BIOLOGY 211-TEST1

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Catabolism
Metabolism
Anabolism
HYDROLYSIS DIGESTION CATABOLISM Addition of H2O

FOUR (4) LAYERS OF ALIMENTARY TRACT

1.

MUCOSA Inner most layer Primarily Epithelium & Mucus Cells

2.

SUBMUCOSA 2nd Layer Contains Blood vessels, Nerves, Lacteals

(= Lymph Vessel)

3.

MUSCLE Two (2) Layers

1. Circular Fibers Inner most
2. Longitudinal Fibers

4.

SEROSA Visceral Peritoneum covers organs

Parietal Peritoneum lines peritoneal cavity

MOUTH Lined with Stratified Squamous

MASTICATION Process of Chewing
TONGUE Lingual Frenulum (Anchors Tongue)
PAPILLAE Vallate, Fungiform, Filiform
UVULA
SOFT PALATE rises to close nasopharynx while swallowing
TONSILS Palatine (Swell with infection)

Pharyngeal (=Adenoids)Lingual
SALIVARY GLANDS Secrete Saliva (Contains HCO3). PH 6.5-7.5

GLAND
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual

LOCATION
In front and below
ear
Inside surface of
mandible
Under tongue

SECRETION
Clear, watery,
amylase
Serous, some
mucous
Thick mucus

DUCT
Stensens
Whartons

PHARYNX - Nasopharynx

Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Bolus ball of masticated food that passes from the mouth to the stomach
DEGLUTITION Swallowing
PERISTALSIS Contractions of Alimentary Tract that moves food
ESOPHAGUS
25 cm long Links mouth-pharynx to stomach

Lined with Stratified Squamous & Mucous cells

RUGAE Folds in lining of stomach
STOMACH Contains Three (3) layers of Muscle
1.

Oblique -

2.

Circular

3.

Longitudinal

Lined with Columnar Epithelium

Gastric Glands secrete Gastric Juice

SECRETIONS OF GASTRIC GLANDS:

Pepsinogen Secreted by Chief Cells

FUNCTIONS:
Forms Pepsin

Pepsin Formed when HCl acts on

Pepsinogen
HCl by parietal cells
Mucus By Goblet cells & Mucus glands
Intrinsic Factor By Parietal Cells

Digests Proteins
Acts on Pepsinogen
Alkaline Protects Lining
Aids in Vitamin B12 Absorption

GASTRIN Increases Gastric Activity Secreted by Stomach

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Increases Gastric Activity
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Decreases Gastric Activity
ENTEROGASTRIC REFLEX

Starts in Intestine and goes to Stomach

Slows down Peristalsis when impulses travel from Intestine to CNS, then to
Stomach via Vagus Nerve

CHOLECYSTOKININ

Secreted in Intestine in response to Chyme (passed from Stomach to Small

Intestines) with a high fat content causes Stomach to slow down Peristaltic
Activity
GASTRIC ABSORPTION H2O, Glucose, Salts, Alcohol, Drugs
PYLORUS Valve between Stomach and Duodenum
SMALL INTESTINE -18 ft. - 20 ft. In Cadavers
Three (3) Sections:

Duodenum 2 x 12
Jejunum Thicker wall; Greater diameter than lleum
lleum
MESENTERY Network of Blood Vessels, Nerves, Lymphatic Vessels
GREATER OMENTUM

LIVER:

 Largest Organ in the Body

RIGHT & LEFT LOBES, QUADRATE & CAUDATE LOBES
FALCIFORM LIGAMENT Separates Right & Left Lobes
CORONARY LIGAMENT Fold of Visceral Peritoneum that attaches Liver to Diaphragm
HEPATIC LOBULES Functional unit of Liver
Consist of Hepatic Cells that radiate outward from a Central Vein
HEPATIC SINUSOIDS Cavities lined with Kupffer Cells that carry out Phagocytosis
HEPATIC CELLS Produce Bile which Emulsifies Fat.
PANCREAS Acinar Cells secrete Pancreatic Juice
Components of Pancreatic Juice:

ZYMOGEN GRANULES Store inactive Protein splitting Enzymes in the

Pancreas
1.

TRYPSINOGEN (Inactive) acted upon Enterokinase (an enzyme) in Small

Intestine (Duodenum) to become

2.

TRYPSIN which breaks down proteins

3.

CHYMOTRYPSIN > Activated in presence of Trypsin & they also work on

proteins

4.

CARBOXYPEPTIDASE > Activated in presence of Trypsin & they also work on

proteins

5.

RIBONUCLEASE > Nucleases break down RNA into Nucleotides

6.

DEOXYRIBONUCLEASE > Nucleases break down DNA into Nucleotides

7.

BICARBONATE IONS Respond to Secretin (Hormone) Secreted in Small

Intestine in response to Acid Chyme

8.

SUCRASE Breaks down Carbohydrates

9.

LIPASE Breaks down Triglycerides

Fatty Acids & Monoglyceride

SMALL INTESTINE Lined with Columnar Epithelium & Goblet Cells

PLICAE CIRCULARES Circular Fold of the Intestine Lining

VILLI Folds of Intestine Lining- (Fingerlike)
INTESTINAL GLANDS {In Mucous Lining between Adjacent Villi}
Secrete Watery Fluid to aid in Absorption

MICORVILLI Fine Extensions of Individual Columnar Cells

(At Free Surface) increases surface area

BRUNNERS GLANDS {In Proximal Part of Duodenum}

Secrete Viscid, Alkaline Mucus
SECRETED FROM MICROVILLI OF SMALL INTESTINE
SUCRASE
PEPTIDASE
LACTASE
LIPASE

Breaks Down Sucrose

Breaks Down Protein
Breaks Down Lactose
Breaks Down Fat (Triglycerides)

ABSORPTION IN SMALL INTESTINE

CARBOHYDRATE By Active Transport or Facilitated Diffusion

PROTEINS Active Transport
LIPIDS Simple Diffusion
MICELLES
CHYLOMICRONS

LARGE INTESTINE MAIN FUNCTION

Absorption of H2O & Electrolytes

 COLON: ASCENDING, TRANSVERSE, DESCENDING, SIGMOID

CECUM
APPENDIX, VERMIFORM
ILEOCECAL VALVE Between lleum & Cecum
TENIA COLI Three (3) Muscle Bands in Wall of Colon
HAUSTRA Pouches Formed as a Result of Tenia Coli
EPIPLOIC APPENDAGE Fat
MUCOUS CELLS Very Abundant in Colon
BACTERIA -

Break down Cellulose for Energy (A Carbohydrate & Synthesize

Vitamins K, B12, Thiamine, Riboflavin

COLOSTOMY
DIARRHEA (Peristaltic Rush)
CIRRHOSIS
HEPATITIS A, B, C, D
Entamoeba gingivalis (Commensal of gums)
Giardia intestinalis (Parasite of Small Intestine) Causes Giardiasis
Entamoeba histolytica (Intestinal Parasite) Causes Amoebic Dysentery
Diphyllobothrium latum -

(Broad-fish Tapeworm-up to 6o ft. long)

Intestinal Parasite absorbs Vitamin B12
from its host

Taenia saginata Beef tapeworm

Taenia solium Pork tapeworm
Ascaris lumbricoides Roundworm

BIOLOGY 211- TEST 1

6

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Introduction
The digestive system receives food, modifies molecules, carries on absorption, and eliminates
unused residues.
It consists of an alimentary canal and several accessory organs.
General Characteristics of the Alimentary Canal
Various regions of the canal are specialized to perform specific functions.
1.

2.
3.

Structure of the wall

a.
The wall consists of four layers.
b.
These layers include mucous membrane, submucosa, muscular layer, and
serous layer.
Movements of the tube.
a.
Motor functions include mixing and propelling movements.
b.
Peristalsis is responsible for propelling movements.
Innervation of the tube is by the autonomic nervous system.
a.
Parasympathetic impulses generally cause an increase in digestive activities;
sympathetic impulses generally inhibit digestive activities.
b.
Sympathetic impulses are responsible for the contraction of certain sphincter
muscles that control movement through the alimentary canal.

The Mouth
The mouth is adapted to receive food and begin preparing it for digestion. It also serves an
organ of speech and pleasure.
1.

2.

3.

The cheeks and lips

a.
Cheeks form the lateral walls of the mouth.
b.
Lips are highly mobile and possess a variety of sensory receptors useful in
judging the characteristics of food.
The Tongue
a.
The tongue is a thick, muscular organ that aids in mixing food with saliva and
moving it toward the pharynx.
b.
its rough surface (contains papillae) aids in handling food and contains taste buds.
c.
Lingual tonsils are located on the root of the tongue.
The palate
a.
The palate comprises the roof of the mouth and includes hard and soft portions.
b.
the soft palate closes the opening to the nasal cavity during swallowing.
c.
Palatine tonsils are located on either side of the tongue in the back of the mouth.
d.
Tonsils consist of lymphatic tissues, but are common sites of infections and may
become enlarged so that they interfere with swallowing and breathing.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM continued

4.

The Teeth
a.
Two sets develop in sockets of the mandibular and maxillary bones.
b.
There are twenty deciduous and thirty-two permanent teeth.
c.
They function to break food into smaller pieces, increasing the surface area of
food that is exposed to digestive actions.
d.
Different kinds are adapted to handle foods in different ways, such as biting,
grasping, or grinding.
e.
Each tooth consists of a crown and root and is composed of enamel, dentine, pulp,
nerves, and blood vessels.
f.
Dental carries involve decalcification of enamel and erosion of the teeth.

The Salivary Glands

Salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens food, helps bind food particles together, begins
digestion of carbohydrates, makes taste possible, helps cleanse the mouth, and regulates pH
in the mouth.
1. Salivary secretions
a.
Salivary gland includes serous cells that secrete digestive enzymes and mucous
cells that secrete mucus.
b.
Parasympathetic impulses stimulate the secretion of serous fluid.
2. The parotid glands
a.
These are the largest of the salivary glands.
b.
They secrete saliva rich in amylase that begins the digestion of carbohydrates.
3. The submaxillary glands
a.
These are located in the floor of the mouth
b.
They produce saliva that is more viscous than that of the parotid glands.
4. The Sublingual glands
a.
These are located in the floor of the mouth.
b.
They primarily secrete mucus.
The Pharynx and Esophagus
The pharynx and esophagus serve only as passageways.
1. Structure of the pharynx
a.
The pharynx is divided into a nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
2. Its muscular walls contain fibers arranged in circular and longitudinal groups.
3. The swallowing mechanism (deglutition)
a.
The act of swallowing occurs in three stages.
(1)
Food is mixed with saliva and forced into the pharynx.
(2)
Involuntary reflexes move the food into the esophagus.
(3)
Food is transported to the stomach.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM continued

The Stomach
The stomach receives food, mixes it with gastric juices, carries on a limited amount of
absorption, and moves food into the small intestine.
1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

Parts of the stomach

a.
The stomach is divided into cardiac, fundic, body and pyloric regions.
b.
The pyloric sphincter serves as a valve between the stomach and the small
intestine.
Gastric secretions
a.
Gastric glands secrete gastric juice.
b.
Gastric juice contains pepsin, hydrochloric acid, and intrinsic factor.
Regulation of gastric secretions
a.
Gastric secretions are enhanced by parasympathetic impulses the hormone,
gastrin.
b.
Three stages of gastric secretion include cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases.
c.
Presence of food in the small intestine reflexly inhibits gastric secretions.
Disorders of gastric secretions
a.
A breakdown of protective mechanisms or excessive secretions may lead to
ulcers in the stomach or duodenum.
b.
The cause of ulcers seems to involve emotional stress.
c.
Treatment for ulcers eliminates aggravating factors and gives damaged tissues
time to heal. In extreme cases, fibers of the Vagus nerve are cut to reduce
gastric secretions.
Gastric absorption
a.
The stomach is not well adapted for absorption.
b.
A few substances such as water and other small molecules may be absorbed
through its wall.
Filling and emptying actions
a.
As the stomach fills, its wall stretches, but its internal pressure remains
unchanged.
b.
Mixing movements aid in producing chyme; peristaltic waves move the chyme
into the small intestine.
c.
The rate of emptying depends on the fluidity of the chyme and the type of food
present.
d.
The upper part of the small intestine fills, and an enterogastric reflex causes the
Peristaltic waves in the stomach to be inhibited.
e.
Vomiting results from a complex reflex that can be stimulated by a variety of
factors.

The Pancreas
1. Structure of the pancreas
a.
The pancreas is closely associated with the duodenum.
b.
It produces pancreatic juice that is secreted into a pancreatic duct.
c.
The pancreatic duct leads to the duodenum.
2. Pancreatic juice
a.
Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that can split carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
and nucleic acids
b.
It has a high bicarbonate ion concentration that helps to neutralize chyme and
causes the intestinal contents to be alkaline.
3. Regulation of pancreatic secretion
a.
Secretin from the duodenum stimulates the release of pancreatic juice that
contains few digestive enzymes but has a high bicarbonate ion concentration.
b.
Cholecystokinin from the intestinal wall stimulates the release of pancreatic juice
that has a high concentration digestive enzymes.
The Liver
1. Functions of the liver
a.
It is the largest gland in the body.
b.
Liver carries on a variety of vital functions.
c.
Bile is the only secretion that directly affects digestion
2. Structure of the liver
a.
The liver is a highly vascular organ, enclosed in a fibrous capsule, and divided
into lobes.
b.
Each lobe contains hepatic lobules, the functional units of the liver.
c.
Bile from the lobules is carried by bile canals to hepatic ducts that unite to form
the common bile duct.
3. Composition of bile
a.
Bile contains bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and various electrolytes.
b.
Only the bile salts have digestive functions.
c.
Bile pigments are products of red blood cell breakdown.
4. The gallbladder and its functions
a.
The gallbladder stores bile between meals.
b.
Release of bile from the common bile duct is controlled by a sphincter muscle.
5. Regulation of bile release
a.
Release is stimulates by cholecystokinin from the small intestine.
b.
Sphincter muscle at the base of the common bile duct relaxes as a peristaltic
wave in the duodenal wall passes by.
6.

Digestive functions of bile salts

a.
Bile salts emulsify fats and aid in the absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol and
certain vitamins.
b.
Bile salts are reabsorbed in the small intestine.

10

The Small Intestine

The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the large intestine.
It receives secretions from the pancreas and liver, completes the digestion of nutrients,
absorbs the products of digestion, and transports the residues to the large intestine.
1. Parts of the small intestine
a.
The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
b.
It is suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by mesentery.
2. Structure of the small intestinal wall
a.
The wall is lined with villi that aid in mixing and absorption.
b.
Intestinal glands are located between the villi.
3. Secretions of the small intestine
a.
Secretions include mucus and digestive enzymes.
b.
Digestive enzymes can split molecules of sugars, proteins, fats and nucleic acids.
4. Regulation of small intestinal secretions
a.
Secretions are enhanced by the presence of gastric juice and chyme and by the
mechanical stimulation of distension.
b.
A hormone from the intestinal wall may also stimulate secretions.
5. Absorption in the small intestine
a.
Villi increase the surface area of the intestinal wall.
b.
Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the villi.
c.
Villi also absorb water and electrolytes.
d.
Fat molecules with longer chains of carbon atoms enter the lacteals of the villi;
other products of digestion enter the blood capillaries of the villi.
6. Movements of the small intestine
a.
Movements include mixing, peristalsis, and pendular movements.
b.
Overdistension or irritation may stimulate a peristaltic rush and result in diarrhea.
c.
The ileocealvalve control movement from the small intestine into the large
intestine.

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The Large Intestine

The large intestine functions to reabsorb water and electrolytes and to form and store feces.
1. Parts of the large intestine
a.
The large intestine consists of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
b.
The colon is divided into ascending transverse, descending, and sigmoid
portions.
2. Structure of the large intestinal wall
a.
Basically this wall is like the wall in other parts of the alimentary canal.
b.
Unique features include a layer of longitudinal muscle fibers that do not
cover the wall uniformly, and fatty appendages in the serous layer.
3. Functions of the large intestine
a.
The only significant secretion is mucus.
b.
The rate of mucus secretion is controlled by mechanical stimulation and
parasympathetic impulses.
c.
Absorption is generally limited to water and electrolytes.
d.
Many bacteria inhabit the large intestine and may aid the body by synthesizing
certain vitamins.
4. Movements of the large intestine
a.
Movements are similar to those in the small intestine.
b.
Mass movements occur two or three times each day.
c.
Defecation is stimulated by a defecation reflex.
5. The feces
a.
Feces consist largely of water, undigested material, mucus, and bacteria.
b.
The color is due to bile salts that have been altered by bacterial actions.
6. Disorders of the large intestine
a.
Constipation occurs when feces become excessively dry and defecation becomes
difficult.
b.
Diarrhea is due to rapid movement of feces through the intestines; this interferes
with water absorption.
Nervous Systems
Central Nervous System Brain and Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System Cranial Nerves (12 pair) and
Spinal Nerves (31 pair)
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Neurons:

Composed of cell body, dendrites, and axon

Cell Body:

(= Perikaryon) contains cytoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles

12

Ganglion:

a cluster of neuron cell bodies

Neurofibrils: support cell processes

Nissl bodies: similar to endoplasmic reticulum
Nerve fibers: dendrites and axons
Dendrites:

carry impulses toward from cell body

Axon:

carry impulses away from cell body

Schwann cells:
Myelin:

special type of neuroglia that form a sheath around peripheral nerves

Lipid-protein that forms a sheath around the outside of an axon

Neurilemma: the portion of Schwann cells that contain cytoplasm and nuclei and remain
outside the myelin sheath
Myelinated fibers:

white due to myelin

Unmyelinated fibers: gray due to lack of myelin

NEUROGLIAL CELLS
1.

Astrocytes

2.

Oligodendrocytes

3.

Microglia

4.

Ependyma

CELL MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

Resting Potential When nerve cells are at rest and not conducting impulses.
More sodium ions are outside and more potassium is inside. However, there are less
negative ions and more positive ions outside. Thus, a positive charge results on the
outside.
ACTION POTENTIAL (takes 1/1000 of a second); travels at a rate of 120 meters/sec on

13

myelinated fibers and at a rate of 0.5 meters/sec on unmyelinated fibers.

Polarized indicates there is an unequal distribution of ions on either side of a cell
membrane. The outside is usually positively charges with respect to the inside.
The polarization is affected by the ease with which ions can move through the membrane.
Potassium is first with regard to ease, Sodium is second, and Calcium is third.
THE SYNAPSE
NEUROTRANSMITTER
NEURONS BASED ON ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE
1.
2.
3.

Bipolar
Unipolar
Multipolar

NEURONS BASED ON FUNCTION

1.
2.
3.

Sensory (= Afferent)-carries impulses towards the CNS

Internuncial (Communicans) links sensory and motor neurons
Motor (=Efferent) carries impulses away from CNS

Reflex Arcs
Simple Reflex Arc
Knee Jerk Reflex
Withdrawal Reflex
Types of Nerve and Nerve Fibers
Nerve
Somatic Afferent & Efferent Fibers
Visceral Afferent & Efferent Fibers
CHAPTER 11 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Meninges
Dura Mater thick, contains abundance of connective tissue
Dural sinus

14

Arachnoid Mater spider-web in appearance

Subarachnoid Space contains cerebrospinal fluid
Pia Mater contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves
Spinal Cord
Cervical enlargement nerves to arms
Lumbar enlargement nerves to legs
Conus Medullaris cone shaped inferior end of spinal cord
Central Canal contains cerebrospinal fluid
Filum terminale terminal filament of pia mater that anchors the spinal cord in the
sacral-coccygeal region of vertebral column
Funiculi (contain longitudinal bundles of myelinated nerve fibers that comprise major
nerve pathways called nerve tracts). A fasciculus is a bundle of myelinated
fibers and they are found within a funiculus.
Gray Commissure

Ascending Tracts (= sensory)

Fasciculus Gracilis
Fasciculus Cuneatus
Lateral Spinothalamic
Anterior Spinothalamic
Posterior Spinocerebellar
Anterior Spinocerebellar

terminate in nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus of the

medulla oblongata

>

>
>

terminate in thalamus

terminate in cerebellum

15

Descending Tracts (= motor)

Lateral Corticospinal
Anterior Corticospinal
Anterior Reticulospinal
Medial Reticulospinal
Rubrospinal

terminate in spinal cord

Brain
Cerebrum
Convolutions (gyri) largest part of brain- for thinking, memory
Corpus Callosum bridge between cerebral hemispheres
Fissure (sulcus)
Lobes Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital
Basal Ganglia Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus serve to relay
motor reflex from cerebral cortex to spinal cord
Ventricles -

Lateral - #1 in left hemisphere, #2 in right hemisphere

Third
Fourth
Interventricular foramen link lateral ventricles to 3rd ventricle
Cerebral Aqueduct (aqueduct of Sylvius) links 3rd with 4th ventricle
Ependyma cells line ventricles
Cerebrospinal fluid
Choroid Plexuses produce cerebrospinal fluid
Diencephalon surrounds the third ventricle
Optic Chiasma convergence of Optic Nerves (I)
Infundibulum stalk of Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland (hypophysis)
Pineal Gland an Endocrine gland
Thalamus receives all sensory impulses coming into the brain except smell
Hypothalamus Homeostasis
Limbic System Emotions
Brain Stem composed of the following
Mesencephalon = Midbrain 3" in length
4

16

Cerebral Aqueduct runs through the center of midbrain

Corpora Quadrigemina composed of 2 superior colliculi (slight reflexes) and
2 inferior colliculi (hearing reflexes)
Red Nucleus
Pons
Medulla Oblongata controls respiratory rate, cardiac rate, vasomotor of blood vessels
Cerebellum involved in equilibrium and muscular coordination
Denate nucleus
Arbor Vitae tree-like in appearance
Peripheral Nervous System
Cranial Nerves (12 pr)
No.

Nerve

Type

Function

I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Spinal Nerves (31 pr)
Cervical 8 pr
Thoracic 12 pr
Lumbar 5 pr
Sacral 5 pr
Coccygeal 1 pr
Cauda Equina (= horsetail)
Plexuses formed from anterior rami of specific spinal nerves
Cervical first four cervical
Brachial last four cervical and first thoracic
Lumbosacral lumbo-sacral complex

17

Sympathetic N.S. (-Thoracolumbar Div)

Preganglionic fibers originate from neurons in spinal cord. Neurons are located in all
thoracic segments and upper 2-3 lumbar segments Their axons (Preganglionic fibers) exit the
ventral root, go through the white ramus, synapse in the paravertebral ganglia (= sympathetic
trunk) and the postganglionic fibers may also exit via a spinal nerve and synapse in the collateral
ganglia of the abdomen.
(Short preganglionic fibers synapse long postganglionic fibers)
Parasympathetic N.S. (= Craniosacral Div)
Preganglionic fibers arise from neurons in the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
They exit via cranial & sacral nerves, synapse in ganglia (terminal) near visceral organs, and post
ganglionic fiber continues to specific organs or muscles.
The preganglionic fibers are white (myelinated) and postganglionic fibers are gray for
both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Parasympathetic N.S.

Sympathetic N.S.

Pre and post ganglionic fibers secrete

acetylcholine and are called cholinergic

Preganglion fibers secrete acetylcholine

and called cholinergic
Postganglionic fibers (= noradrenaline)
secrete norepinephrine and are called
adrenergic

18

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