RE-BUILDING OF DIESEL

ENGINE

RE-BUILDING OF DIESEL ENGINE

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN MARINE
ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY
MIDHUN CHANDRAN
NIJEESH VALIYAPURAKKAL JANARDHANAN
ROSHAN K PAUL
SALJO JOSE VADAKKETHALA
SHARON MOORAYIL SADANANDAN
SUDHIN SREENIVASAN
SUGEETH KALLAYIL SURESH
GOPIKRISHNAN SURESH KUMAR
VISHNU SUNIL KUMAR

PROJECT GUIDE
PRAMOD K.B

HOD
JOHNS KURIAN [CHIEF ENGINEER]

EUROTECH MARITIME ACADEMY, 9328A

YASHWANTRAO CHAVAN MAHARASHTRA
OPEN UNIVERSITY

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND..5
1.2 NEED OF WORK6
1.3 BRIEF IDEA..7

2. SYSTEM OVERVIEW AND DESIGN

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION..9
2.2 DESIGN PARAMETERS..12

3. MODULE DESIGN
3.1 INDIVIDUAL PARTS...15
3.2 ISUZU ENGINES...61
3.3 ISUZU ENGINE RE-BUILDING PROCEDURE.71

4.
CONCLUSION
.83

5.
REFERENCE
..84

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
FIRST OF ALL WE WOULD LIKE TO EXPRESS OUR
SINCERE GRATITUDE AND THANKS TO OUR GOD
ALMIGHTY, WHOSE BLESSINGS AND GRACE ALWAYS
BEEN THERE WITH US FOR THE SUCCESSFUL
COMPLETION OF THIS PROJECT.WE ALSO FEEL THAT, IT
IS RIGHT OPPORTUNITY TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE
SUPPORT AND GUIDANCE THAT THAT COME IN THE
FORM OF VARIOUS QUARTERS DURING THE COURSE
OFCOMPLETION OF OUR PROJECT.
WE ARE EXTREMELY GRATEFUL TO OUR PRINCIPAL
CAPTAIN. VINOD NAVEEN FOR PERMITTING US TO DO
THIS PROJECT.
WE AVAIL THIS OPPORTUNITY TO EXPRESS WHOLE
HEARTED GRATITUDE TO MR. JOHNS KURIAN, HOD OF
MARINE ENGINEERING AND MR. PRASANTH FOR THEIR
COORDINATION IN OUR ENDEAVOR. WE WOULD ALSO
LIKE TO EXPRESS OUR THANKS TO MR. PRAMOD K.B FOR
HIS GUIDANCE AND MOTIVATION IN THE SUCCESSFUL
COMPLETION OF THE PROJECT RE-BUILDING OF DIESEL
ENGINE
WE ARE ALSO THANKFUL TO ALL THE FACULTY MEMBERS
AND STAFFS FOR PROVIDING VALUABLE SUPPORT IN
THIS PROJECT.LAST BUT NOT THE LEAST, WE EXPRESS
OUR SINCERE THANKS TO ALL OUR FRIENDS WHO GIVE
US EXTREME SUPPORT FOR COMPLETION OF THIS
PROJECT.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The diesel engine is a technical refinement of the 1876 Otto cycle
engine. Where Otto has realized in 1861 that the efficiency of the
engine could be increased by first compressing the fuel mixture
prior to its ignition, Rudolph Diesel wanted to develop a more
efficient type of engine that could run on much heavier fuel. The
Lenoir, Otto Atmospheric, and Otto Compression engines (both
1861 and 1876) were designed to run on Illuminating Gas (coal
gas). With the same motivation as Otto, Diesel, wanted to create
an engine that would give small industrial concerns their own
power source to enable them to compete against larger
companies, and like Otto to get away from the requirement to be
tied to a municipal fuel supply. Like Otto, it took more than a
decade to produce the high compression engine that could selfignite fuel sprayed into the cylinder. Diesel used an air spray
combined with fuel in his first engine.
During initial development, one of the engines burst nearly killing
Diesel. He persisted and finally created an engine in 1893. The
high compression engine, which ignites its fuel by the heat of
compression is now called the Diesel engine whether a fourstroke or two-stroke design.
The four stroke diesel engine has been used in the majority of
heavy duty applications for many decades. Chief among the
reasons for this is that it uses a heavy fuel that contains more
energy, requires less refinement, and is cheaper to make
(although in some areas of the world diesel fuel costs more than
gasoline). The most efficient Otto cycle engine runs near 30%
efficiency. Some of the modern engines have more efficiency. It
uses an advanced design with turbo charging and direct fuel
injection. Some B&W ship Diesels with ceramic insulation have
exceeded 60% efficiency.

1.2 NEED OF WORK

The prime requirement for the ships propulsion
machinery and power generation are reliability, safety
and efficiency. Much of the factors have its origin from
manufactures skill relating to design, proceeding
techniques and material specifications. The efficient
maintenance of performance is another concern of
engineers.
Traditionally ships maintenance has been to prevent
breakdown rather than rectification following the
breakdown. The ship board machinery has become a
little more sophisticated today than ever before. One
must realize that condition of working has regards for
temperature, stress, power, velocity and vibration, noise
flow, handling of combustible material and so ones more
extreme. From these facts it is clear that more careful
examinations are required periodically covering vast
number of items in order to prevent awkward failure of
machinery. The systematic maintenances period of
important machinery parts may be made overlapping
and simultaneously with 5 years survey cycle.
Maintenance should include documentation of
observation and measurement noting defects, wear
down rate etc for correct prediction of service life.

1.3 BRIEF IDEA

A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an
internal combustion engine in which the piston
completes for separate strokes- intake, compression,
power, and exhaust- during two separate revolutions of
the engines crankshaft, and one single thermodynamic
cycle. There are two common types of four-stroke
engines. They are closely related to each other, but have
major differences in design and behavior. The earliest of
these to be developed is the Otto cycle engine developed
in 1876 by Nicholas August Otto in Cologne, Germany,
after the operation principle described by Alphonse Beau
de Rochas in 1861. This engine is most often referred to
as a petrol engine or gasoline engine, after the fuel that
powers it. The second type of four-stroke engine is the
Diesel engine developed in 1893 by Rudolph Diesel, also
of Germany. Diesel created his engine to improve
efficiency compared with the Otto engine. There are
several major differences between the Otto cycle engine
and the four-stroke diesel engine. The diesel engine is
made in both a two-stroke and a four-stroke version.
Ottos company, Duetz AG, now primarily produces
diesel engines. The Otto cycle is named after the 1876
engine of Nicholas A. Otto, who built a successful fourstroke engine based on the work of Jean Joseph Etienne
Lenoir. It was the third engine type that Otto developed.
It used a sliding flame gateway for the ignition of its
fuel- a mixture of illuminating gas and air.

1. INTAKE stroke: on the intake or induction stroke of

the piston, the piston descends from the top of the
cylinder to the bottom, increasing the volume of the
cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air, or just air in a diesel
engine, is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure
into the cylinder through the intake port. The intake
valve(s) then closes. The volume of air/fuel mixture that
is drawn into the cylinder, relative to the maximum
volume of the cylinder, is called the volumetric of the
engine.

2. COMPRESSION stroke: with both intake and

exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of
the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into
the combustion chamber of the cylinder head. During
the compression stroke the temperature of the air or
fuel-air mixture rises by several hundred degrees.

3. POWER stroke: this is the start of the second

revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close to Top
Dead Center, the compressed air-fuel mixture in a
gasoline engine is ignited, usually by a spark plug, or
fuel is injected into a diesel engine, which ignites due to
the heat generated in the air during the compression
stroke. The resulting pressure from the combustion of
the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back
down towards Bottom Dead Center.

4. EXHAUST stroke: during the exhaust stroke, the

piston once again returns to Top Dead Center while the
exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuelair mixture through the exhaust valve(s).

SYSTEM OVERVIEW AND DESIGN

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Diesel Engine Stroke Cycle
Diesel and gasoline engines can be designed to operate
on a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle. Each stroke
in the cycle corresponds to the up or down movement of
the piston within the cylinder . Four-cycle gasoline and
diesel engines use four piston strokes to complete one
operating cycle- one stroke each for intake,
compression, power and exhaust using only two piston
stroke, one Upward and one downward.
Virtually all high horse power gasoline engines are fourcycle engines. Two-cycle gasoline engines are used
primarily for power tools, lawn and garden equipment
chain saws, outboard boat motors, and other relatively
light-duty applications. In contrast, both two and fourcycle diesel engines can be used in high horsepower
applications. All modern on-highway diesel engines are
now four-cycle engines. Two-cycle diesel engines are
popular in marine, power generation, and industrial
applications. In a two-cycle Diesel engine, intake and
compression occur on the upward piston stroke, while
power and exhaust occur during the downward piston
stroke. Diesel engines are also more efficient than
gasoline.

TWO STROKE CYCLE TIMING DIAGRAM

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE TIMING DIAGRAM

2.2 DESIGN PARAMETERS

Four-stroke cycle
The four-stroke cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston,
or two revolutions of the crankshaft. In order to operate this
cycle the engine requires a mechanism to open and close the
inlet and exhaust valves. Consider the piston at the top of its
stroke, a position known as top dead centre (TDC). The inlet valve
opens and fresh air is drawn in as the piston moves down. At the
bottom of the stroke, i.e. bottom dead centre (BDC), the inlet
valve closes and the air in the cylinder is compressed (and
consequently raised in temperature) as the piston rises. Fuel is
injected as the piston reaches top dead centre and combustion
takes place, producing very high pressure in the gases. The
piston is now forced down by these gases and at the bottom dead
centre the exhaust valve opens. The final stroke is the exhausting
of the burnt gases as the piston rises to top dead centre to
complete the cycle. The four distinct strokes are known as 'inlet'
(or suction), 'compression', 'power' (or working stroke) and
'exhaust'. These events are shown diagrammatically on a timing
diagram. The angle of the crank at which each operation takes
place is shown as well as the period of the operation in degrees.
This diagram is more correctly representative of the actual cycle
than the simplified explanation given in describing the fourstroke cycle. For different engine designs the different angles will
vary, but the diagram is typical.

TWO-STROKE CYCLE
The two-stroke cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or
one revolution of the crankshaft. In order to operate this cycle
where each event is accomplished in a very short time, the
engine requires a number of special arrangements. First, the
fresh air must be forced in under pressure. The incoming air is
used to clean out or scavenge the exhaust gases and then to fill
or charge the space with fresh air. Instead of valves holes, known
as 'ports', are used which are opened and closed by the sides of
the piston as it moves.
Consider the piston at the top of its stroke where fuel injection
and
combustion have just taken place. The piston is forced down on
its working stroke until it uncovers the exhaust port. The burnt
gases then begin to exhaust and the piston continues down until
it opens the inlet or scavenge port . Pressurised air then enters
and drives out the remaining exhaust gas. The piston, on its
return stroke, closes the inlet and exhaust ports. The air is then

compressed as the piston moves to the top of its stroke to

complete the cycle. A timing diagram for a two-stroke engine is
shown in Figure 2.4. The opposed piston cycle of operations is a
special case of the two-stroke cycle. Beginning at the moment of
fuel injection, both pistons are forced apartone up, one down
by the expanding gases. The upper piston opens the exhaust
ports as it reaches the end of its travel. The lower piston, a
moment or two later, opens the scavenge ports to charge the
cylinder with fresh air and remove the final traces of exhaust gas.
Once the pistons reach their extreme points they both begin to
move inward. This closes off the scavenge and exhaust ports for
the compression stroke to take place prior to fuel injection and
combustion. This cycle is used in the Doxford engine, which is no
longer manufactured although
many are still in operation.

MODULE DESIGN
3.1 INDIVIDUAL PARTS
CYLINDER HEADS
In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder
head (often informally abbreviated to just head) sits
above the cylinders on top of the cylinder block. It
closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the combustion
chamber. This joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most
engines, the head also provides space for the passages
that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, and that allow the
exhaust to escape. The head can also be a place to
mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors.
In a flathead or side valve engine, the mechanical parts
of the valve train are all contained within the block, and
the head is essentially a metal plate bolted to the top of
the block; this simplification avoids the use of moving
parts in the head and eases manufacture and repair, and
accounts for the flathead engine's early success in
production automobiles and continued success in small
engines, such as lawnmowers. This design, however,
requires the incoming air to flow through a convoluted
path, which limits the ability of the engine to perform at
higher revolutions per minute (rpm), leading to the
adoption of the overhead valve (OHV) head design, and
the subsequent overhead camshaft (OHC) design.
Internally, the cylinder head has a design. The cylinder
head contains the poppet valves and the spark plugs,
along with tracts or 'ports' for the inlet and exhaust
gases. The operation of the valves is initiated by the
engine's camshaft, which is sited within the cylinder
block, and its moment of operation is transmitted to the
valves pushrods, and then rocker arms mounted on a

rocker shaft - the rocker arms and shaft also being

located within the cylinder head.
In the overhead camshaft (OHC) design, the cylinder
head contains the valves, spark plugs and inlet/exhaust
tracts just like the OHV engine, but the camshaft is now
also contained within the cylinder head. The camshaft
may be seated centrally between each offset row of inlet
and exhaust valves, and still also utilizing rocker arms
(but without any pushrods), or the camshaft may be
seated directly above the valves eliminating the rocker
arms and utilizing 'bucket' tappets.
The number of cylinder heads in an engine is a function
of the engine configuration. Almost all inline (straight)
engines today use a single cylinder head that serves all
the cylinders. A V (or Vee) engine has two cylinder
heads, one for each cylinder bank of the 'V'. For a few
compact 'narrow angle' V engines, such as
the Volkswagen VR6, the angle between the cylinder
banks is so narrow that it uses a single head spanning
the two banks. A flat engine (basically a V engine, where
the angle between the cylinder banks is now 180) has
two heads. Most radial engines have one head for each
cylinder, although this is usually of the mono bloc form
wherein the head is made as an integral part of the
cylinder. This is also common for motorcycles, and such
head/cylinder components are referred-to as barrels.
Passages called ports or tracts for the fuel/air mixture
to travel to the inlet valves from the intake manifold
and for exhaust gases to travel from the exhaust valves
to the exhaust manifold. In a water-cooled engine, the
cylinder head also contains integral ducts and passages
for the engines' coolant - usually a mixture of water
and antifreeze - to facilitate the transfer of excess heat
away from the head, and therefore the engine in
general.

In the overhead valve (OHV)

Some engines, particularly medium- and largecapacity diesel engines built for industrial, marine,
power generation, and heavy traction purposes
(large trucks, locomotives, heavy equipment etc.) have
individual cylinder heads for each cylinder. This reduces
repair costs as a single failed head on a single cylinder
can be changed instead of a larger, much more
expensive unit fitting all the cylinders. Such a design
also allows engine manufacturers to easily produce a
'family' of engines of different layouts and/or cylinder
numbers without requiring new cylinder head designs.
The design of the cylinder head is key to the
performance and efficiency of the internal combustion
engine, as the shape of the combustion chamber, inlet
passages and ports (and to a lesser extent the exhaust)
determines a major portion of the volumetric
efficiency and compression ratio of the engine.

PISTONS
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines,
reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic
cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is
made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose
is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to
the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod.
In a pump, the function is reversed and force is
transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the
purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the
cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as
a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder
wall.
The piston of an internal combustion engine is acted
upon by the pressure of the expanding combustion

gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the

cylinder. This force then acts downwards through
the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The
connecting rod is attached to the piston by a
swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is
mounted within the piston: unlike the steam engine,
there is no piston rod or crosshead (except big two
stroke engines).
The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the
piston, but free to move in the connecting rod. A few
designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both
components. All pins must be prevented from moving
sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the
cylinder wall, usually by circlips.
Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These
are a number of narrow iron rings, fitted loosely into
grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings
are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press
against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two
types of ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces
and provide gas sealing; lower rings have narrow edges
and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are
many proprietary and detail design features associated
with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better
strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may
be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but
there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a
lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that
could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was
necessary to develop new alloys such as Y
alloy and Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.
A few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but
otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine
pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US

submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the

infamously unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-stroke
diesel engine. Although compact, for use in a cramped
submarine, this design of engine was not repeated.

CYLINDER LINERS
The cylinder liner of a small automobile might not look
much different from a tumbler in which you drink water,
but when it comes to ships, the cylinder liner is big
enough that two thin people can inside it
simultaneously. Just read and see this important
component here.
Basically the cylinder liner is a hollow cylindrical shell
which acts as the enclosure in which the combustion
takes place. Of course the word hollow does not imply
that it is weak in strength for it is under the fluid
pressure due to combustion and hence must withstand
the high level of hoop stress induced in it.
Another factor is the big temperature difference on the
outside and inside (being in proximity of the combustion
chamber) of the liner which tends to induce thermal
stresses and the liner has to withstand those as well.
Apart from the liner surface is also resistant to wear and
corrosion.
Given the stringent requirements of strength and anticorrosion property and provide a good surface for the
piston rings to slide along its length, Cast Iron is the
most widely used material mainly because of its
lubricating properties which is a result of graphite
present in its micro-structure.
Cast Iron is also porous in nature and this helps to
prevent or minimize the risk of seizure of the piston
during its operation and also is a remedial measure
against extensive galling which takes place during
piston motion.

Yet CI is not strong enough a material so it is not used

in its pure form but alloyed with small quantities of
elements such as Chromium, Copper or Nickel and such
alloying is of the order of 5%.
Construction is done either by centrifugal casting in case
of smaller liners and sand casting in case of larger
liners. The inner surface of the cylinder liner is usually
chrome plated to make it smooth but this smoothness
also has its drawback that it does not allow oil to spread
out properly thus affecting liner lubrication in a negative
manner. This was rectified to a certain degree through
the use of porous chrome honing.

CAMSHAFT
A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of
which a cam forms an integral part. An early cam was
built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd
century BC. The camshaft was later described
in Iraq (Mesopotamia) by Al-Jazari in 1206. He
employed it as part of his automata, water-raising
machines, and water clocks such as the castle clock. The
cam and camshaft later appeared in European
mechanisms from at least the 14th century, or possibly
earlier. Camshafts can be made out of several different
types of material. These include:
Chilled iron castings: this is a good choice for high
volume production. A chilled iron camshaft has a
resistance against wear because the camshaft lobes
have been chilled, generally making them harder. When
making chilled iron castings, other elements are added
to the iron before casting to make the material more
suitable for its application.
Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft is required,
engine builders and camshaft manufacturers choose to
make the camshaft from steel billet. This method is also
used for low volume production. This is a much more
time consuming process, and is generally more
expensive than other methods. However the finished
product is far superior. When making the
camshaft, CNC lathes, CNC milling machines and CNC
camshaft grinders will be used. Different types of steel
bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When
manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft
will also be heat treated via gas nitriding, which changes
the micro-structure of the material. It gives a surface
hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of camshafts can be
used in high-performance engines.

The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft

and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical
importance. Since the valves control the flow of the
air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, they must be
opened and closed at the appropriate time during the
stroke of the piston. For this reason, the camshaft is
connected to the crankshaft either directly, via
a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called
a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is
unusual because the frequently reversing torque caused
by the slope of the cams tends to quickly wear out gear
teeth. Where gears are used, they tend to be made from
resilient fibre rather than metal, except in racing
engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre
gears have a short life span and must be replaced
regularly, much like a timing belt. In some designs the
camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil and fuel
pumps. Some vehicles may have the power steering
pump driven by the camshaft. With some early fuel
injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate
the fuel injectors.
An alternative used in the early days of OHC engines
was to drive the camshaft(s) via a vertical shaft with
bevel gears at each end. This system was, for example,
used on the pre-WW1 Peugeot and Mercedes Grand Prix
cars. Another option was to use a triple eccentric with
connecting rods; these were used on certain W.O.
Bentley-designed engines and also on the Leyland Eight.
In a two-stroke engine that uses a camshaft, each valve
is opened once for each rotation of the crankshaft; in
these engines, the camshaft rotates at the same speed
as the crankshaft. In a four-stroke engine, the valves
are opened only half as often; thus, two full rotations of
the crankshaft occur for each rotation of the camshaft.
The timing of the camshaft can be advanced to produce
better low RPM torque, or retarded for better high RPM

power. Either of these moves the overall power

produced by the engine down or up the RPM scale
respectively. The amount of change is very little (usually
< 5 deg), and affects valve to piston clearances.
Duration is the number of crankshaft degrees of engine
rotation during which the valve is off the seat. As a
generality, greater duration results in more horsepower.
The RPM at which peak horsepower occurs is typically
increased as duration increases at the expense of lower
rpm efficiency (torque). Duration can often be confusing
because manufacturers may select any lift point to
advertise a camshaft's duration and sometimes will
manipulate these numbers. The power and idle
characteristics of a camshaft rated at .006" will be much
different than one rated the same at .002".
Many performance engine builders gauge a race profile's
aggressiveness by looking at the duration at .020", .
050" and .200". The .020" number determines how
responsive the motor will be and how much low
end torque the motor will make. The .050" number is
used to estimate where peak power will occur, and the .
200" number gives an estimate of the power potential.
A secondary effect of increased duration is
increasing overlap, which is the number of crankshaft
degrees during which both intake and exhaust valves
are off their seats. It is overlap which most affects idle
quality, inasmuch as the "blow-through" of the intake
charge which occurs during overlap reduces engine
efficiency, and is greatest during low RPM operation. In
reality, increasing a camshaft's duration typically
increases the overlap event, unless one spreads lobe
centers between intake and exhaust valve lobe profiles.
he camshaft "lift" is the resultant net rise of the valve
from its seat. The further the valve rises from its seat
the more airflow can be released, which is generally

more beneficial. Greater lift has some limitations.

Firstly, the lift is limited by the increased proximity of
the valve head to the piston crown and secondly greater
effort is required to move the valve's springs to higher
state of compression. Increased lift can also be limited
by lobe clearance in the cylinder head construction, so
higher lobes may not necessarily clear the framework of
the cylinder head casing. Higher valve lift can have the
same effect as increased duration where valve overlap is
less desirable.
Higher lift allows accurate timing of airflow; although
even by allowing a larger volume of air to pass in the
relatively larger opening, the brevity of the typical
duration with a higher lift cam results in less airflow
than with a cam with lower lift but more duration, all
else being equal. On forced induction motors this higher
lift could yield better results than longer duration,
particularly on the intake side. Notably though, higher
lift has more potential problems than increased
duration, in particular as valve train rpm rises which can
result in more inefficient running or loss of torque.
Cams that have too high a resultant valve lift, and at
high rpm, can result in what is called "valve bounce",
where the valve spring tension is insufficient to keep the
valve following the cam at its apex. This could also be as
a result of a very steep rise of the lobe and short
duration, where the valve is effectively shot off the end
of the cam rather than have the valve follow the cams
profile. This is typically what happens on a motor over
rev. This is an occasion where the engine rpm exceeds
the engine maximum design speed. The valve train is
typically the limiting factor in determining the maximum
rpm the engine can maintain either for a prolonged
period or temporarily. Sometimes an over rev can cause
engine failure where the valve stems become bent as a
result of colliding with the piston crowns.

Depending on the location of the camshaft, the cams

operate the valves either directly or through a linkage of
pushrods and rockers. Direct operation involves a
simpler mechanism and leads to fewer failures, but
requires the camshaft to be positioned at the top of the
cylinders. In the past when engines were not as reliable
as today this was seen as too much bother, but in
modern gasoline engines the overhead cam system,
where the camshaft is on top of the cylinder head, is
quite common.
While today some cheaper engines rely on a single
camshaft per cylinder bank, which is known as a single
overhead camshaft (SOHC), most modern engine
designs (theoverhead-valve or OHV engine being largely
obsolete on passenger vehicles), are driven by a two
camshafts per cylinder bank arrangement (one camshaft
for the intake valves and another for the exhaust
valves); such camshaft arrangement is known as
a double or dual overhead cam (DOHC), thus, a V
engine, which has two separate cylinder banks, may
have four camshafts (colloquially known as a quad-cam
engine).
More unusual is the modern W engine (also known as a
'VV' engine to distinguish itself from the pre-war W
engines) that has four cylinder banks arranged in a "W"
pattern with two pairs narrowly arranged with a 15degree separation. Even when there are four cylinder
banks (that would normally require a total of eight
individual camshafts), the narrow-angle design allows
the use of just four camshafts in total. For the Bugatti
Veyron, which has a 16-cylinder W engine configuration,
all the four camshafts are driving a total of 64 valves.
The overhead camshaft design adds more valvetrain
components that ultimately incur in more complexity
and higher manufacturing costs, but this is easily offset
by many advantages over the older OHV design: multi-

valve design, higher RPM limit and design freedom to

better place valves, ignition (Spark-ignition engine) and
intake/exhaust ports.
The rockers or cam followers sometimes incorporate a
mechanism to adjust and set the valve play through
manual adjustment, but most modern auto engines
have hydraulic lifters, eliminating the need to adjust the
valve lash at regular intervals as the valvetrain wears,
and in particular the valves and valve seats in
the combustion chamber.
Sliding friction between the surface of the cam and the
cam follower which rides upon it is considerable. In
order to reduce wear at this point, the cam and follower
are both surface hardened, and modern lubricant motor
oils contain additives specifically to reduce sliding
friction. The lobes of the camshaft are usually slightly
tapered, causing the cam followers or valve lifters to
rotate slightly with each depression, and helping to
distribute wear on the parts. The surfaces of the cam
and follower are designed to "wear in" together, and
therefore when either is replaced, the other should be as
well to prevent excessive rapid wear. In some engines,
the flat contact surfaces are replaced with rollers, which
eliminate the sliding friction and wear but adds mass to
the valvetrain.
Camshaft bearings are similar to crankshaft main
bearings, being pressure-fed with oil. However, OHC
camshaft bearings do not always have
replaceable bearing shells, meaning that a new cylinder
head is required if the bearings suffer wear due to
insufficient or dirty oil.

CRANKSHAFT
The crankshaft, sometimes abbreviated to crank, is
responsible for conversion between reciprocating

motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine,

it translates reciprocating linear piston motion into
rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating
compressor, it converts the rotational motion into
reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion
between two motions, the crankshaft has "crank
throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces
whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the
"big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder
attach.
It is typically connected to a flywheel to reduce the
pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and
sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the
opposite end, to reduce the torsional vibrations often
caused along the length of the crankshaft by the
cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the
torsional elasticity of the metal.
Large engines are usually multi-cylinder to reduce
pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than
one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small
engines, such as those found in mopeds or garden
machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single
piston, simplifying crankshaft design. This engine can
also be built with no riveted seam.
The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates,
typically with several bearing journals riding on
replaceable bearings (the main bearings) held in the
engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal
of sideways load from each cylinder in a multicylinder
engine, it must be supported by several such bearings,
not just one at each end. This was a factor in the rise
of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, in
preference to straight-8 engines. The long crankshafts
of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of
flex when engine designers began using
higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds.

High performance engines often have more main

bearings than their lower performance cousins for this
reason. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it
rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on
replaceable bearings (the main bearings) held in the
engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal
of sideways load from each cylinder in a multicylinder
engine, it must be supported by several such bearings,
not just one at each end. This was a factor in the rise
of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, in
preference to straight-8 engines. The long crankshafts
of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of
flex when engine designers began using
higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds.
High performance engines often have more main
bearings than their lower performance cousins for this
reason.
Crankshafts can be monolithic (made in a single piece)
or assembled from several pieces. Monolithic
crankshafts are most common, but some smaller and
larger engines use assembled crankshafts.

THE MAIN AND BIG-END BEARINGS

The main and big-end bearings consist of indium-plated
lead-bronze lined, steel shells. These bearings are
precision manufactured and are ready for fitting.

CONNECTING RODS
In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting
rod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft.
Together with the crank, they form a simple mechanism
that converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion.
Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into
reciprocating motion. Historically, before the

development of engines, they were first used in this

way.
As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a
push or a pull and so the rod may rotate the crank
through both halves of a revolution, i.e. piston pushing
and piston pulling. Earlier mechanisms, such as chains,
could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines, the
connecting rod is only required to push.
Today, connecting rods are best known through their
use in internal combustion piston engines, such
as automotive engines. These are of a distinctly different
design from earlier forms of connecting rods, used in
steam engines and steam locomotives.
The earliest evidence for a connecting rod appears in the
late 3rd century AD Roman Hierapolis saw mill. It also
appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman saw
mills excavated at Ephesus and Gerasa. The crank and
connecting rod mechanism of these Roman
watermills converted the rotary motion of the
waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades.
Sometime between 1174 and 1206, the Arab
inventor and engineer Al-Jazari described a machine
which incorporated the connecting rod with
a crankshaft to pump water as part of a water-raising
machine, but the device was unnecessarily complex
indicating that he still did not fully understand the
concept of power conversion.
In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a albeit
mechanically misunderstood compound crank and
connecting-rod is found in the sketch books
of Taccola. A sound understanding of the motion
involved displays the painter Pisanello (d. 1455) who
showed a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and
operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods.

By the 16th century, evidence of cranks and connecting

rods in the technological treatises and artwork
of Renaissance Europe becomes abundant; Agostino
Ramelli's The Diverse and Artifactitious Machines of
1588 alone depicts eighteen examples, a number which
rises in the Theatrum Machinarum Novum by Georg
Andreas Bckler to 45 different machines.
In modern automotive internal combustion engines, the
connecting rods are most usually made of steel for
production engines, but can be made of T6-2024 and
T651-7075 aluminum alloys (for lightness and the ability
to absorb high impact at the expense of durability)
or titanium (for a combination of lightness with
strength, at higher cost) for high performance engines,
or of cast iron for applications such as motor scooters.
They are not rigidly fixed at either end, so that the angle
between the connecting rod and the piston can change
as the rod moves up and down and rotates around
the crankshaft. Connecting rods, especially in racing
engines, may be called "billet" rods, if they are
machined out of a solid billet of metal, rather than
being cast or forged.
The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon
pin or wrist pin, which is currently most often press
fit into the connecting rod but can swivel in the piston, a
"floating wrist pin" design. The big end connects to the
bearing journal on the crank throw, in most engines
running on replaceable bearing shells accessible via
the connecting rod bolts which hold the bearing "cap"
onto the big end. Typically there is a pinhole bored
through the bearing and the big end of the connecting
rod so that pressurized lubricating motor oil squirts out
onto the thrust side of the cylinder wall to lubricate the
travel of the pistons and piston rings. Most small twostroke engines and some single cylinder four-stroke
engines avoid the need for a pumped lubrication system
by using a rolling-element bearing instead, however this

requires the crankshaft to be pressed apart and then

back together in order to replace a connecting rod.
A major source of engine wear is the sideways force
exerted on the piston through the connecting rod by
the crankshaft, which typically wears the cylinder into
an oval cross-section rather than circular, making it
impossible for piston rings to correctly seal against the
cylinder walls. Geometrically, it can be seen that longer
connecting rods will reduce the amount of this sideways
force, and therefore lead to longer engine life. However,
for a given engine block, the sum of the length of the
connecting rod plus the piston stroke is a fixed number,
determined by the fixed distance between the
crankshaft axis and the top of the cylinder block where
the cylinder head fastens; thus, for a given cylinder
block longer stroke, giving greater engine
displacement and power, requires a shorter connecting
rod (or a piston with smaller compression height),
resulting in accelerated cylinder wear.
The connecting rod is under tremendous stress from the
reciprocating load represented by the piston, actually
stretching and being compressed with every rotation,
and the load increases to the square of the engine speed
increase. Failure of a connecting rod, usually
called throwing a rod is one of the most common causes
of catastrophic engine failure in cars, frequently putting
the broken rod through the side of the crankcase and
thereby rendering the engine irreparable; it can result
from fatigue near a physical defect in the rod,
lubrication failure in a bearing due to faulty
maintenance, or from failure of the rod bolts from a
defect, improper tightening or over-revving of the
engine. Re-use of rod bolts is a common practice as long
as the bolts meet manufacturer specifications. Despite
their frequent occurrence on televised competitive
automobile events, such failures are quite rare on
production cars during normal daily driving. This is

because production auto parts have a much larger factor

of safety, and often more systematic quality control.

FLYWHEEL
A flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is
used to store rotational energy. Flywheels have a
significant moment of inertia and thus resist
changes in rotational speed. The amount of
energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the
square of its rotational speed. Energy is
transferred to a flywheel by applying torque to it,
thereby increasing its rotational speed, and
hence its stored energy. Conversely, a flywheel
releases stored energy by applying torque to a
mechanical load, thereby decreasing its
rotational speed.
Common uses of a flywheel include:

Providing continuous energy when the

energy source is discontinuous. For example,
flywheels are used in reciprocating engines
because the energy source, torque from the
engine, is intermittent.

Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability

of a continuous energy source. This is achieved
by collecting energy in the flywheel over time
and then releasing the energy quickly, at rates
that exceed the abilities of the energy source.

Controlling the orientation of a mechanical

system. In such applications, the angular
momentum of a flywheel is purposely
transferred to a load when energy is
transferred to or from the flywheel.

Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate

on conventional bearings; these are generally
limited to a revolution rate of a few thousand
RPM. Some modern flywheels are made of carbon
fiber materials and employ magnetic bearings,
enabling them to revolve at speeds up to 60,000
RPM.
Carbon-composite flywheel batteries have
recently been manufactured and are proving to
be viable in real-world tests on mainstream cars.
Additionally, they are more eco-friendly, as it is
not necessary to take special measures in the
disposal of them.
Flywheels are often used to provide continuous
energy in systems where the energy source is not
continuous. In such cases, the flywheel stores
energy when torque is applied by the energy
source, and it releases stored energy when the
energy source is not applying torque to it. For
example, a flywheel is used to maintain constant
angular velocity of the crankshaft in a
reciprocating engine. In this case, the flywheel
which is mounted on the crankshaftstores
energy when torque is exerted on it by a
firing piston, and it releases energy to its
mechanical loads when no piston is exerting
torque on it. Other examples of this are friction
motors, which use flywheel energy to power
devices such as toy cars.
A flywheel may also be used to supply
intermittent pulses of energy at transfer rates
that exceed the abilities of its energy source, or
when such pulses would disrupt the energy

supply (e.g., public electric network). This is

achieved by accumulating stored energy in the
flywheel over a period of time, at a rate that is
compatible with the energy source, and then
releasing that energy at a much higher rate over
a relatively short time. For example, flywheels
are used in riveting machines to store energy
from the motor and release it during the riveting
operation.
The phenomenon of precession has to be
considered when using flywheels in vehicles. A
rotating flywheel responds to any momentum
that tends to change the direction of its axis of
rotation by a resulting precession rotation. A
vehicle with a vertical-axis flywheel would
experience a lateral momentum when passing
the top of a hill or the bottom of a valley
(roll momentum in response to a pitch change).
Two counter-rotating flywheels may be needed to
eliminate this effect. This effect is leveraged
in reaction wheels, a type of flywheel employed
in satellites in which the flywheel is used to
orient the satellite's instruments without thruster
rockets.
The principle of the flywheel is found in
the Neolithic spindle and the potter's wheel.
The flywheel as a general mechanical device for
equalizing the speed of rotation is, according to
the American medievalist Lynn White, recorded in
the De diversibus artibus (On various arts) of the
German artisan Theophilus Presbyter (ca. 1070
1125) who records applying the device in several
of his machines.

In the Industrial Revolution, James

Watt contributed to the development of the
flywheel in the steam engine, and his
contemporary James Pickard used a flywheel
combined with a crank to transform reciprocating
into rotary motion.
A flywheel is a spinning wheel or disc with a
fixed axle so that rotation is only about one axis.
Energy is stored in the rotor as kinetic energy, or
more specifically, rotational energy:

Where:

is the angular velocity, and

is the moment of inertia of the mass about
the center of rotation. The moment of inertia is
the measure of resistance to torque applied on
a spinning object (i.e. the higher the moment
of inertia, the slower it will spin when a given
force is applied).

The moment of inertia for a solid cylinder

is

for a thin-walled empty cylinder is

and for a thick-walled empty cylinder

is

Where m denotes mass, and r denotes a radius.

When calculating with SI units, the standards

would be for mass, kilograms; for radius, meters;
and for angular velocity, radians per second. The
resulting answer would be in joules.
The amount of energy that can safely be stored in
the rotor depends on the point at which the rotor
will warp or shatter. The hoop stress on the rotor
is a major consideration in the design of
a flywheel energy storage system.

Where:

is the tensile stress on the rim of the

cylinder

is the density of the cylinder

is the radius of the cylinder, and

is the angular velocity of the cylinder.

This formula can also be simplified using specific

tensile strength and tangent velocity:

Where:

is the specific tensile strength of the

material

is the tangent velocity of the rim.

OIL PUMP

The oil pump in an internal combustion

engine circulates engine oil under pressure to the
rotating bearings, the sliding pistons and the camshaft
of the engine. This lubricates the bearings, allows the
use of higher-capacity fluid bearings and also assists
in cooling the engine.
As well as its primary purpose for lubrication,
pressurized oil is increasingly used as a hydraulic
fluid to power small actuators. One of the first notable
uses in this way was for hydraulic tappets in camshaft
and valve actuation. Increasingly common recent uses
may include the tensioner for a timing
belt or variators for variable valve timing systems.
The type of pump used varies. Gear pumps trochoid
pumps and vane pumps are all commonly used. Plunger
pumps have been used in the past, but these are now
only used rarely, for small engines.
To avoid the need for priming, the pump is always
mounted low-down, either submerged or around the
level of the oil in the sump. A short pick-up pipe with a
simple wire-mesh strainer reaches to the bottom of the
sump.
For simplicity and reliability, mechanical pumps are
used, driven by mechanical geartrains from the
crankshaft. Reducing pump speed is beneficial and so it
is usual to drive the pump from the cam (if this is
mounted in the cylinder block) or distributor shaft,
which turns at half engine speed. Placing the oil pump
low-down uses a near-vertical drive shaft, driven by
helical skew gears from the camshaft. Some engines,
such as the Fiat twin cam engine of 1964, began
as OHV engines with an oil pump driven from a
conventional camshaft in the cylinder block. When the
twin overhead cam engine was developed, the previous
oil pump arrangement was retained and the camshaft

became a shortened stub shaft. Even when the

distributor position was moved from the previous blockmount to being mounted on the cylinder head
camshafts, the oil pump drive remained in the same
position, the unused distributor position now covered by
a blanking plate. Small engines, or scooters may have
internal gear pumps mounted directly on their
crankshaft.
For reliability, it is rare to use an external drive
mechanism, either a separate belt drive or external
gears, although camshaft-driven pumps often rely on
the same timing belt. Additional separate belts are
sometimes used where dry sump pumps have been
added to engines during tuning.
Electric oil pumps are not used, again for reliability.
Some 'turbo timer' electric auxiliary oil pumps are
sometimes fitted to turbocharged engines. These are a
second oil pump that continues to run after the engine
has stopped, providing cooling oil to the hot bearings of
a turbocharger for some minutes, whilst it cools
down. These are supplementary pumps and do not
replace the main, mechanical, oil pump.
The oiling system addresses the need to properly
lubricate an engine when its running. Properly
lubricating an engine not only reduces friction between
moving parts but is also the main method by which heat
is removed from pistons, bearings, and shafts. Failing to
properly lubricate an engine will result in engine failure.
The oil pump forces the motor oil through the passages
in the engine to properly distribute oil to different
engine components. In a common oiling system, oil is
drawn out of the oil sump (oil pan, in US English)
through a wire mesh strainer that removes some of the
larger pieces of debris from the oil. The flow made by
the oil pump allows the oil to be distributed around the
engine. In this system, oil flows through an oil filter and

sometimes an oil cooler, before going through the

engines oil passages and being dispersed to lubricate
pistons, rings, springs, valve stems, and more.
The oil pressure generated in most engines should be
about 10 psi per every 1000 revolutions per minute
(rpm), peaking around 55-65 psi.
Local pressure (at the crankshaft journal and bearing) is
far higher than the 50, 60 psi &c. set by the pumps
relief valve, and will reach hundreds of psi. This higher
pressure is developed by the relative speeds in feet per
second (not RPM or journal size directly) of the
crankshaft journal itself against the bearing, the bearing
width (to the closest pressure leak), oil viscosity, and
temperature, balanced against the bearing clearance
(the leakage rate).
All pump pressure does is fill in the hole and refresh
the oil in the annular space faster than the leak expels
it. This is why low-speed engines have relatively large
journals, with only modest pump size and pressure. Low
pressure indicates that leakage from the bearings is
higher than the pumps delivery rate.
The oil pressure at the pump outlet, which is what opens
the pressure relief valve, is simply the resistance to flow
caused by the bearing clearances and restrictions.
The oil pressure gauge, or warning lamp, gives only the
pressure at the point where its sender enters that part
of the pressurized system not everywhere, not an
average, nor a generalized picture of the systemic
pressure.
Despite the frequent comparison to hydraulic
engineering theory, this is not a closed system in
which oil pressure is balanced and identical everywhere.
All engines are open systems, because the oil returns
to the pan by a series of controlled leaks. The bearings

farthest from the pump always have the lowest pressure

because of the number of leaks between the pump and
that bearing. Excess bearing clearance increases the
pressure loss between the first and last bearing in a
series.
Depending on condition, an engine may have acceptable
gauge pressure, and still only 5 psi pressure at one
connecting rod, which will fail under high load.
The pressure is actually created by the resistance to the
flow of the oil around the engine. So, the pressure of the
oil may vary during operation, with temperature, engine
speed, and wear on the engine. Colder oil temperature
can cause higher pressure, as the oil is thicker, while
higher engine speeds cause the pump to run faster and
push more oil through the engine. Because of variances
in temperature and normal higher engine speed upon
cold engine start up, its normal to see higher oil
pressure upon engine start up than at normal operating
temperatures, where normal oil pressure usually falls
between 30 and 45 psi. Too much oil pressure can create
unnecessary work for the engine and even add air into
the system. To ensure that the oil pressure does not
exceed the rated maximum, once pressure exceeds a
preset limit a spring-loaded pressure relief valve dumps
excess pressure either to the suction side of the pump,
or directly back to the oil pan or tank.
High oil pressure frequently means extremely high
pressure on cold start-up, but this is a design flaw
rather than an automatic consequence of high pressure.
The observation if you raise the maximum pressure, the
cold pressure goes too high is accurate, but not
intentional.
Even the stock pumps (regardless of brand and model)
do not have enough relief valve capacity: the relief port
is too small to handle the volume of cold oil. This is why

there is a significant difference between cold & hot oil,

high & low RPM, &c., but its typically not a problem with
stock engines. A correctly designed relief port (which is
not found in production engines) will flow any oil
volume the gears will pass, regardless of oil viscosity or
temperature, and the gauge reading will only vary
slightly.
The oil pressure is monitored by an oil pressure sending
unit, usually mounted to the block of the engine. This
can either be a spring-loaded pressure sensor or an
electronic pressure sensor, depending on the type of
sending unit. Problems with the oil pressure sending
unit or the connections between it and the driver's
display can cause abnormal oil pressure readings when
oil pressure is perfectly acceptable.
Low oil pressure, however, can cause engine damage.
Low oil pressure can be caused by many things, such as
a faulty oil pump, a clogged oil pickup screen, excessive
wear on high mileage engines, or simply low oil volume.
Indications of low oil pressure may be that the warning
light is on, a low pressure reading on the gauge, or
clattering/clinking noises from the engine. Low oil
pressure is a problem that must be addressed
immediately to prevent serious damage.
The leading cause of low oil pressure in an engine is
wear on the engines vital parts. Over time, engine
bearings and seals suffer from wear and tear. Wear can
cause these parts to eventually lose their original
dimensions, and this increased clearance allows for a
greater volume of oil to flow over time which can greatly
reduce oil pressure. For instance, .001 of an inch worn
off of the engines main bearings can cause up to a 20%
loss in oil pressure. Simply replacing worn bearings may
fix this problem, but in older engines with a lot of wear
not much can be done besides completely overhauling
the engine.

Particles in the oil can also cause serious problems with

oil pressure. After oil flows through the engine, it
returns to the oil pan, and can carry along a lot of
debris. The debris can cause problems with the oil
pickup screen and the oil pump itself. The holes in the oil
pickup screen measure about 0.04 square inches
(0.26 cm2). Holes of this size only pick up bigger pieces
of debris and allow a lot of smaller pieces to flow
through it. The holes in the screen are so big (relative to
debris) because at low temperatures and slow engine
speed the oil is very viscous and needs large openings to
flow freely. Even with these large holes in the screen, it
can still become clogged and cause low oil pressure. A .
005-inch-thick (0.13 mm) coating on the screen can
reduce hole size to about .03 square inches (0.19 cm2),
which in turn reduces the flow of oil by 44 percent.
Even after passing through the oil pickup screen and the
oil filter, debris can remain in the oil. It is very
important to change the oil and oil filter to minimize the
amount of debris flowing through your engine. This
harmful debris along with normal engine wear in high
mileage engines causes an increase in clearances
between bearings and other moving parts.
Low oil pressure may be simply because there is not
enough oil in the sump, due to burning oil (normally
caused by piston ring wear or worn valve seals) or
leakage. The piston rings serve to seal the combustion
chamber, as well as remove oil from the internal walls of
the cylinder. However, when they wear, their
effectiveness drops, which leaves oil on the cylinder
walls during combustion. In some engines, burning a
small amount of oil is normal and shouldnt necessarily
cause any alarm, whereas burning lots of oil is a sign
that the engine might be in need of an overhaul.
Conventional wet sump engines have one oil pump. It is
generally located inside the lower part of the engine,

usually below and/or to one side of the crankshaft.

On dry sump engines, at least two oil pumps are
required: one to pressurize and distribute the oil around
the engine components, and at least one other
'scavenge pump' to evacuate the oil which has pooled at
the bottom of the engine. This scavenge pump is
sometimes (but not always) located in the 'sump' of the
engine, and crucially, this scavenge pump's flow-rate
capacity must exceed that of the pump which
pressurizes and distributes oil throughout the engine.
Because of the dry sump's external oil reservoir, excess
air can escape the oil before the oil is pumped back
through the engine. Dry sumps also allow for more
power because it reduces the amount of windage, oil
sloshing up into the rotating assembly, and the vacuum
from the scavenge pump improves ring seal. Dry sumps
are more popular in racing applications because of the
improved power and reduced oil sloshing that would
otherwise reduce oil pressure. Disadvantages of dry
sumps are increased weight, additional parts, and more
chances for leaks and problems to occur.

RELIEF VALVE
The lubricating oil pressure is limited by a relief valve.
The valve is located in the lubricating system
immediately before the oil filter and is fitted in the filter
bracket on the cylinder blocks right hand side. The
valve opens at an excessively high pressure and feeds
oil back into the sump.

OIL COOLER
The lubricating oil carries away from the engines most
heated parts and evens out, by its circulation, the
temperature differences within the engine. The heat is
removed from the lubricating oil in the oil cooler. On

marine engines the engines oil cooler is connected to

the fresh-water system.

OIL FILTER
An oil filter is a filter designed to remove contaminants
from engine oil, transmission oil, lubricating oil,
or hydraulic oil. Oil filters are used in many different
types of hydraulic machinery. A chief use of the oil filter
is in internal-combustion engines in on- and offroad motor vehicles, light aircraft, and
various naval vessels. Other vehicle hydraulic systems,
such as those in automatic transmissions and power
steering, are often equipped with an oil filter. Gas
turbine engines, such as those on jet aircraft, also
require the use of oil filters. Aside from these uses, oil
production, transport, and recycling facilities also
employ filters in the manufacturing process.
Early automobile engines did not use oil filters. For this
reason, along with the generally low quality of oil
available, very frequent oil changes were required. The
first oil filters were simple, generally consisting of
a screen placed at the oil pump intake. In 1923,
American inventors Bobby Evans devised an automotive
oil filter and called it the Purolator, a portmanteau of
"pure oil later". This was a bypass filter: most of the oil
flowed directly from the oil pan to the engine's working
parts, and a smaller proportion of the oil was sent
through the filter via a second flow path in parallel with
the first. The oil was thus filtered over time. Modern
bypass oil filter systems for diesel engines are becoming
popular in consumer applications, but have been in
commercial use for some time due to potential reduction
in maintenance costs. Oil filters are generally located
near the middle or bottom of the engine.

FUEL SYSTEM

Fuel is sucked by the feed pump from the fuel tank and
then pumped through the fine filters to the injection
pump. Surplus fuel is returned via the relief, located on
the injection pump. The injection pump then pumps the
amount of fuel, corresponding to the output required, at
high pressure through the delivery pipes to the
injectors. The injectors atomize the pressurized fuel into
the engines combustion chambers. Return fuel from the
injectors is led back through the fuel leak-off line via the
relief valve and return line back to the tank.

INJECTION PUMP
An Injection Pump is the device that pumps fuel into the
cylinders of a diesel engine. Traditionally, the injection
pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears,
chains or a toothed belt (often the timing belt) that also
drives the camshaft. It rotates at half crankshaft speed
in a conventional four-stroke engine. Its timing is such
that the fuel is injected only very slightly before top
dead centre of that cylinder's compression stroke. It is
also common for the pump belt on gasoline engines to
be driven directly from the camshaft. In some systems
injection pressures can be as high as 200 MPa (30,000
PSI).
Because of the need for positive injection into a very
high-pressure environment, the pump develops great
pressuretypically 15,000 psi (100 MPa) or more on
newer systems. This is a good reason to take great care
when working on diesel systems; escaping fuel at this
sort of pressure can easily penetrate skin and clothes,
and be injected into body tissues with medical
consequences serious enough to warrant amputation.
Earlier diesel pumps used an in-line layout with a series
of cam-operated injection cylinders in a line, rather like
a miniature inline engine. The pistons have a constant
stroke volume, and injection volume (i.e., throttling) is

controlled by rotating the cylinders against a cut-off port

that aligns with a helical slot in the cylinder. When all
the cylinders are rotated at once, they simultaneously
vary their injection volume to produce more or less
power from the engine. Inline pumps still find favour on
large multi-cylinder engines such as those on trucks,
construction plant, static engines and agricultural
vehicles.
For use on cars and light trucks, the rotary pump or
distributor pump was developed. It uses a single
injection cylinder driven from an axial cam plate, which
injects into the individual fuel lines via a rotary
distribution valve. Later incarnations such as
the Bosch VE pump vary the injection timing with crank
speed to allow greater power at high crank speeds, and
smoother, more economical running at slower revs.
Some VE variants have a pressure-based system that
allows the injection volume to increase over normal to
allow a turbocharger or supercharger equipped engine
to develop more power under boost conditions.
All injection pumps incorporate a governor to cut fuel
supply if the crank speed endangers the engine - the
heavy moving parts of diesel engines do not tolerate
over speeding well, and catastrophic damage can occur
if they are over-revved. Poorly maintained and worn
engines can consume their lubrication oil through worn
out crankcase ventilation systems and 'run away',
causing increasing engine speed until the engine
destroys itself. This is because most diesel engines only
regulate their speed by fuel supply control and don't
have a throttle valve to control air intake.
Mechanical pumps are gradually being phased out in
order to comply with international emissions directives,
and to increase performance and economy. From the
1990s an intermediate stage between full electronic
control were pumps that used electronic control units to

control some of the functions of the rotary pump but

were still mechanically timed and powered by the
engine. The first generation four and five cylinder
VW/Audi TDI engines pioneered these pumps before
switching to Unit Injectors. These pumps were used to
provide better injection control and refinement for car
diesel engines as they changed from indirect injection to
much more efficient but inherently less refined direct
injection engines in the 1990s. The ECUs could even vary
the damping of hydraulic engine mounts to aid
refinement. BOSCH VP30 VP37 VP44 are example
pumps. Since then there has been a widespread change
to common rail diesel systems and electronic unit direct
injection systems. These allow for higher pressures to
be developed, and for much finer control of injection
volumes, and multiple injection stages compared to
mechanical systems.

FEED PUMP
A fuel feed pump is a frequently (but not always)
essential component on a car or other internal
combustion engine device. Many engines (older
motorcycle engines in particular) do not require any fuel
pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the
fuel tank through a line or hose to the engine. But in
non-gravity feed designs, fuel has to be pumped from
the fuel tank to the engine and delivered under low
pressure to the carburetor or under high pressure to
the fuel injection system. Often, carbureted engines use
low pressure mechanical pumps that are mounted
outside the fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines
often use electric fuel pumps that are mounted inside
the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines have two
fuel pumps: one low pressure/high volume supply pump
in the tank and one high pressure/low volume pump on
or near the engine).

Prior to the widespread adoption of electronic fuel

injection, most carbureted automobile engines used
mechanical fuel pumps to transfer fuel from the fuel
tank into the fuel bowls of the carburetor. Most
mechanical fuel pumps are diaphragm pumps, which are
a type of positive displacement pump. Diaphragm
pumps contain a pump chamber whose volume is
increased or decreased by the flexing of a
flexible diaphragm, similar to the action of a piston
pump. A check valve is located at both the inlet and
outlet ports of the pump chamber to force the fuel to
flow in one direction only. Specific designs vary, but in
the most common configuration, these pumps are
typically bolted onto the engine block or head, and the
engine's camshaft has an extra eccentric lobe that
operates a lever on the pump, either directly or via a
pushrod, by pulling the diaphragm to bottom dead
center. In doing so, the volume inside the pump
chamber increased, causing pressure to decrease. This
allows fuel to be pushed into the pump from the tank
(caused by atmospheric pressure acting on the fuel in
the tank). The return motion of the diaphragm to top
dead center is accomplished by a diaphragm spring,
during which the fuel in the pump chamber is squeezed
through the outlet port and into the carburetor. The
pressure at which the fuel is expelled from the pump is
thus limited (and therefore regulated) by the force
applied by the diaphragm spring.
The carburetor typically contains a float bowl into which
the expelled fuel is pumped. When the fuel level in the
float bowl exceeds a certain level, the inlet valve to the
carburetor will close, preventing the fuel pump from
pumping more fuel into the carburetor. At this point, any
remaining fuel inside the pump chamber is trapped,
unable to exit through the inlet port or outlet port. The
diaphragm will continue to allow pressure to the
diaphragm, and during the subsequent rotation, the

eccentric will pull the diaphragm back to bottom dead

center, where it will remain until the inlet valve to the
carburetor reopens.
Because one side of the pump diaphragm contains fuel
under pressure and the other side is connected to
the crankcase of the engine, if the diaphragm splits (a
common failure), it can leak fuel into the crankcase.
The pump creates negative pressure to draw the fuel
through the lines. However, the low pressure between
the pump and the fuel tank, in combination with heat
from the engine and/or hot weather, can cause the fuel
to vaporize in the supply line. This results in fuel
starvation as the fuel pump, designed to pump liquid,
not vapor, is unable to suck more fuel to the engine,
causing the engine to stall. This condition is different
from vapor lock, where high engine heat on the
pressured side of the pump (between the pump and the
carburetor) boils the fuel in the lines, also starving the
engine of enough fuel to run. Mechanical automotive
fuel pumps generally do not generate much more than
10-15 psi, which is more than enough for most
carburetors.
As engines moved away from carburetors and towards
fuel injection, mechanical fuel pumps were replaced
with electric fuel pumps, because fuel injection systems
operate more efficiently at higher fuel pressures (4060 psi) than mechanical diaphragm pumps can generate.
Electric fuel pumps are generally located in the fuel
tank, in order to use the fuel in the tank to cool the
pump and to ensure a steady supply of fuel.
Another benefit of an in-tank mounted fuel pump is that
a suction pump at the engine could suck in air through a
(difficult to diagnose) faulty hose connection, while a
leaking connection in a pressure line will show itself
immediately. A potential hazard of a tank-mounted fuel

pump is that all of the fuel lines are under (high)

pressure, from the tank to the engine. Any leak will be
easily detected, but is also hazardous.
Electric fuel pumps will run whenever they are switched
on, unless a safety device such as an inertial switch is
fitted, which can lead to extremely dangerous situations
if there is a leak due to mechanical fault or an accident.
Mechanical fuel pumps are much safer, due to their
lower operating pressures and because they 'turn off'
when the engine stops running.
In many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric
and located inside the fuel tank. The pump creates
positive pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline
to the engine. The higher gasoline pressure raises the
boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the
component least likely to handle gasoline vapor well
(the pump itself) farthest from the engine, submersed in
cool liquid. Another benefit to placing the pump inside
the tank is that it is less likely to start a fire. Though
electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark
and ignite fuel vapors, liquid fuel will not explode
(see flammability limit) and therefore submerging the
pump in the tank is one of the safest places to put it. In
most cars, the fuel pump delivers a constant flow of
gasoline to the engine; fuel not used is returned to the
tank. This further reduces the chance of the fuel boiling,
since it is never kept close to the hot engine for too
long.
The ignition switch does not carry the power to the fuel
pump; instead, it activates a relay which will handle the
higher current load. It is common for the fuel pump
relay to become oxidized and cease functioning; this is
much more common than the actual fuel pump failing.
Modern engines utilize solid-state control which allows
the fuel pressure to be controlled via pulse-width
modulation of the pump voltage. This increases the life

of the pump, allows a smaller and lighter device to be

used, and reduces electrical load.
Cars with electronic fuel injection have an electronic
control unit (ECU) and this may be programmed with
safety logic that will shut the electric fuel pump off,
even if the engine is running. In the event of a collision
this will prevent fuel leaking from any ruptured fuel line.
Additionally, cars may have an inertia switch (usually
located underneath the front passenger seat) that is
"tripped" in the event of an impact, or a roll-over
valve that will shut off the fuel pump in case the car rolls
over.
Some ECUs may also be programmed to shut off the fuel
pump if they detect low or zero oil pressure, for instance
if the engine has suffered a terminal failure (with the
subsequent risk of fire in the engine compartment).
The fuel sending unit assembly may be a combination of
the electric fuel pump, the filter, the strainer, and the
electronic device used to measure the amount of fuel in
the tank via a float attached to a sensor which sends
data to the dash-mounted fuel gauge. The fuel pump by
itself is a relatively inexpensive part. But a mechanic at
a garage might have a preference to install the entire
unit assembly.
Many jet engines, including rocket engines use a turbo
pump which is a centrifugal pump usually propelled by a
gas turbine or in some cases a ram-air device
(particularly in ramjet engines which lack a shaft).

RELIEF VALVE
The valve both limits the feed pressure and provides
continuous venting of the fuel system. When the feed
pressure is too high the valve opens and fuel passes
through the return line back to the tank. The relief valve
is located on the injection pump. This means that the

return fuel flushes through the injection pump before it

is fed back to the tank. The fuel flow thereby cools the
fuel in the pumps fuel chamber, at the same time
equalizing the temperature and thus the viscosity of the
fuel. The quantity of fuel delivered to each cylinder is, in
this way, more evenly distributed.

INJECTORS
The Fuel Injector is an electronically controlled valve
that is supplied with pressurized fuel by the fuel pump
and when energized atomizes the fuel into a fine mist so
that it can burn easily by the vehicles engine. The fuel
injector is mounted in the intake manifold so that fuel is
sprayed directly at the intake valves. A fuel supply rail
connects all of the fuel injectors to the fuel supply.
A failing sensor can illuminate the MIL and cause the
engine to run too rich or lean, leading to misfire and loss
of power. Improper fuel filter maintenance can cause
the injector to clog with debris. Poor quality fuel often
results in deposits on the fuel injector disrupting the
fuel spray pattern. The CLEEN Fuel Injection Cleaning Kit
(CST100C) can test fuel pumps, pressure regulators and
diagnose leaking fuel injectors. An injector balance test
with a scan tool will determine fuel contribution and an
injector drop test will determine fuel flow through each
injector.

FUEL FILTERS
A fuel filter is a filter in the fuel line that screens out dirt
and rust particles from the fuel, normally made into
cartridges containing a filter paper. They are found in
most internal combustion engines.
Fuel filters serve a vital function in today's modern,
tight-tolerance engine fuel systems. Unfiltered fuel may

contain several kinds of contamination, for

example paint chips and dirt that has been knocked into
the tank while filling, or rust caused by moisture in a
steel tank. If these substances are not removed before
the fuel enters the system, they will cause rapid wear
and failure of the fuel pump and injectors, due to
the abrasive action of the particles on the high-precision
components used in modern injection systems. Fuel
filters also improve performance, as the fewer
contaminants present in the fuel, the more efficiently it
can be burnt.
Fuel filters need to be maintained at regular intervals.
This is usually a case of simply disconnecting the filter
from the fuel line and replacing it with a new one,
although some specially designed filters can be cleaned
and reused many times. If a filter is not replaced
regularly it may become clogged with contaminants and
cause a restriction in the fuel flow, causing an
appreciable drop in engine performance as the engine
struggles to draw enough fuel to continue running
normally.
Some filters, especially found on diesel engines, are of
a bowl-like design which collect water in the bottom (as
water is more dense than diesel). The water can then be
drained off by opening a valve in the bottom of the bowl
and letting it run out, until the bowl contains only diesel.
Many fuel filters contain a water sensor to signal to
the engine control unit or directly to the driver (lamp on
dashboard) if the water reach the warning level. It is
especially undesirable for water in fuel to be drawn into
a diesel engine fuel system, as the system relies on the
diesel for lubrication of the moving parts, and if water
gets into a moving part which requires constant
lubrication (for example an injector valve), it will quickly
cause overheating and unnecessary wear. This type of
filter may also include a sensor, which will alert the
operator when the filter needs to be drained. In

proximity of the diesel fuel filter there might be a fuel

heater to avoid the forming of paraffin wax (in case of
low temperatures) inside the filtrating element which
can stop the fuel flow to the engine.

AIR FILTER
A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous
materials which removes solid particulates such
as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air. A
chemical air filter consists of
an absorbent or catalyst for the removal of airborne
molecular contaminants such as volatile organic
compounds or ozone. Air filters are used in applications
where air quality is important, notably in
building ventilation systems and in engines.
Some buildings, as well as aircraft and other man-made
environments (e.g., satellites and space shuttles) use
foam, pleated paper, or spun fiberglass filter elements.
Another method, air ionisers, use fibers or elements
with a static electric charge, which attract dust particles.
The air intakes of internal combustion engines and
compressors tend to use either paper, foam,
or cotton filters. Oil bath filters have fallen out of favor.
The technology of air intake filters of gas turbines has
improved significantly in recent years, due to
improvements in the aerodynamics and fluid-dynamics
of the air-compressor part of the Gas Turbines.
The combustion air filter prevents abrasive particulate
matter from entering the engine's cylinders, where it
would cause mechanical wear and oil contamination.
Most fuel injected vehicles use a pleated paper filter
element in the form of a flat panel. This filter is usually
placed inside a plastic box connected to the throttle
body with ductwork. Older vehicles that
use carburetors or throttle body fuel injection typically

use a cylindrical air filter, usually a few inches high and

between 6 inches (150 mm) and 16 inches (410 mm) in
diameter. This is positioned above the carburetor or
throttle body, usually in a metal or plastic container
which may incorporate ducting to provide cool and/or
warm inlet air, and secured with a metal or plastic lid.

FIRING ORDER OF DIESEL ENGINE

The firing order of the engine re-builded is found to be:

1-2-4-6-5-3

Piston head

Fuel injector

Cam shaft

Cylinder liner

Crank shaft

Air filter

Rocker arm

Engine cross-section

Cylinder liner

Cylinder
head

Relief valve

Connectin
g rod

Cam shaft

Air start valve

Air filter

Air start valve

Piston

Rocker arm

ISUZU ENGINES

Type

Public

Traded as

TYO: 7202

Industry

Manufacturing

Founded

1916

Founder(s)

Yoshisuke Aikawa

Headquarter Tokyo, Japan

s
Key people

Susumu
Hosoi, President &
Representative
Director

Products

Commercial
vehicles, diesel
engines

Isuzu Motors Ltd. ( Isuzu Jidsha

Kabushiki-Kaisha), (TYO: 7202)trading
as Isuzu (Japanese pronunciation: [isuu], /isuzu/) is
a Japanese commercial vehicles and diesel
engine manufacturing company headquartered
in Tokyo,Japan. Its principal activity is the production,
distribution and sale of Isuzu commercial vehicles and
diesel engines. The company was founded by Yoshisuke
Aikawa in 1916, as the Tokyo Gas Company, a
Japanese oil and gasoline manufacturer, which in 1934

fused with the carmaker and was renamed Isuzu, after

the Isuzu River.
Isuzu has assembly and manufacturing plants in the
Japanese city of Fujisawa, as well as in the
prefectures Tochigi and Hokkaid. Isuzu is famous for
producing commercial vehicles and diesel engines.
Isuzu-branded vehicles are sold in most commercial
markets worldwide.
In 2004, Isuzu was re-launched in Europe, primarily
selling vehicles manufactured by General Motors. By
2009, Isuzu had produced over 21 million diesel
engines, which can be found in vehicles all over the
world. Isuzu diesel engines are used by Renault-Nissan
Allianceand General Motors. It operates a 50:50 joint
venture with Anadolu Group called Anadolu Isuzu, which
was formed in 1984 and is developing a range of
minibus, city bus and intercity bus for sale in Turkey.
Isuzu's history begins in 1916, when
Tokyo Ishikawajima Shipbuilding and Engineering Co.,
Ltd. plan a cooperation with the Tokyo Gas and Electric
Industrial Co. to build automobiles. The next step is
taken in 1918, when a technical cooperation
with Wolseley Motors Limited is initiated, meaning
exclusive rights to the production and sales of Wolseley
vehicles in East Asia. In 1922 the first Wolseley model,
the A-9 car, is domestically produced. The
CP truck follows two years later; 550 of these are built
until 1927. In 1933, Ishikawajima Automotive Works
merges with DAT Automobile Manufacturing Inc. (a
predecessor of Datsun) and changes its name to
Automobile Industries Co., Ltd. The products of this
company, marketed as "Sumiya" and "Chiyoda", were
renamed Isuzu (after the Isuzu River) in 1934, following
a meeting with the Ministry of Trade and Industry
(MITI). The word Isuzu translated into English means
"fifty bells" - hence the focus on "bell" in both the
later Bellel and the Bellett.

In 1937 Automobile Industries is reorganized and

formed into a new company, Tokyo Automobile
Industries Co., Ltd. It was founded with a capital of one
million yen. Only in 1949 is Isuzu also adopted as the
company name. Meanwhile, in 1942, Hino Heavy
Industries was split off from Isuzu, becoming a separate
corporation. Truck production (TX40 and TU60) began
anew in 1945, with the permission of the occupation
authorities. Beginning in 1953 the Hillman
Minx passenger car is produced under license of Rootes
Group. The Minx remained in production until
1962, after the 1961 introduction of Isuzu's first own
car, the Bellel. Being a small producer making cars
which were somewhat too large and pricey for the
Japanese market at the time, Isuzu spent some time
looking for a commercial partner. Under pressure from
MITI, who were attempting to limit the number of
automobile manufacturers in Japan, a co-operation
with Fuji Heavy Industries (Subaru) began in 1966.
The Subaru 1000 was even shown in Isuzu's 1967
annual vehicle brochure, as a suitable complement to
the larger Isuzu lineup. This tie-up was over by 1968,
when an agreement with Mitsubishi was formed. This
ended even quicker, by 1969, and the next year an
equally short-lived collaboration was entered
with Nissan. A few months later, in September 1971,
what was to prove a more durable capital agreement
was signed with General Motors.
The first result of GM taking a 34% stake in Isuzu is
seen in 1972, only months later, when the Chevrolet
LUV becomes the first Isuzu-built vehicle to be sold in
the United States. To symbolize the new beginning,
Isuzu also developed a new logo for 1974, with two
vertical pillars which are stylized representations of the
first syllable in ("Isuzu"). In 1974 Isuzu
introduced the Gemini, which was co-produced with
General Motors as the T-car. It was sold in the United

States as Buick's Opel by Isuzu, and in Australia as the

Holden Gemini. As a result of the collaboration, certain
American GM products are sold to Japanese customers
through Isuzu dealerships. Holden's Statesman was also
briefly sold (246 examples) with Isuzu badging in Japan
during the seventies. Isuzu exports also increased
considerably as a result of being able to use GM
networks, from 0.7% of production in 1973 to 35.2% by
1976; this while overall production increased more than
fourfold in the same period.
In 1981 Isuzu began selling consumer and commercial
vehicles under their own brand in the United States.
The Isuzu P'Up was the first model sold to consumers as
an Isuzu, rather than as a Chevrolet or Buick. Isuzu's
then president Toshio Okamoto then initiated a
collaboration with small-car expert Suzuki to develop a
global small car for GM, the S-car. A three-way
agreement of co-ownership was signed in August 1981,
with Isuzu and Suzuki exchanging shares and General
Motors taking a 5% share of Suzuki. During this period
Isuzu also developed a worldwide presence as an
exporter of diesel engines, with their powerplants in use
by Opel/Vauxhall, Land Rover, Hindustan, and many
others. In the domestic Japanese market, OEM deals
with other manufacturers were entered to aid the poorly
performing passenger car arm. It led to the badging of
Suzukis, beginning in 1986, and Subaru small
commercial vehicles as Isuzus (Geminett, Geminett II).
This OEM tie-up occurred alongside the establishment of
SIA (Subaru-Isuzu Automotive), an American joint
venture with Fuji Heavy Industries (the parent company
of Subaru). Shortly afterwards, the Lafayette,
Indiana plant became operational.
In 1992 Isuzu ended US sales of the Impulse (Geo
Storm). The following year it stopped exporting

the Stylus (the basis for the Geo Spectrum), the last
Isuzu-built car sold in the US.
In 1994 Isuzu began a new vehicle exchange program
with Honda, whereby Honda sold the Isuzu
Rodeo and Isuzu Trooper as the Honda
Passport and Acura SLX, respectively. In return Isuzu
began selling the Honda Odyssey as the Isuzu Oasis.
Thus, Honda's lineup gained two SUVs, and Isuzu's
lineup gained a minivan. In the Japanese market, the
Gemini (Stylus) was now a rebadged Honda Domani and
the Aska (originally based on the GM J-car) was a Honda
Accord.
In 1996 the Isuzu Hombre pickup, a badge-engineered
GM truck, was introduced, and Isuzu's United States
sales reached a peak.

1998 - General Motors and Isuzu

form DMAX, a joint venture to
produce diesel engines. Isuzu
resurrects the beloved Amigo. The
uniquely styled VehiCROSS concept is
unveiled.
1999 - GM raises its stake in Isuzu to
49%, effectively gaining control of
the company. GM quickly follows this
up with the appointment of an
American GM executive to head
Isuzu's North American Operations.
This is the first time a non-Japanese
executive has ever held such a high
position at Isuzu. The U.S.
introduction of the production
version of the heralded VehiCROSS is
met with mixed reviews, as its high
pricetag, unique styling and two-door
configuration don't seem to meet
with market demands.

 2001 - Joe Isuzu, the immensely

popular pitchman with implausible
claims, is hired once again to
promote the new Axiom. Isuzu sales
begin to slide due to the aging of
theRodeo and Trooper, and poor
management & lack of assistance
from GM. Isuzu changes the name of
the 2-door Amigo convertible to
Rodeo Sport in an attempt to
associate it with the better selling 4door Rodeo. Movie Spy kids features
Isuzu Axiom and Trooper.
Early 2002 - Fuji Heavy Industries
(Subaru's parent company) buys
Isuzu's share of Lafayette, Indiana
plant. Subaru Isuzu Automotive
(SIA) becomes Subaru of Indiana
Automotive. After 8 years of heavy
Honda Passport sales and light Isuzu
Oasis sales, Honda and Isuzu
cooperatively end their vehicle
exchange agreement. The Oasis is
dropped, and Honda replaces the
Passport with the Pilot. Also, it was
Isuzu's last year for passenger
vehicles in Canada, as Isuzus in
Canada were mostly sold at SaturnSaabdealerships.
Late 2002 - Isuzu begins the repurchase of its stock from
shareholders, primarily General
Motors. Isuzu reduces GM's 49%
share to 12% as part of this
comprehensive recapitalization plan.
As part of this reorganization, GM
gains full control of DMAX and Isuzu

Motors Polska, as well as ownership

of all diesel engine designs from
Isuzu. Isuzu drops the venerable
Trooper from the North American
lineup.

2003 - The Rodeo Sport is

discontinued.
July 2004 - Production of the Rodeo
and Axiom cease. Sales in North
America slow to just 27,188, with the
discontinued Rodeo and Axiom
making up 71% of that total. The
number of Isuzu dealerships in the
U.S. begins a rapid decline.
2005 - Isuzu dealers in the United
States have only 2 models: the
Ascender and the i-series pickup
truck. The i-series is a rebadged
Chevrolet Colorado, the Ascender is a
re-badged GMC Envoy. At this point,
Isuzu in the United States is
primarily a distributor of medium
duty trucks such as the NPR series.
These vehicles are sourced both from
Japan and U.S. plants in Janesville,
Wisconsin and Flint, Michigan. Isuzu
has 290 light-vehicle dealers in the
U.S. as of August 2006, and sells an
average of just two Ascenders per
dealer per month. Plans to introduce
a new Thai-built SUV, expected to be
added for 2007, are shelved; Isuzu
Motors Limited believes that a new
SUV would be too risky and proceeds
with the launch of the i-series trucks.
Rumors of Isuzu's withdrawal from

the U.S. market are rampant. Despite

extremely low sales figures of 12,177
passenger vehicles for 2005 (with
leftover Axiom and Rodeos making
up 30% of this), Isuzu Motors
America announces its first profit in
years, mainly due to restructuring
cuts.

2006 - Production of the 7-passenger

Ascender ends in February with the
closure of GM's Oklahoma City
Assembly plant, leaving Isuzu with
the 5-passenger Ascender, built in
Moraine, Ohio and the low-selling iSeries as its only retail products. The
company sold just 1,504 vehicles in
North America in the first two
months of 2006. Isuzu finally
purchases its remaining shares from
GM, but claims the companies will
continue their current relationship.
There is no word as of April 12, 2006
on the effect this will have on
DMAX operations.
June 2006 - Isuzu and GM agree to establish a joint
venture called "LCV Platform Engineering
Corporation (LPEC)" to develop a new pickup. Isuzu
says it will use its engineering expertise to develop
the pickup and GM will develop derivatives based on
the integrated platform.
November 2006 - Toyota purchases 5.9% of Isuzu
and the two companies agree to study possible
business collaboration focusing on the areas of R&D
and production of diesel engines, related emissionscontrol, and other environmental technologies.

 January 2007 - Isuzu and General Motors update

the LCV range with a 3.0 litre common rail diesel
engine that has far more torque and power than its
predecessor.
August 2007 - Isuzu and Toyota agree to develop a
1.6-liter diesel engine for use in Toyota vehicles
sold in European markets. Details of development,
production and supply of the diesel engine, are still
under discussion, but in principle, Isuzu will play
the leading role. Production is scheduled to begin
around 2012.
January 30, 2008 - Isuzu announces complete
withdrawal from the US market, effective January
31, 2009. It will continue to provide support and
parts. The decision was due to lack of sales. Some
of the lack of sales have been blamed on consumer
experiences with low quality engines and
service. Isuzu had been experiencing a slow decline
since the late 1990s. In less than 10 years, they had
gone from selling a complete line of cars, trucks,
and SUVs, into being a specialized SUV maker, and
finally selling only a pair of rebadged, General
Motors Trucks. They will continue to sell commercial
vehicles in the U.S.
December 17, 2008 - Isuzu, Toyota shelve
development of clean diesel engine.
January 29, 2009 - Isuzu and General Motors
announce that they are in talks to transfer the
operation of the medium-duty truck production line
in Flint, Michigan to Isuzu for a five-year period. In
June, however, GM announced that these talks
failed to reach an agreement, and GM instead
ceased production of the Chevrolet Kodiak and GMC
Topkick vehicles on 31 July 2009.

 In most of Asia and Africa, Isuzu is mostly known

for trucks of all sizes, after Isuzu small automobile
sales drastically plummeted and Isuzu had to drop
all sales of sedans and compact cars in the late
1990s. In the days when Isuzu did sell passenger
cars, they were known for focussing on the dieselengined niche. In 1983, for instance, long before
the explosion in diesel sales, diesels represented
63.4% of their passenger car production. In 2009,
Isuzu abandoned the United States consumer
market due to lack of sales. Isuzu as a corporation
has always been primarily a manufacturer of small
to medium compact automobiles and commercial
trucks of sizes medium duty and larger, but markets
around the world show different needs.
Isuzu Motors America discontinued the sale of
passenger vehicles in the United States effective
January 31, 2009. The company explained to its
dealers that it had not been able to secure
replacements for the Isuzu Ascender and Isuzu iSeries that would be commercially viable. Isuzu
sold 7,098 cars in the year 2007. This action did not
affect Isuzu's commercial vehicle or industrial
diesel engine operations in the United States. Isuzu
has a contract with Budget Truck Rental to
manufacture their rental trucks, shared with
Ford, GMC, and Navistar International.
On November 7, 2006, Toyota acquired 5.9% of
Isuzu, making them the third largest shareholder
behind ITOCHU and Mitsubishi Corporation.
In Australia, Isuzu was for many years a major
supplier of light commercial and domestic vehicles
to Holden (General Motors). However, by 2008,
Holden was sourcing few Isuzus. At this time Isuzu
began to sell the D-Max under the Isuzu name.

ISUZU ENGINE RE-BUILDING

PROCEDURE
Engine Pre-lubrication Procedure for
Isuzu Diesel Engines
Isuzu Truck of America has released the following
procedure for pre-lubricating diesel engines. This
procedure applies to new, remanufactured or partially
disassembled engines.
If the engine is equipped with a turbocharger be sure to
pour 4 oz. of clean SAE CD grade engine oil into the
turbo charger oil passage. This can best be
accomplished by removing the oil supply line to the
turbocharger. Rotate the compressor or turbine wheel
by hand to distribute the oil. Attach any oil supply lines
that have been removed.
While holding the fuel shutoff lever closed crank the
engine with the starter for 10 seconds. This is applicable
to all engines, whether turbocharged or naturally
aspirated. Pause for one minute to permit the batteries
to recover and the starter to cool down and repeat this

process two more times.

Release the fuel shutoff lever and start the engine.
Follow break-in procedures as outlined in the
appropriate service manual or AERA's Break-In
Procedure.

VALVE TRAIN TICKING SOUND ON 3.2L

ISUZU ENGINES
Valve Train Ticking Sound On
1992-98 Isuzu 3.2L Engines
The AERA Technical Committee offers the following
information regarding a valve train ticking sound on
1992-98 Isuzu 3.2L engines.
One or more hydraulic lash adjusters do not fully extend
due to varnish build up inside the adjusters. This
condition results from exceeding the oil and filter change
intervals on the vehicle.
There are a couple of ways to possibly cure this problem
that Isuzu offers. One of the simplest ways is changing
the engine oil and filter using a 0W-30 synthetic engine
oil prior to replacing any engine components. If the
noise persists after those changes, refer to the following
information.
Once we have determined which bank the noise is
coming from, the cylinder head valve cover needs be
removed so that we can inspect each rocker arm for
clearance at the valve tip. The noisy rocker arms are the
ones with clearance when the rocker is on base circle of
the cam and the valve is closed as shown in Figure 1.
Note: Each cylinder head has an oil pressure relief valve
that controls oil pressure to the rocker arms. If all rocker

arms have clearance and/or the rocker arm pivot shaft is

worn, then the cylinder head oil pressure relief valve
may be stuck in the open position.
Remove the rocker arm(s) that have clearance on them
and inspect the wear pattern of the hydraulic lash
adjuster surface contact with the valve stem as shown in
Figure 2. Then remove the hydraulic lash adjuster from
the rocker arms using your fingers. Do not damage the
O-ring on the outside of the lash adjuster or replacement
of the entire rocker arm is required.
Insert a paper clip into the hole at the top of the lash
adjuster and depress the spring loaded check ball while
completely pushing in the piston at the opposite end.
Some traces of oil may come out of the check ball hole.
Carefully remove the O-ring and spray the lash adjuster
piston with cleaner to remove any varnish while holding
the piston open. Submerge in cleaning solvent with the
check ball depressed and pump the piston repeatedly to
allow the solvent to penetrate through the lash adjuster.
Submerge the adjuster in clean 0W-30 synthetic engine
oil with the check ball depressed and pump the piston
repeatedly to allow the engine oil to penetrate through
the lash adjuster. Then allow the piston to extend fully
to fill the adjuster.
Reinstall the O-ring and lube the rocker arm bore that
houses the adjuster with 0W-30 synthetic engine oil,
then push the adjuster back into place. Inspect for leaks
at the check ball and piston by attempting to compress
the adjuster without depressing the check ball.

MAIN BEARING TORQUE CAUTION

Main Bearing Torque Caution For
1992-98 Isuzu 3.2L VIN V & W Engines

The AERA Technical Committee offers the following

caution on main bearing torque used for 1992-98 Isuzu
3.2L VIN V & W engines. This information should be
referenced anytime main bearing caps are being
installed and is used for both SOHC and DOHC engines.
During disassembly, make sure the main caps are
marked as to their position front to rear. If they are not,
number them before removing them in proper sequence
shown in Figure 1 below. The bolts should be removed
while the block is room temperature.
When installing the main caps, ensure reference mark on
the cap points towards the front of the engine and the
cap being installed is at the proper location. Tighten the
main cap bolts to specifications and sequence shown
below in Figure 2.
Tighten main cap bolts # 17,18,19,20,21,22,23 and 24 to
29 ft/lbs.
Tighten main cap side bolts # 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8 to 29
ft/lbs.
Tighten main cap and Oil Gallery bolts #
9,10,11,12,13,14,15 and 16 to 22 ft/lbs.
Then, tighten bolts # 9,10,11,12,13,14,15 an additional
55-65 degrees of rotation.
The AERA Technical Committee

VALVE BRIDGE CAUTI0N FOR 7.8L DIESEL

ENGINES
Valve Bridge Stud Caution For
1998-2003 Isuzu 7.8L 6HK1-TC Diesel Engines
The AERA Technical Committee offers the following
information regarding a caution for bridge studs on

1998-2003 Isuzu 7.8L 6HK1-TC diesel engines. It has

been reported valve bridge studs have moved during
engine operation and cylinder head service work.
Damage will result to either the rocker arm or valve
rocker bridge if the stud installed height is higher than
1.496" (38.000 mm). The correct installed bridge stud
height is listed as 1.457-1.496" (37.000-38.000 mm).
These studs are pressed into the cylinder head casting
and use of special tool # J43268 will locate the studs to
the correct height.
This engine built by Isuzu is used in the following vehicle
models sold by Isuzu, Chevrolet Trucks and GMC Trucks.
1999-2003 Chevrolet & GMC F-Model (T-Series) Medium
Duty Tilt Cab Models.
2000-2003 Chevrolet & GMC WT 5500 Medium Duty Tilt
Cab Models.
2003 Chevrolet & GMC C6500-C8500 Series Models
(Some Topkick & Kodiak).
1998-2002 Isuzu FSR/FTR/FVR Commercial Vehicles.
2000-2003 Isuzu, Some FRR Commercial Vehicles.

EXCESSIVE SMOKING
Excessive Smoking On
Isuzu C223 (2.2L) Turbocharged Diesel Engines
The AERA Technical Committee has been informed of an
excessive smoking situation on the Isuzu C223
turbocharged diesel engine. This engine is often used in
Trooper II and P'up (pickup) vehicles.
The C223 turbo-diesel engine has a PCV system that is
complicated enough to be classified as intimidating. The
crankcase ventilation system uses two devices not

normally found in gasoline engine applications.

The first device, is an oil separator/retention tank, which
acts as nothing more than a drop filter. Crankcase
fumes travel through a mesh medium that allows much
of the oil to collect and drop out of the air stream into
the bottom of the tank. Collected oil will drain back into
the oil pan. The remaining oil fumes are drawn through
the induction system and become part of the combustion
mixture.
The second device is part of the return line drain from
the retention tank. This return line uses a one way
check valve, Part # 8-94145-952-0. that allows oil to
return to the oil pan, but does not expose the lower
crankcase to the vacuum of the PCV system. If this
check valve becomes clogged or stuck closed, oil
may accumulate in the retention tank. Excessive
amounts of oil will then enter the induction system past
the retention tank, resulting in dramatic engine smoking.
Smoke is particularly heavy during morning engine
startup.

CYLINDER HEAD BOLT CAUTION

Cylinder Head Bolt Caution On
Isuzu 2.6L Engines
A loose head bolt has been found to be the cause of
coolant leaks on some Isuzu 2.6L engines. The leakage
occurs at the center head bolt on the exhaust manifold
side of the engine and seems to be caused by high
engine temperatures. This heat may cause the head bolt
to stretch and lose its clamping ability, allowing coolant
to seep past the head gasket and into the combustion
chamber. If the loosened bolt is not replaced, there is a
possibility that coolant deposits will accumulate on the
exhaust valve's seating ace.

Correction of this situation requires removal of the

cylinder head and complete inspection of the exhaust
valves for deposits. Install a new head gasket and
replace all head bolts. See the illustration below and
torque bolts in sequence to 58-72 ft. lbs. All components
must be torqued to specification prior to
adjusting the valve train. The engine may be rotated by
the using a 17 mm wrench/socket on the power steering
pulley nut. Cold valve adjustment specification for both
intake and exhaust is .008.

CYLINDER HEAD INSTALLATION

Cylinder Head Installation Isuzu 4BD1/T Diesel Engines
Isuzu Truck of America recommends the following
procedure when installing the cylinder head on 4BD1/T
diesel engines.
Position the cylinder head gasket on the cylinder block
with the TOP mark facing up and the FRONT mark facing
forward. Lubricate the head bolts with engine oil on
4BD1 engines and tighten in two steps using the
sequence outlined in the illustration below. Turbo
charged 4BD1T engine head bolts should be lubricated
with molybdenum disulfied grease before installation.
There are two different length head bolts used. Be sure
to install the shorter length bolts on the injection pump
side of the engine.
Engine

Bolt Status

4BD1
New

Reused
47-54 lbs.ft. 80-87 lbs.ft.
47-54 lbs.ft. 69-76 lbs.ft.

4BD1T

N/A

Step 1

50 lbs.ft.

Step 2

65 lbs.ft. *

* Then turn each bolt an additional 90o-120o.

REVISED CYLINDER HEAD REMOVAL &

INSTALLATION PROCEDURE
Revised Cylinder Head Removal & Installation Procedure
For
2001-2003 GM 6.6L VIN 1 Diesel Engines
The AERA Technical Committee offers the following
information on a revised cylinder head installation
procedure for 2001-2003 GM 6.6L VIN 1 diesel engines.
These modern diesel engines are referred to as the
Duramax diesel and are a result of a joint venture
between GM and Isuzu. This procedure should be used
any time the cylinder head is being removed and reinstalled. This supersedes information found in earlier
published service manuals.
It is now recommended that all M12 cylinder head bolts
should be replaced at the time of cylinder head
installation. These bolts have a pre-applied molybdenum
disulfide coating for thread lubrication. Do not remove
the coating or use any additional lubricant. Improperly
lubricated threads will adversely affect the bolt torque
and clamp load. Improper bolt torque and clamp load
can lead to engine damage.
Notice: The left and right cylinder head gaskets are not
interchangeable. Improper placement of the cylinder
head gasket will block coolant and oil passages. Blocked
coolant and oil passages will cause severe engine
damage. Three different grade (thickness) head gaskets
are available and use is determined by piston projection.
Those gaskets are also marked by no hole, one hole or
two holes to indicate the different grades as well as ?L"
and ?R" for left and right banks respectfully.
Cylinder Head Gasket Selection
Right Side

Left Side

Piston Protrusion

Holes
Grade A
97288223
less than .0108
none
Grade B
97288224
less than .0128
one
Grade C
97309561
less than .0148
two

97309562

.0088 to

97309563

.0108 to

97288228

.0128 to

After selecting the proper gasket determined by the

cylinder with the highest piston protrusion follow the
steps listed below to tighten the new cylinder head
bolts.
1. Tighten new 12 mm bolts in sequence to 37 ft/lbs (50
Nm).
2. Tighten new 12 mm bolts in sequence to 59 ft/lbs (80
Nm).
3. Rotate those bolts in sequence an additional 90 turn
using a torque angle meter.
4. Rotate those bolts in sequence an additional 75 turn
using a torque angle meter.
5. Tighten the M8 cylinder heat bolts to 18 lb ft (25 Nm).

TOOLS USED

V
ernier caliper

Micrometer

Box spanner set

Chain block

Torque spanner

Electronic ovality checker

Deflection gauge

CONCLUSION
We have re-builded a diesel engine and studied about
various parts of Isuzu engine laying in the Universal
Engine Rebuilders, Kochi. We took various
measurements like tappet clearance, piston ring
clearances and liner caliberation. After decarbonizing all
the parts we assembled the unit back and by rotating
the crankshaft manually we ascertained the freeness of
piston inside the cylinder. By opening the crankcase
relief door we checked the crankcase and cleaned it.
Studied the usage of various tools and how to take
caliberation reading of various parts. Studied the
working of various parts design and construction of 4stroke engine. Compared all the measurements with
limit given in the manual and found that all the
measurements are within the limit.

REFERENCE
With the help of following internet sites

Wikipedia the free encyclopedia

www.marineinsight.com
www.dieselduck.com
www.marinedieselco.uk
www.marinebrighthub.com
www.dieselacademy.com

Books referred are

Pounders Marine Diesel

Internal combustion engines by D K Sanyal
ISUZU diesel engine manual