KPC Roads Manual - Full Version

1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General Criteria Effecting Haul Roads
Surface mine haul roads are used for transporting products and equipment around a
mine site, to the preparation plant, to dump areas, to and from stockpile areas, out of
pits, etc. As such all of the aspects of highway engineering, including road grades,
curve elevation, sight distance, stopping distance, adequate drainage, etc., must be
followed to facilitate construction of safe and efficient haul roads for the transport of
product and equipment to its destination.
The standards used for the design, construction and maintenance of mine haul roads
directly impact on:
Truck productivity
Truck maintenance and operating costs
Road safety
With correct management, the overall impact of the above three factors can be
optimised in order to achieve the lowest overall total haulage cost for the mine. With
too little spending, damage to trucks increases and production is lower. Excessive
expenditure however on the other hand provides diminishing benefits and will result
in an increase to the overall cost of hauling. The ideal is to find the optimum point
where the overall total benefit is the greatest.
1.2
Main Influencing Factors
The challenge for the engineering design of a haul road is to optimise the road
design to maximise productivity while living within the constraints of providing a safe
work environment, an overall mine design, the existing mine topography, and the
budget for haul road construction. Listed below are some of the main factors for
consideration in the search to optimise the total overall cost of haulage.
As trucks get bigger their productivity increases but the standard, size and quality
of the construction and maintenance of roads must also improve to cope with the
increased loads.
Reducing the roughness of roads will in turn reduce the damage to trucks through
fatigue, twisting and shock to the truck frame and main components.
Reducing the roughness of roads and improving the surface of the road can
provide significant benefits in the life and therefore the cost of tyres.
Reducing the number of intersections and improving the design of intersections
will provide significant benefits to not only truck maintenance but also to truck
productivity through improved cycle times.
Improving the design of road pavements will provide reductions in the rolling
resistance of the road which will lead to a reduction in fuel costs and truck
maintenance, as well as an increase in truck speed and productivity.
Mine Planning Department
1-1
Improving the surface material of a road pavement will also reduce the long term
cost of watering and maintaining the road and will also produce a safer road with
shorter truck cycle times.
Perfecting curve designs, optimising road grades and improving road alignments
will lead to reduced truck maintenance and improved truck speed and
productivity.
Improving road crossfalls and road drainage will lead to improved road
pavements which will reduce truck and road maintenance costs and will lead to
improved truck speed and productivity.
Optimising the average payload of trucks while at the same time minimising
spillage.
Reducing the overloading of trucks and spillage will result in reduced road and
truck maintenance and improved tyre life.
Improving the initial standard of road construction can result in a significant
reduction in maintenance and maintenance costs. The life cycle cost of a road
being significantly influenced by the life of the road.
Even though the effects of haul road quality on productivity and costs are well known
in a general sense, there is presently very little that an engineer can do to put values
on some of these design options. This is because there are too many variables in
the cost equation and much of the information required is either not monitored or is
hard to compile.
1.3
This Manual
The planning engineer, design engineer, construction engineer, operations or

maintenance supervisors may utilize the contents section of this manual as a
checklist to assure that all elements of have been considered in the planning,
construction or maintenance of a haul road.
This manual endeavours to provide easily referenced design data, guidelines and
maintenance criteria, to assist mine personnel involved in haul road construction and
maintenance.
When considering the design or construction of a haul road though it is necessary to
take into consideration all factors that relate to the total design of a specific road. To
consider only a few aspects in isolation will not necessarily achieve the best overall
result in terms of safety and productivity.
1-2
2.
PLANNING OF A HAUL ROAD
2.1
The Aim
To provide safe, well engineered, high quality haul roads at the lowest overall
total cost to satisfy the requirements of the long term mine plan.
2.2
Planning of Haul Roads
Good haul roads do not just happen they are planned.

There are several basic considerations in haul road planning. Most important,
one must follow all safety procedures in both the design and construction of a
new roadway. A maximum effort should be made to follow current mining plans
when laying out and planning haulage roads. Aerial photographs and contour
plans will be extremely useful in the planning and routing of roadways.
Particular attention must always be made to the fact that current and accurate
survey information is being used.
Grades, road widths, and curves must be maintained within the limits of present
and/or planned haul truck specifications, since all these factors can limit speed,
and hence production.
Grades in most mining operations are adverse (against the loaded haul), which
increases haul cost per km. Operators must balance these increased costs
against decreased distances effected by steeper grades, and the increased
construction costs of flatter roads.
At KPC it is recommended that sustained grades should be kept as low as
possible, and should rarely exceed 8%.
In those areas susceptible to slippery conditions due to weak pit material, in-pit
water, rainfall and run off, grades should where ever practical be reduced
further. For further information refer also section 3.5
2.3
Design Life
This manual has adopted a distinction between in-pit haul roads and main
haul roads. As such two sets of standards will be recommended. In-pit haul
roads are of a lower standard and are recognised as generally being rougher,
less permanent, steeper, shorter and slower than main haul roads. Main haul
roads on the other hand are of a higher standard and are more permanent,
better quality and longer in length. The reason for this is that in-pit roads are
generally more temporary in nature and will therefore not be in service long
enough to provide the benefits resulting from the higher standard of
construction appropriate for a main haul road.
2-3
The main impact associated with in-pit roads is on total truck cycle time and the
fact that the rougher roads have a greater impact proportionally on truck and
tyre damage and hence costs. For this reason the standard (construction and
maintenance) of in-pit roads must not be allowed to slip too low and every effort
should be made to make more use of main haul roads.
The impact of main haul roads is more to do with a greater volume of traffic
traveling over the road for a longer life. For this reason a higher standard of
road is appropriate and factors such as rolling resistance, grade, intersection
design, speed, curve design, etc., become more critical.
The final design standard of a road or section of road will ultimately be
determined by the estimated length of time that the road will be in use, and by
what type and volume of traffic will travel on the road. In all aspects of the
design, one should endeavor to allow for the possibility of future expansion and
larger equipment.
At KPC it is recommended that an in-pit road shall be a high volume pit or
dump road that will be required for up to six months; or a low volume in pit or
dump road required for up to twelve months.
A main road shall be high volume pit, dump, or ex pit road that will remain in
place for in excess of six months; or a low volume pit, dump or ex pit road that
will remain in place for over twelve months.
2.4
Design Speed
Drivers in general travel a road at the speed at which they feel to be safe at the
level of risk which they are prepared to accept. Drivers also tend to match their
speed to the perceived radius of horizontal curves as determined by the
apparent rate of movement of objects on or near the curve. Usually drivers
maintain their speed over crests unaware of what may lie beyond their field of
view and few anticipate hazards. Most must see a hazard to be aware of its
presence.
Where a design speed is cited it means that a vehicle can travel at that speed
without being exposed to hazards arising from curtailed sight distance,
inappropriately superelevated curves, severe grades or pavements too narrow
to accommodate the design traffic volume. The selection of the design speed
for a haul road is significantly affected by the type of haul truck being used and
anticipated to be used. For economic consideration the trucks should be able
to travel at their maximum unloaded speed to reduce cycle times and thus
increase productivity.
It is generally accepted and recommended that the 85 percentile speed be
adopted as the design speed based on the unloaded top speed of the present
and known future haul equipment.
2-4
It is recommended that at KPC the design speed for trucks for in-pit roads be
40 kph while the design speed for trucks on main roads be 60 kph. It should
be noted that this is quite different to the KPC mine site speed limit for trucks or
light vehicles.
2.5
Bend Radius & Superelevation
Like other vehicles, trucks must slow down to drive around curves, bends or
corners.
This generally requires deceleration and gearing down followed by
acceleration and gearing up once the corner is passed. This adds to the wear
and tear on a truck and perhaps more importantly reduces the cycle time for the
haul, thereby lowering productivity.
The fastest speed at which a truck can navigate a corner with safety depends
on many things, including the traction available from the road surface and the
superelevation of the road.
Generally drivers are also less comfortable with
tight bends and high superelevation. There is also an increased likelihood of a
driver losing control of a truck in wet conditions if the bend or superelevation is
too tight.
The superelevation or banking of a road at a curve allows the use of higher
speed. In theory a truck approaching a correctly designed superelevated curve
at the correct design speed can maintain the same speed throughout the curve,
with safety, even in poor traction conditions.
On ascending grades, and in slippery areas however superelevation will need to
be reduced; otherwise slow moving vehicles may slide crossways down the
superelevation. For this reason a superelevated curve needs to be designed to
suit both the radius of the curve as well as the range of vehicle speeds using
the curve. Refer to section 3.8 and Table 1.
Accordingly at KPC curves should be constructed to the maximum radius
permissible under the conditions and at an appropriate superelevation. Refer
to section 3.8 and Table 2
2.6
Cycle Time from Pit to Dump Station or Stockpile
In general terms all haul routes should be planned in order to minimise the truck
haul road cycle time.
Generally this will be where the shortest possible distance between the pit and
the dumping location, and return, can be used. This however is not always
possible and may in some instances result in a slightly longer distance being
traveled in order to avoid or minimise the impact of a particular incline.
2-5
2.7
Engineering Input
If in doubt about any aspect of haul road design or construction during and
following the planning stage of the road, an engineers assistance should be
sought to help in surveying, determining grades, constructing profiles, and
solving drainage problems. When the final layout of the road is selected, soil
samples may need to be obtained to determine road base conditions. Field
work should also include investigation of existing availability of materials for
sub-base and surface construction. Whenever possible, suitable local materials
should be used.
2.8
Road Design Procedures
In summary the following steps are necessary in the design of a haul road:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Determine source and destination points of the haul road.

Determine most economical routes from topographical and other maps.
Field inspect these possible routes in order to select the most favourable.
Determine the life and standard of the road or sections of the roads in terms
of whether it is in-pit or main haul road.
5. Determine grades on this route and resultant speeds for loaded and
unloaded trucks and modify route if necessary. Some negotiation may be
necessary to select the best compromise between haul truck performance
and haul road construction cost.
6. Design horizontal and vertical curves for the proposed route and check for
satisfactory sight and stopping distances.
7. Check drainage requirements.
8. If the haul road needs to cater for light vehicles or specialized vehicles such
as graders, explosive trucks, water trucks a check should be made of the
road geometry with respect to applicable sight distances, stopping distances
and vehicle performance characteristics.
9. Check haul truck and tyre performance on entire route and modify route if
necessary, if modifications are necessary, return to step 5.
10. Conduct a detail survey along the proposed alignment contours of country
along the route and peg centrelines, check contours with design grades, and
drainage proposal.
11. Test soil properties along the route and design road construction
accordingly.
12. Design curve superelevation and horizontal curve widening, with respective
transition lengths.
13. Final cost estimates may now be made.
2-6
3.
ROAD GEOMETRY
3.1
Introduction
Haul road geometry and layout depends largely on pit life, terrain, nature of
resource, pit depth, the length of time the road will be used, and the
economic limits of the haul road excavation. These factors most often
determine the characteristics of mine haul roads. Haul roads should
conform to good engineering practices within economic limitations and
should have the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ample passing width

Good sight distance for safety
Long radius superelevated curves
Lowest possible adverse grades with grades optimised to truck
capability.
Good surface
Adequate drainage
Regular maintenance
Be built on the basis of present haulage requirements with provision also
for future planned equipment requirements.
As far as is economically feasible, all geometric elements of haul roads

should be designed to provide safe, efficient travel at normal operating
speeds. The ability of the vehicle operator to see ahead a distance equal to
or greater than the stopping distance required is the primary consideration.
This section of the manual addresses the effect of speed, slope, and vehicle
weight on stopping distance, as well as design criteria for vertical and
horizontal alignment.
3.2
Stopping Distance, Grade and Brake Relationships
From a safety standpoint, haul road grades must be designed to

accommodate the braking capabilities of the vehicles having the least
braking potential which will most frequently traverse the haul route. In the
majority of cases, rear dump trucks, by virtue of their function, size and
weigh are the vehicles most likely to have the longest stopping distance
requirements.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), recommended practice Jl66
has developed values for permissible service brake stopping distances.
The following stopping distance curves Figures 1 to 4 depict stopping
distances computed for various grades and speeds in each SAE test weight
category.
Tests carried out by V.E. Dawson, indicate that to preclude fade, a 61
metres braking distance should be considered the maximum allowable.
3-7
Although some tested vehicles were able to exceed this limitation and still
execute a safe, controlled stop, statistics indicate that a 61 metres restriction
permits a reasonable margin of safety. Each stopping-distance graph
illustrates this 61 metres maximum braking distance as a near vertical line
increasing with velocity. Increases of distance for speed reflect distance
consumed by driver perception and reaction time. Inclusion of this stoppingdistance restriction completes the stopping-distance graphs.
Using these graphs the maximum operating speed and descent grade can
be found for a known truck weight category by reading vertically along the
maximum permissible stopping-distance limitation line. At grade curve
intersections, read left to find velocity. An example is given on each of the
Figures 1 to 4.
Figures 1 through 4 have been based primarily on mathematical derivations.
They do not depict results of actual field tests, but are presented simply to
offer an indication of the speed and grade limitations that must be
considered in designing a haul road for a general truck size. Actual fieldtesting has proven that many haul trucks can and do exceed these
theoretical capabilities. This empirical data, however, does not encompass a
wide range of speed, weight and grade situations.
While haul truck manufacturers may equip their products with brake systems
that meet or exceed these criteria, there is no indication of how brake
performance may vary with changes in service, grade, road surface, or initial
speed. However, the stopping-distance limitations set forth provide the basic
data from which performance under different conditions may be deduced.
Before detail road layout begins, it is recommended that manufacturers of
the trucks that will ultimately use the road should be contacted to verify the
service brake performance capabilities of their products. In all cases,
verification should reflect the capabilities of wheel brake components without
the assistance of dynamic or hydraulic retardation. In the absence of such
information Figures 1 to 4 need to be used.
It is recommended that at KPC, in the absence of other more specific braking
information, stopping distance determinations for both in-pit and main haul
roads will be based on Figures 1 to 4 of this manual.
Table 1 sets out details of the loaded and unloaded weights of the main
trucks in the current KPC truck fleet. Generally for all considerations the
loaded truck weight of the largest vehicle the CAT 789 should be used. In
some cases though there may be a justification to adopt a lower standard for
where smaller trucks only will use a road or where unloaded trucks only are
expected to travel:
3-8
Figures 1& 2
3-9
Figure 3 Stopping Distance for Vehicles of 90,000 to 180,000kg GVW

Missing
Figure 4 Stopping Distance for Vehicles over 180,000kg GVW
3-10
Table 1 Weights of KPC Trucks

Truck Type
CAT 789
CAT 783
CAT 777
Volvo A35
Ginaf
3.3
Loaded Weight
kg
318,000
250,000
161,000
?
?
Unloaded Weight
Kg
122,000
97,000
65,000
?
?
Sight Distance
Sight distance is defined as "the extent of peripheral area visible to the

vehicle operator". It is imperative that sight distance be sufficient to enable a
vehicle travelling at a given speed to stop before reaching a hazard. The
distance measured from the driver'
s eye to the hazard ahead must always
be equal to or exceed the required vehicle stopping distance.
On vertical curve crests, the sight distance is limited by the road surface.
Figure 5, Case A, illustrates an unsafe condition. The sight distance is
restricted by the short vertical curve and the vehicle cannot be stopped in
time to avoid the hazard. Case B shows a remedy to the dangerous
condition. The vertical curve has been lengthened, thus creating a sight
distance equal to the required stopping distance.
On horizontal curves, the sight distance is limited by adjacent batters, steep
rock cuts, trees, structures, bunds, etc. Case C illustrates a horizontal curve
with sight distance restricted by trees and steep side cut. Case D shows
that by removing trees and laying back the slope (benching), the sight
distance can be lengthened to equal the required stopping distance.
Note: Where horizontal and vertical curves occur together, it may not be
economical to provide a horizontal sight distance in Case D by benching. An
alternative solution to this case (and for sharp horizontal curves) would be to
increase the radius of the curve.
3.4
Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment is the establishment of grades and vertical curves that

allow adequate stopping and sight distances on all segments of the haulage
road. A safe haulage environment cannot be created if grades are designed
without consideration for the braking limitations of equipment in use. The
same is true for situations where hill crests in the road impede driver visibility
to the point that vehicle-stopping distance exceeds the length of roadway
visible ahead. Design practices relevant to the foregoing parameters are
presented in the following subsection
3-11
Figure 5 Sight Distance Diagrams
3-12
3.5
Maximum and Sustained Grades
Theoretical maximum allowable grades for various truck weight ranges in

terms of emergency stopping situations have been discussed under Section
3.2 and quantified by the stopping-distance curves given in Figures 1 to 4.
Defining maximum permissible grades in terms of stopping capabilities
alone, however, is somewhat misleading in that no consideration is given to
production economics.
Figure 6 is a performance chart similar to those supplied by truck
manufacturers. Although the graph reflects performance characteristics for
a specific make and model of truck, it represents the impact of grade on
performance. Two different symbols have been superimposed to show how
the attainable speed is influenced by a vehicle operating on a 5% and 10%
grade under both laden and unladen conditions.
It is apparent from the chart that a reduction in grade significantly increases
a vehicle'
s attainable uphill speed. Thus, haul cycle times, fuel consumption,
stress on mechanical components and maintenance costs, can be
minimised to some extent by limiting the severity of grades.
By relating the 10% to 5% grade reductions to the stopping-distance charts
in the previous section, it can be seen that safety and performance are
complementary rather than opposing factors.
At KPC it is recommended that a maximum sustained road grade of be 8%
be adopted
It should be noted that the 8% grade is a maximum and where ever possible
significant operational savings may be possible if the grade is reduced.
Figure 6 shows that is some situations a change in grade from 10% to 5%
allows the approximate doubling of both the downhill and uphill speed of a
truck in both the empty and fully loaded conditions.
3.6
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used to provide smooth transitions from one grade to
another. Their lengths should be adequate to drive comfortably and provide
ample sight distances at the design speed. Generally, vertical curve lengths
greater than the minimum are desirable, and result in longer sight distance
and hence improved safety. However, excessive lengths can result in long
relatively flat sections, a feature that discourages good drainage and
frequently leads to "soft spots" and potholes. The absolute minimum length
of vertical curves should not be less than 30 meters.
3-13
Figure 6
3-14
As a simplification, the recommended vertical curve to be used at KPC

should be based on:
(i) Vertical curve length 150 m
(ii) Vertical curve radius 1500 m
The following series of graphs Figures 7 to 14 show recommended minimum
lengths of vertical curve versus stopping distances for various algebraic
differences in grade. Each figure represents a different driver'
s eye height,
ranging from 1.8 to 6.1 metres.
Example :
To illustrate the use of the vertical curve charts, first select the graph that
indicates the lowest driver'
s eye height for vehicles in the haulage fleet.
Then, from the stopping-distance charts Figures 1 to 4, find the required
stopping distance for the appropriate operating speed, vehicle weight, and
grade. Use the steeper of the two grades to take into consideration the most
critical situation. Read right to intersect the appropriate algebraic difference
and down to find the vertical curve length.
An example is given in Figure 7 for a stopping distance of 70 m and an
algebraic change of grade (g1 - g2) of 10%, gives a required curve length (L)
of 80 m. Having this information and applying it to the formula given in
Figure 15, the final vertical curve design can be completed.
The recommended vertical curve design criteria for current KPC trucks
1. Object Height is 0.20 m
2. Drivers Eye Height for
a)
CAT 789
??? m
b)
CAT 783
??? m
c)
CAT 777
??? m
d)
Volvo A35
??? m
e)
Ginaf
??? m
NB :
For calculations of length of vertical curves and stopping site distance the
least eye height should be used for major haul trucks.
Therefore Figure ?? applies at KPC which is the closest available chart for a
drives height of ??? m.
3-15
Figures 7& 8
3-16
Figures 9 & 10
3-17
Figure 11& 12
3-18
Figure 13 & 14
3-19
Figure 15
3-20
Figure 16
3-21
3.7
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment during haul road design and construction deals

primarily with the elements necessary for safe vehicle operation around
curves. Far too often curves are created without considering proper width,
superelevation, turning radius, or sight distance.
Correct horizontal
alignment is essential to both safety and efficiency throughout a haulage
cycle.
Figure 16 helps to explain this relationship and shows how critical
dimensions can be calculated.
It must be emphasized that any recommendations are based on providing
maximum safety without taking construction economics into account. Due to
the physical constraints particular to many mining areas, the resultant cost of
construction may increase significantly. Safety, however, should allow no
tradeoffs, and any alterations to design criteria should be accompanied by a
compensatory reduction in operating speed. Using the site distance curves
previously discussed and the following information the minimum horizontal
curves may be derived.
3.8
Superelevation
Vehicles negotiating short-radius curves are forced radially outward by

centrifugal force. Counteracting forces are the friction between the tyres and
the road surface, and the vehicle weight component due to the
superelevation. The basic formula is :
V2
e+ f =
125 R
Where:
And
e
f
v
R
=
=
=
=
superelevation rate, m per m

side friction factor;
vehicle speed, km per hour;
curve radius, m.
There are practical limits to the rate of superelevation; these being governed
by weather conditions, the speed of slowly moving vehicles and the higher
wheel loads carried by the inner wheels of the vehicle not travelling at the
design speed.
Extensive testing has been conducted by several authorities in an attempt to
quantify the friction factor that should be adopted. Generally this factor
ranges from 0.1 to 0.32. Depending on the speed, the friction factor also
increases as the speed decreases.
3-22
Table 2 Road Superelevation Rates

Superelevation Rates in Metres / Metre for given Vehicle Speed and Radius of Curve
Radius of
Curve (m)
Vehicle Speed (kph)

20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
50m
0.06
0.10
--
--
--
--
--
--
75m
0.04
0.07
0.09
--
--
--
--
--
100m
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.10
--
--
--
--
200m**
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.10
--
300m
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.08
400m
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
This table serves two purposes. It indicates superelevation rates, and recommends
proper curve and speed relationship. For example, a vehicle travelling at 35km per hour
approaching a 100m curve superelevated at 0.03 should be advised to slow to 20km
per hour.
** At KPC the recommended minimum bend for a main haul road is 200m.
3-23
Refer to Table 2 for recommended superelevation rates where the friction

factor has been neglected to allow for the large variation in road surface
conditions that are encountered on mine sites.
This table serves two
purposes. It not only indicates superelevation rates, but also recommends
proper curve and speed relationships, highlighting the impact of road surface
conditions. For example, a vehicle travelling at 35 km per hour approaching
a 100 m curve superelevated at 0.03 should slow to 20 km per hour.
Superelevated curves needs to be designed to suit the radius of the curve
and the range of vehicle speeds using the curve in both wet and dry weather
Accordingly at KPC curves should be constructed to the maximum radius
possible under the conditions and at the matching superelevation giving by
Table 2.
3.9
Development of Superelevation
The portion of a haul road used to transform a cross slope section into a
superelevated section is considered the runout length. The generally slower
speeds at mining sites make the positioning of the runout less critical. The
prupose of the runout however remains the same in that it assists a driver in
the manoeuvring of a vehicle through a curve. For design criteria for this
shall be that one-third of the runout length shall be in the curve and twothirds on the tangent.
Runout lengths vary with the design speed and the total cross slope change.
Recommended rates of cross slope change are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Variation in Superelevation on Run-Out Lengths
Speed of Truck V
(kph)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Cross Slope
Change
(m/m/10m length)
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.021
0.018
0.016
0.014
0.013
0.011
3-24
Example :
To illustrate the use of this table assume a vehicle is travelling at 30 km per
hour with normal cross slope of 0.04 m/m to the left. It encounters a curve to
the right necessitating a superelevation rate of 0.06 m/m to the right. The
total cross-slope change for 30 km/hour is 0.021 m/m per 10 metres.
Thus total run out
V(1)
(0.1 x 10) metres

0.021
V(1)
47.6 metres (use 48 metres).
One third of this length should be placed in the curve and two thirds on the
tangent. Refer Figure 17.
Accordingly it is recommended that at KPC superelevated curves be
constructed with an appropriately designed transition into the curve.
3.10
Horizontal Curve Widening for Sharp Curves.
Widening of pavements on curves is used to maintain lateral clearance

between vehicles equal to that provided on straight sections.
By applying the whole of a widening to the inside of the curve, the same
effect is achieved as if a plan transition curve were applied. Plan transition
may be applied by using normal road design principles but is not considered
essential on low volume roads. Also ease of design and construction is
facilitated by using the widening application as shown in Figure 18.
Switchbacks or other sharp curves must also be designed to take into
consideration the minimum turning path capability of the vehicles being
used. Figure 18 illustrates the additional road width needed by a turning
truck.
3.11
Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
In the design of haul roads, it is important that horizontal and vertical

alignment compliment each other. Poorly designed combinations can
accentuate deficiencies and produce unexpected hazards.
Although the alternatives available to a haul road designer are limited, it
would be prudent to consider the following potential problem conditions.
Avoid introducing sharp horizontal curvature at or near the crest of a hill.

The driver has difficulty perceiving the curve, especially at night when
the lights of his vehicle shine ahead into space. If a curve is absolutely
necessary, start it in advance of the vertical curve.
3-25
Avoid sharp horizontal curves near the bottom of hills or after a long
sustained down grade. Trucks are normally at their highest speed at
these locations.
Figure 17 Transition Curve Determination
3-26
Figure 18
3-27
If passing is expected, design sections of haulage road with long

tangents and constant grades. This is especially important in two-lane
operations.
Avoid intersections, near the crest of vertical curves and at sharp
horizontal curvatures. Consider the sight distance in all four quadrants.
3.12
Haul Road Classifications - Classes
In order that specific haul road designs produced for varying haul conditions
can be categorized, two (2) different classes have been nominated for KPC.
These are : Main - The permanent main haul roads linking pits and the ROM area.
Also some of the longer term main pit ramps or dump roads.
This will
generally be the more permanent haul road network.
In-pit - The secondary or in-pit haul roads that are used either infrequently
or over a shorter period of time. These roads tend to be more temporary
and are then abandoned or dumped out. The life usage of such roads is
less and does not warrant the extra cost or effort to build them to a higher
standard.
Note:
1. These are only general classifications and before a particular class is
nominated for a new haul road a simple cost benefit analysis should be
applied to see which class provides the most suitable and cost effective
solution.
2. Variations to the above classes are always possible dependent on the
particular need.
At KPC it is recommended that an in-pit road shall be a high volume pit or
dump road that will be required for up to six months; or a low volume in pit or
dump road required for up to twelve months.
A main road shall be high volume pit, dump, or ex pit road that will remain in
place for in excess of six months; or a low volume pit, dump or ex pit road that
will remain in place for over twelve months.
3.13
Pavement Widths
The haul road designer must be very concerned about the road width.
Sufficient room for maneuvering must be allowed at all times to promote
safety and maintain continuity in the haulage cycle. Unlike passenger and
commercial vehicles which have somewhat "standarized" dimensions, truck
sizes vary considerably. Thus requirements have to be defined for particular
3-28
sizes rather than for general types. Complicating the problem is the need to
specify additional widening for curves. Refer Section 3.10
Because of the large number of influencing variables, the following
guidelines for determining width are separated into individual categories.
Recommendations presented are values for the size of traveled lane to be
provided and do not take into consideration the additional dimensions
necessary for subbase outslopes, drainage facilities berms, etc. These
items are discussed separately, and their dimensions must be added to
those of the lane to determine the total roadway widths.
Width criteria for the traveled lane of a straight haul road segment should be
based on the widest vehicle in use. Designing for anything less than this
dimension will create a safety hazard due to lack of proper clearance. In
addition narrow lanes often create an uncomfortable driving environment,
resulting in slower traffic, and thereby impeding production.
Rules of thumb for determining haul road lane dimensions vary considerably
from one reference source to another. Many of the guidelines specify a
constant width to be added to the width of the haul vehicle. This method is
sufficient for smaller vehicles, but it is not advisable for computing lane
widths to accommodate larger trucks. To compensate for the increase in
perception distance created by greater vehicle width, the space allocated for
side clearance should vary with vehicle size.
A practical guideline for establishing the vehicle to lane width ratio is
contained in the AASHO Manual for Rural Highway Design. The AASHO
Manual recommends that each lane of travel should provide clearance, left
and right of the widest vehicle in use, that is equivalent to one half the
vehicle width. Adding credence to this recommendation is the fact that a
number of large surface mines base their haul road widths on this criterion.
By incorporating this guideline, both safety and efficiency will be enhanced.
Currently at KPC with the CAT 789 as the widest truck it is recommended
that a minimum single lane width of 15.5m is adopted and a minimum double
lane width of 27.0m is adopted.
Table 4 and Figure 19 illustrate the recommended minimum widths that
should be provided for various lane configurations.
3-29
Figure 19 Minimum Haulroad Widths on Straight Sections
3-30
Table 4 Recommended Minimum Lane Widths

Truck
Type
Truck Width
W (m)
CAT789
CAT785
CAT777
Volvo
Ginaf
7.7
6.7
5.1
Recommended
Single Lane
Width 2W (m)
15.4
13.4
10.2
Recommended
Two Lane Width
3.5W (m)
27.0
23.5
17.9
Note:
Pavement widths must be increased on sharp curves, on
embankments, in cuttings, and where other special consideration must be
given to accommodate larger occasional vehicle, broken down vehicles and
safety requirements.
3.14
Special Consideration for Additional Lane Widths
Special consideration must be given to road segments that may have to

accommodate larger equipment such as shovels, drills, etc. A safety hazard
will exist if the design road width is less than that necessary for the
movement of such equipment. Prior to selecting a final design width, make
the following assessments, and establish a dimension sufficient for all
possible users :
1. Define the width of all equipment that may have to travel the haul road.
2. Solicit dimensional data for any anticipated new machines.
3. Determine the overall width of any equipment combinations including
light vehicles that may be involved in a passing situation.
4. Delineate the location of haul road segments requiring a greater than
normal width.
In cases where the passage of unusually wide machinery is occasional,
there is no reason to establish additional lane widths equal to half that of the
vehicle. Although in most instances Table 4 will serve as an excellent guide
for the road designer, there are exceptions for single lane construction that
must be acknowledged.
3.15
Cross Slope (Crossfall of the Pavement)
It should be noted that cross slope (crossfall) is described in the following

ways :
1. As a percentage crossfall i.e. between 2% to 4% crossfall.
2. As a slope i.e. 1:50 to 1:25
3. As a rate of cross slope i.e. 20 mm to 40 mm drop for each metre of
width.
3-31
Cross slope - the difference in elevation between the crest and the road
edge, must be given consideration during haul road design and construction.
From the standpoint of reducing a driver'
s steering effort, a level surface
would be most beneficial. Adequate drainage, however, requires that a
cross slope be created. To accommodate both drainage and steerability, a
balance must be established between a slope that will allow a effective
removal of surface water without adversely affecting vehicle control.
Both the theoretical and practical aspects of initiating a constant drop across
the breadth of roadways have been fully studied and documented. Although
the majority of this work has been conducted in relation to urban and rural
highway design, the criteria developed are equally applicable to surface mine
haul roads. In nearly every published reference, the recommended rate of
cross slope for surfaces normally constructed on mine haul road is 1% to
4%. (See Figure 20).
Mine operators should consider 1% to 4% as the limiting criteria for design.
Special consideration must be given to determining when to use the
maximum and minimum rates since the applicability of each depends on
surface texture.
Cross slopes of 2% are applicable to relatively smooth road surfaces that
can rapidly dissipate surface water. In most cases, minimum slope is best
suited to surfaces such as asphaltic concrete. However, there are conditions
which warrant the use of the 2% minimum criteria for surfaces of lesser
quality. When mud is a constant problem, excessive cross sloping can
cause vehicles to slide. This possibility is especially pronounced at slow
operating speeds on grades of more that 5%. Therefore, where a mud
problem cannot be feasibly eliminated, cross slopes should be limited to the
minimum value. Road maintenance should insure that the road surface is
kept smooth and drains properly.
In situations where the surface is relatively rough or where mud is not a
problem, a 3 to 4% cross slope is advisable. The greater inclination permits
more rapid drainage and reduces the occurrence of puddles and a saturated
sub-base, which can weaken road stability. On well constructed gravel and
crushed rock roads, the 2% criteria is preferable.
Of equal importance to degree of slope is the direction it should take in
relation to various road configurations. Since the placement of high and low
lane edges determine slope direction, it is necessary to define the
circumstances under which the left edge should be higher that the right or
vice versa. In the case of multiple lane construction, both sides of the final
pavement may be equal, with a high point or "crown" at one of the
intermediate lane edges.
3-32
Figure 20 Typical Haulroad Cross-Sections
3-33
The cross slope direction for single lane construction is governed by

adjacent land features. In cases where the haul road is cut into existing
ground, the high lane edge may be placed on either side. However, on fill
sections, the highest lane edge should be nearest the most severe outslope.
For two, three and four lane surfaces, a crown is appropriate. On dual and
four lane roads, the cross slope should be constructed to provide a
continuous drop across two lanes in one direction and the same slope
across the other in the opposite direction. The two lanes sloping toward the
same edge of road should be lanes for vehicles traveling in the same
directions.
The recommended cross slope for all KPC haul roads is 3% to 4%
For main haul roads the road surface should be a uniform and well
compacted pavement surfacing of fine crushed graded red mudstone. As
such a 3% to 4% crossfall will promote good drainage without compromising
surface traction in the wet.
For in-pit haul roads the road surface will be of a lower standard and will
therefore provide poorer traction and will resultantly be less uniform and less
able to shed water. As such a 3% to 4% crossfall is felt the best balance
between drainage and traction.
The recommended cross slope for pavement shoulders should be 4% to 6%.
3-34
4.
HAUL ROAD CROSS SECTION
4.1
Subbase
A well drained stable road base is one of the most important fundamentals of
road design. Placement of a road surface over any material that cannot
adequately support the weight of traffic will severely hamper vehicle mobility
and control. Moreover, lack of a sufficiently rigid bearing material beneath the
road surface will result in excessive rutting, sinking, and overall deterioration of
the road surface. Thus, a great deal of maintenance will be necessary in order
to keep the road serviceable.
A pit may elect to forego the use of subbase materials and accept infringements
on mobility in the interest of economics. In other words, it may be less
expensive to allow some segments of the road to hamper, but do not prohibit,
vehicle movement, rather than incur the cost of constructing a good road base.
Although this may appear economical at the onset of road construction, the
eventual results will nearly always be undesirable.
If the road surface is not constantly maintained, rutting will occur and create
sections where vehicles must slow down to negotiate adverse conditions. Over
a period of time this will represent a considerable time loss to the production
cycle. More importantly, these adverse conditions pose a serious threat to
vehicle control and will create an unsafe haul road. Therefore, it is important
that stability of the haul road be guaranteed throughout its length.
In areas where the road surface is underlain by natural bedded stone
formations, it is sufficient to place only the desired road surface material directly
on the bedded stone. However, the bearing capacity of other subsurface
materials, or areas of fill, must be defined to determine if they can adequately
support the weight of vehicles intended to be used.
4.2
Bearing Capacity of In-Situ Materials
Defining the bearing capacity of soils is a detailed procedure that should be

accomplished by a qualified soils engineer. Only in this manner can the
capacity of a particular soil be determined. However, general information is
available on the bearing capabilities of various soil groups.
The information in Table 5, when compared with vehicle tyre loads in kPa,
identifies soil types that are inherently stable as road base and those that must
be supplemented with additional material. The tyre loading for most haulage
vehicles laden to design capacity, will not exceed 800 kPa. Although the tyre
loading my be somewhat less, depending on the number of tyres, their size, ply
rating, inflation pressure, and overall vehicle weight, this figure can be utilized
when determining subbase requirements.
Any subgrade that is less
consolidated than soft rock will require additional material in order to establish a
4-35
stable base; therefore, the designer must determine the amount of additional
material that should be placed over the subgrade to adequately support the
road surface.
Table 5 Presumptive Bearing Capacity Of Soils
(NB: Use with caution when specific test information is not available)
MATERIAL
Kpa
Hard, sound rock

Medium hard rock
Hard pan overlying rock
Compact gravel and boulder-gravel formations; very compact
sandy gravel
Soft rock
Loose gravel and sandy gravel; compact sand and gravelly sand;
very compact sand- inorganic silt soils
Hard dry consolidated clay
Loose coarse to medium sand; medium compact fine sand
Compact sand-clay soils
Loose fine sand; medium sand; medium compact sand
inorganic silt soils
Firm or stiff clay
Loose saturated sand clay soils, medium soft clay
5,700
3,800
1,150
960
765
575
480
380
290
190
140
95
Table 6 Soil Classifications Found at KPC and their Recommended CBR
Soil Type
Subgrade material
Poorly drained (saturated) but well compacted siltstone and sandstone
Well drained, well compacted siltstone or silty sandstone fill
Well drained, well compacted sandstone fill
Surfacing material
Hard burnt red mudstone with mainly gravel size fragments (2mm to
60mm) and between 10% & 30% of silt and clay (minus 75 micron)
Hard burnt red mudstone in a distribution from coble size to a matrix
comprising sand and between 10% & 20% of minus 75 micron
Hard burnt red mudstone in a distribution from coble size to a matrix
comprising sand and between 5% & 10% of minus 75 micron
CBR
7
15
20
15
30
60
4-36
Table 7 Interrelationship Of Soil Classification And Probable CBR

(NB : Use with caution when tests are not available)
DESCRIPTION OF SUBGRADE
Extremely poor subgrade. Worst basaltic clay areas.
Old water courses. Loose or saturated sands. Heavy
clay with Plasticity Index 60 or over. Silt (unless very
highly compacted.).
Heavy clay with Plasticity Index of 50.
PROBABLE CBR
2
2.5
Heavy clay with Plasticity Index of 40. Very poor

subgrades.
Disturbed Silurian clays.
Disturbed
Tertiary clays. Average to fair basaltic clays. Average
to fair basaltic clay.
Poorly compacted soils (loam, sandy loam, light clay

loam etc).
Undisturbed Tertiary clays.
4.5
Silty clay with Plasticity Index of 30. Soil capable of

carrying construction traffic.
Sandy clay with Plasticity Index of 20. Undisturbed

Silurian Clays.
Sandy clay with Plasticity Index of 10.

Normal well compacted soil (loam, sandy clay, light
clay loam well drained).
Well compacted deep well drained sand Silurian reef

4.3
12 15
CBR Curves
One of the most widely used methods of making this determination is through
the use of curves commonly referred to as CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
curves. This system, although developed in 1942, continues to be used by
highway designers for evaluating subbase thickness requirements in relation to
subgrade characteristics. To be completely accurate, it necessitates CBR tests
to precisely determine the bearing capabilities of both subgrade and subbase
materials. These tests can be conducted by a soil-testing laboratory at
4-37
relatively minimal cost simply by submitting samples of the subgrade and

subbase materials.
4.4
Determination of Subbase Thicknesses
The curves on Figure 21 depict subbase thickness requirements for a wide

range of CBR test values. To serve as a general indication of the subbase
thicknesses required for various subgrade soil types, ranges of bearing ratios
for typical soils and untreated materials are included at the bottom of the graph.
It must be emphasized that these ranges are extremely vague. Actual test
results may prove the bearing ratios for a specific soil group to be considerably
better than the value depicted on the chart. Although it is not a recommended
practice, the CBR ranges reflected by the graph may be utilized, in lieu of actual
test results if only general information is desired. In this approach, the lowest
possible CBR value presented for a given soil type should be used.
As shown by the curves, final subbase thicknesses are determined by vehicle
wheel loads as well as soil type. Wheel loading for any haul truck can be
readily computed from the manufacturers specifications. By dividing the loaded
vehicle weight over each axle by the number of tyres on that axle, the maximum
loading for any wheel of the vehicle can be established. In every case, the
highest wheel loading should be used for the determinations. When a wheel is
mounted on a tandem axle, the value should be increased by 20%.
To provide a readily available indication of the wheel-loading characteristics of
currently manufactured vehicles, the chart on figure 21 is divided into three
categories. Each category represents the range of wheel loadings, under fully
loaded conditions, that may be anticipated for vehicles in a given weight class.
Classifications do not represent the higher wheel loads that will be incurred by
tandem axles in each weight range.
After wheel-loading and CBR values have been established, the chart may be
employed to compute subbase requirements, as illustrated by the following
example. It must be noted that the graphic plot for any wheel load never
reaches zero. This open dimension is the depth allocated for the placement
of final surface material. When the recommended thicknesses for various
surfaces fail to consume the open dimension, the remaining space must always
be filled with a subase having a CBR of 80 or greater. Crushed rock is
preferred.
4.5
Example : Pavement Thickness Design
A haul road is to be constructed over a silty clay of medium plasticity with a

CBR of 5. The maximum wheel load for any vehicle using the road is 18 200
kg. Fairly clean sand is available with a CBR of 15 to serve as a subbase
material. The Road surface is to be constructed with a good gravel which has a
CBR of 80.
4-38
Figure 21
4-39
Step A. The 18 200 kg wheel-load curve intersects the vertical line for a CBR
of 5 at 700 mm. This means that the final road surface must be at least this
distance above the subgrade.
Step B.
A clean sand CBR of 15 intersects the 18 200 kg curve at 350 mm,
indicating that the top of this material must be kept 350mm below road surface.
Step C.
An intersection of the 80 CBR for gravel and the 18 200 kg wheel
load occurs at 150 mm. Since this will constitute the final surface material, it
should be placed for the remaining 150mm. Completed subbase construction
for this example is detailed by Figure 22.
Following the determination of subbase depth requirements, proper placement
procedures must be implemented. Regardless of material used, or depth, the
subbase should be compacted in layers never exceeding 200 mm. To ensure
stability of the final surface, subbase materials should exceed the final desired
surface width by a minimum of 600 mm and must always be compacted whilst
at its optimum moisture content (i.e. moist, never wet or dry). Proper
compaction equipment usually consists of heavy impact rollers. Each layer
must be subjected to repeated passes of the compacting equipment until it fails
to compress under the weight of the vehicle.
4.6
Surface Materials
On many occasions, little consideration appears to be given to the construction

of a good haul road surface. In fact, development of a haul road is frequently
accomplished by simply clearing a path over existing terrain.
While this practice is undoubtedly the most economical means of road
construction in terms of initial cost, the benefit is seldom long-lived. Failure to
establish a good haul road surface will result in increased vehicle and road
maintenance costs and will severely retard the ability of a vehicle to safely
negotiate the route. These difficulties are usually greatest on earth and bedded
rock surfaces. Greater vehicle maintenance is required on rock surfaces as a
result of excessive tyre wear. It is virtually impossible to construct a bedded
rock surface free of jagged edges. Thus, the tyres of trucks are continually cut
by scuffing.
4.7
Earth Roads
Earth Roads, unless thoroughly compacted and stabilized, may cause both
vehicle and road maintenance difficulties. Dust problems are frequent during
dry season and, if not controlled, the dust can contaminate air filtration
components, brakes, and other moving parts, making frequent replacement of
these items necessary. Moreover, dust represents a major safety hazard to the
vehicle operator in that it can become so dense that visibility is severely
reduced. Eliminating the dust problem requires continual wetting of the surface,
which represents yet another maintenance cost.
4-40
Figure 22
4-41
When subjected to heavy wetting, nonstabilized earthen roads become

extremely slick and severely defaced by erosion. Thus, reduced vehicle
controllability from a slippery surface creates a safety hazard, and maintenance
must be increased to eliminate erosion gullies.
Jagged rock and
unconsolidated earth surfaces should always be avoided in a safe haul road
design.
4.8
Selecting the Best Road Surface
Many of the available road-surfacing materials may be used to maximize safety

and reduce road maintenance requirements. However, the field can be
narrowed considerably by determining those which are most appropriate for use
in haul road construction. This determination is based on the road adhesion
and rolling resistance factors characteristic of different surface types; that is, the
resistance factors acting between the road and tyre.
Road adhesion
coefficients play an important role in determining a vehicles potential to slide.
Since the principal concern is haul road safety, primary emphasis should be
placed on these characteristics. Table 8 shows coefficients or road adhesion,
determined through years of research, for various surfaces. It must be noted
that as the values decrease, the potential for a vehicle tyre to begin sliding
increases.
A beneficial side effect of selecting a road surface that has a high coefficient of
road adhesion for safety is that operational efficiency will increase as well.
Rolling resistance has a direct effect on vehicle performance. It is commonly
defined as the combination of forces a vehicle must overcome to move on a
specified surface. This factor is usually expressed in kg of resistance per ton
of gross vehicle weight caused by the bearing friction losses resulting from tyres
sinking in loose material. For the majority of road surface materials, an
increase in coefficient of road adhesion can be directly related to a reduction in
rolling resistance.
Table 8 illustrates this point by presenting the rolling resistance values
associated with several road surface materials and their road adhesion
characteristics.
The data indicates that a good road surface will, in many
cases, decrease operational costs by reducing resistance to travel. Thus,
safety and economics, again, work together.
Asphaltic concrete, crushed stone or gravel, and stabilized earth are the most
practical construction materials for developing a haul road surface that will
ensure maximum safety and operational efficiency. Because each of these
materials has merits that are applicable to specific haul road situations, they are
discussed separately in the following pages.
4-42
Table 8 Rolling Resistance for Various Surface Types
SURFACE TYPE
ROAD
COEFFICIENT
(APPROX.)
ROLLING
RESISTANCE
KG/TON
GROSS VEHICLE
WEIGHT (APPROX)
0.8
0.7
15 to 20
30
0.6
45
0.5
0.4
80
100 to 160
Cement, asphalt, soil cement

Hard-packed gravel, cinders, or crushed
rock
Moderately packed gravel, cinders, or
crushed rock
Unmaintained loose earth
Loose gravel and muddy rutted material
NB : 10 kg/t rolling resistance equals 1% of equivalent road gradient

4.9
Asphaltic Concrete (Hot Mix Asphalt)
Because of the relatively high cost of asphaltic concrete surfaces, a pit must
determine if the benefits of increased speed and reduced road maintenance will
offset the investment. In most cases, the determining factors will be the length
of haul and the required life of roadway. If the roadway life is relatively short, an
asphaltic surface will be difficult to justify. If, on the other hand, the haul road is
to be considerably long and in service for a number of years, the placement of
asphaltic concrete may become feasible.
4.10
Compacted Gravel and Crushed-Stone/Fine Crushed Rock (F.C.R.)
The majority of mines presently utilize gravel and crushed rock surface haul
roads. When constructed and maintained properly, both materials offer a stable
roadway that resists deformation and provides a relatively high coefficient of
road adhesion with low rolling resistance. The greatest advantage of gravel and
crushed rock surfaces is that safe and efficient roadways can be constructed
rapidly at a relatively low cost.
In some cases, the base and wearing surface may consist of the same type of
materials. For example, a fine crushed rock wearing surface may often overlay
a coarser crushed rock base. While base materials may consist of particles as
great as 100 mm in size, the surface however must be much more refined.
The following specification in Table 9 present an example of a F.C.R. wearing
surface that has proven suitable on mine haul roads. Any crushed rock or
4-43
gravel that meets or exceeds the specifications presented in the illustration will
qualify as an adequate surface material.
Table 9 Typical Grading For A Fine Crushed Rock Surface Material
SCREEN SIZE (MM)
37.5
MATERIAL PASSING PERCENT

100
25
98
19
92
9.5
82
4.75
65
2.36
53
425 um
33
75 um
16
Liquid Limit
25.2
Plasticity Limit
15.8
Plasticity Index (Recommended)
10.0
Optimum moisture content during placing
12.2%
The percentage of fines in the gravel will effect surface stability in very wet or
hot, dry weather. Therefore, roads that are subject to very wet weather should
not have more than 10% fines to prevent muddy, sloppy conditions. Those
subject to hot, dry weather should not have less than 5% fines in order to
prevent drying and loosening.
After a haul road is constructed using gravel or crushed rock materials of this
type, frequent road maintenance is required. Most of this maintenance will
consist of periodic grading to remove small ruts and potholes that will inevitably
be created by passing traffic. The exact maintenance schedule required will
depend greatly on traffic, and it must be developed to accommodate conditions
at each individual location. In some cases, traffic may be heavy enough to
realize benefits from a continuous maintenance schedule. Refer Section 8.
In most quarrying operations, it is recommended that both gravel and crushed
rock are readily available from stockpiles of finished products. It is often difficult
to derive an exact construction cost for haul road pavements. The expense of
constructing a gravel or crushed rock roadway will always be considerably less
than that of asphaltic concrete.
4-44
4.11
Compaction of Pavement Materials
As KPC have their own self propelled compactors and vibrating rollers, precise
compaction of the various road pavement layers is possible. Although is not
essential it is highly desirable that some form of compaction equipment be
used, to ensure that high quality roads are constructed. At least 4 passes of a
sheepsfoot roller is required on clayey materials found in the area. However the
vibrating flat roller is more suitable for general earthworks and for locally
imported crushed rock.
Four to six passes are usually sufficient to compact these materials if wetted to
their optimum moisture content (OMC) or slightly wetter. If the material should
move under the weight of the roller, allow the material to dry out by turning it
over with a grader, and then apply the roller once again. If a proper subbase
and base are established prior to placing top material, the depth of surface
material need not exceed 150mm. To achieve a uniform layer, placement
should be accomplished with a grader or an equivalent piece of equipment.
Following placement, the material must be thoroughly compacted. It is
recommended that either rubber-tyred or steel rollers be used for compaction.
Heavy rubber-tyred vehicles can also be employed when rollers are not
available. However, rubber-tyred vehicles must be run repetitively to cover the
entire road width, and compaction will not be quite as good.
4.12
Stabilized Earth/Soil Subgrade
Stabilized earth is defined herein as any soil that, through special procedures or
additives, has been transformed from a naturally unconsolidated state to a
degree of stability that will accommodate the weight of haul trucks. Achieving
this level of stabilization involves incorporating soil binders such as cement,
asphalt, calcium chloride, lignosulfates, or hydrated lime.
Although these materials will not create an adequate haul road surface, they
can significantly reduce the quantity of base material required. In fact, often the
various soil binders can be mixed directly with subgrade soils to create a
platform for the road surface, making the construction of a subbase
unnecessary. At other times soil binders will reduce the amount of subbase or
base material required. The potential of a specific binder to reduce or make
unnecessary subbase or base material depends on the inherent strength of the
material with which it is to be incorporated and the weight of vehicles that will
use the haul road. Final determinations of feasibility must be made by a
qualified soils engineer who has evaluated the effects a binder will have on the
subgrade or base material at a particular haul road location. The application of
various additives can be discussed in general terms, however.
Asphalt impregnation and soil cementing, by virtue of their somewhat higher
costs, should be utilized primarily for permanent haul roads. On occasion, they
may prove beneficial in areas where the subgrade is extremely weak and would
require large quantities of off-site subbase for stabilization. In these instances,
4-45
the addition of asphalt and portland cement to small quantities of fill material
can create a stable base.
Calcium chloride, lignosulfates, and hydrated lime are more economical than
asphalt impregnation and soil cement, but are not nearly as effective. These
substances are best employed to supplement crushed stone or gravel bases to
increase their mechanical stability. Although the construction of any haul road
will benefit from the use of these additives, they are most applicable for road
segments that are subject to constant relocation.
4.13
Recommended pavement for KPC
Refer Figure 23
4-46
Figure 23
4-47
5. DRAINAGE
5.1 Catch Drain
Catch drains or cut-off drains are located at the top of cut slope behind the top
of the batter. Their purpose is to intercept the flow of surface water and
seepage water within the upper soil layer and to prevent scouring of the cut
slope face. Figure 24 shows the required shape and position of catch drains
with respect to the batter crest.
Care should be taken to ensure that provision of a catch drain in certain soil
types does not initiate a scour problem.
The recommended treatment of catch drains is grassing for longitudinal drain
slopes less than 10% and rock lining for longitudinal drain slope above 10%.
5.1.1. Catch Drain Type A is to be used whenever possible, particularly in
erodable country. The flat and level bottom is adopted to keep flow velocities to
a minimum. For longitudinal slopes less than 10% a flow depth of 200mm
maximum is permitted and for slopes above 10%, a flow depth of 100mm
maximum is permitted. The limiting depths of flow are required to keep the
velocity to a non-scour value. The width of the drain is chosen to suit the
natural side slope and the required drain capacity. When the drain reaches the
design depth for its particular width, the flow must be diverted to a cross culvert
or drainage channel.
5.1.2. Catch Drain Type B may be adopted where the flow is small, the
longitudinal slope of the drain less than 10%, the area is constricted in width
and the in-situ material is impermeable and not prone to scour.
5.1.3. Catch Drain Type C may be used in conditions similar to Type B. This is
generally used on roads where heavy vegetation at the top of the batter
necessitates minimum disturbances.
5.2 Drainage Provisions
Soil erosion by water is a common problem that can plague the operation of
safe and workable haulage roads. Erosive action on haulage roads can cause
ruts and washouts, and can saturate the soil, causing instability. The proper
use of drainage facilities can alleviate this problem, resulting in safer, more
efficient haulage roads.
5.3 Subsoil Drains
The function of subsoil drains is to drain the pavement or to lower the water
table in the vicinity of the pavement. These drains are only used in special
circumstances where ground water is a problem.
Mining Services Department
5-48
Figure 24
5-49
Careful consideration should be given to the location and construction of the

outlet of subsoil drains to enable maintenance crews to periodically check and
clear outlets. Marker posts should be provided to facilitate easy location by the
maintenance crews.
5.4 Cross Shoulder Drains
Cross Shoulder drains (mitre or boxing drains) are designed to drain the
pavement through the shoulder, usually via a coarse permeable filter media.
Owing to the difficulty in maintaining a clear outlet to such drains, this may not
always be a practical option.
5.5 Special Drains
Special drains may be required to handle individual problems such as diverting
drainage from cross culverts under the formation clear of properties, to an
acceptable discharge point. The shape, extent or type of lining in such drains
should be discussed with a civil engineer.
5.6 Catch Banks
The provision of catch banks may be a suitable alternative to catch drains
where intercepted flow is relatively small and the ground slope permits the type
of treatment shown in Figure 25. The banks disperse the intercepted water in
abroad, shallow stream to the surrounding surface and are usually protected
and grassing.
The spacing of the banks varies according to site requirements and overland
run-off, decreasing with steep side slopes. or large surface flows.
The length of the banks depends on the clearance to the fenced boundary and
the spacing of the banks.
5.7 Table Drain Configuration and Location
Many factors influence final table drain configuration, including soil type, depth
of road base, storm design frequency, local restrictions, percent of grade, and
predicted runoff from contributing land areas.
However, general recommendations may be made to provide the operator with
basic design concepts.
Table drains are recommended for nearly all
applications, owing to the relative ease of design, construction, and
maintenance. (See figure 26)
1. The table drain cross slope adjacent to the haul road should be 4:1 or flatter
except in extreme restrictive conditions. In no case should it exceed a 2:1
slope.
5-50
Figure 25
5-51
Figure 26
5-52
2. The outside table drain slope will vary with the material encountered. In rock
it may approach a vertical slope; in less consolidated material, a 2:1 slope or
flatter.
3. Where practical, the table drain should be located in undisturbed earth or
rock; avoid placing ditches through fill areas.
4. In a cut-fill section, slope the haul road toward the high wall. Carry drainage
in a single table drain.
5.8 Table Drain Capacity and Protection
Table drains must be designed to adequately handle expected runoff flows
under various slope conditions. The primary consideration is amount of water
that will be intercepted by the table drain during a rainstorm. Various methods
to determine runoff flows are described in a separate document known as the
KPC Rainfall and Runoff Manual.
After runoff flows are calculated, ditch design become a function of percent of
grade, V-configuration (4:1, 2:1, etc.), and the depth of flow. In the V-table
drain, as well as other configurations, depth of flow depends on percent of
grade and the texture of material lining the table drain. Loose and porous
linings and low percentage grades reduce flow rates and increase depth;
smooth, impervious linings and steeper grades create the opposite effect. To
alleviate excessive erosion that may result from high flow velocities, certain
table drain lining materials must be incorporated as the grade increases, except
when the table drain is in non erodable material. Some general rules to be
followed for various grades in erodable soils are designed below. Please note
that these are general rules and are by no means recommended to supersede
the guidelines provided in the KPC Rainfall and Runoff Manual.
1. At up to 3% grade, the drain may be constructed without benefit of a liner
except in extremely erodable material such as sand, or easily weathered
shales and silts.
2. At a 3% to 5% grade, the drain should be seeded and protected with jute
matting until a substantial grass lining can be established.
3. At grades over 5%, the lining should consist of dumped rock placed evenly
on both sides to a height no less than 150mm above the computed
maximum depth.
5.9 Estimation of Peak Flowrate
When utilizing the KPC Rainfall and Runoff Manual to develop peak flow rates,
the 10-year, recurrence interval should generally be used. The rainfall intensity
generated by a 10-year storm is recognized as the applicable standard for road
drainage design. Moreover, the volumes of water associated with this type of
storm are well in excess of normal runoff conditions and necessitate the design
of drainage facilities capable of handling extreme, rather that mean, rainfalls.
5-53
The above return period may be varied to best suit economic considerations of
each particular case. Quite often it can be more economical (with small
catchment areas) to allow the haul road to be over topped for short periods
rather than install large expensive culverts. The 10-year, recurrence interval
storm could thus be too conservative and this could be reduced to the point
where delays and damage due to over topping become economically
unjustifiable because of lost production time and/or vehicle and road damage.
In the event that a table drain grade must be altered to accommodate changes
in topography, the depth of the table drain must be changed accordingly.
Whether an increase or decrease in grade occurs, new volumes should be
computed based on the flow in the preceding table drain segment and the
volume of water generated by the contributing area contiguous to the new
grade.
By consulting table 10, the appropriate table drain depth needed to
accommodate a specific volume of water may be derived. After determining the
slope and finding the waterflow (in cubic metres per second), consult the
corresponding table drain configuration table where the cubic metres per
second is found. At the extreme left of this line will be the depth necessary to
accommodate the flow for that table drain configuration.
In some cases, additional depth may be required. In all cases where a subbase
must be placed, the depth of the flow must not exceed the lower level of the
subbase material. In cases where a freeboard is required, the depth of any
table drain shall exceed the centerline depth of flow by a minimum of 150mm.
Where placement of a table drain lining material is recommended, it shall also
be increased 150mm on each side.
Table 10 CAPACITY OF V-DRAINS (m3/sec)
(For typical soils at KPC)
Slope (%)
Geofabric Protection *
Rock Protection **
Dept
h
(m)
0.5
10
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.18
0.39
0.72
1.17
1.76
1.97
2.70
0.20
0.43
0.79
1.29
1.95
2.79
3.82
0.28
0.62
1.12
1.83
2.76
2.45
3.36
0.35
0.76
1.38
1.39
2.10
3.00
4.12
0.40
0.87
0.99
1.61
2.43
3.47
4.75
0.45
0.61
1.10
1.80
2.72
0.49
0.66
1.21
1.97
0.53
0.72
1.31
2.13
0.35
0.77
1.40
0.37
0.81
1.48
0.40
0.86
5-54
Geofabric to be securely fastened to soil in accordance with manufacturers

requirements. Geofabric to extend 150mm above nominal depth of both
batter drain.
Rock protection shall consist of 0.3m dia. Rocks (40kg nom. Weight).
Allowance should be made during drain excavation to ensure the required
finished profile.
It is important to note that the table drain should be kept at all times of debris or
any material that would alter design capacity.
5.10 Culverts
Culvert sections are the most efficient and effective means of conveying freeflowing drainage away from the haulage road, and must be incorporated to
alleviate the potential of water overflows onto haul road segment. Any
accumulation of water on the haul road can seriously impede vehicular control
and promote road degradation.
To achieve the most efficient drainage scheme, the designer must consider
culvert location, sizing, placement, and inlet/outlet controls. Numerous factors
affect each of these design considerations. Therefore, each parameter is
discussed as a separate category below.
5.11 Culvert Location
1. Culverts should be located at all road drainage low points unless natural
water courses are present.
2. A culvert should be installed at all road intersections and prior to switchback
curves on the upgrade beginning of curvature.
3. Whenever a haulage road segment requires a transition from a through-cut
to a cut-fill, a culvert should be installed to intercept drainage prior to spilling
over an outslope.
4. Culverts should be placed in natural watercourses intersected by haul road.
5. In cut-fill sections, culverts may be placed at various intervals along the
drain to intercept drainage and convey it to natural drains below the fill
slope. This procedure can significantly reduce the size of drain required by
breaking runoff areas into small segments.
The following culvert spacing is recommended:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Spacing should not exceed 300m on grade from zero to 3%.

Spacing should not exceed 240m on grade from 3% to 6%.
Spacing should not exceed 150m on grade from 6% to 9%.
Spacing should not exceed 100m on grade 10% or greater.
5-55
5.12 Type and Size of Culverts

For the majority of haulage-road culvert installations, corrugated iron pipe is
most appropriate. Since this type of pipe is relatively light, high in strength, and
ussually readily available, it can be easily adapted to a variety of situations.
Although other materials can be utilized, corrugated iron is currently used
extensively and has proven to be reasonably reliable if installed correctly.
Regardless of material, the culvert must be able to accept the maximum runoff
flow from the drainage channel to be completely effective. Also, the pipe
diameter must be large enough to accept maximum flow without creating a
backup at its inlet.. Figure 27 may be utilized to determine pipe sizes for
various flows. Flows in cubic metres per second on the left side may be read to
their intersection with the diagonal graph line and then down to the
corresponding minimum pipe diameter necessary to accept the flow. This
minimum is indicative of a full flowing pipe without any water backup at the inlet.
In some cases, however, it may be desirable to place a smaller, less expensive
pipe and allow a small backup of water. The dashed lines on the chart are
included to depict how much head will be created behind the pipe if its size is
restrictive. To determine the amount of head created by a given pipe size and
cubic metres per second, read from the cubic metres per second column until
the dashed line is intersected, then down. For example, a flow of 0.30m3 per
second intersects 0.6m of head at the 450mm pipe and will pond 150mm above
the top of the pipe (1.e. 600 minus 450mm). However, it must be emphasized
that the practice of creating an inlet head is discouraged. The most beneficial
design requires that a pipe handle the entire volume without backup. If the
example above for 0.30m3 per second were to be followed without creating a
backup, the intersection of the diagonal will show that a pipe diameter of
approximately 550mm is required.
Therefore once the culvert size has been calculated the next largest pipe size
(in this case 600mm) should be selected or a multiple number of smaller
diameter pipes with a total capacity in excess of the calculated discharge rate
(eg. 2-450 diameter pipes with a combined capacity of 0.34m3/sec).
5.13 Recommendation of Culverts Size
It is recommended that KPC hold in store stock the following sizes:
a. 600mm nestable Armco
b. 1000mm nestable Armco
c. 1200mm nestable Armco
d. 1400mm nestable Armco
NB: Under certain circumstances the available cover from the top of the road to
the culvert may prelude the use of corrugated iron or even concrete pipes. (see
5.10.5 Placement for Typical Cover Requirements). In these cases, a low
profile box culvert may be suitable. If this type of problem is encountered a
road engineer should be consulted.
5-56
Figure 27
5-57
5.14 Grading of Culverts

When designing culverts it is important to check the grade of the culverts to
ensure that velocity in the pipe culvert falls within the general limits for siltation
and scouring. These limits are generally considered to be 0.6 metres/second
(minimum velocity) to prevent silting, and 3.7 metres/second (maximum
velocity) to limit scouring.
The designer should refer to the pipe manufacturers design charts when
carrying out these checks.
5.15 Placement
After the location and pipe size have been selected and the pipe is ready for
placement, consideration must be given to depth of cover over the pipe in
relation to the vehicles that will use the road. It is suggested that for support of
vehicle weight under 45,000 kg, a minimum cover of 600mm over the pipe be
used. For support of vehicle weights over 45,000kg, minimum cover should be
1 metre.
In all cases, the fill should be hand-tamped in 100mm layers from the bottom of
trench to provide a stable, compacted base for the culvert.
5.16 Inlet-Outlet Controls
At all culvert inlets, a protective encasement or headwall consisting of a stable
non erodable material should be provided.
1. Flow from drains or culverts shall never be discharged over a fill outslope.
In fill situations, the discharges must be conveyed away by pipes, flumes or
drains lined with non erodable material.
2. At any discharge point, where flow velocity exceeds the Soil Conservation
Services recommended maximum for various soil types, erosion protection
must be provided. Examples are shown in Figure 28.
TABLE 11 SLOPE PROTECTION AT CULVERT OUTLETS
Outer Velocity
(m/sec)
0. to 0.6
0.6 to 1.5
1.5 to 4.5
Over 4.5
Slope of Embankment
(%)
Under 10
Over 10
All slopes
All slopes
Treatment Recomended
Establish vegetation
Riprap
Riprap
Energy dissipator
5-58
Figure 28
5-59
5.17 Incline and Ramp Drainage

Problems are often experienced with drainage water flowing from the main haul
road table drains, down into pit areas. This creates siltation and an excessive
pit water problem. To help to overcome this, two procedures should be
adopted.
Firstly the haul road itself should dip prior to commencing the main decent into
the pit. This will prevent the bulk of the water from running down the road into
the excavation. Diversion drains should be installed to take all road drainage
away from the ramp.
Secondly the table drains should be lined with a suitable non-erosive material
and be constructed with energy dissipaters at suitable intervals to ensure that
velocities are controlled. The water that does find its way into the excavation
must be directed to the lowest point (this point will provide a lateral drainage
sump) where a pit dewatering can be located.
Table 11 depicts the various treatments that may be anticipated for erosion
control dependent on discharge velocity. Details are presented in Figure 29 for
the riprap and energy dissipater treatment techniques as a guide for proper
construction. The lengths of these devices will be entirely dependent on slope
lengths and must be determined for each individual situation.
5-60
Figure 29
5-61
ADVISORY SIGNS
6.1
Introduction
Each haul road exhibits its own peculiarities and may require more or less
signage. In any case, proper care must be taken to ensure that all signs
installed are at a height and location that is within the eyesight of all drivers
operating all vehicles likely to be traveling on a given road. Even vehicles with
the most restricted visibility.
6.2
Speed Limit Signs
Speed limit signs should be posted on segments of the haul road alignment that
require slower than normal rates of travel to safely negotiate a hazardous
condition. Some of the more advantageous locations for posting speed limit
reductions include road segments that precede:
The commencement of a long descending haul road or pit ramp,
Changes in descending haul road grades.
Entrances to congested areas, such as pit, the ROM, maintenance areas,
overburden dumping points, vehicle crossings, fuel station, etc.;
Unusual road alignments, such as severe vertical and horizontal curves,
narrow lanes, and areas of restricted sight distance; and
Areas subject to material spills or other frequent obstructions.
6.3
Stop Signs
From a production viewpoint, it is best to avoid interruptions in the haulage

cycle; however, this may not be compatible with road safety. Although vehicle
stopping points along the haul road should be kept to a minimum, they must be
considered necessary for safety in some cases. Areas where the placement
of stop signs should definitely be considered are as follows:
Any secondary access road at the point it intersects with the main haul road;
Intersections where sight distance does not exceed vehicle stopping
distance for the recommended speed of travel; and
Haul road intersections with public roads.
6.4
Curve and Intersection Warning Signs
These signs can provide a driver with a warning of upcoming situations where
he should exercise caution. These signs are best restricted to positions in
advance of the most critical curves and heavily traveled intersections.
6.5
Culvert Crossing Markers
Whenever a culvert headwall or outlet is encountered beside the road, it should

be marked with a standing reflector, or guide posts.
5-62
6.6
Limited Access Signs
Private Property, Keep Out, or other signs of this nature are required in all areas
where traffic restrictions may need to apply. Examples may be where light
vehicles are restricted, or at haul road and public road intersections to keep
passing motorists from inadvertently wandering into the active mining operation.
6.7
Safety Access Indicators
The location of all safety features such as centre bunding, roundabouts. etc.,
should be pictorially depicted well in advance of their position.
6.8
Location and Erection of Signs
The location and erection of traffic control devices is covered by the Australian
Standard AS 1742, Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. The basic
information included in this manual is intended as a guide in the absence of
such specific requirements.
Basic Requirements Certain basic considerations govern the siting of signs.
These are as follows :
The sign should be so placed that the driver has adequate time to perceive
and react to its message and to take the appropriate action required of him.
The sign should be located so that it is within the drivers normal cone of
vision as he approaches it. He should not have to turn his head to see the
message.
The sign should have a good initial target value and be so placed that the
background does not render it inconspicuous.
The sign should normally be placed on the left side of the road or in special
circumstances overhead or on channelised islands.
To reduce undesirable direct reflection at night all signs should be rotated
away from the direction of travel by about 5 degrees.
6.9
Lateral Location of Signs
The nearest edge of a sign should be 1m clear of the road shoulder, but should
be not less than 2 m nor more than 4 m from the edge of the outer traffic lane.
6.10
Longitudinal Location of Signs
(a) Regulatory Signs : Many regulatory signs mark the point at which a specific
regulation commences, such as STOP, GIVE WAY, KEEP LEFT, NO LEFT
(RIGHT), TURN which are located at the point where the specific action is
required. The longitudinal position of these signs is fixed.
(b) Warning Sings :
The longitudinal placement of a warning sign is
determined by the letter size, the length of legend, the approach speed of
traffic, and the distance the motorist requires to observe and react to the
5-63
message.
On the mine site warning signs should be located approximately
75m in advance of a hazard (not less than 50 m or more than 100 m).
(c) Guide Signs : The longitudinal placement of guide signs depends on the
exact nature of the sign (i.e. advance direction sign, supplementary or
reassurance direction sign, advance information sign, etc.). For more precise
details see AS 1742, Part 1 Australian Standard Manual of Uniform Traffic
Control Devices.
(d) Temporary Signs : Advance signs and other devices to convey a warning in
advance of a hazard should be located approximately 75m in advance of a
hazardous situation. These distances may be increased to up to 200m where
the location of the work area is changing more or less continually. Such a
situation may be when some road grading or resheeting work is being
undertaken.
6.11
Height of Signs
The mounting height of signs is, with the exception of those on well-lit roads, a
compromise between the height of the headlight beam and exposure of the sign
to road dirt. Thus the optimum mounting height to the underside of the sign is
between 1 and 1.5 m above the nearest edge of the road surface for light
vehicles.
For heavy vehicles it is suggested that the signs where possible the underside
of the sign be mounted at least 2.0 m above the nearest edge of the road
surface.
6.12
Maintenance of Signs
To enable road haulage traffic to rely on adequate signs and guide posts at
night, in fog, rain etc., the signs have to be regularly maintained. This includes :
washing down regularly so that dust and mud do not obscure the sign or
effect the reflective qualities required for night operation.
prompt replacement of damaged and ineffective signs and guide posts.
replacement or removal of old signs which are inappropriate or out of date.
To enable good maintenance of signs to occur a dedicated road maintenance
team or a specific person should be responsible for this work. Similarly a stock
of commonly used standard signs should be available from the store for fast
and efficient replacement of damaged signs.
It is important that signs be washed on a regular basis depending on the
condition of the signs. Obviously signs that are exposed to very dusty and wet
conditions, such as at KPC, will need more regular attention. At KPC it is
recommended that signs and guide posts are cleaned once every two months.
5-64
Signs should be washed with grease cutting detergent with a very soft pad or
brush so as not to scratch the reflective surface. It is essential that all traces of
the detergents and or other cleaning agents are thoroughly removed by flushing
with clean water.
6.13 Types of Guide Posts
Guide posts may be of timber, concrete, metal, or other material painted white
with red delineators fixed to face approaching traffic. White delineators will be
fixed to the opposite side of the post. Refer to Figure 30 for details of a typical
guidepost.
6.14 Dimensions of Guide Posts
(a) For Light Vehicle - In general, guide posts should not be too heavy nor set
too deeply in the ground. Posts 100 mm by 50 mm have been adopted as
a desirable standard with the 100 mm width facing oncoming traffic.
Guide posts are generally 900 mm high but shorter posts may be used on the
inside of curves if they obstruct visibility.
(b) For Mining Vehicles Similarly, guide posts for mining vehicles should be
made of a light durable material, for example timber or PVC tubing.
Because these guide posts or Haul Road Markers are considerably higher
than normal guide posts, they need to be set well into the ground.
The nominal dimensions are in the range from 1.5 m to 2.4 m depending on
their application. On heavily trafficked continually watered haul road systems
2.4 m high guide posts are required.
These posts are generally painted white and have a corner cube high visibility
reflector, located 300 mm from the top. It may also be beneficial to back up this
with additional reflectors or with strips of reflective tape running around the
diameter of the post in bands.
6.15 Alignment of Posts
Guide posts should be erected at or near the edge of formation. Wherever
practicable, the distance from the pavement edge should be uniform and, taking
into account super-elevation and irregularities in shoulder contour, they should
be set out so that the tops of the posts are on a smooth grade.
6.16 Spacing of Posts
(for light vehicles refer to NAASRA booklet Road Maintenance Practices)
Figure 30
Missing
5-65
(a) On Straight Sections The spacing of guide posts on straight sections of

road shall be 100 m with the posts in pairs, one each side of the formation.
This spacing may be reduced to 40 m in areas subject to frequent visibility
restrictions at night such as fog or dust.
Spacing should be adjusted to coincide with culvert ends and similar fixed
objects.
(b) On Curves The spacing of guide posts should be such that the reflectors
from at least 3 guide post can be seen at any one time whilst traversing the
curve.
(c) On Crests On crests having a straight alignment the spacing of guide
posts will be so arranged that at least the reflectors from two pairs of posts
shall at all times be fully visible to drivers. On crests having a curved
alignment, this requirement shall be combined with those above for posts
on curves.
(d) At Culverts Where guard railing or bunding is not provided a guide post
should be provided at each side of the head wall.
6.17 Maintenance of Guide Posts
Guide posts should be repainted or washed as required (taking care not to paint
over any delineators), straightened or replaced after being struck by vehicles.
They should always present a fresh, white appearance. Grass should be
cleared from around posts, either by hand clipping or by the use of a weed
killer.
5-66
INTERSECTIONS
7.1
General
Since the highest amount of potential traffic conflict occurs at intersections, the
design for a haul road and any intersections, should attempt to reduce the
potential hazard while at the same time maintaining an acceptable traffic flow.
Although junctions in a haul road system are unavoidable every effort should be
made to reduce their impact.
Haul road junctions or intersections have a
negative impact on a haulage operation as trucks are required to slow down
when approaching an intersection and depending on traffic may have to stop to
give way to another truck.
As with corners and other limiting features this
deceleration and gearing down adds time to the haul cycle and costs money
through increased truck wear and productivity losses.
Any haul road layout
should aim to minimise the number of junctions and certainly their impact on
main haul routes.
7.2
Location of Intersections
As one of the main results of an accident between vehicles is that one or more
of the vehicles may leave the road, intersections should desirably not be
located on high embankments, near culverts, streams, on small radius curves,
on steep grades or superelevated curves.
7.3
Intersection Visibility
Good visibility from all quadrants of an intersection is essential.

This is
particularly important for drivers who must give way eg. Those in light vehicles
and in trucks at stop or give way signs. It is also similarly important for drivers
who may have the right of way so that they can have confidence to maintain
speed knowing that someone wont suddenly appear without warning.
To help in this regard the construction of safety bunds at the approaches to an
intersection are quite critical to ensure good visibility is maintained, for the
drivers of both heavy and light vehicles. Refer Section 8 and Figures 32 & 33.
7.4
Intersection Angles
Avoid situations which allow conflicting traffic streams to cross one another at
acute angles.
Such situations create long zones where a drivers turning
intentions may not be apparent to an opposing driver.
This situation can
quickly lead to a collision if the wrong guess is made. This situation is also of
a particular concern at KPC where we have both left and right hand drive
vehicles using the same roads.
7-67
The ideal angle at which an intersecting road should meet is 90 degrees.

Angles between 70 degrees and 90 degrees are acceptable as they only slightly
reduce visibility at the intersection. Roads meeting at angles of less than 70
degrees will have significantly impaired visibility and are not really acceptable
and should be redesigned or realigned.
Figure 31 provides a simple indication of an option for the rectification of an
intersection where the angle of the intersection is unacceptable.
7.5
T-intersections
The two most common types of intersections on roads are three legged (T-)
intersections and four legged (crossroad) intersections. The number of conflict
points for vehicles is lower for T-intersections, and these should be used
whenever possible.
A staggering to two T-intersections is preferable to a
single crossroad intersection from both the safety and traffic flow point of view.
Refer Figure 31.
7.6
Maximum Grades at Intersections
Drivers have difficulty judging the extra stopping distance requied on grades.
Particularly with the variable road conditions encountered at a mine.
It is
recommended that in order for heavy vehicles to operate at reasonable speed
near an intersection, the intersection should not be located on grades steeper
than 3%. If it is impossible for all legs to be limited to 3% grade, the major or
right of way road could have a steeper gradient, as stopping will usually take
place on the minor road.
For a typical layout of a T-intersection and a crossroad intersection refer to
Figures 32 & 33
7-68
Figure 31 Creating Acceptable Intersection Angles
7-69
Figure 32 Typical T-intersection layout, in-pit road joins main road
7-70
Figure 33 Typical Intersection layout, in-pit road crossing main road
7-71
MAINTENANCE
8.1
Introduction
Regardless of how meticulously a haul road is planned and constructed, its

surface is bound to be deformed by the constant pounding of haul trucks.
Although deterioration may be controlled to a great extent by the type of surface
material employed, the mine operator must still regard a road maintenance
schedule as necessary for safety and economics.
Dust, potholes, ruts, depressions, bumps, and other poor surface conditions
can and will occur on any road surface. It left uncorrected, they may impede
vehicle control and damage haul trucks.
When a rolling tyre encounters a surface scar, there is a tendency to deflect
from its normal direction of travel. Thus, the driver is forced to compensate for
the abnormality by increasing his steering effort. If surface deformation is too
great or if the driver is not aware of it before impact, complete loss of control
may result. Often, even though the driver is able to negotiate a surface
irregularity by steering. The tendency to overcompensate immediately after the
danger has passed though could again result in loss of control.
In addition to degrading safety, road deterioration can be costly from a
maintenance standpoint. Although trucks are designed to accept considerable
abuse, their life can be increased if rough handling is kept to a minimum. The
wear on virtually every component is increased significantly when a vehicle
must constantly brake to negotiate poor areas, unnecessary lining wear occurs
as well.
When machinery must operate in dusty areas, the maintenance problems are
compounded. Dust may infiltrate brakes, air filters, hydraulic lifts, and other
critical components. The abrasive effect of this fine material will result in
frequent and costly cleaning or replacement of these items.
Essentially, the items related to deterioration of road surfaces are weather, haul
trucks consistently following a similar path on the haul road, and spillage.
Because these factors are definable, road maintenance should begin with an
intensive effort to incorporate preventive rather than corrective procedures.
Figure 34 highlights some of the impacts that problems in the surface of a road
will have on tyres.
8.2
Causes of Road Deterioration
Surface deterioration of the haul road will inevitably occur over a period of time
and is caused in varying degrees by the following actions :
1) Wheel rutting
8-72
2) Spillage of product or overburden material
Figure 34
8-73
3) Heavy rain washing away the fines and hence unravelling the surface
texture
4) Heavy rain saturating the surface material and turning the material into a
mud layer
5) Heavy rain flooding of the pavement and causing soft spots and subgrade
failure
6) Damage by tracked equipment
8.3
Wheel Rutting
If heavy haul trucks continue to use the same path the concentration of load will
eventually create ruts of furrows. To prevent this condition, pits should
encourage drivers to use different areas of the haul road by using suitable
markers to indicate the part of the road to be trafficked. On new pavements the
selective placement of markers will ensure that the pavement can be
progressively trafficked over the entire formation width. The markers should be
moved over in between each shift so that the entire pavement surface is
progressively compacted by the haul trucks. If necessary the pavement surface
may be grader trimmed to keep the profile to its correct crossfall and shape.
Light watering with a water cart is also required during this operation.
8.4
Spillage
Spillage of material from overloaded haul trucks is a significant problem. If

spillage is not prevented or if the material is allowed to remain on the haul road,
unnecessary bumps or mounds will exist. Therefore, every effort must be made
at the loading point to prevent equipment from being heaped beyond its
capacity.
Spillage can be significantly reduced by having haul road corners well designed
for both the operating speed of the trucks and the corresponding required
super-elevation.
If significant spillage occurs on a particular curve of corner then the curve is not
designed correctly. (This assumes that the truck is not grossly overloaded). In
the interim the truck drivers should be instructed to reduce their speed to a
value where the spillage is minimized. In the long term the curve should be
redesigned and reconstructed to provide the correct supervelevation and radius
for the trucks operating speed.
A grader should be used continually to maintain cross slopes, remove spills,
and to fill and smooth surface depressions as they occur. Whenever the grader
is used, care must be taken to avoid pushing waste into drains and the
protective faces of safety berms. Accumulated material from this procedure
should be removed to specially designated dump areas.
8-74
8.5
Dust Suppression Water Trucks
During periods of dry weather, or in consistently dry environments, dust may

become a problem, especially on gravel or crushed stone surfaces. To alleviate
this situation, water trucks fitted with special sprinkler systems should be
employed. If dust problems are severe, the operator could consider applying
chemical additives. The incorporation of chemical additives with gravel or
crushed stone surfaces may enhance moisture retention and eliminate the need
for frequent road wetting. This procedure however is currently very expensive.
8.6
Over Wetting By Water Trucks
Significant damage can be caused to haul road pavements due to

indiscriminate watering. Lost production time can occur if a pavement is over
wetted creating a slippery and unsafe condition. Traction may be severely
hampered leaving trucks stranded on steep inclines or causing the trucks to be
unsteerable.
Supervision and training of water truck operators is essential, so that they
understand that the road surface should be kept damp not wet or too dry and
excessive water will only saturate the pavement causing pot holes and rutting.
8.7
Grading
Grading is the most important operation in the maintenance of earth and gravel
roads. The basic purpose of grading is to keep the road well drained and to
maintain a satisfactory running surface.
The process of maintenance grading consists of bringing material in from the
sides or cutting down high sections of the surface and filling the low spots with
the surplus loose material. A simplified procedure is shown on Figure 35.
If the formation is dry the loose material may be dispersed by wind or traffic
before it can bond with the underlying surface, so that grading indirectly
contributes to the wearing down of the formation. On the other hand, if the
formation is damp the loose material graded into low spots may be compacted
by traffic to give a more uniform surface with little loss of material.
It is important to keep the road in a free draining condition, water held in
depressions softens the surface and the road shape quickly deteriorates under
traffic. On the approaches to curves the transition from normal to one-way
crossfall should be started at least 15 m beyond the tangent point. On steep
grades where heavy vehicles would travel slowly the super-elevation should not
exceed 8 percent. For curves on flat ground it is important that the superelevation be taken up at the outside of the curve rather than lowering the inside
and causing drainage problems.
8-75
Figure 35
8-76
In very dry weather maintenance grading should be confined to smoothing

loose material on the surface keeping the cutting of high sections to a minimum.
Major grading operations should be confined to times when the road can be left
untrafficed and the surface material damped down by the application of water.
At other times grading should be undertaken immediately after rain. Watering
and rolling, combined with grading, will produce a durable surface and is
therefore recommended for troublesome sections of the haul road.
Grading can have a relatively short-term effect especially with poorer types of
material. Grading usually lowers the surface and eventually, unless material is
periodically bladed in from the roadside, the road surface becomes lower than
the surrounding country and the road could become a water channel in the wet
season. This is the worst possible situation to get into.
The grading process should be strictly controlled. After heavy rain the important
task is to grade out scours in the running surface and fill in wheel ruts. The use
of a scraper to borrow selected material will help in this work. When grading, it
is important to maintain or restore the crossfall of the running surface. The
desirable crossfall is between 3 and 4 percent.
If the crossfall is steeper than 4 percent scouring is likely, if flatter than 3
percent water will not be effectively shed. Particular attention is required on
curves, especially small radius curves where traffic shifts the coarser material to
the outside. The running surface should be maintained high enough to avoid
inundation wherever this is practicable.
Windrows of gravel formed during grading operations are dangerous to traffic
and should not remain for extended periods, especially overnight. If windrows
have to be left for some time because of plant breakdown or other unexpected
causes ensure that the correct warning signs are erected.
The section of road being graded should be confined to the length which can be
fully completed in a shift.
8.8
Scarifying and Reshaping
When a haul road has become worn to a state where the surface has hollows,
potholes, and corrugations, it can sometimes be restored by loosening and
reshaping. The shoulders are normally built up at the same time. However, the
success of this process depends on the thickness of gravel remaining and the
quality of the subgrade material immediately beneath it. If mixing the gravel
with subgrade material would lead to serious deterioration of the gravel,
loosening and reshaping should not be attempted. In such cases, or if the
thickness of gravel is substantially less than 75 mm, the pavement has reached
the stage where fresh gravel must be brought in to increase the thickness to
approximately 150 mm after which loosening, mixing, and reshaping may be
undertaken. Assuming that there is sufficient thickness of gravel, or the mixture
8-77
of a small amount of subgrade material will not have a deleterious effect, the
material should be loosened across its full width and not less than 75 mm deep.
Gravel that has packed down and is very hard is not easy to rip with grader
tynes and a number of passes may be required to avoid leaving hard areas
between the groves which will produce an unsatisfactory riding surface.
Unless there is adequate moisture in the pavement for compaction water should
be added. Final shaping and compaction by rollers or haul trucks should follow
the scarifying and reshaping.
8.9
Patching of Potholes, Depressions and Scours
Provided that the surface is adequately maintained by grading patching of the

pavement will usually be required only at isolated points. Where a depression
is too large to be eliminated by grading (and is not a result of inherent
weakness in the subgrade) it should be lightly scarified and filled with material
similar to that in the adjoining pavement, finished to a smooth surface by
grading, and compacted by rollers or traffic.
Shallow holes may be patched without prior treatment by being cleared of loose
raw material and filled with properly graded material similar to that in the
pavement. Both the pavement itself and the added material should be moist at
the time or should be moistened shortly after filling the hole. While it would be
desirable to compact the filling by hand tamping or rolling such work is costly
and most crews use normal haul traffic to compact the fill.
Large potholes and areas damaged because of weakness in the pavement
material, or the subgrade, should be repaired by being excavated back into
sound pavement, the sides of the excavation being cut vertically. It may be
necessary also to excavate subgrade material, replacing the full depth in gravel.
It would be desirable but not always practical to cut a drain from the excavation
through the sound pavement and the shoulder, consisting of porous material
such as sand or broken rock. As with all other patching work the gravel should
be moistened to facilitate compaction.
8.10
Gravel Surfacing and Resheeting
Gravel surfacing is the initial laying, shaping and compaction of gravel on an

earth formation. Gravel resheeting is the process of adding material over the
full width and length of a specified section of pavement that is already gravelled.
Resheeting is undertaken to restore the thickness of the pavement to give
adequate support to all vehicles using the road. It is normally done before the
road begins to show significant distress under traffic.
8.11
Tyning
The purpose of tyning is to loosen the surface to permit gravel movement by

grader to restore the shape of the pavement. It would be desirable to tyne a
8-78
corrugated gravel surface before resheeting to guard against reflection to the

surface of the underlying corrugations.
8.12
Thickness of Surfacing
The compacted thickness of a gravel surface should generally not be less than
75 mm compacted, but to allow for the difficulties in accurate spreading a target
minimum of 100 mm is desirable. The compacted thickness of any layer should
not exceed 150 mm but if the pavement is to be compacted in two or more
layers the compacted thickness of any layer should not be less than 75mm.
8.13
Quality of Gravel
Each pit should normally specify the quality of gravel to be used on each type of
pavement, the specifications allowing for a range in grading and plasticity. The
type of gravel to be used in any particular work will depend not only upon what
is available locally but also upon various factors such as climate, the nature of
the formation material, the size of vehicles, and the volume of traffic to be
carried.
In arid areas the gravel should have a sufficiently high clay content to allow it to
compact into a hard mass that will resist corrugating and ravelling. In wetter
districts, such as at KPC, the plasticity should be lower so that the pavement
remains stable when it is wet. A high proportion of hard angular stone will give
a better mechanical interlock allowing the pavement to support heavy loading.
High speed, light vehicles are better served by a pavement composed of
relatively fine grained material which can be graded to a smooth true shape free
of loose stones that may break windscreens.
8.14
Gravel Sources
It is strongly recommended to have a quarry area dedicated to the supply of

higher grade material for load construction and maintenance. Most mine
maintenance groups have established gravel pits from which they draw their
requirements. It is good practice to ensure that new sources of gravel are
located to replace existing pits that may be worked out or cease to be available
of an acceptable standard.
All likely quarry areas should be subjected to thorough sampling and testing by
technical staff before they are developed as pits. The NAASRA publication
Pavement Materials covers aspects of quality requirements for gravel and
information concerning sampling and testing. This will help identify the best
areas for the sourcing of road pavement material.
8.15
Spreading
Gravel is spread in one thickness by means of running it out with a scraper or a

moving truck with the tipping body partly raised and the tailgate slightly open.
8-79
Alternatively it may be dumped in relatively small heaps and spread by a

grader. Grading several times across the surface of the road will help obtain a
uniform material, but to avoid segregation, the material should be damp while
mixing is undertaken.
8.16
Compaction
Compaction should commence when the full thickness of gravel has been
spread and shaped (up to a maximum compacted thickness of 150 mm)
because the compaction of successive thin layers seldom results in a sound
pavement.
Water may be incorporated by spraying the gravel in the pit before or during
loading but the usual method is by successive applications from a water cart as
the gravel is spread. In either case some working of the grader across the road
tends to produce a more even distribution of both water and gravel particles.
If the gravel contains an excessive number of large stones or pieces these may
be broken on the road by steel-wheeled, grid or cleated drum rollers, but
normally the coarser material would be graded off the formation during
spreading operations.
The compaction of substantial areas of gravel pavement should be carried out
with powered, steel-wheeled or pneumatic-tyred rollers or vibrating, steel drum
rollers. However, in some cases it may be necessary to rely on the grader and
haul traffic to ensure compation.
Compaction should continue until there are no signs of movement in the
pavement and there is a solid rather than a drummy sound when it is struck. If
movement and cracking persist with each pass of the roller, rolling must be
discontinued and the source of the trouble identified. Should the fault prove to
be the moisture content of the pavement material this must be corrected before
compaction proceeds. On the other hand, if the subgrade is unstable the
pavement material must be removed to allow the instability to be corrected.
This may involve drying out or replacement.
NB : 4 to 6 passes over the entire pavement width at optimum water content
is a general rule of thumb for most materials. However, rolling trials and
compaction tests should be carried out to determine the site specific conditions.
8.17
Maintenance of Drains and Culverts
Roadside drains and culverts should be regularly inspected and cleaned to

ensure that no obstructions are present. If not cleared, the drainage facilities
may overflow in wet weather and cause erosion of the road surface or
saturation of subbase materials. Maintenance crews equipped with hand tools
or machinery such as dozers, loaders, and scrapers should be deployed at
predetermined intervals to see that all drainage paths are kept free of debris.
8-80
8.18
Table Drains
The function of a table drain is to collect water that has fallen on the
carriageway or the batters of a cutting and flowed to the edge of the formation.
Table drains are essential wherever the road is in cutting and often desirable
along the shoulders of embankments.
Because table drains are often built on very flat grades to suit the road grade,
they must either have a large cross-sectional area or be provided with frequent
discharge points where the water can escape. Depending upon the nature of
the material in which they are constructed and their longitudinal grade, table
drains may need to be lined with stone, concrete, or a bitumen seal to resist
scouring.
Table drains require frequent maintenance, such as grading of unlined drains to
remove silt and other debris that may easily block the flow, and to restore the
original shape. The lining of table drains needs checking at frequent intervals
so that any failed section may be repaired before extensive damage occurs.
Scours in table drains need prompt attention to prevent serious damage that
may lead to undermining of the drain lining, the carriageway, or the batters of
the cutting. Short term measures, such as placing loose rock, etc., in scours to
arrest their development may be necessary on occasion, but such action should
generally be discouraged because it can lead to even more serious damage
before final remedial measures can be effected. Whenever a table drain is
susceptible to scour it is usually necessary to line it with some type of durable
material.
8.19
Batter Drains
It sometimes happens that water from table drains must be discharged down
the embankment batters. There will also be occasions when it is necessary to
discharge water down a cutting batter to avoid overloading a catch drain above.
In such cases the slope of the invert of the drain down the batter is too steep to
allow the water to flow over most natural materials because the high velocity
induced would lead to serious scouring.
Batter drains are, therefore, generally lined with concrete, metal, or some other
hard material such as grouted rock. When the batter drain is on earth the
protective lining should be flexible enough to adjust to any settlement of the
filling or movement with weather conditions.
It is important that batter drains should be inspected frequently and immediate
steps taken to make good any undermining and repair any breaks in the lining.
The flow of water in batter drains should be observed during heavy rain to
assess their adequacy.
8-81
The protection of batters on embankments and in cuttings from surface water,

springs, or seepage is normally expensive and not always effective. Such work,
other than that of a very minor nature, is beyond the scope of normal
maintenance and should be undertaken during construction, the work being
properly designed by experts after a thorough investigation of all relevant
conditions at the site.
8.20
Table Drain Runoffs or Diversion Drains
The purpose of a diversion drain is to convey water from a table drain, catch
drain, or side drain so that it can be disposed of by soakage or by spreading
over the natural surface where its velocity is small and the likelihood of damage
by erosion is reduced.
Special attention needs to be given to the junction of the diversion drain with the
side drain where both scouring and siltation can easily occur. Similar problems
may also arise at the extreme end of the diversion drain where it has virtually no
grade.
Periodic grading of diversion drains, preferably in conjunction with the side
drains, is the main maintenance attention required. If serious scouring
develops it might be better to construct a new diversion drain in a better location
rather than persevere with the old one, which should be effectively blocked off.
8.21
Catch Drains
The primary function of a catch drain (or intercepting channel) is to intercept

surface water flowing towards the road cutting or embankment formation. It
thus prevents the water flowing down the cut batter or along the toe of the
embankment, which may cause severe scouring. Catch drains are usually open
earth channels with spoil from the excavation being placed on the lower side to
form a bank.
Maintenance involves periodic inspection, clearing of obstructions, repairing of
breached banks, and the filling of scours. If the bank is shown to have been
breached by overtopping, the adequacy of the drain should be investigated and
its size increased to prevent a recurrence. Alternatively, relief may be obtained
by leading some of the water in the catch drain into a batter drain or a diversion
drain depending upon whether the catch drain is above a cutting or above an
embankment. Scours are repaired by regrading the drain or by backfilling the
scour and covering the damaged area with a paving of concrete, stone pitching,
or bituminous material.
8.22
Floodways and Fords
Floodways and fords are used where construction of suitable waterways under
the roadway cannot be justified. Floodways and fords are intended to be
8-82
covered by water for only short periods and to remain trafficable for extended
periods. Quite often the floodway is supplemented by a relatively small culvert
under the higher approach with its invert below the pavement level of the
floodway so that the pavement over the floodway is dry when the cross flow is
low.
The pavement of the floodway consists of hard durable material that is stable
under traffic when it is wet. The pavement may be concrete, grouted stone,
stabilised gravel, or packed rubble. In some cases it may have a bitumen seal
or be sheeted in asphaltic concrete. The batters of floodways must be
composed of material that will resist erosion by flowing water. Sometimes a
concrete or similar head wall is provided to give edge support to the
carriageway. Maintenance of floodways and fords may be divided into three
types as follows:
(a) During Dry Weather : The pavement, batters, and supplementary culverts
require routine maintenance similar to that of a normal road. Warning signs
and depth indicators need special attention. The former because they warn of
a dip in the pavement during dry weather as well as indicating the possible
presence of water over the pavement in wet weather. The latter because they
must be easily read at a distance when there is water over the floodway.
(b) During Flooding : Regular inspection is necessary to ensure that the
floodway is safe for traffic, having regard to the fact that deep holes and
washed out batters may not be apparent to all drivers. Debris that may collect
on the floodway should removed and holes under the water filled with rock
pending permanent repair when the water has receded.
(c) After Flooding : High priority must given to the restoration of physical
damage so that the floodway is safe for traffic and is not further damaged by
subsequent floods. Debris should be cleared from the upstream channels
leading to the floodway and culvert, if any. Markers and signs should also
received attention.
Many dry water courses contain loose sand which may be deposited on the
floodway in sufficient thickness to prevent the passage of vehicles, or at least
create hazardous conditions for them. The removal of this loose material is
generally the most urgent restoration work after floods. In some cases it may
also be desirable to raise the pavement level of the floodway to inhibit the
further deposition of sand when the water course next carries water, providing
this did not cause damage upstream by afflux or lead to scour due to increased
velocity.
8.23
Subsoil Drains and Shoulder Drains
The two main purposes of subsoil drains are to lower the level of the water table
and to intercept or drain underground water trapped or held by impervious
material. To be effective subsoil drains need to be not less than 500 mm below
the subgrade level.
8-83
A shoulder drain is a special type of subsoil drain that is installed across the
shoulder of a road to drain water that may be trapped on an impervious
subgrade.
The commencing points and the outlets of the drains should be indicated by
distinctive reference pegs. Maintenance action for buried drains consists
primarily of inspection of outlets from time to time to ensure that water is
seeping from them. This should, of course, be done immediately after a period
of rain, but in some cases even after a dry season there will be some evidence
such as staining indicating that the drain is working.
Any growth or siltation at the outlet should be cleared and if vermin proof
screens of flaps are provided these should be repaired or replaced as required.
Damp areas or water seepage at any location above a subsoil drain should be
investigated because this will probably indicate a blockage of the drain.
Pavement failures due to softening of the subgrade in roads served by subsoil
drains generally indicate the need to construct a further transverse branch to
the main drain or to construct deeper subsoil drains.
8.24
Culverts
Culverts are key structures in any road drainage system and since they often
provide the only passage for surface water from one side of the road to the
other failure usually has serious consequences. Failure of the culvert may
cause damage to the road formation if it is overtopped by flood water or
damage to the culvert or formation by scour due to high velocity. Structural
failure of the culvert itself may occur because of settlement, overloading, or
corrosion.
There is usually ample physical warning of the likelihood of failure but the
detection of this involves close inspection of the inside of the culvert as well as
both the inlet and the outlet. Systematic inspection is most important followed
by appropriate remedial measures. Since many culverts are not apparent to an
observer moving along a road some sort of distinctive marking on guide posts
may assist in drawing the attention of maintenance crews to their presence.
Maintenance tasks include the constant clearing of debris and growth from the
channel, particularly after forest fires, or in seasons when trees shed their
leaves. In problem areas debris screens may be required. The accumulation of
silt or drift sand in the culvert barrel must also be removed periodically by
mechanical or hydraulic means.
Scour in the vicinity of culverts must be recognised in the early stages and
repaired promptly before the damage becomes extensive.
Corroded metal inverts, or any abraded inverts, should be built up with concrete
mortar. Open joints between precast segments should be repaired by grouting
or patching with mortar.
8-84
In new pipe culverts under high fills structural failure may become evident from
the distortion of the pipe; the vertical diameter of the pie decreases and the
horizontal diameter increases with cracks appearing in the barrel. Emergency
action consists of tomming the pipe to prevent complete failure pending
permanent remedial measures.
8.25
Bridges
Road maintenance gangs perform a caretaking role in relation to bridge

structures. Their main task being to repair failures in the deck or running
surface. Debris collected against piers or in the channels should be removed
and vegetation that may impede the even flow of water should be kept in check.
8.26
Maintenance of Median & Side Berms
All areas where loose material is employed to increase rolling resistance and
vehicle retardation (escape lanes, median berms) should be periodically
checked for loose consistency. If these areas become compacted, a bulldozer
equipped with scarifying equipment should be used to break the surface.
8.27
Maintenance and Location of Signs and Roadside Furniture
Traffic aids such as signs, signals, and pavement markings are provided on
roads to aid in the safe and convenient movement of mining and light vehicle
traffic. They may instruct the road user, warn of hazards not immediately
apparent, or indicate directions to destinations and points of interest.
The location and erection of traffic control devices is usually covered by the AS
1742 Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. For more specific information
as it applies at KPC refer to Chapter 6 of this manual.
8.28
Conclusions
Adherence to the preventive measures discussed can significantly reduce haul

road maintenance problems. However, they are not a complete solution.
Abnormal surface conditions will occur periodically that require additional road
maintenance procedures.
The recommended minimum maintenance for roads is set out in the
Maintenance Schedule, Table 12.
8-85
Table 12 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE

Activity
Frequency
1. Road Grading (including watering & compaction

(a) Maintenance trimming and spillage removal
Per shift or as required
(b) Scarifying and reshaping to regain crossfall and

super-elevation
Weekly. Normally done

on a back-shift
(c) Resheeting and treatment of low spots.

(applies only to affected areas)
Twice yearly. Before &

after the wet season.
2. Road Reconstruction
(a) Digging out soft spots & repairing potholes
As required
(b) Reforming road cross-sections and longitudinal During dry season prior to
profiles to remove ruts, bumps, adverse crossfalls, the wet and as required
etc.
(c) Culvert reconstruction, replacement or repair During dry season prior to
(see drainage section)
the wet, and as required
3. Drainage (including culvert works)
(a) Side drains, catch drains, etc. should be graded Monthly. Normaly done
and/or cleaned out regularly
on a backshift
(b) Deep gully drains and creek run-outs should be At least once a year prior
desilted with an excavator or front-end loader
to the wet season
(c) Culverts/Pipe Crossings :
(i)
Headwalls & structures should be regularly
checked for scouring or damage especially after 3 to 4 times per year
heavy rain
(ii)
Siltation and debris will block culverts and
hence should be removed as it occurs. If siltation is a Monthly check required.
major problem, silt traps will be required.
Frequency of checks to be
increased during wet
(iii)
Reconstruction & replacement of culverts will season.
be necessary if damaged or corroded culverts are
found. Poor installation can often lead to weak spots During dry season prior to
in the pavement after heavy rain.
wet and as required
8-86
4. Retention Berms, Diversion Structures, Drop

Structures and Silt Traps
regularly.
These items should be inspected regularly and Inspect
Maintain
repair
prior to
maintained to a high standard to prevent costly
wet season
damage if heavy rain should produce flooding.
5.
Signs, Guide Posts and Bunding
Damaged and old signs should be replaced as Visual inspection monthly.

required
Replacement as required.
8-87
SUMMARY OF MAIN CRITERIA
The attached list is a summary in point form of the main recommendations

contained in sections 1 to 8 of this manual. This information is presented in
this form to serve as a simple checklist of key criteria from the design,
construction and maintenance points of view.
9.1
Design
A systematic approach needs to be adopted in the design of a road. Such

a procedure has been detailed by Section 2.8.
Sustained grades should be kept as low as possible, and should rarely

exceed 8%. Refer Section 2.2
An In-pit road shall be a high volume pit or dump road that will be required
for up to six months; or a low volume pit or dump road required for up to
twelve months. Refer Section 2.3
A main road shall be high volume pit, dump, or ex-pit road that will remain
in place for in excess of six months; or a low volume pit, dump or ex pit road
that will remain in place for over twelve months. Refer Section 2.3
The design speed for trucks for in-pit roads will be 40 kph while the design
speed for trucks on main roads will be 60 kph. Refer Section 2.4
Horizontal curves should be constructed to the maximum radius permissible

under the conditions and at an appropriate superelevation.
Refer to
Sections 2.5, 3.8 and Table 2
Vertical curves should be constructed to the maximum radius permissible

under the conditions present. A recommended minimum is a curve length
of 150m and a curve radius of 1500m. Refer Section 3.6.
In the absence of other more specific braking information, stopping distance

determinations for both in-pit and main haul roads should be based on
Figures 1 to 4 of this manual. Refer Section 3.2
The sight distance for any vehicle using a roadway will be based on the
recommended design speed. This distance must always be equal to or
exceed the required vehicle stopping distance.
Refer Section 3.2 and
Figures 1 to 4.
Avoid introducing sharp horizontal curvature at or near the crest of a hill.

If a curve is absolutely necessary, start it in advance of the vertical curve.
Refer Section 3.11.
9-88
Avoid sharp horizontal curves near the bottom of hills or after a long
sustained down grade. Trucks are normally at their highest speed at
these locations. Refer Section 3.11.
Avoid intersections, near the crest of vertical curves and at sharp

horizontal curvatures. Consider the sight distance in all four quadrants.
Refer Section 3.11.
With the CAT 789 currently the widest truck on site it is recommended
that a minimum single lane width of 15.5m is adopted and a minimum
double lane width of 27.0m is adopted. Refer Section 3.13.
The recommended cross slope for all KPC haul roads is 3% to 4%.
Refer Section 3.15.
A well drained stable road base is one of the most important fundamentals
of a road. A road that is not free draining and holds water, however slight,
is unacceptable. Refer Section 4.1.
In general terms the maximum subgrade CBR achievable with material

commonly available at KPC is 20. The maximum CBR achievable for red
mudstone surfacing material is 60. As such 500mm of red mudstone of the
appropriate grade and if appropriately placed on a suitably prepared
subgrade will provide a stable road pavement for CAT 789 trucks.
Refer
Section 4.13.
The percentage of fines in a red mudstone gravel surface material will effect
surface stability in the wet conditions at KPC. For red mudstone as a
pavement surfacing material it should not have more than 10% fines. Refer
Section 4.10.
Speed limit signs should be posted on any segments of a haul road

alignment that require slower than normal rates of travel to safely negotiate
a hazardous condition. Such conditions may be a narrow road, a section of
road with reduced sight distance, a section of road with less than the
recommended superelevation, etc. Refer Section 6.2
Stop signs are required where any secondary access road intersects with a
main haul road or at intersections where sight distance is less than vehicle
stopping distance. Refer Section 6.3.
Reflectorised guideposts are required on all roads where vehicles are likely
or may need to travel at night. Refer Section 6.13.
No intersection is to involve a road coming into another at an angle of less

than 70 degrees. Refer Section 7.4.
9-89
9.2
It is recommended that in order for heavy vehicles to operate at reasonable

speed near an intersection, the intersection should not be located on grades
steeper than 3%. Refer Section 7.6.
Construction
To ensure a properly constructed road it is critical to have good control over

both material selection and material placement.
Compaction equipment must be used, to ensure that high quality roads are
constructed. This applies to both the subgrade and the pavement layers of
a roadway.
Without properly controlled compaction it is impossible to
achieve maximum CBR values. Refer Section 4.11.
Figure 37 provides a schematic representation of a recommended

sequence for the construction of a typical haul road. Refer Appendix
B.
A well designed and constructed road will have a significant impact on the
longer term maintenance cost of a road.
9.3
Maintenance
The regular maintenance of a road to maintain free drainage is essential for

the ongoing integrity of the road and the continued efficient flow of traffic.
As such the correct grading of the road is one of the most important
functions. Refer Section 8.12.
The regular maintenance of road side drains, culverts, cutoff drains,

bunding, etc is equally important. Refer Section 8 and Table 12.
9-90
10
Inspection
10.1
Audit of Existing Roads
The following questions or checks are proposed as the basis of an initial lower
level audit of an existing road, with particular reference to potential areas of safety
concern.
To assist in the conduct of an audit it is suggested that a detailed
topographical plot of the particular section of road is first obtained. This will then
help facilitate the basic checking of some information and will also allow the
specific nomination or marking up of any areas of concern. If any concerns are
identified then further reference to the appropriate sections of this manual will
assist in the correction of such concerns.
An answer of yes to any of these questions will require further investigation or
action.
Does any section of the road have a single lane width of less than 15.5m or a
dual lane width of less than 27.0m? Measure inside edge of bund to inside
edge of bund.
Are there any horizontal curves in the road that are not superelevated?
Are there any horizontal curves in the road that have a radius of less than
200m? Refer Section 3.8.
Are there any sections of the road that are not free draining or that hold or pond
any water after rain?
Are there any areas where roadside table drains, cutoff drains, culverts, or the
like restrict the free flow of runoff water?
Identify any areas where the sight distance of a vehicle is at all restricted. Is
the sight distance of the vehicle less than the stopping distance for the
recommended design speed? Refer Section 3.2.
Do any roads join or cross another road at an angle of less than 70 degrees?
Are there any road intersections where the right of way has not been specified
or is at all unclear?
Are there any centre or side bunds within 75m of an intersection that have not
been reduced to a height of 1m in order to permit clear vision of other traffic in
the vicinity of the intersection? Refer Figures 32 & 33.
Are there any areas where either sign posting or guide posting is felt to be
lacking or insufficient? Refer Section 6.
Are there are areas where signs and guide posts are either dirty or are not
clearly visible either during daylight or dark? Refer Section 6.
Are there any areas of the road where if a vehicle strayed it would encounter a
significant hazard? Such a concern would be a sudden drop of in excess of
1m, a drainage channel or a deep body of water. Refer Section 11 as a
protective bund may be necessary.
10-91
Are any existing bunds lacking in height? A centre road bund should be 1m
high. A road side bund should be a minimum of 1.6m high. A high wall bund
should be a minimum of 2.4m high.
An active dump face bund shall match
the tray clearance height. Refer Section 11.
Section 11 provides details of the Standard for the Construction and
Maintenance of Safety Bunds. This procedure also requires that audits are
conducted to ensure that no areas of non-compliance. Are there any areas of
non-compliance that have not been actioned?
10-92
11
Bund Procedure
11.1
Purpose
The purpose of safety bund is to a safer operating environment for KPC vehicles
and operators through the construction of an effective barrier or separation from an
identified hazard. Such hazards would include any sharp or sudden change or
drop off in ground level of greater than 1m, or any other of possible traffic concerns
such as a drainage culvert, body of water etc.
11.2
Scope
This procedure will apply to all areas of KPC mine site and will apply to all roads
and like areas where vehicle access is possible for either light or heavy vehicles.
In general terms all safety bunds will be formed and constructed from readily spoil
or earthen material and will be in accordance with the following details and apply in
the following situations.
Type 1 Traffic Control Bund
Type 1 bunds are a lower profile intermittent bund constructed down the middle of
major or longer term haul roads with truck speeds exceeding 50kph, where traffic
demarcation is required or in areas such as intersections where traffic control is
critical or of possible concern. The bunds are to be 1m high with faces maintained
at 45 degrees or steeper and will have regular short breaks to both help with road
drainage and turning vehicles. Refer Figure 36.
Type 2 Road Side Bund
A higher profile bund constructed along the side of haul road or access to provide
vehicle and driver protection from an identified hazard or area of concern. These
bunds are to be a minimum of 1.6m high (i.e. 0.5 times wheel height of the largest
truck in operation). This type of bund may be constructed in three acceptable
forms.
1. Continuous Cone Bunds cones of spoil dumped in a row to form a bund.
Suitable mainly for shorter term haul road. Cones should be close stacked and
should be maintained to an angle of repose of greater than 35 degrees.
2. A Straight Bund a shaped bund suitable for longer term roads or areas where
width is limited. On straight road sections the bunds can have small regular
breaks to help road drainage. The face of the bund should be maintained at an
angle of 45 degrees or more.
11-93
Figure 36
11-94
3. Herringbone Whopper Stoppers a slightly radial bund that gradually increases

in height to pull vehicles up. Rally only warranted for longer term roads where
additional width is available. The bund is a peaked ridge rising from 0.2m high
to the standard height (i.e. at least 1.6m high).
Refer Figure 37, 38 and 39.
Special measures will need to be taken in some areas such as road intersections
to ensure that the Type 2 bund does not restrict traffic visibility. This may mean
lowering the height of the bund to not less than 1m in height, within 75m of an
intersection, or locating the bund further from the edge of road. Refer Figure 40.
Type 3 Active Dump Bund
A lower profile bund constructed with a dozer and continually maintained by a
dozer during dumping operations to suit the type truck being used on the active
dump. The height of the bund must be maintained to the clearance height of the
tray when in the up position. Access to inactive dumps is to be restricted. Refer
Figure 41.
Type 4 High Wall Bund
A high profile bund constructed along the edge of any pit high wall or area deemed
to be significant hazards such as a large drop off in level or a large body of water.
The bund must be a single continuous cone bund formed by the close side by side
dumping of full loads of material. The bund should be maintained at a minimum
height of 2.4m (0.75 times the maximum wheel height) and should have an angle
of repose of greater than 45 degrees. Refer Figure 42.
11.3
Definition
Bund =
A wall of earth constructed to form a barrier or separation to provide
protection to both vehicle and driver from identified hazard.
Wheel Height
= Type 2, 3 and 4 bund are all expressed in terms of wheel
height. The wheel height being the height or diameter of the
wheel (including tyre) of the largest vehicles that is likely to
use the road or area under consideration.
As reference the following wheel heights are applicable:
Cat 777 = 2540mm
Cat 785 = 2886mm
Cat 789 = 3186mm
11-95
Figure 37
11-96
Figure 38
11-97
Figure 39
11-98
Figure 40
11-99
Figure 41
11-100
Figure 42
11-101
11.4
Accountability
General Manager
Shall ensure that equipment, training and manpower are made available to fully
satisfy the requirements of this procedure within his area of designated
responsibility.
Shall ensure that the designated area of responsibility for each Manager is
clearly understood and communicated and that responsibility fro this procedure
has been specially nominated.
Shall ensure that random audits are conducted of this procedure to ensure that
there are no areas of no-compliance within his area of responsibility.
Pit Manager
Shall ensure that equipment, training and manpower are made available to fully
satisfy the requirements of this procedure within his area of designated
responsibility.
Shall ensure that specific responsibility for the construction and maintenance of
safety bunds is delegated to a 24 hours a day position such as a designated
shift Superintendent or Supervisor.
Shall ensure that a system of random but frequent audits are conducted to
ensure there are no areas of procedures non-compliance.
Shall ensure that the procedure is raised regularly during toolbox talks and all
personnel are reminded of the names of the designated Superintendent or
Supervisor. The reminder frequency should be at least every six months.
Designated Superintendents or Supervisors
Shall ensure that inspections are made each shift to confirm that bunds are
being properly constructed and maintained.
Identify and immediately attend to any areas where bund are missing or where
they do not comply with the requirements of this procedure.
Investigate and immediately attend to any areas of reported concern or new
identified hazards.
All Personnel
Report any non-conforming bunds or areas of potential concern to the

Designated Superintendent or Supervisor
11-102
Appendix A : Figure 43
11-103
Appendix B : Figure 44
11-104

KPC Roads Manual - Full Version

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

KPC Roads Manual - Full Version

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

1

General Criteria Effecting Haul Roads

Main Influencing Factors

Mine Planning Department

The planning engineer, design engineer, construction engineer, operations or

Mine Planning Department

PLANNING OF A HAUL ROAD

Planning of Haul Roads

Good haul roads do not just happen they are planned.

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Bend Radius & Superelevation

Cycle Time from Pit to Dump Station or Stockpile

Mine Planning Department

Road Design Procedures

Determine source and destination points of the haul road.

Mine Planning Department

Ample passing width

As far as is economically feasible, all geometric elements of haul roads

Stopping Distance, Grade and Brake Relationships

From a safety standpoint, haul road grades must be designed to

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Figure 3 Stopping Distance for Vehicles of 90,000 to 180,000kg GVW

Figure 4 Stopping Distance for Vehicles over 180,000kg GVW

Mine Planning Department

Table 1 Weights of KPC Trucks

Sight distance is defined as "the extent of peripheral area visible to the

Vertical alignment is the establishment of grades and vertical curves that

Mine Planning Department

Figure 5 Sight Distance Diagrams

Mine Planning Department

Maximum and Sustained Grades

Theoretical maximum allowable grades for various truck weight ranges in

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

As a simplification, the recommended vertical curve to be used at KPC

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Mine Planning Department

Horizontal alignment during haul road design and construction deals

Vehicles negotiating short-radius curves are forced radially outward by

superelevation rate, m per m

Mine Planning Department

Table 2 Road Superelevation Rates

Vehicle Speed (kph)

Mine Planning Department

Refer to Table 2 for recommended superelevation rates where the friction

Mine Planning Department

(0.1 x 10) metres

47.6 metres (use 48 metres).

Horizontal Curve Widening for Sharp Curves.

Widening of pavements on curves is used to maintain lateral clearance

Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

In the design of haul roads, it is important that horizontal and vertical

Avoid introducing sharp horizontal curvature at or near the crest of a hill.

Mine Planning Department

Figure 17 Transition Curve Determination