action in the
If-clause did not happen, for example: If I had known you were coming, I would have cancelled my meeting.
But I did not know you were coming so I did not cancel my meeting.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1
Complete the text by filling in each blank with the correct verb form. Use the Type 1 Conditional.
Zahrin goes to work by bus. If he 1..(wake up) late, he 2..(miss) the bus and
3..(arrive) late for work. If he 4(have) enough money, he 5..(buy) his own
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car. If he 6(work) harder, he 7(earn) a lot of money. If he 8(save)

some money every month, he 9..(be able) to buy his own car. But what 10(do) he ?
He has no qualifications.
Test 2
Read each sentence carefully and identify the correct conditional type.
1. If I were you, I would buy the shoes while the price is reasonable.
A. Zero Conditional
B. First Conditional
C. Second Conditional
D. Third Conditional
2. If she works hard enough, she will pass the test.
A. Zero Conditional
3. He would have informed you if he had known you were around.
A. Zero Conditional
4. If you drop a pebble in a bowl of water, it sinks.
A. Zero Conditional
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5. I wouldnt be surprised if there was a flash flood.

A. Zero Conditional
6. If I get home late, my father will get angry.
A. Zero Conditional
7. Babies cry if they are hungry.
A. Zero Conditional
8. If she had listened to you, she wouldnt have been in trouble.
A. Zero Conditional
9. Will you wait for me if I arrive late?
A. Zero Conditional
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10. Would she have offered you the job if she had known you didnt have the skills.
A. Zero Conditional
Test 3
Fill in each blank with the correct verb form. Use Types 1, 2 and 3 Conditional.
1. Ai Lin:
We have been waiting for the bus since four pm. Its 6.30 now. What . we
(do) if it ..(not, come)?
2. Benny:
You sound scared. We (get) a taxi if it (not, come)
3. Ai Lin:
What (happen) if we (take) a taxi?
4. Benny:
Dont worry. if we (wait) a little longer we (get) one.
5. Ai Lin:
What (happen) if the taxi driver . (overcharge) us?
6. Benny:
If he (overcharge) us, we .(report) him to the Road and Transport

Department.
7. Ai Lin:
What if he tries to bully us?
8. Benny:
If he (bully) us, we (call) the police.
9. Ai Lin:
What (happen) if we .. (miss) the taxi. Benny, I think a taxi has just passed us.
10. Benny:
You and your worries. If you (talk) too much we (miss) the
taxi.
REFERENCES
Broukal, M. (2005). Grammar form and function 1. Boston: MCGraw Hill.
Swan, M & Walter, C. (2003). The good grammar book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Frodesen, J & Eyring, J. (2000). Grammar dimensions. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Werner, P. K. & Nelson, J.P. (2002). Mosaic 2 Grammar. New York: McGraw-Hill.
English Grammar|173
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
C
A
D
A
C
Exercise 2
1b
2d
3a
4e
5-c
Exercise 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
C
C
C
A
B
A
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
hurries, can/will/may
rains, will not go/may not go
wont, may
will, arrange
perform, will be
are not able, should
will, is able to get
do not study, will not pass
will, pay, has
learns, will, work.
Exercise 5
1. hurried, would get
2. had, would attend
3. were, would
A
B
A
A
B
B
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
passed would study

knew, would visit
would buy, had
would gather, fed
would grab, went
would, do, did not help
would, travel, did not have
Exercise 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
had known, would have visited

had missed, would have missed
would have been, had taken
would have forgotten, had not reminded
had attended, would have met
would not have crashed, had not driven fast
had brought, would have taken
would have bought, had reduced
would, have got, had dressed up
would, have felt, had scolded
Exercise 7
Suggested answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
had played hard enough, would have won

would have been, had trained
had turned up, would have been
had woken up, wouldnt have missed
had known, would have told
would have seen, had visited
had worked, would have been
had not slept, would have met
had driven, have met
would, have done, had not paid
Test 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
C
B
D
A
C
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
B
A
D
B
D
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Test 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
will, do, does not come

will get, does not come
happens, take
wait, will get
happens, overcharges
overcharges, will report
happens, bullies
bullies, will call
happens, miss
had not talked, wouldnt have missed
English Grammar|176
UNIT 12
Relative Clauses
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify relative pronouns in sentences.
2. Distinguish between defining and non-defining relative clauses.
3. Apply rules regarding relative clauses correctly.
4. Construct sentences using the appropriate form of relative clauses
INTRODUCTION
Relative clauses give additional information about something within a sentence. There is no need to start
another sentence. A relative clause looks like a sentence because it has a subject and a predicate. But
actually it is a dependent sentence or a subordinate clause. It cannot stand on its own. It is attached to a
main clause. It starts with a relative pronoun. It comes immediately after the noun it modifies. For example:
A pilot is a person who flies planes.
Main clause
Subordinate clause
The relative clause who flies planes describes the noun person.
How can we recognize a relative clause?
It contains a subject and a verb
It begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, or that)
It functions as an adjective in answering questions such as Which one?, What kind? or How
many?
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LEARNING POINTS
How is a relative clause formed?
A relative clause can be formed when we have two sentences. These two sentences must share the same
noun. In the following example, It in the second sentence refers to the house in the first sentence.
He bought a house. It was very expensive
To form a relative clause, we turn the second sentence into a modifying clause by replacing It with a
relative pronoun. Then we place it close to the noun it modifies.
He bought a house that was very expensive.
The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. The subject is not repeated. It is wrong to write the
sentence like this:
He bought a house that it was very expensive
What is a relative pronoun?
A relative pronoun is a word used to replace a noun in the modifying clause. It comes at the beginning of a
relative clause. The relative pronouns are classified as follows:
Subject
Object
Possessive
who
who, whom
whose
which
which
whose
that
that
Subject
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause we use who, which or that. We use who, when
we modify a person or people. Sometimes that can also be used.
Look at these two sentences:
The girl is the principals daughter. The girl scored the most number of goals.
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The girl is subject in the second sentence that you want to use as a relative clause. When we combine the
two sentences we get this sentence:
The girl who scored the most number of goals is the principals daughter.
We use that and which for animals, things, ideas, or concepts.
This book is very interesting. This book is a new edition.
This book is subject in the second sentence that you want to use as a relative clause. When we combine
the two sentences we get this sentence:
This book which is a new edition is very interesting.
Object
When the relative pronoun is the object of the clause we use whom. It is used in more formal English. It is
quite common to use who. We use whom as the object of a relative clause.
Look at these two sentences:
The lady is the manager. You spoke to the lady just now.
The lady is the object in the second sentence that you want to use as a relative clause. When we combine
the two sentences we get this sentence:
The lady, whom you spoke to just now, is the manager.
or
The lady to whom you spoke just now is the manager.
Possession
We use whose to indicate possession. It is used as a determiner before a noun.
The man has made a police report. His car has been stolen.
The car belongs to the man. It is his car. When we combine the two sentences we get:
The man whose car has been stolen has made a police report.
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A
Exercise 1
Fill in the blanks with the correct relative pronouns.
1. The doctor .. treated your mother lives beside my house.
2. The road leads to my school is in a very bad condition
3. I spoke to the lady . son is a famous surgeon.
4. The person gave you a lift last night is my brother.
5. I know someone .. can help you repair the roof of your house.
6. Can you remember the girl .. car you knocked into last night?
7. People .. drive recklessly are likely to be involved in accidents.
8. What is the name of the poet .. we heard reciting last night?
9. I met your sister .. aspires to be an astronaut.
10. How can they allow players names have been cancelled play in this game?
Exercise 2
Join each pair of sentences using so that the second becomes a relative clause.
1. The palace is in an old part of the town. It is a historical building.
.
2. My neighbour works in construction sites around the city. He comes from Thailand.
..
3. The laundry shop provides good service. It is a five-minute walk from my house.
..
4. He ate the cake. It was in the refridgerator.
..
5. Where are the students? Their names are not in the list.
..
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6. She gave me something. She got it from an antique shop.

.
7. The students were very fit. We encouraged the students to climb Mount Kinabalu.
.
8. Alis grandfather refuses to travel by air. He is very old-fashioned.
..
9. We stayed at a hotel. The hotel had central air-conditioning.
..
10. The old man is a millionnaire. Aziz helped the old man yesterday.
.
A
Exercise 3
Indicate whether the relative pronoun in each sentence is used as subject or object.
1. The man who caught the biggest fish is my gandfather.
2. She argued with her brother who had her car stolen.
3. The gardener whose son is studying in a university does not want to retire from his work.
4. My brother was the first person who volunteered to clear the drains.
5. Some of the students who arrived for the show did not get the tickets.
6. Kims cat whose fur and eyes are beautiful won first prize in the cat competition.
7. His uncle who is seventy years old runs the company.
8. Mila is a friend of my sister who is a singer.
9. The beautiful castle which Kelly built has been restored.
10. He saw several paintings which were produced by Michelangelo.
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Types of Relative Clause

Defining Relative Clause
A defining relative clause is one which is used to identify or restrict the reference of a noun. You do not use
commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
The students who were unhappy staged a protest against the management.
In this example, it is clear that there are two groups of students. The group of students who were unhappy
staged a protest against the management. There is no comma before or after the relative clause. The
students who were happy did not stage the protest.
Non-defining Relative Clause
A non-defining relative clause is one which is used to provide additional information about the noun whose
reference is already established. You use a comma before the relative clause and another comma after it.
The students, who were unhappy, staged a protest against the management.
The non-defining clause or non-restrictive clause provides information which is attached to a noun that is
already identified and doesnt need anything else to make you know which one you are talking about. This
non-restrictive clause gives important information that adds to our understanding of the students but it is not
necessary to define who they are.
Look at another example:
Mr. Obama, who is a lawyer by profession, is the President of the United States of America.
The relative pronoun that should not be used in non-defining relative clauses.
Compare these two sentences.
My uncle who lives in Canada is a famous scientist. (defining)
My uncle, who lives in Canada, is a famous scientist. (non-defining)
The first sentence means that I have more than one uncle and the one who lives in Canada is a famous
scientist. The second sentence means that I have an uncle. He lives in Canada and he is a famous
scientist.
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A
Exercise 4
Identify the kind of relative clause used in each of the following sentences.
1. A sharpener is an instrument that is used to sharpen pencils.
A.. Defining
B. Non-defining.
2. Claudia, whom I told you about, is now Principal of the school.
A. Defining
B. Non-defining
3. My sister works for a company that makes electrical appliances.
A. Defining
B. Non-defining
4. The shop down the road, which sells sundry good, makes a lot of profit.
A..Defining
B..Non-defining
5. People who live in glass houses shouldnt throw stones.
A. Defining
B. Non-defining
6. The girl, whose car was damaged, claimed a lot of money from the insurance company.
A. Defining
B. Non-defining
7. He gave a letter to the secretary, who handed it to the Director.
A. Defining
B. Non-defining
8. Erman, who is in hospital, wants his friends to visit him.
A. Defining
B. Non-defining
9. Miss Aida who taught us English Literature has just retired.
A. Defining
English Grammar|183
B. Non-defining
10. There is work which he must complete before he goes home.
A. Defining
B. Non-defining
Reduced Relative Clauses

A relative pronoun can sometimes be left out. It is not given in a sentence but it is understood. The relative
clause with zero relative pronoun is called a contact clause.
There are two occasions when the relative pronoun is omitted.
1. When the pronoun is the object of the relative clause. In this case the relative pronoun can be left out.
Look at these examples.
The children played in the garden. They love the garden.
The children played in the garden which they love.
The children played in the garden they love.
Simon likes the present. His father gave it on his graduation day.
Simon likes the present which his father gave on his graduation day.
Simon likes the present his father gave on his graduation day.
Fanny wrote a letter to the publisher. Her sister told her about the publisher.
Fanny wrote a letter to the publisher whom her sister told her about.
Fanny wrote a letter to the publisher her sister told her about.
2. When the relative clause contains the auxiliary verb to be and a present or past participle. In this
case, the relative pronoun and the auxiliary verb are omitted.
Who is the girl? She is sitting under the tree.
Who is the girl who is sitting under the tree?
Who is the girl sitting under the tree?
The girls listened to the teacher. The teacher was talking.
The girls listened to the teacher who was talking.
The girls listened to the teacher talking.
He drove the car. The car was decorated with flowers.
He drove the car which was decorated with flowers.
English Grammar|184
He drove the car decorated with flowers.
A
Exercise 5
Identify the sentences in which the relative pronouns can be left out.
1. I wore a dress which my mother bought.
2. She made cakes which are lovely to look at and delicious to eat.
3. There are people who do not abide by the rules of the institution.
4. The book that she borrowed has been recalled by the librarian.
5. I wore a dress which was designed by a famous designer.
6. Only one of the workers who work in company is qualified.
7. Do you know the officer who is investigating the case?
8. Where did you put the pen which I bought yesterday?
9. My cat caught the rat that had been running about the house.
10. My brother who is investigating the crime works till late at night.
A
Exercise 6
Combine each pair of sentences by using a contact relative clause.
1. The boy is my brothers friend. I met the boy at the railway station.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. My father bought a bicycle. The bicycle was displayed in a shop window.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|185
3. The book had many beautiful pictures. My mother gave me the book.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. The letter hasnt arrived. I posted it last week.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Do you know the girl? She is feeding the ducks.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. The car was very comfortable. My brother bought the car.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
7. The boutique offered good prices on dresses. She went to the boutique.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
8. The film was long and boring. We were talking about the film.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
9. She is singing a song. I dont know the song.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. They made an offer. We could not accept it.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Summary
A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun. It is headed by a relative pronoun (that, which, who,
whose and whom). In a relative clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb. Sometimes the relative
English Grammar|186
pronoun is left out in a relative clause. This type of relative clause is called the contact relative clause. Relative
clauses can be defining or non-defining. Commas are used in to separate the non-defining relative clause form the
rest of the main clause. Commas are not used in the defining relative clause.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Test 1.
Read the text below. Decide whether or not a relative pronoun is necessary to put in each blank.
1. Dahlia: Mother, have you seen the blouse __________________________________ I bought yesterday?
2. Mother: No, but there were a lot of clothes __________________________________ I put in the washing
machine.
3. Dahlia: You shouldnt wash clothes _________________________________ are clean.
4. Mother: They were lying on the floor _________________________________ I have not mopped yet.
5. Dahlia: Do you know ________________________________________ else might have seen it?
6. Mother: Your sister _______________________________________ you harassed yesterday might have .
7. Dahlia: You mean Rita, _________________________________________ body smells?
8. Mother: You shouldnt talk about someone _______________________________________ is your sister
like that.
9. Dahlia: But she has a body __________________________________________ is bigger than mine.
10. Mother: But she has brains __________________________________________ match her body, unlike you.
Test 2
Join each pair of sentences with a relative pronoun. There may be more than one correct answer.
1. The Director will see the students. The students went to China with him last year.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
English Grammar|187
2. You should stop nail-biting. It is a bad habit.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. This is the Bollywood VCD. I bought it for your sister.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Kama was very slim. She used to be a model.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5. My friend went to your party. He is an engineer.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
6. Where is the lady? She ordered a spicy pizza.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
7. His car is very expensive. It is a Mercedes.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
8. Thats the man. He broke the window of your car.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
9. Here is the newspaper. It arrived this morning.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
10. The people are allowed to vote. Their names are called.
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Test 3
Indicate whether the relative pronoun is necessary or not in each of the following sentences.
1. This is the watch that I found yesterday.
A. Necessary
B. Unnecessary
English Grammar|188
2. She still has the bracelet that I gave her.
A. Necessary
B. Unnecessary
3. Do you know the doctor who is talking to the nurses?
A. Necessary
B. Unnecessary
4. Are these the keys that you were looking for?
A. Necessary
B. Unnecessary
5. The traffic which passes my house if very noisy.
A. Necessary
B. Unnecessary
Test 4
Rewrite each of the sentences below in two sentences.
Example:
I was searching for the book which you recommended.
a. I was searching for the book.
b. You recommended it /the book.
1. Where are the apples that I bought yesterday?
a. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
2. The architect checked the building that he designed.
a. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
3.
She found the lady whom she was looking for.

a. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
4. The football fans cheered the team that they supported.

a. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
English Grammar|189
5. The people who arrive early get the best seats.
a. __________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
REFERENCES
Broukal, M. (2005). Grammar form and function 1. Boston: MCGraw Hill.
Swan, M & Walter, C. (2003). The good grammar book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Frodesen, J & Eyring, J. (2000). Grammar dimensions. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Werner, P. K. & Nelson, J.P. (2002). Mosaic 2 Grammar. New York: McGraw-Hill.
ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
who,
which/that,
whose,
who,
who,
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
whose,
who,
whom,
who,
whose
Exercise 2
Suggested answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The palace which is a historical building is in an old part of the town.

My neighbour who comes from Thailand works in construction sites around the city.
The laundry shop which is a five-minute walk from my house.provides good service.
He ate the cake which was in the refridgerator.
Where are the students whose names are not in the list.
She gave me something which she got from an antique shop.
The students whom we encouraged to climb Mount Kinabalu were very fit.
Alis grandfather who is very old-fashioned refuses to travel by air.
We stayed at a hotel which had central air-conditioning.
The old man whom Aziz helped yesterday is a millionnaire.
English Grammar|190
Exercise 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Object
Object
Subject
Object
Subject
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Subject
Subject
Object
Object
Object
Exercise 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A
B
A
B
A
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
B
B
B
A
A
Exercise 5.
The sentences in which the relative pronouns can be left out:
1, 4, 5, 7, 8,
Exercise 6
Suggested answers:
1. The boy I met the boy at the railway station is my brothers friend.
2. My father bought a bicycle displayed in a shop window.
3. The book my mother gave me had many beautiful pictures.
4. The letter I posted it last week hasnt arrived.
5. Do you know the girl is feeding the ducks?
6. The car my brother bought was very comfortable.
7. The boutique she went to offered good prices on dresses. the boutique.
8. The film we were talking about was long and boring.
9. She is singing a song I dont know.
10. They made an offer we could not accept.
Test 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
none / which
none / which
which / that
which / that
who
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
whom
whose
who
which
which
English Grammar|191
Test 2
Suggested answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The Director will see the students who went to China with him last year.
You should stop nail-biting which is a bad habit.
This is the Bollywood VCD which I bought for your sister.
Kama who used to be a model was very slim. .
My friend who went to your party is an engineer.
Where is the lady? She ordered a spicy pizza.
His car which is a Mercedes is very expensive.
Thats the man who broke the window of your car.
Here is the newspaper which arrived this morning.
The people whose names are called are allowed to vote.
Test 3
Suggested answers:
1. Where are the apples that I bought yesterday?
a. Where are the apples?
b. I bought the apples yesterday.
2. The architect checked the building that he designed
a. The architect checked the building.
b. He designed the building.
3. She found the lady whom she was looking for.
a. She found the lady.
b. She was looking for the lady.
4. The football fans cheered the team that they supported.
a. The football fans cheered the team.
b. They supported the team.
5. The people who arrive early get the best seats.
a. The people get the best seats.
b. The people arrive early.

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Napisah Kepol (Dr.)

Napisah Kepol (Dr.)

Napisah Kepol (Dr.)

FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND COMMUNICATION

Auxiliary Verbs, Subject-Verb Agreement and Negation

Nouns, Determiners, pronouns

Adjectives and Adverbs

Gerunds and Infinitives

The Passive Voice

Reading the module, revising and completing the tasks

Auxiliary Verbs, Subject-Verb Agreement and Negation

Nouns, Determiners and Pronouns

Adjectives and Adverbs

Gerunds and Infinitives

The Passive Voice

This icon indicates an explanation or description about a

This icon is used to label practice exercises that follow the

This icon indicates the sections where self-assessment

book, key, cat, girl, apple, office, warmth

write, run, cry, drink, wish, dream

clever, happy, thin, new, white, super

slowly, very, extremely, never, too

he, they, hers, mine, she, we, I

on, in, under, towards, across, over

a, the, little, two, much, some

and, so, although, but, because, if

My father is a kind man.

My father is a kind and generous man.

My father donates a lot of money to the poor because he is a

____________________________ (give) us the chance to catch up with each other.

_______________________________ (start) in her new position next month.

I have something for Misha. Where is she?

She ______________ already __________________ (leave) for school.

Isnt it a bit too early for school? ___________________ she _______________________

I havent either. I _______________________ only _______________________ (be) to

__________________ you ______________________ (meet) the new teacher yet?

No, I havent. Have you?

Yes. Shes very friendly. You should meet her.

Dina and Johan ___________________________________ (break) off their engagement.

Really? Since when?

Im not sure but I heard from Siti that they __________________________________

Thats a shame. They made such a nice couple.

Past Perfect Tense

______________________ (take) her book with me.

Future Perfect Tense

I _______________________________________________ (write) a poem for my mother. She

5. Yoon _______________________________________ (look) for a partner to join the competition.

busy_______________________ (talk) with Michael.

Present Perfect Progressive

I ________________________________________ (think) about taking the children on a field trip

I think thats a good idea. Theyll love it.

I think so too. They _______________________________________ (behave) very well for the

Actually, they _________________________________________ (ask) me if we could take them

__________________________________________ (show) them pictures of animals, birds and

Khalida ________________________________________ (miss) classes quite frequently now.

I heard that she ________________________________________ (feel) well. I think she has a

Yes, she ____________________________________________ (complain) about it for the past

Has she been to the doctor?

I think she ______________________________________________ (get) treatment from the clinic

Yeah. We should try to persuade her to see one.

Past Perfect Progressive

________________________________________ (write) nonstop for the past three hours. I (2)

________________________________________ (complete) several novels and pieces of writing. I (6)

She already ____ (leave) for school.

Isnt it a bit too early for school? _ she _____

I havent either. I _ only _ (be) to

you ____ (meet) the new teacher yet?

I think you ______. It

4. Lolita already _ in her application to the university.