Computer Aided Design for Structures

Unit 1

INTRODUCTION
2-marks
1. Define CAD.
Computer Aided Design involves any type of design activity which
makes use of computer to develop, analyze or modify an engineering
design. Modern CAD systems are based on interactive computer graphics.
2. Define data structure.
A data structure is defined as a scheme, logic or a sequence of steps
developed to achieve a certain graphics, non- graphics and a
programming goal.
3. What is a database?
A database is defined as an organized collection of graphics and
non graphics data stored on secondary storage in the computer.
4. Define automated drafting.
Automated drafting involves the creation of hard copy
engineering drawings directly from the CAD data base. Graphic features
of computer aided design can increase productivity in drafting function.
5. Define model co ordinate system.
It is defined as the reference space of the model with respect to
which all the model geometric data is stored. Three types of co ordinate
systems are needed in order to input, store and display model geometry
and graphics.
6. Write the functions of design work station.
The functions of design work station are:
i) It must interface with the central processing unit.
ii) It must generate a steady graphic image for the user.
iii) It must provide digital descriptions of the graphic image.
iv) It must translate computer commands into operating functions.
v) It must facilitate communication between the user and the system.

7. What is a geometric model? Mention its types.

A geometric model is a graphical representation of an object,
using the mathematical database in the computer. Solid model, surface
model and wireframe model are the types of geometric model.
8. Write the various design tasks performed by CAD system.
The design tasks performed by CAD system are geometric
modeling, engineering analysis, design review and evaluation and
automated drafting.

9. What is the graphic configuration of a graphic system?

The graphic configuration of a graphic system is,
i) It interacts with the graphics terminal to create
and alter images on the screen.
ii) Construct a model of something physical out of
the images on the screen. The models are
sometimes called application models.
iii) Enter the model into computer memory and
or secondary storage.
10. What are functions of a graphic package?
The functions of a graphic package are generation of
graphic elements, transformations, display control and windowing
functions, segmenting functions and user input functions.
11. List the types of output devices used in conjunction with computer
aided design system.
Pen plotters, hard copy units, Electrostatic plotters,
Computer-output-to-microfilm (COM) units are the output
devices used in conjunction with computer aided design system.
12. What are the modules of ICG?
The interactive computer graphics software is divided into
three modules as the graphics package, application software and
application database.
13. Write the display devices used in computer graphics application.
Raster scan monitor, LCD monitors and plasma panel
display are the display devices used in computer graphics
application.

14. Write the display devices used in computer graphics application.

The display devices used in computer graphics application
are Raster scan monitor, LCD monitor and Plasma panel display.
15. List any two types of output devices used in conjunction with CAD
system.
Graphic Displays and Hard copy Printers and Plotters.
16.Define Recognition of need.
Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a
problem exists for which some corrective action should be taken. This
might be identification of some defect in current machine design by an
engineer or the perception of a new product marketing opportunity by
salesperson. Definition of the problem involves a thorough specification
of the item to be designed. The specification includes physical and
functional characteristics, cost, quality and operating performance.
17.Write the analysis step of design process
Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly iterative in
the design process. A certain component or subsystem of the overall
system is conceptualized by the designer, subjected to analysis, improved
through this analysis procedure and redesigned. The process is repeated
until the design has been optimized within the constraints imposed on
the designer. The components and subsystems are synthesized into the
final overall system in a similar iterative manner.
18. what is evaluation?
Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the
specifications established in the problem definition phase. This
evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of prototype model
to assess operating performance, quality, reliability and other criteria.
The final phase in the design process is the presentation of design. This
includes documentation of the design by means of drawings, material
specifications, assembly lists and so on.
19. Write a note on engineering design?
Engineering design has traditionally been accomplished on drawing
boards, with design being documented in the form of a detailed engineering

drawing. Mechanical design includes the drawing of the complete product as

well as its components and subassemblies.
20. Define Electrical design of CAD
Electrical design is concerned with the presentation of circuit diagrams,
specifications of electronic components, and so on. In each engineering
discipline, the approach has traditionally been to synthesis a preliminary design
manually and then to subject that design to some form of analysis.

UNIT 2
GRAPHICS PACKAGE
2-Marks
1. Define segmentation.
Segmentation or curve splitting is defined as replacing one existing
curve by one or more curve segments of the same curve type such that
the shape of the composite curve is identical to that of the original curve.
2. Define transformations.
Transformations are used to change the image on the display
screen and to reposition the item in database. Transformations are
applied to the graphic elements in order to aid the user in constructing an
application model.
3. What is a frame buffer?
A viewing surface of a raster scan display is divided into an array
of pixels. Every pixel in the viewing screen must be associated with one
bit of memory. In this graphics memory, one bit is associated with each
pixel on the display surface. This memory is called frame buffer.
4. What is a digitizer?
It is an input device used for inputting a serious of x-y coordinate
pairs. In a CAD environment, digitalizes are used for two functions viz,
inputting maps and drawings into the system and for creating tablet
menus.

5. Define scanner.
The input device used for inputting images directly is the scanner,
which converts a page into an array of dots depending on the resolution
of the scanner. These dots are converted to pixels that can be used as
inputs.
6. What are the methods adopted to generate text in graphics?
In computer graphics two methods are adopted to generate
text primitive. They are vector generated text and raster generated.
7. Define scaling.
The image displayed can be reduced or enlarged using scaling.
Scaling can be done either in x or y direction or in both directions
simultaneously. Scaling factors can be specified in x and y directions to
carry out scaling.
8. Write the properties of graphical work station.
The properties of graphical work station are:
i) It has one display surface with a fixed resolution.
ii) The display spaces are rectangular.
iii) No image is displayed outside the specified display space.
iv) It supports several line types, marker types , text fonts, character
spacing etc.
v) It has one or more logical input devices.
vi) It stores and manipulates segments.
9. List the GKS work stations.
GKS defines six categories of workstations viz,
Output workstation which has display surface for displaying images.
Input workstation with atleast one logical input device.
Output / Input workstation with a display surface & atleast one logical
input device.
Workstation independent segment storage (WISS)
GKS metafile input & output.
10. What is a GKS metafile?

A graphics metafile is defined as mechanism for the transfer and

storage of graphics data, which is both applicant independent and device
independent.
11. Define wireframe model.
A wireframe model is the simplest geometric modeling type,
where an object is described by points, lines, circles, and curves in 3D
representation.
12. Define surface model.
Surface model is similar to wireframe model where an object is
described by surface entities such as B- spline, Bezier patches, coons
patches, ferguson, surfaces,etc.
13. Define solid model.
Solid model is a complete representation of a surface model
where the object is described by solid entities such as blocks, cylinder,
cone, sphere, wedge etc. It can also be compared with an actual or
existing model.
14. Write the functions of GKS.
Regeneration and transformation of images
Image generated in user co-ordinate
Controlling the activities of work station
Structuring the cell arrays and there by generating images
15. State the advantages of AUTOCAD
Smooth arcs can be drawn to connect two lines.
Objects can be filled with specified pattern or cross hatched.
Aspect ratios can be varied at any time.
Objects can be dragged to vary their locations and sizes.
16. Define pivot point.
The point about which the image is rotated is called pivot point.
17.What are the types of model
Wireframe model
Surface model
Solid model
18. Define wire frame modeling.
Wireframe models are the simplest of the three types of
models. They are easy to create and use. They provide sufficient information on

solid object. They are normally used to create models of simple objects. Wire
frame models are generated by continuing line segments
19. Define Surface Modeling
Surface entities are introduced to the wire frame model in the surface
modeling. Surface models define part geometry more precisely, compared to
wire frame models. An object generated through surface modeling can be
displayed on a screen, in such a way that it look like a solid object .
20. Define Rotation
The transformation is used to rotate objects or images about any point in the
world space either clockwise or anticlockwise direction. The point about which
the image is rotated is called pivot point. These steps are required to perform
this operation. They are

Translate the pivot point xp,yp to the origin

Rotate the translated points by e about the origin
Translate the centre of rotation back to the pivot point

In the first step the points (x,y) get transformed to (x,y),and in the zsecond step
(x,y).In the third step to (x,y).all the line segments on the objects has to be
transformed to get the complete image rotated about the pivot point

xp,y

UNIT 3
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
2-MARKS
1. Define discretization.
The basic concept of the finite element method is that a body or a
structure is divided into smaller elements of finite dimension called finite
elements.
2. Mention some commercially available software packages of finite
element analysis.

ABACUS, ADINA, ANSYS, ASKA, COSMOS, GT-STRUDL, NISA,

PAFEC, SAP, SESAM-80 are some of the available software packages of
finite element analysis
3. What is meant by banding of a stiffness matrix?
The adjacent elements of the diagonal matrix are non zero
numbers and the elements far away from them are non zero numbers.
4. Define nodal point.
The point at which two nodal planes meet is called node (or)
nodal point. Nodes are points at which different elements are
connected to generate the structure or system.
5. Define general type pre and post processor.
The types of pre and post processors are general and specific
purpose. General purpose type processors can be coupled to many finite
element packages and many even offer facility to process problems in the
field of engineering.
6. Define special purpose type pre and post processor.
The special purpose processor work in connection with specific
finite element analysis package and is usually available in an integrated
form with that package.
7. What is duplication?
Portions of an existing model or the entire model can be
translated, rotated, mirrored or scaled to generate another portion of the
model is called duplication.
8. Write the functions of pre and post processor.
A preprocessor creates the finite element model and the input
necessary for a finite element analysis program. A post processor
program accepts the results of the analysis and generates tables,
diagram/pictures etc for the interpretation of results.
9. Write the basic steps of finite element analysis.
The basic steps of finite element analysis are:
i) Discretization of a given body or structure into an assemblage
of finite elements.
ii) Derivation of element equations for various types of analysis.
iii) Assemblage of elements to obtain the governing equation for the
whole problem.
iv) Solution of the assembled equations
v) Post-processing of results.
10. What is FEM.

FEM is a numerical technique for solving boundary value problem in

which one divides the domain of the problem into little pieces over which the
solution is approximated using polynomials.
11. Define shape function.
Shape function is defined as one whose values at a particular node is
unity and other nodes zero.
12. What are the properties of shape function?
i) There will be as many shape functions as there are nodes.
ii) It will have unit at the node in question and zero values at other nodes.
iii) The sum of all the shape functions is unity.
13. List out the advantages of FEM?
Advantages
Since the properties of each element are evaluated separately we
4can incorporate different material properties of each element
There is no restriction to the shape of the medium.
Any type of boundary condition can be accommodated.
14. List out the disadvantages of FEM?
Disadvantages
The computational cost is more.
The solution is approximate.
15. Define displacement function?
Simple functions which are assumed to approximate the displacement
for each element are called displacement functions. It may be a function of
polynomials, trigonometry or others.
16.Name the types of noded elements
2-noded elements-line
3-noded elements-triangle
4-noded elements-quadrilateral
17. List the Hardware requirements of pre and post processor
Computers-VAX family
Prime family
DEC
HARRIS
APPOLLO
CDC cyber
18. List the various co ordinates of FEM.
I) Local or element co ordinates

ii) Natural co ordinates

iii) Simple natural co ordinates
iv) Area co ordinates
v) Generalised co ordinates.
19. What are the factors that govern the selection type of finite element?
Geometry of the body
Number of independent space coordinates
Nature of stress variation
20. What are the properties of shape function?
No. of shape function=no. of nodes
Values of the nodes in the question =1 and all others must be zero
The sum of the shape function is unity

Unit-4
DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION
2 MARKS
1. Define objective function.
A function for which an extreme is sought, in the optional design
process. It is also referred to as merit function. Usually weight, cost or volume of
the structure/solid/component is chosen as the objective function.
1. What is a design variable?
Design Variables are those quantities defining a system and these are varied to
achieve an extremism of the objective function. Generally the Cross-sectional
dimensions, thickness, etc are taken as design variables.
2. What is meant by Inequality Constraints?
These constraints usually ensure safety against a failure mode or satisfactory
behaviour under the given loading conditions. The limits imposed on stress at a
section/point not to exceed the allowable value and displacement at a node not
to exceed the permissible limits is typical examples for inequality constraints.
3. Define Equality Constraints.

These are conditions that must be strictly satisfied for the design
to be acceptable. In the case of solids, the conditions of equilibrium are
to b imposed as equality constraints, but they are implicit as part of
analysis procedure and are not stated. So it may be noted that the
inequality constraints such as limits in press cannot be expressed
explicitly since it requires a finite element analysis.
4. What are Side Constraints?
The upper and lower bounds on the design variables are usually referred
to as side constraints. Generally the idle constraints impose geometric
restrictions on the design variables 10<t<20, where t may be the thickness
due to coal provisions, fabrications or practical considerations and availability
of the sizes.
5. Write Direct Search Methods of unconstrained optimization technique.
Theses have proved to be quite versatile for large scale complex
problems, because they involve only function evaluations. They involve less
complex computations and can effectively handle discontinuous functions.
These methods are advantageous when the function evaluation is not
computationally expensive as these methods require a large number of
function evaluations to achieve optimum.
6. Write the classification of unconstrained optimization problem.
i) Classification based on nature of loading and constraints
ii) Classification based on the nature of equations involved
iii) Classification based on design variables
iv) Classification based on deterministic nature of variables
7. Define Hill Climbing.
Hill climbing is an example of an informed search method because it uses
information about the search space to search in a reasonably efficient manner. If
you try to climb a mountain in fog with an altimeter but no map, you might use
the hill climbing generate and test approach.
8. Write short notes on constrained optimization techniques?

A constrained optimization is concerned with obtaining a minimum(or

maximum) of the objective function to constraints. The methods of optimization
can be classified into two broad categories: (i)Direct Methods and
(ii)Transformation or Indirect Methods.
9. Write short notes on unconstrained optimization techniques.
An unconstrained optimization problem aims at minimization ( or
maximization) of the objective function in the absence of constraints. The
unconstrained optimization technique can be broadly classified into two
categories , i) single variable/ unidirectional search techniques and ii) multivariable optimization techniques.All the algorithms

10. Define Transformation/Indirect Method

These methods transform the constrained optimization problem into a
sequence of unconstrained optimization problems with the motivation to
use well established unconstrained optimization techniques discussed in
the earlier section. The general approach of the indirect methods will be
to minimize (or maximize) the objective functions as an unconstrained
function but provide penalty to limit the constraint violation.
11. Define meta-knowledge.
The term meta knowledge refers to knowledge about knowledge.
As the size of the knowledge base grow larger and larger, and controls
strategy become more complex. An ideal way in this situation is to logically
divide the knowledge into smaller ones, and have a higher level knowledge
base, which containing the knowledge about the lower level knowledge
bases and problem solving strategy. Knowledge base at higher level is called
meta-knowledge.
12. Write the architecture of KBES development tool.
The architecture of KBES development tool consists of Rule base inference
engine which consists of Knowledge acquisition facility, Data base
management system, Frame management system, Engineering design
synthesis and Design critic.
13. Write the functions of preprocessor?
Reads control parameter.
Reads or generates nodal Coordinates boundary conditions.
Reads or generates element connectivity and element loads.
Reads material constants constitutive matrix coefficients.
Reads nodal loads and loading conditions.
14. Write the functions of postprocessor?
Prints/plots deflection shape.
Prints/plots contours of displacements.
Calculates strains and stresses.

Prints/plots contours of stresses, Displays stress bands,

maximum and minimum values.

15. Write the different gradient based methods?

Methods od Steepest descent/Ascent

NewtonSearch Method
Conjugate Gradient Method
Method of Flecture and reevs
Quasi-Newton/Variable Metric Methods and under this category,
Davidon-Fletcher-Powell (DFP) method is reported to be stable and
reliable for use.

16. Name the methods of constraints

17.

Cutting plane method

Move Limit Method
Method of Feasible Directions
Zontendijk's Method
Gradient Projection Method
Generalized Gradient Projection Method
Pschenichnny's Linearization Method
Quadratic Objective function and Linearized Constraints
Sequential Quadratic Programming
Recursive Quadratic Programming
What are the Principles of RC design.

Find the strength considering

(A) Strength in yielding of gross area.
(B) Strength in rupture of critical section and
(C) Strength in block shear.
Minimum edge distance and minimum pitch distances are
maintained, strength in yield is the least value, hence the design is safe.

18.

What are the Principles of compression member design.

Select a section togive effective are required and calculate rmin. Knowing the end
conditions and deciding the type of connection determine effective length. find

the slenderness ratio and hence the design stress and load carrying capacity.
Revise the section if calculated Pd differs considerably from the design load.
19. Write the types of optimization techniques.
The types of optimization techniques are constrained optimization techniques
and unconstrained optimization techniques
20.Define Explanation Facility
Explanation facility is one of the most important components of the
expert system. This provides a mechanism for the user of the expert system, to
get more information on the inference process. Primarily a user will be looking
for four different pieces of information during and after the inference process.

UNIT-5
EXPERT SYSTEM
2-MARKS
1.Define Inference Mechanism.
It is impossible to compile the knowledge in a database. Hence certain
components directs to implement it in the knowledge base. It is a search
technique. This can be done in 2 types Forward chaining, Backward chaining
2.Define Backward chaining:
In Backward chaining inference mechanism the data required fed in steps
in which it is required. It selects the goal and scans until the goal is reached.
3. What is an Inference Engine?
The inference engine, which is nothing but the implementation of one or
more inference mechanisms, carries out the search through the knowledge base
either to prove hypotheses or to arrive at a conclusion. Depending on the nature
of problem to be solved and the nature of knowledge contained in the
knowledge base, a proper inference mechanism is I selected and the search is

carried out. When a prototype expert system is developed the knowledge

engineer decides on the inference strategy to be selected.
4.Define production rule.
Production rule are based on control knowledge or hieuristic knowledge.
The antecedent has a course of action and it is satisfied only then the course of
action of antecedent is satisfied.
That is RHS is equal to LHS only if the course of action of LHS is satisfied then
only the course of action of RHS is satisfied.
Example:
IF the environment is corrosive
THEN avoid using steel columns.
IF flow is open channel
AND fraude number is 1
THEN flow is critical.
5.What are the common ways of knowledge representation?
Knowledge can be represented in many ways. They are
1.Quantitative Method
2.Qualitative Method
3.Compiled Method
6.What is meant by forward chaining?
In forward chaining, inference mechanism rules are scanned until a goal
is achieved. It is done if a rule matches with the goal or the process is repeated.
No data is fed during the process. The inference mechanism uses the data only
from the working memory.
7.What is meant by Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial Intelligence is the method of acquisition of human or other
animals behavior in solving complex problems. It is the study in which human
act in such a way that he can do all the activities.
8.Define decision tables.
It is a simple and effective method for controlling the knowledge-based
techniques. It consists of both heiuristic and initative knowledge basis. The
decision table consists of four parts.

Goal

Rule I

Rule II

Rule III

Rule I

9.Write the stages of expert system.

The stages of expert system are identification, formulation,
conceptualization, implementation testing and validation.
10.Write about the search methods of artificial intelligence.
The search methods used in the area of Artificial Intelligence are broadly
classified into five types. They are,
1. Simple search
2. Evaluation based search
3. Games search
4. Constraint search
5. Controlled search
11. List the common ways of knowledge representation.
The most common ways of knowledge representation are,
Production rules, decision tables, frames, semantic networks, predicate logic,
conventional programs.
16. What is RDBMS?
A relational database management system (RDBMS) consists of a set of
programs which can relate relations and manipulate the data stored in the
relations. In a standalone mode, the structured query language (SQL) is used to
query the database to get required information. In language interface mode,
generally SQL queries are embedded in language.
17. What are the components of KBES?
There are two main components of any KSEB are the knowledge base
and inference engine. The inference engine acts on the knowledge stored in
the knowledge base to carry out reasoning. As the nature of database
processing and knowledge processing is different, the strategy adopted for
embedding DBMS in programming language cannot be adopted here;
Databases are created either in standalone mode or through programs.
18. What is hill climbing techniques

Hill climbing is an example of an informed search method because it uses

information about the search space to search in a reasonably efficient
manner. If you try to climb a mountain in fog with an altimeter but no map,
you might use the hill climbing generate and test approach.
19. Define Working Memory
Working memory, which is also sometimes called context, is nothing but
a workspace for the problem, generated by the inference engine, from the
information provided by the user. Many hypotheses and facts are established
during the reasoning process. These are stored in the working memory. The
information available in the working memory are used for continuing with the
inference process using the knowledge contained in the knowledge base. The
explanation facility also uses the information in the working memory, to answer
the queries of the user.
20.Define Knowledge Acquisition Facility
A knowledge acquisition facility is an optional component of an expert
system. This very much depends on the expert system development tool used to
implement the system. Any text editor can be viewed as a knowledge acquisition
facility, since it provides an environment for the knowledge engineer or the
expert to input the coded knowledge into the system. Many development shells
allow the development engineers to code the formal presentation of the
knowledge in a text file, following a specified syntax. Later, the knowledge in the
text files are converted into a form of data and stored in a data structures for
carrying out reasoning process.