MANUAL

for
ADVANCED DESIGN
REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS subjected to FLEXURE and SHEAR FORCE

FIRST Volume
Second EDITION

Dumitru MOLDOVAN
Horia CONSTANTINESCU

Tehnoredactare: Dumitru MOLDOVAN

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei

MOLDOVAN, DUMITRU
Manual for advanced design : reinforced concrete members subjected to
flexure and shear force / Dumitru Moldovan, Horia Constantinescu. - Iai : Stef,
2014
Bibliogr.
Index
ISBN 978-606-575-401-0
I. Constantinescu, Horia
658.512.2

MANUAL
for
ADVANCED DESIGN

Dumitru Moldovan, Horia Constantinescu: Manual for Advanced Design

Copyright Dumitru Moldovan, Horia Constantinescu 2012

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Preface
The present book on reinforced concrete design according to (SR EN 1992-1-1:2006) (Eurocode 2:
Design of concrete structures: 2006 ed.) is part of a complex project on safe design, superior casting
productivity and cost attractive members and structures. The herein book, either e-book or in-print, is
based on the very first book the authors have jointly contributed. Since it is the first volume of the fore
mentioned project, the 1 is used to represent that. Since it is the second edition of the hereto mentioned
volume the .2 is used to represent that.
Apart from the modifications that incurred in the styles defined and used in writing this book, some
modifications have been implemented to better outline the desired explanations, as plain text and/or
figures and tables with corresponding notes and keys. Extensive re-writing of the design examples
provided in later chapters incurred also.
Above all, this book is for the use of civil engineering students, especially those at their first contact
with structural concrete and its design. Nonetheless, this does not exclude other interested parties to read,
comment, refer to the present work or address suggestions to the authors to better organise the information
provided or improve specific points.
Concrete is in the authors opinion, one of the oldest and greatest inventions. Still, there are some
aspects regarding this material that may be approached differently, in order to unlock its full potential, or,
in a more general definition, to achieve sustainability.
The first step towards that goal is to proper understand the limits of the material, plain and (especially)
reinforced. By doing so, it is possible to design members and structures that are safe and cost attractive,
avoiding waste of energy, materials and manpower.
That being said, it is the authors great pleasure to (re)introduce their first book (volume) that addresses
the design process. Simply, get MAD!

Cluj-Napoca, 15th July 2012

Manual for Advanced Design

vii

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the following:

ASRO (Asociaia de Standardizare din Romnia): permission no. LUC/12/154/7.02.2012

DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V.)
Prof. PhD Eng. Dan Paul GEORGESCU
Prof. PhD Eng. Zoltan KISS

For permission to cite corresponding works as presented in the REFERENCE chapter.

All support is gratefully acknowledged.

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Manual for Advanced Design

Contents List
Preface ________________________________________________________________________ vii
Acknowledgments ________________________________________________________________ ix
Contents List _____________________________________________________________________ xi
[Chapter 1] Flexural Design _________________________________________________________15
[Section (1) A] Actions and Loads ____________________________________________________16
[Note (1-A) a] Combinations of Actions _____________________________________________17
[Note (1-A) b] Limit States _______________________________________________________18
[Section (1) B] Flexural Design Model _________________________________________________19
[Note (1-B) a] Neutral Axis _______________________________________________________20
[Note (1-B) b] Model Assumptions _________________________________________________20
[Note (1-B) c] Stress Block _______________________________________________________21
[Section (1) C] Predesign Evaluation __________________________________________________24
[Note (1-C) a] Sizing of the Cross Section____________________________________________26
[Section (1) D] Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section (SRRS) _____________________________28
[Note (1-D) a] Theoretical Model for SRRS __________________________________________28
[(1-D-a) Discussion] Check Yielding of Tension Reinforcement ________________________29
[Note (One-D) b] Practical Calculation for SRRS ______________________________________31
[Section (1) E] Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section (DRRS) ____________________________33
[Note (1-E) a] Theoretical Model for DRRS __________________________________________33
[Note (One-E) b] Practical Calculation for DRRS ______________________________________34
[(1-E-b) Discussion] Check Yielding of Compression Reinforcement ____________________35
[(1-E-b) Discussion] Check Yielding of Tension Reinforcement ________________________35
[Section (1) F] Tee/Flanged Sections (FS) ______________________________________________37
[Note (1-F) a] Theoretical Model for SRFS ___________________________________________37
[Note (1-F) b] Practical Calculation for SRFS _________________________________________39
[Note (1-F) c] Theoretical Model for DRFS __________________________________________41
[Note (1-F) d] Practical Calculation for DRFS ________________________________________42
[(1-F-d) Discussion] Check Yielding of Compression Reinforcement ____________________43
[(1-F-d) Discussion] Check Yielding of Tension Reinforcement ________________________43
Concluding Remarks on Chapter One _________________________________________________45

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Contents List
[Chapter 2] Shear Force Design ______________________________________________________47
[Section (2) A] Theoretical Model for Shear Force _______________________________________48
[Note (2-A) a] Variable Angle Truss Model __________________________________________48
[(2-A-a) Discussion] Section Through Strut ________________________________________49
[(2-A-a) Discussion] Section Through Tie _________________________________________50
[Section (2) B] Practical Calculation for Shear Force ______________________________________53
[Note (2-B) a] Shear Force Evaluation_______________________________________________53
[(2-B-a) Discussion] Constructive Reinforcement ___________________________________54
[(2-B-a) Discussion] Check of Strut Failure ________________________________________56
[(2-B-a) Discussion] Check of Tie Failure _________________________________________56
[(2-B-a) Discussion] Establish Spacing/Size of Stirrups ______________________________56
[Note (2-B) b] Anchorage Length __________________________________________________58
[(2-B-b) Discussion] Establish Tension Force for Longitudinal Bars ____________________58
[(2-B-b) Discussion] Calculations for the Anchorage Length __________________________58
[Note (2-B) c] Check Shear between Web and Flange __________________________________60
Concluding Remarks on Chapter Two _________________________________________________63
[Chapter 3] Worked Examples _______________________________________________________65
Project Specifications ______________________________________________________________66
[Section (3) A] Predesign Analysis ____________________________________________________68
[Note (3-A) a] Durability Requirements _____________________________________________68
[Note (3-A) b] Bearing Members and Partial Loads Evaluation ___________________________69
[Section (3) B] Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section (SRRS) _____________________________71
[Note (3-B) a] Sizing of the Cross Section____________________________________________71
[Note (3-B) b] Area of Reinforcement for Flexure _____________________________________74
[(3-B-b) Discussion] Place Bars in Two Layers, see [(3) Figure 3] ______________________76
[(3-B-b) Discussion] Bundled Bars Horizontal Placing, see [(3) Figure 4] _______________78
[(3-B-b) Discussion] Bundled Bars Vertical Placing, see [(3) Figure 5] _________________79
[(3-B-b) Discussion] Decrease the Height of the Cross Section _________________________80
[Note (3-B) c] Area of Reinforcement for Shear Force __________________________________82
[(3-B-c) Discussion] Establish Elementary Length(s) ________________________________85
[(3-B-c) Discussion] Layout for Stirrups __________________________________________88
[(3-B-c) Discussion] From support towards midspan, see [(3) Figure 8] __________________89
[(3-B-c) Discussion] From midspan to supports, see [(3) Figure 9] ______________________91
[(3-B-c) Discussion] Alternative layout and placing _________________________________92
[Note (3-B) d] Anchorage Length __________________________________________________93

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Contents List
[Section (3) C] Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section (DRRS) ____________________________95
[Note (3-C) a] Load Evaluation ____________________________________________________95
[Note (3-C) b] Area of Reinforcement for Flexure _____________________________________96
[(3-C-b) Discussion] Place Bars on Two Layers, see [(3) Figure 10] _____________________97
[(3-C-b) Discussion] Bundled Bars Vertical Placing, see [(3) Figure 11] _______________100
[(3-C-b) Discussion] Modify Cross Section and Reinforcement Layout _________________102
[Note (3-C) c] Area of Reinforcement for Shear Force _________________________________109
[Note (3-C) d] Shear Reinforcement Layout _________________________________________111
[Note (3-C) e] Anchorage Length _________________________________________________112
[Section (3) D] Tee Section (TS)_____________________________________________________113
[Note (3-D) a] Area of Reinforcement for Flexure ____________________________________115
[(3-D-a) Discussion] Single Reinforcement _______________________________________115
[(3-D-a) Discussion] Double Reinforcement ______________________________________118
[Note (3-D) b] Area of Reinforcement for Shear Force _________________________________121
[(3-D-b) Discussion] Establish Elementary Length(s) _______________________________125
[(3-D-b) Discussion] Layout for Stirrups _________________________________________128
[(3-D-b) Discussion] From support towards midspan, see [(3) Figure 15] ________________129
[(3-D-b) Discussion] From midspan to supports, see [(3) Figure 16] ____________________131
[Note (3-D) c] Anchorage Length _________________________________________________133
[Section (3) E] Fast Track to Design (FTD) ____________________________________________135
[Note (3-E) a] Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section (SRRS) __________________________135
[(3-E-a) Discussion] Sizing of the Cross Section ___________________________________136
[(3-E-a) Discussion] Static Analysis _____________________________________________136
[(3-E-a) Discussion] Area of Reinforcement for Flexure _____________________________136
[(3-E-a) Discussion] Exact Calculation of the Area of Reinforcement for Flexure _________137
[(3-E-a) Discussion] Shear Force Reinforcement ___________________________________138
[(3-E-a) Discussion] Anchorage Length __________________________________________138
[Note (3-E) b] Even Faster Track to Design _________________________________________139
[Section (3) F] Preparing the end term EXAM __________________________________________140
[Note (3-F) a] Requirements _____________________________________________________140
[(3-F-a) Discussion] The first 10 minutes _________________________________________140
[(3-F-a) Discussion] 10 to 20 minutes ___________________________________________141
[(3-F-a) Discussion] 20 minutes to 35 minutes _____________________________________142
[(3-F-a) Discussion] The last 25 minutes _________________________________________144
Concluding Remarks on Chapter Three __________________________________________________147
Appendix _________________________________________________________________________149
References ________________________________________________________________________213
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Contents List
Appendix _______________________________________________________________________149
[Appendix 1] Actions and loads arrangements __________________________________________151
[Appendix (1) A] Design life _____________________________________________________151
[Appendix (1) B] Variable actions _________________________________________________152
[Appendix (1) C] Service Limit States ______________________________________________161
[Appendix 2] Durability Requirements ________________________________________________162
[Appendix (2) A] Exposure Classes ________________________________________________162
[Appendix (2) B] Cement ________________________________________________________167
[Appendix (2) C] Concrete Cover _________________________________________________171
[Appendix 3] Materials Properties ___________________________________________________173
[Appendix (3) A] Concrete ______________________________________________________173
[Appendix (3) B] Steel __________________________________________________________175
[Appendix 4] Reinforcement ________________________________________________________177
[Appendix (4) A] Bars __________________________________________________________177
[Appendix (4) B] Welded Wires __________________________________________________178
[Appendix 5] Fire Resistance _______________________________________________________181
[Appendix (5) A] Slabs _________________________________________________________182
[Appendix (5) B] Beams ________________________________________________________186
[Appendix 6] Selected Service Requirements ___________________________________________189
[Appendix (6) A] Deflection Control without Calculation ______________________________189
[Appendix (6-A) a] Code Provisions ____________________________________________189
[Appendix (6-A) b] National Practice ____________________________________________191
[Appendix (6) B] Crack Control without Calculation __________________________________193
[Appendix (6-B) a] Stress Limitation ____________________________________________193
[Appendix (6-B) b] Crack Width Limitation ______________________________________194
[Appendix (6-B) c] Minimum Reinforcement Area _________________________________194
[Appendix (6-B) d] Size or Distance Limitation ____________________________________198
[Appendix 7] Design Tables ________________________________________________________199
[Appendix 8] Bond Requirements ____________________________________________________203
[Appendix 9] Shear Force Calculations _______________________________________________205
[Appendix (9) A] Shear Reduction in the Vicinity of Supports ___________________________205
[Appendix 10] Elementary diagrams for shear force and flexure ____________________________209
[Appendix 11] Beam reinforcement drawing ___________________________________________211
References ______________________________________________________________________213

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15

Manual for Advanced Design

Flexural Design

[Chapter 1] Flexural Design

The aims and objectives of the herein chapter may be summarized in the infra list:

Brief

introduction to the concepts of actions and loads as defined in the

Eurocodes;

Brief introduction to the design model of reinforced concrete members subjected to

flexure;

Adequate supplementary explanations as well as recommended practice provisions

related to the above.
Yielding, also referenced as ductility in the seismic action vocabulary, is the
property of materials such as steel to exhibit large plastic deformations thus in turn
allowing structural members, namely slabs, beams and columns to provide visual
pointers for the imminence of failure. Although there may be many requirements the
structural engineer has to accommodate within a structure, the fundamental criterion,
which may not explicitly be written down in all the design codes and the corresponding
provisions is the avoidance of loss of human lives. As this condition is always designed
for, there will be a line at which some trade-offs with the economic side of any
construction will come first so the structural engineer should use the so called
experience/self-judgement/etc. to decide the limits of the fore mentioned exchange.
It is well established that under the name fundamental combination of actions as
will be detailed here-after, the resistive capacity of any member is about two times the
maximum stress load that member may experience in its service life. Therefore there
are no pre-established limits for any trade-offs as mentioned in the previous paragraph.
Still, CAUTION IS ADVISED as there are possible un-designed for events, such as
explosions, impacts (special design hypothesises not usually taken in consideration in
current design practice for normal structures) and in some limits seismic action that
may put to work that very one-time reserve and therefore make the difference inbetween collapse and survival of the structure.
The reserve of resistive capacity makes the corresponding design, especially for
bending, rather straight forward if no special requirements impose specific conditions.
Since the yielding condition is usually satisfied, the corresponding design model for
bending hasnt changed since it was first proposed in the early 1930s by Charles
Whitney and any section that fulfils the strength condition will generally satisfy
ordinary service conditions as well.
The details presented in this chapter are relevant for the above reason for the so
called normal sections, slabs having a maximum thickness of [200 mm] and beams
having the height greater than the breadth up to an imposed limit (five times). Other
cases, flat slabs (thickness bigger than [200 mm]) or shallow beams (height smaller
that the breadth) or deep beams (height bigger than five times the breadth) are not
referenced here-in as such members are considered special and therefore not
currently used in usual applications.

[1]

[1]

Flexural Design

Manual for Advanced Design

16

[Section (1) A] Actions and Loads

It was considered appropriate to introduce those explanations here to underline both
the concept of actions and load arrangements as presented in the Eurocodes, see ( SR
EN 1990:2004/A1:2006), (SR EN 1991-1-1:2004/NA:2006) or [Appendix 1] Actions
and loads arrangements as well as the values considered in the worked example as
presented infra.
The term action(s) is used to express the various types of loads that may act on a
given structure. The most common are listed below:

[-] Permanent actions refer to actions for which the variation in magnitude with time
is negligible. This category consists of the self-weight of the
members/elements/other features resting or attached to the structural members (the
so called dead load). Partitioning that is/are unlikely to change positions over
long periods of time may be considered permanent. Other situations that create a
relatively fixed position of the action (i.e., mechanical devices or machines of
important weight) are also part of this category. In this book only the self-weight of
the structural members will be considered; Variable actions are those for which
the variation in magnitude is dependent on time. This category groups relatively all
other types of actions and are mainly given by specific functions of the structure
(the so called live loads) as well as by the location of the structure (climatic
actions such as wind, snow, volume changes, etc.). Only those imposed loads that
are specific of the current service life will be considered here-in;

[-] Accidental actions are actions of short duration but of significant magnitude that
may or may not occur on a given structure during the intended service life. This
category consists most frequently of seismic and fire action. Other cases may be
considered, depending on the specific functional requirements of the structure such
as accidental explosions, plane impacts, terrorist attacks, etc. Since this discussion
requires extensive explanations on dynamic loads and is beyond the intended
purpose of the current book, this aspect will not be considered next;

[-] Imposed deformations usually occur during the intended service life and are
frequently given by settlement of the subgrade (the soil under the foundations of
the structure) under the influence of internal and/or external factors, most often
because of water circulation or water season cycles in combination with poor
subgrade properties or because of temperature changes determined by a specific
function of the/or part of the structure. Since these usually occur locally in the
structure, the change in the footings level that affect columns may cause some
horizontal members (mainly beams and/or slabs) to develop local deformations that
affect first the usability of all affected members and may even permanently
negatively impact the structure. Special attention must therefore be given to the
subgrade properties and characteristics. Since this is beyond the intended purpose
of the current book, this aspect will not be considered here-in.
Each action is referred to by its characteristic value that in turn is defined by one of
the following alternatives:

[-] Mean value, generally used for permanent actions;

[-] An upper value with an intended probability of not being exceeded or a lower one
with an intended probability of being exceeded;

[-] A value with an intended probability of being achieved (normally used for variable
actions with known statistical distributions, such as wind or snow);

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Manual for Advanced Design

Flexural Design

[-] A nominal value that is used for some variable and accidental actions.
Furthermore, each variable action may be referred to by four representative values:

[-] THE PRINCIPAL REPRESENTATIVE VALUE Qk is the characteristic value

and this can be determined statistically or, where there is insufficient data, a
nominal value may be used;

[-] THE COMBINATION VALUE is obtained by applying the factor 0 to the

characteristic value thus giving 0 Qk and is intended to take into account the
reduced probability of the simultaneous occurrence of two or more variable
actions;

[-] THE FREQUENT VALUE is obtained by applying the factor 1 to the

characteristic value thus giving 1 Qk and is intended to take into account the
possibility of the characteristic value to be exceeded only for a short period of time
and is used primarily for the Serviceability Limit States (SLS) and also the
accidental load for the Ultimate Limit State (ULS);

[-] THE QUASI-PERMANENT VALUE is obtained by applying the factor 2 to

the characteristic value thus giving 2 Qk and is intended to take into account
the possibility of the characteristic value to be exceeded for a considerable period
of time; alternatively it may be considered as an average loading over time. It is
used for the long-term effects for the SLS and also accidental and seismic loads for
ULS;

Each of the above factors

is established based on semi-probabilistic methods

and is specific to every type of imposed loads. Further information on derivation of the

factors can be found in [Appendix C] of the Eurocode (SR EN 1990:2004).

[Note (1-A) a] Combinations of Actions

The term combination of actions is used to name the situation when, at different
limit states, various actions act together, case in which it is mandatory to establish the
magnitude of each of those actions. It should not be confused with load cases, a term
that refers to the arrangement of the variable actions to give the most unfavourable
conditions and may be consulted in the material Eurocodes, such as (SR EN
1990:2004).
To determine the adequate value of actions used in design several processes can be
used:

[-] Identify the design situation:

[x] Persistent: referring to conditions of normal use;
[x] Transient: referring to temporary conditions of the structure (i.e.,. during
construction or repair);

[x] Accidental: involving exceptional conditions of the structure or its exposure,

including fire, explosion, impact, etc.;

[x] Seismic: when the structure is subjected to a seismic event;

[1]

[1]

Flexural Design

Manual for Advanced Design

18

[-] Identify all realistic actions;

[x] Determine the partial factors for each applicable combination of actions;
[x] Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions.

Where

there is ONLY ONE VARIABLE ACTION (i.e., imposed load) in a

combination, the MAGNITUDE OF THE ACTIONS can be obtained by
MULTIPLYING them by the APPROPRIATE PARTIAL FACTORS. Where THERE
IS MORE THAN ONE VARIABLE ACTION in a combination, it is necessary to
identify

THE

LEADING

ACTION

ACCOMPANYING ACTIONS

Qk ,i

Qk ,1

(subscript

1)

and

OTHER

(subscript i). The ACCOMPANYING

ACTION is always taken as THE COMBINATION VALUE (defined in supra list).

[Note (1-A) b] Limit States

The Ultimate Limit State consists of the following categories:

[-] EQU (Equilibrium), Loss of Equilibrium of the structure. This situation may
appear in the case of a one span simply supported beam with an end overhang
WHEN ONLY the overhang is loaded, an unbalanced case load that CAN CAUSE
the opposite end of the beam to lift from its support if the support closer to the
overhang allows the beam to rotate freely;

[-] STR (Strength), Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or

structural member. This situation is the most common category and is the one to
be considered in this book;

[-] GEO (Geological), Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground. This
category should be considered when imposed deformations occur not based on a
temperature gradient but on a settlement of the subgrade as briefly presented supra;

[-] FAT (Fatigue), Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members. This
category should be considered whenever regular actions upon the structure have a
cyclic behaviour (i.e., heavy cutting machinery used in some industries to produce
the stock length of materials).

The different combinations for each of these Ultimate Limit States are presented in
[Appendix 1] Actions and loads arrangements as provided by the Eurocodes.

For persistent and transient design situations under the STR limit state, the Eurocode
defines three possible combinations, which are given in Expressions (6.10), (6.10a) and
(6.10b), see (SR EN 1990:2004). The engineer may use either (6.10) or the less
favourable of (6.10a) and (6.10b);

It may appear that there is considerably more calculation required to determine the
appropriate load combination. Still; with experience the engineer will be able to
determine this by inspection;

Expression (6.10) is always equal to or more conservative than the less favourable of
Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b). Expression (6.10b) will normally apply when the
permanent actions are not greater than 4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage
loads (category E) where Expression (6.10a) always applies). Therefore, for a typical
concrete frame building, Expression (6.10b) will give the most structurally economical
combination of actions;

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Manual for Advanced Design

Flexural Design

For members supporting one variable action the combination 1,35 Gk ,1 1,50 Qk ,1
derived from (Expression 6.10b) can be used to design the corresponding
reinforcement, should the permanent actions be smaller than 4,5 times the variable
actions (except for storage loads);

For the Serviceability Limit State care should be taken NOT TO CONFUSE THE
COMBINATIONS OF CHARACTERISTIC, FREQUENT AND
PERMANENT with the representative values that have the same titles.

QUASI-

[Section (1) B] Flexural Design Model

Knowledge in general and engineering in particular works with models that may be
considered to showcase the following levels of understanding:
[ 1 > The global level, at which one perceives everything as one unitary object (in
constructions, a structure);
[ 2 > The system level, at which one perceives the object to be compound of different
groups of elements (in constructions, all the members with similar functions, i.e.
the slabs, the beams or the columns);
[ 3 > The element level, at which one perceives a particular component (in
constructions, a slab, a beam, or a column);
[ 4 > The macroscopic level, at which one perceives the major structure of that
particular component (in constructions, in the case of reinforced concrete, the
cross section of a member as a compound section of concrete and reinforcement);
[ 5 > The microscopic level, at which one perceives the properties and interaction of
the different constituents (in constructions, in the case of concrete, the
constituents of the mix cement, aggregates, water, etc.);
[ 6 > The atomic level, at which one perceives the properties and interaction of atoms
(in constructions, in the case of concrete, yet to be established).
By only addressing the macroscopic level (4th) it is possible for the engineer to
predict the behaviour of the superior levels of knowledge (3rd, 2nd and 1st) in limits
deemed satisfactory. Of course, as knowledge progresses it is possible to minimize
those limits by use of advanced computer calculations or a more fundamental
approach, namely intuition. Please bear in mind that progress, technically speaking, is a
two-step process: it always starts with a brain-storm that should always be
accompanied by hard work.
Reinforced concrete is (as presented) subjected to the previous as well, that is why,
before all, its relevant to discuss the design process from a theoretical point of view,
by explaining the milestones in flexure, which is (generally speaking) a state of loading
in which the same cross section will have opposite stresses, of tension in one part and
in compression for the rest. The transition area in-between is called the neutral axis (nil
stress or better said very close to nil stress). Its position on the height of the cross
section is variable, depending on the values opposing maximum stresses reach.
Shear behaviour will be presented in the next chapter, [Chapter 2] Shear Force
Design.

[1]

[1]

Flexural Design

Manual for Advanced Design

20

[Note (1-B) a] Neutral Axis

In these authors opinion the design process in flexure is very interconnected with
the position of the neutral axis (height in compression) though the actual design seems
to provide no direct link to this, meaning this variable isnt as highlighted as others, for
most formulas are pairing the neutral axis with other variables (i.e., ductility condition
for plastic analysis presented in the third volume of this project).
In order to explain, the reader is invited to assume the position of a lab technician
on the point of testing a beam in flexure by gravitational loading (perpendicular to its
geometric longitudinal axis).
Also assume that:

[-] You have marked with vertical lines the lateral faces of your beam over its full
length;

[-] Pretend that each line/slice (therefore each cross section) may be extracted from the
beam itself without affecting the structural behaviour of the element, similar to the
way in which you may pick out from a book set your favourite book to read;

[-] In terms of stresses that develop during loading, name the effect of pushing
compression (consider it to be occurring on the front cover of the book) while
the effect of pulling tension (consider it to be occurring on the back cover of the
fore-mentioned book);

[-] At first, prior to the loading, there is nil stress in each and every point over the
height of the cross section. Since the neutral axis is only a limited area in the cross
section, its safe to asses that the neutral axis is outside of the cross section. Since
we assumed the loading to be gravitational in nature, that would mean that the
neutral axis is somewhere below the extreme lower fibre of the cross section.

[-] As the loading begins, the extreme lower part of the cross section will develop
tension stresses while the extreme upper part of the cross section will develop
compression stresses, in other words the neutral axis starts to move from the
extreme lower edge to the upper edge of the cross section, until the resistive
capacity of the cross section is reached.

[-] Failure will occur, theoretically, when the entire cross section will be in tension (a
ripping apart effect). In fact, for normal strength concrete, there will be a small
area at the top of the cross section that will crush under compression, therefore
causing the collapse.

[-] From a mechanical (static) point of view, that is the same with the element
becoming a mechanism with a hinge located at the top of the cross section. In this
case, the collapse is instantaneous (even under own weight).

[Note (1-B) b] Model Assumptions

Lets convert the beam described previously to the material we call reinforced
concrete. The present design model assumes that cracked concrete does not contribute
to the bearing capacity, although it is well known that between cracks, the bond of
concrete to steel leads to a reduction in the tensile stresses in the reinforcement. As the
concrete grade increases so does its tensile strength making it logical to assume that, in
some degree, the previous assumption may deflect the model from the actual
behaviour. Since this is still under debate, no further details will be provided here-in.

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Manual for Advanced Design

Flexural Design

Other assumptions used in the model are:

[ 1 > Concrete is considered to be on the brink of failure (the so called 3rd state);
[ 2 > Bernoullis hypothesis of plane sections and the compatibility of strains in
concrete and steel for the same fibre in the cross section;
[ 3 > Hookes Law allows for strains and stresses to be considered a ratio of the elastic
properties of the material;
[ 4 > The General Stress block for the compressed area of concrete is replaced by a
simplified rectangular stress block;
[ 5 > The reinforcement yields prior to the crushing of concrete.

[Note (1-B) c] Stress Block

In comparison with a uniaxial load, whether its compression or tension, flexure
determines different fibres over the height of the cross section to be subjected to
different stresses, not only as per value but also as per nature (compression on top of
the cross section and tension at the bottom in the case of gravitational loads). That is
why, although flexure can be considered an eccentric compression, the compressive
stress in concrete subjected to flexure is not the same as in pure compression.
First, in pure compression, all fibres are under about the same stress.

Testing has shown that there is a reduction in the stress value with the increase of the
distance from the centre of geometry of the sample to its edges (further details are
available in literature not cited here-in).

This

is not the case for flexure where eccentricity introduces variation in values,
some fibres being subjected to higher stresses than others. Therefore, different
longitudinal layers of fibres have a tendency to slip from each other.

This is in these authors opinion a positive effect as it will lead to:

[-] An increase in the strains an element can develop due to a decrease in the speed of
strain development over time;

[-] A delayed failure of concrete due to a roll-over mechanism which transmits the
stress from the fibres under the maximum effort to the less loaded fibres closer to
the neutral axis.
Second, the longitudinal splitting effect is in opposition with the compression stress
which will lead to a reduction in the amount of stress the most compressed fibres will
bear (further details are available in literature not cited here-in).
The calculation model for flexure consists of two ideal forces in mechanical
equilibrium, see [(1) Figure 1]:
[ 1 > A compressive force in concrete, C ;
[ 2 > A tensile force in the reinforcement, T ;
[ 3 > A lever arm in-between,

z.

[1]

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22

The resistive flexural capacity for a given cross section is written as:

M Rd C z T z

[1-1] with

C T

[1-2]

Since the final form of the above should be a formula for the area of reinforcement,
one should:

[-] Evaluate the compressive resultant:

[x] Establish a function for the stress variation based on strain values (which are
very easy to measure in experimental tests) such as:

Fc b

cu

[1-3] with

( )
0

( )

is the stress function of strains.

[x] Establish/find the limit for integration;

(1) Figure 1
Forces
in equilibrium

Cross section

Strain distribution

General stress block

(a) Assume the cross section to be rectangular:

(i) h is the height and b is the width;
(b) Selected parameters:
(i) x is the height in compression and d is the depth of the section.

Since the above is difficult to evaluate precisely, a simplified stress block replacing
the real distribution of stresses while being easier to evaluate was deemed necessary.
The substitution of one with the other is based on two conditions:

[-] The volume of stresses must be correctly evaluated;

[-] The position of the compression centroid in the real and simplified diagram must be
the same.
Those conditions are used to calculate two reduction coefficients, and .
The notations used in general with reinforced concrete and their meaning are presented
in [(1) Figure 2] and the subsequent list. The cross section is considered to be
rectangular both for the shapes simplicity and for the fact that this particular shape is
the most common in constructions.

Note(s)

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Flexural Design

With this model in mind, the previous equation may be re-written as:
[1-4]

C x fcd b

[1-5]

T Asl f yd

In (Expression [1-4]) terms have been grouped to outline the simplified stress block
while in (Expression [1-5]) subscripts dependent on the part of the cross section (lower
or upper) have been omitted to outline the formula for the resultant in the
reinforcement (whether in tension or compression).
(1) Figure 2
Design model
parameters

Cross section

Note(s)

Strain distribution

General stress
block

Simplified stress
block

(a) Concretes properties in compression given by its design strength

maximum strain in compression in concrete is denoted by

fcd

while the

cu ;

(b) Reinforcements properties in tension are given by its design d strength at yielding

f yd , also considered the maximum stress;

(c) Main reinforcement Asl ,1 as longitudinal l steel s bars in tension T , t placed
denoted

in the bottom part 1 of the cross section:

(i)

sl ,1 is the ultimate tensile strain;

(ii)

f st

is the stress when the reinforcement doesnt yield;

(iii) d1 is the axis distance from the extreme bottom fibre;

(d) Main reinforcement

Asl ,2 as longitudinal l

steel

bars in compression C , c

placed in the top part 2 of the cross section:

(i)

sl ,2 is the ultimate tensile strain;

(ii)

f sc

is the stress when the reinforcement doesnt yield;

(iii) d 2 is the axis distance from the extreme top fibre;

(e) Simplified stress block parameters are:
(i) Coefficient for reducing the maximum allowable compressive stress in concrete c :

1.00 if f ck 50MPa

as per [Expression 3.21; 3.22] in (SR
f ck 50
1 200 if 50 f ck 90MPa
EN 1992-1-1:2006);

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(ii) Coefficient for reducing the height in compression

24

x :

Note(s)

0.80 if f ck 50MPa

as per [Expression 3.19; 3.20] in
f ck 50
if 50 f ck 90MPa
0.8 400
same reference.

In addition, by writing equilibrium for the horizontal forces, the above (Expression
[1-4] and Expression [1-5]) give the height in compression as:

T C x

Asl f yd

[1-6]

b fcd

This may be used to calculate the position of the neutral axis x

ONLY after the

reinforcement has been calculated. Bear in mind that UNLESS OTHERWISE

STATED there is NO need to actually calculate the height in compression (further
guidance will be provided on the matter as described in subsequent sections).

[Section (1) C] Predesign Evaluation

The reader is advised to refer to the code provisions

(SR EN 1992-1-1:2006), (SR

EN 1992-1-2:2006) and the Appendixes at the end of this book to make use of the
Tables and other referenced information as indicated;

It is assumed that the maximum flexural moment M Ed

and the maximum shear

VEd are known so no information on static calculation is provided.

Any structure must fulfil two fundamental requirements:

[-] To be designed in such a manner that it does not collapse under normal loading
conditions, partially or totally, and that any partial collapse does not impair the
unaffected part of the structure causing a domino effect to bring the structure
down (to be therefore redundant), collectively named Ultimate Limit States
Design (ULSD);

[-] To be designed in such a manner that it does not impair on the intended use of that
structure, partially or totally, collectively named Service Limit States Design
(SLSD).
To address the first supra limit state its enough to provide for a cross section
defined primarily by its width and height

b h

the corresponding reinforcement.

Sizing of the cross section is subject to certain conditions, which will be detailed
herein. To address the second supra limit state its enough to check that the proposed
section fulfils additional requirements which in the case of RC members are deflection
and crack width. For Normal Strength Concrete, by obeying certain limitations as per
code provisions, a section proposed for ULSD will check for SLSD also. For this
reason SR EN 1992-1-1 states firmly that in all the cases when given limitations are
respected there is no need to check for SLSD conditions.

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Therefore the first step in any design is to propose a cross section which would
best provide safety by bearing the loads acting upon it and which is also economical
and easy to cast. That is why, today, as mankind struggles to find better management
plans for the depleting resources at our disposal, engineers in general and civil
engineers in particular are called upon to find ways unexplored before to achieve that
end (i.e. construction industry consumes about 40% of the overall energy produced
worldwide). In order to achieve SUSTAINABILITY (by its generalised meaning) its
primordial to insure DURABILITY for each member and therefore the structure itself.
DURABILITY is plainly said, the response of a member subjected to exposure
conditions due to climatic conditions (rain, snow, etc.) or processes (wanted or
accidental) which take place inside the structure or outside it that may negatively affect
steel or concrete. It is achieved by providing a minimum concrete cover to protect the
reinforcement from corrosion or the adverse effects of fire. Of course, the concrete
grade is the most important factor to be considered, as it will be explained herein.

Since exposure conditions pair up with fire safety conditions to impose a concrete
cover and even minimum dimensions for the cross section and are furthermore
generally valid the first answer in the previously proposed endeavour should be to
correctly calculate concrete cover.

Any cross section has (generally speaking) two types of reinforcement, for flexure
longitudinal to the axis of the member and for shear transverse to the same axis,
which means that there will be two types of concrete cover to be checked against the
required thickness.
(1) Figure 3
Concrete cover
parameters

Notations
Note(s)

Deviation(s) in placing

(a) The nominal concrete cover is cnom cmin cdev as per [Expression 4.1, 4.4.1.1] in (SR
EN 1992-1-1:2006);

(b) The minimum concrete cover is

cmin

cmin,b
max cmin,dur cdur , cdur , st cdur ,add ,
10 mm

as per [Expression 4.2, 4.4.1.2] in (SR EN 1992-1-1:2006) with:

(i) cmin,b [mm] is the concrete cover based on bond conditions [App. (2) Table 5];
(ii) cmin,dur [mm] is the concrete cover based on exposure condition [App. (2) Table 6];
(iii) cdur , [mm] is the safety cover, cdur , 0 mm ;
(iv) cdur , st [mm] is the reduction due to using stainless steel, cdur ,st 0 mm ;

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(v) cdur ,add

Manual for Advanced Design

[mm]

is

the

reduction

due

to

additional

concrete

26

protection,

Note(s)

cdur ,add 0 mm ;
(vi) cdev [mm] is the deviation (tolerances) in actual pouring.

The following design workflow may prove useful:

[ 1 > Exposure conditions are explained in:
[ a > (SR EN 1992-1-1:2006, pp. 43-48) or [Appendix (2) C] Concrete Cover;
[ b > Recommended values for pre-design purposes: exposure conditions XC2 and
structural class, S4;
[ 2 > Choose the material (concrete and steel grade), if no values are imposed:
[ a > (SR EN 1992-1-1:2006, pp. 24-42 and 190-191) or [Appendix 3] Materials
Properties;
[ b > Recommended values for pre-design purposes: C30/37 for concrete and S500
for steel;
[ 3 > Choose the steel bar size (herein diameter will be referred to by size to
account for deformed bars that have ribs outside their diameter as opposed to
plain bars):
[ a > Recommended values:
[ i > sl ,max 6 [mm] for slabs;
[ ii > sl ,max 25 [mm] for beams;
[ iii > sl ,max 28 [mm] for columns;
[ iv > sw 8 [mm] 6 12 (14) [ mm] for stirrups;

[ 4 > Calculate nominal concrete cover for both stirrups cnom,sw and the longitudinal

reinforcement cnom,sl ;
[ 5 > Calculate design concrete cover (see previous [(1) Figure 3]):

cv max

cnom,sw
cnom,sl sw

[ 6 > Check if design concrete cover is at least the minimum cover after casting:
cv cmin,dur cdev

[Note (1-C) a] Sizing of the Cross Section

It is well known that a board set flat over two supports will bend downward when
pressed upon in direct ratio to the height of the board. Therefore, it is necessary to
avoid excessive deflections. This condition and other requirements as presented in the
subsequent list:
[ 1 > Rigidity conditions (see [Appendix 6] Selected Service Requirements);
[ 2 > Fire safety conditions (see [Appendix 5] Fire Resistance);

[1-7]

[1-8]

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[ 3 > Technological conditions (usually likely expressed as span-to-depth ratios).

(1) Table 1

Recommended
Slab Thickness
Note

Slab thickness
60 [mm] for roofs

80 [mm] for industrial structures

70 [mm] for civil structures

100 [mm] for pavements

(1) The indicated values are minimal. In actual practice higher values should be cast.

Similar

conditions applied to beams will lead to establishing the height of the cross

section h as a multiple of [50 mm] if the result is less than [800 mm] or as a multiple of
[100 mm] otherwise. The width of the cross section b is also a multiple of [50/100
mm] accordingly.
Height-to-width ratios

(1) Table 2

Recommended
height-to-width
ratios

1,5 h/b 3,0

for rectangular sections

2,0 h/b 4,0

for tee sections
bmin 200 [mm]

The above are true for members with no connections to other structural/non-structural
members that may prevent the member to fall over prior to fixing in its final position in
the structure (mainly precast elements). This is ALWAYS a transitory state for precast
members; more details are available in (KISS & ONE, 2010, pp. 332-342);

For

all other members a thinner web is recommended

h b 3

as for reinforced

concrete members the height is more relevant to design than the width. Still, a maximum
ratio should be h b 5 because a higher ratio may lead to a cross section too thin to
withstand shear or in danger of developing lateral buckling or to a particular type of
beam, the so called deep beam which has other reinforcement particularities because of
the specific development of principal stresses. This should be avoided as the best solution
(section and corresponding reinforcement) should be reached in one run (with the first
chosen section).
After calculating the concrete cover and establishing the dimensions for the cross
section, design may proceed to the main step, design of the corresponding reinforcement,
first for flexure and second for shear force.

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