The History of Science and Technology in India

The history of sicence aned technology in India dates to ancient times. Among the
basic
fields
of
science
pursued
in
India
were Ayurveda, Astronomy and Mathematics.
Indian
civilization
begins
at Mehrgarh (70003300 BCE), where graineries, and mud brick houses were
constructed. Farming, metal working, flint knapping, tanning, bead production,
and dentistry, are also known to the people of Mehrgarh. The Indus Valley
civilization yields evidence of hydrography, metrology and sewage collection and
disposal being practiced by its inhabitants.
Great attention to mathematics is visible during the Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 400
BCE), which also witnesses the first inquiry being made into the field of linguistics is
the 5th century BCE scholar Panini. Construction ofStepwells and stupas, use
of diamond as a gemstone, and plastic surgery operations are visible during later
periods. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE),
important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta,
and Bhaskara II. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of
the decimal number system, zero, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra.
Of note is the advent of Islam, which helped diffuse of Indian and Persian irrigation
technologies, leading to advanced irrigation systems aiding the growth of medieval
material culture. Weavers from Central Asia were employed by the 15th century ruler
of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin. The final historical period of Indian science and
technology occurs during the British Raj, which, facilitated a number of Indian
scholars to enter prestigious foreign institutions in its ultimate aim of producing
worthy civil and administrative service candidates.

Mehrgarh and early Indus Valley civilization (7000

3300 BCE)
Inhabitants of Mehrgarh (70003300 BCE) lived in mud brick houses, stored their
grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket
containers with bitumen.[2] Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus
Valley Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE. They also
cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded
sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put
much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal
working.[2] The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC.
Mehrgarh has yielded evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000
BCE. This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with drills
operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen. The reconstruction of this ancient
form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. [19] John
F. Robyt (1998) locates the two most probable origins of sugarcane cultivation as

the South Pacific or North East India, as early as 10,000 BC and 6,000 BC
respectively. Further archaeological evidence associates sugar with the Indus
valley. Alcoholic beverages were in use between 3000 BCE - 2000 BCE.

Mature Indus Valley Civilization (33001500 BCE)

Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The
size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which
eventually led to more planned settlements which further made use
of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were
developed
by
the
Indus
Valley
Civilization,
including
the
artificial reservoirs at Girnar in 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from
circa 2600 BCE.
By 2800 BCE, private bathrooms, located on the ground floor, were found in nearly
all the houses of the Indus Valley Civilization. Pottery pipes in walls allowed
drainage of water and there was, in some case, the provision of a crib for sitting
Western-style toilets were made from bricks using toilet seats made of wood on
top. The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems. Large scale sanitary
sewer systems were in place by 2700 BCE. The drains were 7-10 feet wide and 2
feet below ground level. The sewage was then led into cesspools, built at the
intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them for periodic
cleaning. Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes with broad flanges for easy
joining with asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700 BCE.
The worlds first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current
to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the
Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such
a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as
exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering. This was the earliest known
dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.
The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a sophisticated system
of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made
at the Indus valley sites. This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to
be
effectively
used
in angular
measurement and
measurement
for
construction. Calibrationwas also found in measuring devices alongwith multiple
subdivisions in case of some devices.
The earliest available swords of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date
back to 2300 BCE. Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings
throughout the Ganges-Jamuna Doab region of India, consisting of bronze but more
commonly copper.

Vedic period (1500 BCE - 400 BCE)

The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large
numbers.[] By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasahit (1200-900 BCE),

numbers as high as 10 were being included in the texts. For example,

the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma (food-oblation rite)
performed during theavamedha (horse sacrifice), and uttered just before-,
during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion.
The Satapatha Brahmana (9th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric
constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.
Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, the bestknown Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such
as: (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (8,15,17), (7,24,25), and (12,35,37)as well as a statement of
the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: The rope which is stretched
across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original
square. It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the
sides of a rectangle): The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a
rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together.
Baudhayana gives a formula for the square root of two.
Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 13001000 BC.
Diverse specimens of swords have been discovered in Fatehgarh, where there are
several varieties of hilt.[] These swords have been variously dated to periods
between 1700-1400 BCE, but were probably used more extensively during the
opening centuries of the 1st millennium BCE.[31] Archaeological sites in India, such
as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar
Pradesh show iron implements from the period between 1800 BC - 1200 BC.[]Early
iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BC by employing the method of
radio carbon dating.[33]Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron
smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the
technologys inception may be placed earlier.[32] In Southern India (present
dayMysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments
were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.
The study of linguistics in India dates back at least two and one-half millennia.
[]
During the 5th century BCE, Indian scholar Panini had made several discoveries in
the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Metalcurrency was minted in
India before 5th century BCE, Early coins of India (400 BCE - 100 CE) were made
ofsilver and copper, and bore animal and plant symbols on them.

Post Maha Janapadas period (400 BCE - 200 CE)

The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. The
use of suspension bridgesusing plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India
by about the 4th century. The stupa (3rd century BCE), the precursor of
the pagoda and torii, is constructed. Rock-cut step wells in India date from 200-400
CE. Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and construction of stepped
ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) takes place.[]
Indigo is used as a dye in India, which was also the earliest major center for its
production and processing. TheIndigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was

domesticated in India. Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeksand
the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.
The cashmere wool fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the
handmade shawls of Kashmir, India. The woolen shawls made from wool
in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3 rd century BC and the
11th century CE. Jute is cultivated in India. Crystallized sugar was discovered by the
time of the Imperial Guptas, and the earliest reference of candied sugar come from
India.
By the beginning of the Common Era, glass was being used for ornaments and
casing in South Asia. Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer
techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding,
decorating and coloring by the early centuries of the Common Era.
[]
Satavahana period of India further reveals short cylinders of composite glass,
including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green
glass. Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era. [48] Wootz
steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab
world, and became particularly famous in theMiddle East, where it became known
as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing
process was already in existence in South India even before the Christian era.
During the Imperial Guptas, the Indian court physician Sushruta was
performs plastic surgery operations. The earliest evidence for using bowinstruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). Early diamonds used as
gemstones originated in India. Golconda served as an important center for
diamonds in central India. Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world,
including Europe. Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.
[53]
The Arthashastra mentions diamond trade in India.
Among other scholars of this period who contributed to mathematics, the most
notable
is Pingala (fl. 300-200
BCE),
a musical
theorist who
authored
a Sanskrit treatise on prosody. There is evidence that in his work on the
enumeration of syllabic combinations, Pingala stumbled upon both the Pascal
triangle and Binomial coefficients, although he did not have knowledge of
the Binomial theorem itself. The first description of binary numbers is also found in
the works of Pingala.[] The use of negative numbers was known in early India, and
their role in situations like mathematical problems of debt was understood.
Consistent and correct rules for working with these numbers were formulated. The
diffusion of this concept led the Arab intermediaries to pass it to Europe.

Early Common Era - High Middle Ages (200 CE - 1300

CE)
The decimal number system originated in India. Other cultures discovered a few
features of this number system but the system, in its entirely, was compiled in India,
where it attained coherence and completion. By the 9 thcentury CE, this complete
number system had existed in India but several of its ideas were transmitted to

toChina and the Islamic world before that time. The concept of 0 as a number, and
not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India. In India, practical
calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number
by the 9th century CE, even in case of division. Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598
668) was able to find (integral) solutions of Pells equation.[58] The earliest
conceptual design of a perpetual motion machinedates back to 1150, by
an Indian mathematician-astronomer, Bhaskara II. He described a wheel that he
claimed would run forever.
The origins of the spinning wheel are unclear but the device was probably invented
in India. The device certainly reached Europe from India by the 14 century
CE. Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton ginin use by the
5th century CEThis cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made, in form
foot powered gins. The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device
known as charkhi, more technically the wooden-worm-worked roller. This
mechanical device was, in some parts of india, driven by water power. Chinese
documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 , for obtaining
technology for sugar-refining. Each mission returned with different results on
refining sugar.
European scholar Francesco I reproduced a number of Indian maps in his magnum
opus La Cartografia Antica dell India. Out these maps, two have been reproduced
using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra
(Kashmir, 11th century CE), as a source. The other manuscript, used as a source by
Francesco I, is titled Samgrahani.