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Vivipary
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Viviparyhastwodifferentmeanings.Inanimals,itmeansdevelopmentoftheembryoinsidethebodyof
themother,eventuallyleadingtolivebirth,asopposedtolayingeggs.Inplants,itmeansreproductionvia
embryos,suchasbuds,thatdevelopfromtheoutsetwithoutinterruption,asopposedtogerminating
externallyfromaseed.

Contents
1Inanimals
2Inplants
3Evolution
4References
5Seealso

Inanimals
Fivemodesofreproductioncanbedifferentiatedinanimals[1]basedonrelationsbetweenzygoteand
parents:
Ovuliparity:fecundation(fertilisation)isexternal.Itoccursinaquaticarthropodssuchassome
CrustaceaalsoinmanyfishesandAmphibia
Oviparity:fecundationisinternal,thefemalelayszygotesaseggswithlargevitellusoccursinall
birds,mostreptiles,somefishes.
Ovoviviparity:adefuncttermusedtoexplainoviparitywithretentionofzygotesinthefemales
bodyorinthemalesbody,withouttrophicinteractionsbetweenzygoteandparents.Thetermis
currentlynotusedtoexplainthereproductivebiologyofamniotesformultiplereasons,including
strongevidenceforplacentaltransportofnutrientsinallspeciesstudied.[2]Inseahorses,zygotesare
retainedinthemalesventral"marsupium".InthefrogRhinodermadarwinii,thezygotesdevelopin
thevocalsac.InthefrogRheobatrachus,zygotesdevelopedinthestomach.
Histotrophicviviparity:thezygotesdevelopinthefemalesoviducts,butfindtheirnutrimentsby
oophagyoradelphophagy(intrauterinecannibalisminsomesharksorintheblacksalamander
Salamandraatra).
Hemotrophicviviparity:nutrientsareprovidedbythefemale,oftenthroughsomeformofplacenta.
InthefrogGastrothecaovifera,embryosarefedbythemotherthroughspecializedgills.Theskink
Pseudemoiaentrecasteauxiiandmostmammalsexhibitahemotrophicviviparity.
Therelativelylessdevelopedformofanimalvivipary,ovoviviparity,occursinmostvipersforinstance,
andalsoinmostlivebearingbonyfishes(Poeciliidae)themoredevelopedformofviviparyiscalled
placentalviviparity.Placentalmammalsarethebestexample,butotheranimalshavealsoadaptedby
incorporatingthisprinciple.Examplesincludesomespeciesofscorpions[3]andcockroaches,[4]certain
generaofsharksandsnakes,andvelvetworms.
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Whileincipienttransportofnutrientsappearstobecommoninallviviparousspecies.Someviviparous
speciesreceivesubstantialamountsofnutrientsviatheplacenta(presentintherians,someskinksandsome
fish).Insuchspeciesthereisdirectjuxtapositionofmaternalandembryonictissue.Inatleastonespecies
ofskinkinthelargegenusTrachylepisplacentaltransportaccountsfornearlyallprovisioningofnutrients
toembryosbeforebirth.Intheuterustheeggsareverysmall,about1mmindiameter,withverylittleyolk
andverythinshells.Theshellmembraneisvestigialandtransientitsdisintegrationpermitstheabsorption
ofnutrientsfromuterinesecretions.Theembryothenproducesinvasivechorionictissuesthatgrow
betweenthecellsoftheuterineliningtilltheycanabsorbnutrientsfrommaternalbloodvessels.Asit
penetratesthelining,theembryonictissuegrowsaggressivelytillitformssheetsoftissuebeneaththe
uterineepithelium.Theyeventuallystripitawayandreplaceit,makingdirectcontactwithmaternal
capillaries.Inseveralrespectsthephenomenonisofconsiderableimportanceintheoreticalzoology.The
authorsremarkthatsuchanendotheliochorialplacentaisfundamentallydifferentfromthatofanyknown
viviparousreptile.[5]
Thereisnorelationshipbetweensexdeterminingmechanismsandwhetheraspeciesbearsliveyoungor
layseggs.Temperaturedependentsexdetermination,whichcannotfunctioninanaquaticenvironment,is
seenonlyinterrestrialviviparousreptiles.Therefore,marineviviparousspecies,includingseasnakesand,
itnowappears,themosasaurs,ichthyosaurs,andplesiosaursoftheCretaceous,usegenotypicsex
determination(sexchromosomes),muchasbirdsandmammalsdo.[6]Genotypicsexdeterminationisalso
foundinmostreptilesincludingmanyviviparousones(suchasPseudemoiaentrecasteauxii),whilst
temperaturedependentsexdeterminationisfoundinsomeviviparousspeciessuchasthemontanewater
skink(Eulamprustympanum).[7]

Inplants
Viviparousplantsproduce
seedsthatgerminatebefore
theydetachfromtheparent.
Inmanymangroves,for
instance,theseedling
germinatesandgrowsunder
itsownenergywhilestill
attachedtoitsparent.Some
dropintothewaterandare
dispersedbycurrents,but
Poaalpina,agrasswhichshows
Redmangroveseedsgerminatewhile
othersdevelopaheavy,
vivipary:theseedsgerminatewhile
stillontheparenttree.
straighttaprootthat
stillattachedtothemotherplant.
commonlypenetratesmud
whentheseedlingdrops,therebyeffectivelyplantingtheseedling.
Insometrees,likeJackfruit,somecitrus,andavocado,theseedscanbefoundalreadygerminatedwhilethe
fruitgoesoverripestrictlyspeakingthisconditioncannotbedescribedasvivipary,butthemoistandhumid
conditionsprovidedbythefruitmimicawetsoilthatencouragesgermination.However,theseedscan
germinateundermoistsoiltoo.[8]

Evolution
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Ingeneral,viviparityandmatrotrophyarebelievedtohaveevolvedfromanancestralconditionofoviparity
andlecithotrophy(nutrientssuppliedthroughtheyolk).Onetraditionalhypothesisastothesequenceof
evolutionarystepsleadingtoviviparityisalinearmodelthatcanberestatedrathersimply.Initially,justan
increaseinthelengthoftimethattheeggremainedinthereproductivetractofthemothermayhave
graduallyallowedfortheevolutionofeggretention,providedthatfertilizationwasinternal.Through
continuedgenerationsofeggretention,viviparouslecithotrophymayhavegraduallyappearedinother
words,theentiredevelopmentoftheembryo(withnutrientsprovidedbytheyolk)occurredinsidethe
mothersreproductivetract,afterwhichshewouldgivebirthtothehatchedyoung.Thenextevolutionary
stepwouldbeincipientmatrotrophy,whereyolksuppliesaregraduallysubstitutedwithnutrientsseepingin
fromthemother'sreproductivetract.[9]
Inmanyways,viviparitycanbemorestrenuousandmorephysicallyandenergeticallytaxingonthemother
thanoviparity.However,itsnumerousevolutionaryoriginssignifythattheremustbeworthwhilebenefits
tothismodeofreproductioninsomescenarios,aswellasselectivepressuresthatalloweditto
convergentlyevolveover150timesinvertebrates.[10]Oneofthemostprofoundlyadvantageousfeaturesof
viviparityisthermoregulationoftheembryo.[11]Sincethedevelopingoffspringremainswithinthe
mothersbody,shebecomes,inessence,awalkingincubator.Thisisveryusefulwhenclimatechange
imposescooleraveragetemperaturesonacurrenthabitat,orwhenamigrationeventnecessitatesadaptation
toanew,coolerenvironment.Whenconsideringsquamatereptilesinparticular,thereisacorrelation
betweenhighaltitudesorlatitudes,colderclimatesandthefrequencyofviviparity.Thistendencyforegg
retention,andconsequentlyviviparity,tobeselectivelyfavoredundercoolerconditionsduetoits
thermoregulatorybenefitsistermed"thecoldclimatehypothesis."[12]

References
1. ThierryLod2001.Lesstratgiesdereproductiondesanimaux(reproductionstrategiesinanimalkingdom).Eds
DunodSciences,Paris
2. Blackburn,D.G.(2000).Classificationofthereproductivepatternsofamniotes.:"HerpetologicalMonographs",
371377.
3. Capinera,JohnL.,Encyclopediaofentomology.SpringerReference,2008,p.3311.
4. Costa,JamesT.,TheOtherInsectSocieties.BelknapPress,2006,p.151.
5. Blackburn,D.G.andFlemming,A.F.(2011),Invasiveimplantationandintimateplacentalassociationsina
placentotrophicafricanlizard,Trachylepisivensi(scincidae).JournalofMorphology.doi:10.1002/jmor.11011
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmor.11011)
6. ChrisL.Organetal.(2009)"Genotypicsexdeterminationenabledadaptiveradiationsofextinctmarinereptiles",
Nature461,389392(17September2009)
7. Robert,KylieA.,andMichaelB.Thompson."Sexdetermination:viviparouslizardselectssexofembryos."
Nature412,no.6848(2001):698699.
8. UCLA:TheMildredE.MathiasBotanicalGarden
(http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/worldvegetation/marinewetlands/mangal/a1366tx.html)
9. Blackburn,D.G.1992,"Convergentevolutionofviviparity,matrotrophy,andspecializationsforfetalnutrition
inreptilesandothervertebrates."Amer.Zool.,32:313321
10. Blackburn,DanielG."Evolutionofvertebrateviviparityandspecializationsforfetalnutrition:Aquantitativeand
qualitativeanalysis."JournalofMorphology.doi:10.1002/jmor.20272
11. Blackburn,D.G.(1999).Viviparityandoviparity:evolutionandreproductivestrategies.Encyclopediaof
Reproduction.AcademicPress,NewYork,NewYork,USA,9941003
12. Lambert,S.M.andWiens,J.J.(2013),Evolutionofviviparity:aphylogenetictestofthecoldclimate
hypothesisinphrynosomatidlizards.Evolution,67:26142630.doi:10.1111/evo.12130
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WangY,EvansSE.2011.AgravidlizardfromtheCretaceousofChinaandtheearlyhistoryofsquamate
viviparity.Naturwissenschaftendoi:10.1007/s0011401108201(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114
01108201)

Seealso
Apomixis
Oviparity
Ovoviviparity
Placentalmammals
Marsupials
Livebearingaquariumfish
Falsevivipary
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