Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Peter H. Sydenham
GSEC Pty Ltd, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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1 DEFINITION OF VIBRATION
Vibration here is the oscillatory mechanical motion of an
object. It is a dynamic state. Several other measurable
parameters fit under the term vibration.
Relative position
Velocity
Acceleration
Jerk (the derivative of acceleration)
Dynamic force.
Handbook of Measuring System Design, edited by Peter H. Sydenham and Richard Thorn.
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-02143-8.
1392
Common Measurands
+z
+x
a
y
f
0
q
x
Object at
center of
Cartesian
coordinate
framework
+y
x
y
z
a
f
q
Translation
components
Rotational
components
need for some of the six sensor channels. Practical installation should always contain a test that evaluates the degree
of actual constraint possible because vibration sensors will
usually produce some level of output for the directions of
vibration they are not primarily seeking to measure. This
is called their cross-axis coupling, transverse response, or
some such terminology.
In many installations, the resultant direction of the
motion vector might lie in a constant fixed direction with
time. In such cases, in principle, only one sensor will be
required provided it can be mounted to sense in exactly that
direction. If not, as is often the case, more than one unit
will be required, the collective signals then being combined
to produce the single resultant.
The potentially available frequency spectrum of vibration parameters extends, as shown in Figure 2, from very
slow motions through frequencies experienced in machine
tools and similar mechanical structures to the supersonic
megahertz frequencies of ultrasound.
1
0m
0
10
0m
0m
10
0m
1.
1m
100 000
1000 000 0.
1m
10 000
100
1000
10
100
1.0
10
0.1
1.0
0.1
0.001
0.01
0.0001
0.001
1.
10
0.01
0.
m
1
100
1000
10 000
0.0001
0.00001
100 000
1.0
m
1m
0.
0.0
mm
m
0
1.
m
1
0.
m
1
0.0
Frequency Hz
0.
01
0.
0.
m
m
1.
m
1
0.
0
10
m
00
1
m
0.
00
01
0.
m
00
00
1
0.
m
00
00
01
0.
00
m
00
Di 001
sp
m
lac
em
en
t
1.0
0.
01
lo
Ve
0.000001
0.1
cit
0.00001
mm
Acceleration ms2
1000
1.
0
10 000
0.
1
Figure 2. Frequency spectrum and magnitude of vibration parameters. (Reproduced by permission of Bruel & Kjaer.)
Eyeball, intraocular
structures (30 80 Hz)
Shoulder
girdle
(4 5 Hz)
Lung
volume
Chest wall
(ca. 60 Hz)
Lower arm
(16 30 Hz)
Handarm
Spinal
column
(axial
model)
(10 12 Hz)
Abdominal
mass (48 Hz)
Seated person
Hand grip
(50 200Hz)
Legs
(variable from
ca. 2 Hz with
knees flexing
to over 20 Hz
with rigid posture)
Standing person
Figure 3. Mechanical systems can be modeled in terms of springs, masses, and dampers; model of the human body. (Reproduced by
permission of Bruel & Kjaer.)
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Common Measurands
3 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION
Fixed framework
(1)
cdx0
md x0
+
ks x0 = qi
dt 2
dt
(2)
Spring
compliance
ks
Damping
device
c
Motion of mass
of distance x o
Effective mass m
Input
function
qi
Force exerted F
ks
m
(3)
(4)
5 IMPORTANCE OF DAMPING
2.0
Damping
ratio
Increasing
damping
1.8
1.6
0.25
1.4
1.2
Final
Output
1.0
value
displacement
x0
0.8
0.5
0.75
1.0
2.0
1.5
0.6
2.5
0.4
5.0
0.2
Initial value
0
Normalized time wn t
Increasing
damping
0.5
0.3
0.4
Instantaneous
amplitude x 0
1.0
0.7
1
0.5
0.2
2
D
amp
ing
5
ra
t
io 10
0.1
0.1
w
wn
0.2
0.5
1.0
Natural
frequency
wn
10
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Common Measurands
6 APPLICATION TO VIBRATION
MEASUREMENT
In practice, it is also often more convenient to sense vibration by an indirect means and obtain the desired unit by
mathematical processing. For example, accelerometers are
conveniently used to obtain motional forces (from force =
mass acceleration) and hence stresses and strains. Acceleration signals can be twice integrated with respect to time
to yield displacement. Sensors that operate as velocity transducers can yield displacement by single integration.
Integration of data is generally preferred to differentiation
as the former averages random noise present to a smaller
value compared to the signal, whereas the latter, in reverse,
will deteriorate the signal-to-noise ratio.
7 DATA PROCESSING
Signals obtained in vibration measurements will take many
forms depending on the vibration characteristics of the
object under test. These will include
repeating pulses,
sine waves,
complex waveforms,
noise.
Their nature can be
modulated amplitudes,
modulated frequencies,
short bursts,
random.
wear in bearings,
noise inside a vehicle,
dangerous vibrations that can cause mechanical failure,
response of loud speakers,
where to attach balancing weights,
machine health monitoring,
earthquake research,
building vibration in wind,
where to apply noise dampening materials, and so on.
RELATED ARTICLES
Article 180, Bandwidth Reduction of Baseband DC Signals, Volume 3; Article 206, Practice of Vibration Measurement, Volume 3; Article 207, Acceleration Measurement, Volume 3; Article 208, Amplitude and Velocity
Measurement, Volume 3.
REFERENCES
Bruel & Kjaer. (1982) Measuring Vibration-Elementary Introduction, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum.
Crandall, S.H. (1959) Random Vibration, Wiley, New York.
Dyer, S.A. (2001) Survey of Instrumentation and Measurement,
Wiley, New York.
Harris, C.M. and Piersol, A.G. (2001) Harris Shock and Vibration Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ling, F.F. and Shabana, A.A. (1996) Theory of Vibration: An
Introduction, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
McConnell, K.G. (1995) Vibration Testing: Theory and Practice,
Wiley Interscience, New York.
Mobley, R.K. (1999) Vibration Fundamentals, ButterworthHeinemann, Oxford.
Smith, J.D. (1989) Vibration Measurement and Analysis, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Steinberg, D.S. (2000) Vibration Analysis for Electronic Equipment, Wiley Interscience, New York.
Thomsen, J.J. (2003) Vibrations and Stability: Advanced Theory,
Analysis, and Tools, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Timar, P.L. (1989) Noise and Vibration of Electrical Machines,
North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Trampe-Broch, J. (1980) Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum.
Webster, J.G. (1999) The Measurement, Instrumentation, and
Sensors Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Wowk, V. (1991) Machinery Vibration, McGraw-Hill, New York.
206:
Peter H. Sydenham
GSEC Pty Ltd, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
1 Mass-spring Sensors
2 Areas of Application
3 Cross Coupling, Cabling, and Amplifiers
4 Influence Effects on the Sensor
5 Loading by the Sensor
6 Duration of use of Sensor in Tests
7 Amplitude Calibration
8 Accelerometer Calibration
9 Shock Calibration
10 Force Calibration
Related Articles
References
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1 MASS-SPRING SENSORS
Many vibration measurements make use of the massspring, seismic, sensor system. The seismic sensor is mostly
described in the literature as the accelerometer, but this use
is not the general case.
Other methods of vibration measurement used include
inductive, capacitive, and optical methods that are primarily
noncontact displacement measuring methods having a fast
response and small range capability see Article 191, Displacement and Angle Sensors Performance and Selection, Volume 3. The strain gauge, a contact method of
displacement measurement, is also able to deliver vibration data; this is discussed in Article 192, Strain Sensors,
Volume 3.
Given the appropriate design of spring-mass-damping
combination a seismic sensor attached to a vibrating surface can yield displacement, velocity, or acceleration data.
Handbook of Measuring System Design, edited by Peter H. Sydenham and Richard Thorn.
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-02143-8.
Mass
Displacement or
velocity sensor
Electrical
signal output
Spring
Input
movement
Plate of interest
that is vibrating
Mounting arrangement
(one kind)
In a real design, the case and the mass are also part of
the systems stiffness and they have to be made adequately
stiff. Actual construction can vary widely depending upon
how the spring force and damping are provided and upon
the form of the sensor used.
The spring element is sometimes produced as a distinct mechanical assembly. Figure 2 is an example made
using a flexure-strip spring suspension. Alternatively, perforated membranes, helical coils, torsion strips, disks, helical
springs, solid compliable pieces, and the like can be used,
see Article 85, Elastic Regime of Design Design Principles, Volume 2.
Often the compliance of the mass itself may be the spring
element, for example, in the piezoelectric crystal, which
also acts as the sensing element and contributes some of
the damping needed.
Important design parameters of a spring element used for
measurement are its
compliance
amplitude range
fatigue life
Sensitive
direction
of
accelero
meter
Accelero meter
housing
attached to
subject of
interest
Cantilever
spring
Cantilever
spring
Seismic mass
(core)
Sensitive axis
of sensor
Figure 2. Spring vibration sensor using a parallel flexure-strip spring suspension and inductive sensor of mass displacement.
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Common Measurands
sing
Sen
axis
Seismic mass
M
M
P
B
S
C
Center mounted
compression
(CM)
Inverted center
mounted compression
(ICM)
P
M
M
P
R
C
F
Annular shear
(AS)
F
Delta shear
(DS) (3 components)
Figure 4. Examples of small size single- and three-axis accelerometers using piezoelectric displacement sensing. (Reproduced by
permission of Bruel & Kjaer.)
Acceleration
input
Position
Inertial
mass
Position
sensor
DC amp
Demodulator
EO R
L
Restoring force
(a)
Torque
generator
Electrical
output
Feedback current
Damping
network
Pivot axis
Pivot
Permanent
magnet
of torque generator
Supporting
arm
Input
current to
moving coil
Position
sensor
Pendulous
inertial
mass
(b)
Jewel
bearing
Acceleration
input
Common Measurands
Vibration level
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2 AREAS OF APPLICATION
When searching for information about a measurement
technique, it is often helpful to have an appreciation of
the allied fields that use the same equipment. Vibration
will be of interest in many different applications, but some
can be singled out as the main areas to which commercial
marketing forces have been directed to enhance certain
sensor characteristics.
2.3 Space
In space navigation and control and inertial grade navigation, some key requirements are small in size and weight,
high in reliability, and low in noise levels. As an example,
one unit offered for this market has an RMS noise level up
to 10 Hz of 0.6 g.
Vibration transmitter
Transmitter/monitors
Low-cost accelerometers
Figure 7. Range of equipment needed to instrument a machine health monitoring system. (Courtesy STI, Sales Technology Inc.)
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Common Measurands
mounting can give results that produce much lower frequency components than truly exist. In extreme cases, the
sensor can be shaken free as it builds up the unexpectedly
low-resonance frequency of the joint to dangerous amplitude levels. As a guide, the joint should be at least ten
times stiffer than the sensor mounting so that the resonant
frequency of the joint is well above that of the sensor.
7 AMPLITUDE CALIBRATION
Here, attention is drawn to the issue of sensor calibration.
Whereas the fixed-reference methods do have some relevance in the practical measurement of vibration, the need
for a convenient fixed datum is very often not met.
Accelerometer
to be
calibrated
Actuate
Vibration control
generator
Drive
coil
Velocity
coil
Vibration exciter
Sense
Comparator
(a)
Measured
signal
Accelerometer
to be
calibrated
Reference
signal
Comparator
Reference
accelerometer
Vibration
Ag sin wt
(b)
Accelerometer
to be
calibrated
Vibration
Ag sin wt
Mirror
Beam
splitter
l = 632.8 nm
Photo
detector
10 000
Frequency counter
(c)
Figure 8. Calibrating accelerometers. (a) Calibrated vibration exciter shaking accelerometer at calibrated levels; reciprocity method.
(b) Back-to-back calibration of a calibrated accelerometer against one to be calibrated; comparison method. (c) Absolute measurement
using optical interferometry.
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Common Measurands
8 ACCELEROMETER CALIBRATION
Figure 8 shows outlines of three methods of calibrating
accelerometers and other vibration-measuring sensors. Calibration is normally performed at 500 rad s1 . Figure 8(a)
is the reciprocity method. A calibrated vibration exciter
shakes the accelerometer at calibrated levels. Figure 8(b)
shows the comparison method. This uses back-to-back calibration of a calibrated accelerometer against the one to
be calibrated. Figure 8(c) is a noncontact method using
optical interferometry; this gives an absolute not relative
determination.
Other methods that can be used are to subject the
accelerometer to accelerations produced by the Earths
force. Simple pseudostatic rotation of an accelerometer in
the vertical plane will produce accelerations in the 0 to
1 g range (g is used here for the Earths acceleration
value). Larger values can be obtained by whirling the
accelerometer on the extremity of a rotating arm of a
calibrating centrifuge. Alternatively, it can be mounted on
the end of a hanging pendulum.
9 SHOCK CALIBRATION
Short-duration acceleration, as produced by impact, requires
different approaches to calibration. Accelerations in such
applications as explosive devices can exceed 10 000 g and
last for only a few milliseconds.
A commonly used method is to produce a calibrated
shock by allowing a steel ball to free-fall on to an anvil
on which is mounted the sensor. This method provides
an absolute calibration but, as with all of the methods
described, has uncertainties associated with the practice of
the method. In this case, one source of error is caused by
the difficulty of releasing a ball to begin its downward path
without imparting a small negative or positive velocity at
time zero.
Another method uses a long pendulum carrying a large
mass. This is allowed to swing down to impact on the
object carrying the sensor under test. Physical consideration
allows the rate of energy release to be calculated and thus
the impact forces, but it is not that accurate. It is useful
for relative calibrations where the sensor under test and a
standardized unit are mounted in the same impacted object.
10 FORCE CALIBRATION
Static forces can be calibrated by applying dead weights to
the force sensor, the weights being calibrated masses.
Dynamic forces arising in vibration can more easily be determined using the relationship force = mass
acceleration. A shaking table is used to produce known
accelerations on a known mass. In this way, the forces
exerted on the accelerometer can be determined along with
the corresponding output voltage or current needed to produce transducer sensitivity constants.
At the completion of any calibration, the determination
and support data about the method of calibration must be
recorded according to the organizations policy. This ensures
traceable results in the event of dispute arising later see
Article 45, Calibration Process, Volume 1. The period
between calibrations is covered in Article 46, Calibration
Interval, Volume 1.
Space does not permit greater explanation; detailed
accounts of vibration sensors are available in the literature,
Trampe-Broch (1980), Bruel and Kjaer (1982), Smith
(1989), Timar (1989), Wowk (1991), McConnell (1995),
Ling and Shabana (1996), Mobley (1999), Steinberg (2000),
Dyer (2001), Harris and Piersol (2001).
RELATED ARTICLES
Article 57, Static Considerations of General Instrumentation, Volume 1; Article 59, Introduction to the
Dynamic Regime of Measurement Systems, Volume 1;
Article 205, Theory of Vibration Measurement, Volume 3; Article 207, Acceleration Measurement, Volume 3; Article 208, Amplitude and Velocity Measurement, Volume 3.
REFERENCES
Bruel & Kjaer (1982) Measuring Vibration-Elementary Introduction, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum.
Dyer, S.A. (2001) Survey of Instrumentation and Measurement,
Wiley, New York.
Harris, C.M. and Piersol, A.G. (2001) Harris Shock and Vibration Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Jones, B.E. (1982) Feedback in Instruments and its Applications,
in Instrument Science and Technology, (ed. B.E. Jones), Adam
Hilger, Bristol.
Ling, F.F. and Shabana, A.A. (1996) Theory of Vibration: An
Introduction, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
McConnell, K.G. (1995) Vibration Testing: Theory and Practice,
Wiley Interscience, New York.
Steinberg, D.S. (2000) Vibration Analysis for Electronic Equipment, Wiley Interscience, New York.
Reeves, C.W. (1999) The Vibration Monitoring Handbook, (Coxmoors Machine and Systems Condition Monitoring Series),
Coxmoor Publishing Co., Oxford.
Trampe-Broch, J. (1980) Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum.
207:
Acceleration Measurement
Peter H. Sydenham
GSEC Pty Ltd, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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Handbook of Measuring System Design, edited by Peter H. Sydenham and Richard Thorn.
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-02143-8.
10
103
Acceleration, g
102
10
10
10
104
103
10
10
Velocity amplitude
Operating
range
102
10
101
10
Peak-to-peak
displacement
n
um tio
im ra
ax le
M cce
a
10
n
tio
ra
le
ce
ac
105
102
um
im
in
M
102
10
10
3 TYPICAL ACCELEROMETERS
101
1.0
103
104
105
Frequency
4 RESPONSE TO COMPLEX
WAVEFORMS
The response curves given in Figures 5 and 6 of Article 205, Theory of Vibration Measurement, Volume 3
relate to seismic sensors excited by sinusoidal signals.
To predict the behavior of a certain sensor, such as an
accelerometer, used to measure other kinds of continuous or discrete waveforms, it is first necessary to break
down the waveform into its Fourier components see Article 29, Relationship Between Signals in the Time and
Frequency Domain, Volume 1. The response, in terms of
amplitude and phase, to each of these is then added to form
the resultant response.
It has been stated above that damping can be added to
extend the useful bandwidth of a seismic sensor. However,
where this is done it can increase the phase-shift variation
with frequency; that is, the components are sensed with
different phase shifts to the undamped case and thus the
reconstructed signal is no longer a fully faithful replica of
the original motion.
A signal comprising many frequencies will, therefore,
produce an output that depends largely on the damping
and natural frequency values of the sensor. A number of
responses can be plotted, such as shown in Figure 3 from
Harris and Crede (1976). Generally, the damping value for
best all-round results is that near the critical damping value
of 0.7.
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Common Measurands
2.0
Seismometer indicated
acceleration output
Maximum acceleration
of input
Damping
factor
z
0.4
0.7
1.0
Half-sine input
pulse
0.1
0
Seismometer
output responses
for varying degrees
of damping
1.0
1.0t
Time
Natural period of seismometer ~ duration
of half-sine pulse
(1)
Input
Charge
amplifier
Accelerometer
Calibration
generator
Integrator
(velocity
&
displacement)
Battery
power
supply
High-pass
filter
Amplifier
Low-pass
filter
Amplifier
Detector
(peakpeak or
RMS)
Lin-log
converter
AC
output
DC lin
output
Meter
DC log
output
External filter
Figure 4. Block diagram of vibration measuring system showing functions that may be required. (Reproduced by permission of Bruel
& Kjaer.)
7 MICROACCELEROMETERS
Sq a
Cf
This shows that the user need only define the sensor charge
sensitivity Sq and the feedback capacitance Cf in order to
be able to relate output voltage from the preamplifier to the
acceleration of the sensor.
If the preamplification shown here is carried out in the
sensor housing, then a special connection cable having
reduced triboelastic effect is not needed from the sensor
to the fixed cable support. Many cases, however, cannot
place the preamplifier in the sensor housing as that adds
mass to the accelerometer, which may not be acceptable.
(2)
8 SIGNAL CONDITIONING IN
MICROACCELEROMETERS
The signal processing used in the MEMS forms of accelerometer can be very sophisticated as it allows integration of
the system blocks needed to produce a ready to use robust
output signal. These are
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Common Measurands
Feedback
preamplifier
Feedback
capacitance
C1
PZT accelerometer
Input acceleration a
A
Output
Charge q
Ii
Ca
Cc
eo
C1
q = Sq a
Where S q is accelerometer charge sensitivity
a is acceleration
System transfer = e o = S q
a
coefficient
C1
Figure 5. Equivalent circuit for piezoelectric sensor when interrogated, as a charge-generating device, by an operational amplifier
technique.
15 mm
9 MEASUREMENT OF SHOCK
Shock is a sudden short impulse of applied force that can
generate very large acceleration (100 000 g can arise) that is
not recurrent. It can be regarded as a once-only occurrence
RELATED ARTICLES
Article 59, Introduction to the Dynamic Regime of Measurement Systems, Volume 1; Article 61, First-order
System Dynamics, Volume 1; Article 62, Second-order
System Dynamics, Volume 1; Article 205, Theory of
Vibration Measurement, Volume 3; Article 206, Practice of Vibration Measurement, Volume 3; Article 208,
Amplitude and Velocity Measurement, Volume 3.
REFERENCES
Bruel & Kjaer. (1976) Piezoelectric Accelerometer and Vibration
Preamplifier Handbook, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum.
Endevco. (1980) Shock and Vibration Measurement Technology,
Endevco Dynamic Instrument Division, San Juan Capistrano,
CA.
Harris, C.M. and Crede, C.E. (1976) Shock and Vibration Handbook Vol. 1, Basic Theory and Measurements, McGraw-Hill,
New York, (1961, reprinted in 1976).
Kulah, H., Salian, A., Yazdi, N. and Najafi, K. (2004) A 5V
closed-loop second-order sigma-delta, micro-g micro-accelerometer, Center for Wireless Integrated Microsystems, University
of Michigan, http://www.eecs.umich.edu/hkulah/pdfs/HH-02Kulah.pdf.
Kwang, Y., Yeon, J.C., Kim, Y.H., Rhee, S.W. and Oh, S.H.
(2003) High Resolution Silicon Accelerometer Using Eutectic
Bonding, in Nanotech Conference 2003 , abstract http://www.
nsti.org/procs.
LLNL. (2000) MEMS microaccelerometer , Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, http://microtechnology.llnl.gov/Devices.
html.
Norton, H.N. (1969) Handbook of Transducers for Electronic
Measuring Systems, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Oliver, F.J. (1971) Practical Instrumentation Transducers, Pitman, London.
Trampe-Broch, J. (1980) Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum.
Webster, J.G. (1999) The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
208:
Peter H. Sydenham
GSEC Pty Ltd, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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1 MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT
WITH A SEISMIC FORM OF SENSOR
Where a fixed reference method is inconvenient, one of
several forms of seismic sensor system can be employed as
follows.
It is sometimes more convenient to mathematically integrate the signal from a velocity transducer making use of a
fixed reference framework.
Integration is a sound process, for the noise present is
reduced by the integration, averaging process. The integral of an acceleration measurement is velocity and the
second integral is then displacement. Thus, an accelerometer can be used to measure displacement under certain
conditions.
2 THEORY OF DISPLACEMENT
MEASUREMENT USING A SEISMIC
SENSOR
The second-order equations of motion, given in Article 205, Theory of Vibration Measurement, Volume 3,
for a mass that is moving relative to a fixed reference
frame (the mode for studying the movement of vibrating
objects) can be reworked to provide response curves relating the displacement amplitude of the seismic mass to that
of its case.
Figure 1 is the family of response curves showing the
effects of different operating frequency and the degree of
damping. Given that the case is moving in sympathy with
the surface of interest, it can be seen, from the curves,
that for input vibration frequencies that are at least twice
the natural frequency of the seismic sensor, the measured
output displacements will be a true indication (within a
percent or so) of the movements of the surface. This
form of seismic displacement sensor is also often called
a vibrometer.
It is possible to lower the frequency of operation by
using a damping factor with a nominal value of 0.5. This,
however, does introduce more rapidly changing phaseshift error with frequency, which may be important. The
lowest frequency of use above which the response remains
virtually flat is seen to be where the various damping factor
curves approach the horizontal line equal to unity ratio, to
within the allowable signal tolerance.
Given that the chosen damping remains constant and that
a system does follow the second-order response, it is also
possible to provide electronic frequency compensation that
can further lower the useful frequency of operation by a
useful amount.
Handbook of Measuring System Design, edited by Peter H. Sydenham and Richard Thorn.
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-02143-8.
2.0
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.0
0.7
4 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
1
2
0.5
5
0.2
0.1
0.3
Damping ratio
z
10
0.5
0.81.0
Natural
frequency
10
w
wn
Figure 1. Responses relevant to displacement and velocity sensing with seismic sensors.
3 PRACTICE OF DISPLACEMENT
MEASUREMENT USING A SEISMIC
SENSOR
The curves are theoretical perfections and would apparently indicate that the seismic sensor, in this case, will
have flat response to infinite frequency. This is not
the case in practice, for, as the frequency of vibration rises, the seismic sensor structure begins to resonate
at other frequencies caused by such mechanisms as the
spring vibrating in modes other than the fundamental of
the system.
Given that the low frequency range of accelerometers
can extend down to less than 1 Hz (see Article 207,
Acceleration Measurement, Volume 3), it may often be
more practical to twice integrate an accelerometer signal,
in order to derive displacement amplitude, rather than
5 THEORY OF VELOCITY
MEASUREMENT
The prime method used to generate a direct velocity signal
makes use of the law of electromagnetic induction. This
gives the electrical voltage e generated as N turns of an
electric coil to cut magnetic flux over time t as
e = N
d
dt
(1)
(2)
1416
Common Measurands
Cylindrical
airgap
Generated
electrical
output
Moving
coil in magnetic
field
Velocity
input
(a)
Fixed coaxial
permanent
magnet
structure
Electrical
output
(b)
Magnetic
circuit
Vibrating input
Electrical
output
Fixed
coil
S
(c)
6 PRACTICE OF VELOCITY
MEASUREMENT
These were the sensors adopted in early seismology studies
because of their inherently high output at relatively low
velocities. The coil impedance will generally be low,
RELATED ARTICLES
Article 187, Flowmeter Selection and Application, Volume 3; Article 191, Displacement and Angle Sensors
Performance and Selection, Volume 3; Article 192,
Strain Sensors, Volume 3; Article 193, Specialty Displacement and Angle Sensors, Volume 3; Article 205,
Theory of Vibration Measurement, Volume 3; Article 207, Acceleration Measurement, Volume 3.
REFERENCES
Webster, J.G. (1999) The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.