Lesson 1 Lecture & Discussion

An Introduction to Forensics
Forensics. The word brings up images of people stepping around caution tape and into a
crime scene. Many of us think we have a good understanding of what forensics is from watching crime
shows or reading books: an offender commits a crime, the police show up, and somehow, they figure out
who did it. In some cases, although they are probably rare, things are that easy. Usually, however, things
are more complicated. The victim may not be alive. There may not be any witnesses. Evidence may be
hidden or missing. In simple terms, clues need to be found. Good, old-fashioned police work is key to
solving crimes, but more often, law enforcement officials turn to scientific tests and techniques to find
and interpret evidence. In other words, forensics is the use of science to investigate crimes, collect
evidence, and present that information in a court of law.
A Brief History of Forensics
If what you have just read piques your interest, you have come to the right place. You are
about to begin a course that will introduce you to various aspects of forensic science through lectures,
case scenarios Including two captivating mysteries Web-based research activities, assigned reading in
The Forensic Casebook: The Science of Crime Scene Investigation, lesson reviews, and many other
activities. Also, the courses message board will be a common place where you, your classmates, and the
instructor can conduct online discussions about the course material, pose questions to one another, and
talk about all topics related to forensics. Ideally, by the end of the course, you will be well versed in the
theory and techniques behind the fascinating world of forensic science. Welcome to the course, and enjoy
what is to come!
"So," you may ask, "who developed all of these scientific techniques, and when did they do
it?" Given the complexities of science and technology today, you may be tempted to think that forensics is
a recently developed field. In fact, the movement for educating and training professionals in the field of
forensics began around the turn of the 20th century. However, the roots of forensics run much deeper. The
first documented use of a forensic technique, fingerprinting, stretches back to seventh-century China. The
book, Yung Hwui, describes the importance of fingerprints in authenticating legal documents. For
example, it describes the correct procedure for sealing a divorce document: if either party is unable to
write, then a fingerprint must be used in its place. Even at this very early date, experts emerged who could
tell if a fingerprint was authentic, based on the patterns specific to every persons fingertip.
Several other cultures, including the Assyrians and Babylonians, used fingerprints to seal
documents. They recognized that fingerprints were unique and could double for a signature if illiteracy
was a problem among the parties involved. So, fingerprints were a means of clearly establishing identity
even in the ancient world. However, it wasnt until the 12th century that fingerprints were used in
criminal cases. "The Story of the River Bank," written by Shi-Naingan, tells the story of two women
accused of murder. They were ordered to have their fingerprints recorded and kept as a record of the
crime. Such anecdotal stories highlight the developments of forensics from the distant past to the present,
but it is easier to think about many of these major advances in the context of the scientists who developed
them.
Forensics as a unified discipline is a relatively new thing. The 19th century heralded the
beginnings of this field, through the contributions of various individuals. Sir William Herschel, a British
administrator living in India, decided to use fingerprints to identify prisoners in 1858. The high rate of
illiteracy among the local population made it impossible for many convicts to sign their names to prison
records. Sir Francis Galton, an Englishman, also made important contributions to the discipline of
fingerprinting when he devised a classification system using all 10 fingers. It is still in use today. We will
become more familiar with this system when we explore fingerprinting in Lesson 3.

It was some time before these widely separated incidents began to come together into a
unified field of study and practice. R.A. Reiss, perhaps sensing the need for formalized training in the
then-disjointed realm of forensics (it basically consisted of many isolated scientists working on individual
techniques), developed the first forensics curriculum at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1902.
Soon after, forensics labs began springing up worldwide, each with its own specialty.
Dr. Edmond Locard, considered by many to be the father of modern forensics and the
developer of many of the principles of ridgeology the study of tiny fingerprint patterns opened the
first forensics laboratory at the University of Lyon, France, in 1910. He also developed one of the most
prolific theories in all of forensics, the idea of the cross-transfer of evidence. This theory basically states
that whenever criminals enter and leave crime scenes, they inadvertently pick up and leave behind tiny
pieces of evidence, called trace evidence. This trace evidence is often the key to tying a suspect to a
crime scene or a victim.
Mathieu Orifila, a Spanish physician and chemist, is credited with developing many
techniques in toxicology. This science focuses on the study of drugs, alcohols, and toxins, and their
interactions with biological systems. Toxicologists also study how the body processes and excretes
different toxins, and investigate the mechanisms behind poisoning.
Kerry Mullis, a geneticist, invented a procedure in 1983 called PCR, used to multiply the
tiniest amount of DNA a million-fold. In 1986, the first DNA evidence was used in a court of law to
obtain a murder conviction, and one year later, DNA profiling began. Scientists can now do things such as
extract genetic material from old bones and lift it from chewing gum and paper cups.
So many scientists have made major and minor (but still important) contributions to forensics.
Go Web-surfing to discover some of the important people who have shaped this discipline into the
powerhouse that it is today youll be surprised at how many you can find and what significant things
they have developed. Just by typing "history of forensics" into a search engine, youll receive dozens of
interesting Web pages devoted to this and other aspects of forensic science. Even as you read this, new
and exciting technologies are being created to help forensic scientists do their jobs better than ever before.
Getting away with a crime keeps getting harder and harder to do all the time!
A Survey of Forensic Field
So far, youve gotten a feel for the development of forensic science where its been and
where its headed. But what about the specific disciplines that fall under the umbrella we call "forensics"?
A simpler way of dealing with the variety of different fields could be to split them into three groups based
on the type of evidence studied or the scientific techniques involved. It is important to note that some
fields can (and do) fall into another category; they are flexible.
Physical Forensics
How fast was the truck going when it skidded out of control? Are the two fibers collected
from the crime scene and the victim microscopically similar? Does the handwriting on this ransom note
match the known sample provided by a suspect? These are some of the questions that could be answered
by forensic scientists who study branches of sciences that deal with matter (anything that has mass, takes
up space or energy, or involves the ability of a machine or other object to do work).
Crime scene analysts and crime scene technicians are general terms used to describe people
who collect many different types of evidence left at the scene by a perpetrator. Specialists analyze this
evidence in a laboratory and gather information about the crime itself. This material may provide vital
clues to the crimes investigation as well as be submitted during courtroom proceedings as evidence
exhibits. Often, crime scene analysts take photographs at crime scenes, which they may analyze
themselves or pass on to forensic photography experts.

Forensic engineers often reconstruct motor vehicle accidents or analyze why mechanical
systems, such as airbags, have failed during an accident. Forensic engineers sometimes testify in civil
court cases as expert witnesses who conclude how or why airbags did not properly deploy upon impact. If
it is not possible to visit the actual accident scene itself, they often study the damaged vehicle, retrieving
engine computers and analyzing data collected by crash sensors. Once this data is mathematically
graphed, the forensic engineer can plot the time of the crash impact versus the length of time it took for
the airbag to open. If the two times do not coincide, the air bag did not correctly deploy and inflate,
resulting in injury to the occupants. Once the mechanical failure is discovered, forensic engineers then
perform further tests to determine the cause of the malfunction. Besides studying motor vehicle accidents,
forensic engineers may study more large-scale disasters or architectural failures, such as bridge, building,
or tunnel collapses.
Forensic document examiners study the authenticity of many different kinds of documents,
including manuscripts, deeds, records, ransom notes, and wills. One particular area of interest deals with
questionable handwriting samples. A document examiner may be called in, for example, if the family of a
deceased person questions whether the signature on a will actually matches up to known samples of the
persons handwriting. Document examiners are trained to notice the subtleties of handwriting, from the
angle of the slant, to the size of loops, to the shapes of letters. Also, it is common for document examiners
to analyze documents suspected of being altered. A criminal can alter the amount of money or the payee
of a check by overwriting with different ink or dissolving part of the original ink away. Ultraviolet light or
colored light filters can show the difference between new and old ink or reveal where writing used to be,
and document examiners are then able to verify that an alteration was made. Forensic document
examiners can also trace the origin of documents to specific typewriters, copiers, or printers. They do this
by studying fonts, ink types, and even "trash" marks unintentional marks made when ink accidentally
comes into contact with a copy machines glass surface and creates a repeated imperfection on every page
thereafter.
Ballistics experts study firearms evidence, often attempting to match up casingsthe outer
metal shell left when a bullet is firedfound at a crime scene, to a gun owned by or found in the
possession of a particular suspect. Using a comparison microscope, which places two separate images
side by side, ballistics experts look for a match in the tiny grooves on both the recovered casings and
casings taken from the suspect, since every firearm creates its own unique pattern of groove mark. See
http://www.state.ga.us/gbi/fsficom.html for a brief description of bullet comparisons. Ballistics experts
also perform tasks such as identifying the caliber of weapons and testing surfaces for the presence of
gunshot residue.
Latent fingerprint examiners attempt to find, isolate, and match hidden prints either with
those of a suspect or with local, state, or national databases of known fingerprints. Often, fingerprints left
at the scene of a crime by the perpetrator are latent (hidden or not clearly visible). Prints are left behind
when the oils and dirt on the fingers are transferred to a surface when it is touched. Investigators often use
traditional powders and brushes to isolate prints; however, they often use magnetic powders or powders in
psychedelic colors along with special lights to make hidden prints "pop" out. Once found, prints can be
photographed or attached to cards and filed away. When suspects are arrested and booked, their prints are
taken by police and entered into computer databases. Then police can try to match the prints to known
offenders.
Forensic imaging technicians often work to create some of the images that law enforcement
provides to the general public after a crime has been committed. Although crime scene analysts usually
perform the job of actually shooting and developing crime scene photos, when specialized techniques are
needed, such as digitally "aging" photographs of fugitives or missing persons, clearing up blurry images
or videos, and even sketching pictures of suspects, forensic imaging technicians are brought in.
Sometimes, however, these technicians are not law enforcement officers, but professionals who are hired
by a victims family. One example of this was when Massachusetts teenager Molly Bish disappeared from
her lifeguarding post in the summer of 2000. Her mother, Magdalen, provided details about a man she

saw at the pond where Molly worked on the morning she disappeared to professional sketch artist Jeanne
Boylan, who created incredibly detailed composite drawings of the man. Sadly, Mollys remains were
discovered in the woods in June 2003, roughly five miles from the spot she disappeared. The unknown
man has never been identified. Read more about Molly Bishs disappearance and view Boylans sketches
at http://www.courttv.com/news/feature/bish_ctv.html.
Chemical Forensics
Many times, crime scene workers collect evidence that qualifies as an unknown chemical
substance, drug, or poison. When necessary, the unknown chemical is sent to specialists who use common
chemical techniques to help identify chemicals found at a crime scene or in a body. Although it is
probably uncommon for these investigators to actually set foot in the crime scene, the tests they perform
provide vital information about the crime itself.
Forensic chemists perform many of these jobs inside of crime laboratories. They usually
have backgrounds in the chemical field, and may train as a forensic specialist secondarily. One technique
used in chemical forensics is a toxicology test, in which samples of body tissues are tested for the
presence of chemicals or drugs. For example, a medical examiner may conclude that a person died from a
drug overdose, but cannot be sure of the drugs identity by autopsy alone. One technique used by forensic
chemists, called thin layer chromatography, tests a sample for the presence of chemicals and can
actually help identify them if compared to a known example. A small amount of the sample is placed on a
glass or plastic plate, which is coated with absorbent material. This plate is placed vertically in a chemical
solution that draws up through the sample and "pulls" each component of the sample apart to different
heights. If the test is trying to verify the presence of a specific toxin, it can be compared to standard
known results.
Another technique, mass spectrometry (MS), is more commonly used when the identity of
the substance is completely unknown to investigators. MS breaks a sample up into the chemical elements
for example, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen of which it is composed. All chemical compounds have
unique compositions. Though they may contain the same elements, these elements are present in specific
ratios. A specialized diagram, called a spectrum, is created and analyzed. A forensic chemist can compare
the unknown samples spectrum to a database of tested substances and make an identification.
Forensic toxicologists study a very specific set of chemicals poisons. Toxicologists are
interested in how poisons harm living tissues, causing death or permanent injury to a victim. They often
work closely with forensic chemists to identify the actual poison involved. Toxicologists work in the
laboratory setting, using powerful microscopes and other equipment to study tissue samples. A deep
knowledge of biochemistry and anatomy is necessary for a toxicologist to understand the interactions
between toxins and the body.
Biological Forensics
The victims (and perpetrators) of the majority of crimes are human. Inevitably, as Locard
stated, the criminal transfers material to the crime scene and vice versa. Often, that material transferred is
of the biological sort, usually in the form of blood, hair, skin cells, saliva, and semen. The ultimate prize
for forensic investigators is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), a molecule that contains the "recipe" for
making a genetically unique person. DNA found on a victim can be compared to that taken from a
suspect, with the goal of excluding the suspect as the perpetrator. More about DNA evidence will be
discussed in Lesson 5. When time has passed between a persons death and the discovery of his or her
remains, specially trained scientists step in to aid in the identification.
Serologists and forensic laboratory technicians may perform DNA testing on samples
provided by victims and suspects. Often, the goal of these tests is to attempt to either identify or rule out a
particular suspect as the perpetrator of the crime. Since every human being is born with slightly different

DNA even identical twins have minute differences this genetic code can help distinguish one person
from another. If the DNA of a suspect matches DNA found on the victim, investigators can draw the
conclusion that the two individuals were in contact with one another. Of course, more sensitive testing is
necessary; although it is a powerful tool, DNA evidence alone cannot prove a suspects guilt in some
cases. Serologists work in crime labs, receiving and testing samples, interpreting results, and sending
those results back to law enforcement. Lesson 5 will detail several specific DNA tests.
Forensic anthropologists perform skeletal reconstruction of victims and are also skilled in
bone identification. In many cases, victims' bodies are recovered in remote areas or shallow graves where
time has taken its toll. Most or all of the flesh is decomposed, leaving only the skeleton underneath.
Forensic anthropologists use their skills to "read" the skeleton for clues, such as the age and sex of the
person, old bone injuries or evidence of bone diseases, or injuries that occurred at or near the time of
death (i.e., knife marks). Usually, forensic anthropologists first determine if the bones in question are
even human. The bones of many large mammals, such as bears, closely resemble human bones. Also,
folks often bury deceased pets that are later uncovered by the new homeowners - a strange, but also
frightening discovery until someone can prove they probably came from Rex!
Odontologists, or forensic dentists, are often called in to help make positive identifications
of victims based on dental records. Odontologists usually hold degrees in dental surgery or medical
dentistry and enter the field of forensic dentistry by extending their education to include specialized
training. The shapes, sizes, and spacing of teeth tend to be characteristic of an individual, so they can be
useful in matching a set of teeth from a person whose identity is questioned or unknown. Of course, more
traditional detective work is needed ahead of time to narrow down a geographical area in which to search
for dentist records, given the overwhelming task it could be. Some violent criminals bite their victims,
leaving imprints of their teeth behind for investigators to find. Odontologists interpret these bite marks
and tooth patterns left on victims, as well as those found on inanimate objects. Criminals may leave bite
marks in objects such as chewing gum, Styrofoam cups, and pencils. Odontologists can compare these
impressions to samples taken from a suspect with the goal of tying a suspect to a crime scene.
Medical examiners and coroners, often called forensic pathologists, perform autopsies to
investigate and identify the cause of death. Not all autopsies special procedures where the external and
internal body structures are studied for injury occur after violent deaths. In any case in which the reason
a person died is questionable, an autopsy is ordered. Forensic pathologists search for the cause of death
the actual physical reason the person died as well as the manner of death, which is categorized as
either natural, accidental, suicide, or homicide. More about the job of forensic pathologists will follow in
Lesson 6.
Forensic entomologists are scientists who study insects and their role in occupying the body
of a person after death. Most forensic entomologists are professionals in their own field, but work as
consultants to law enforcement on unsolved cases. They often visit the crime scene itself, taking
temperature readings and collecting insect samples from the body and its surroundings. Shortly after a
person's death, depending on geographic region, a characteristic wave of insects will find and begin to
colonize the body to carry out their life cycles. These life cycles are highly regulated and very specific,
occurring at precise intervals of time. The goal of a forensic entomologist, then, is to approximate the
time of death by tracing the life cycles of insects found at the scene.
Forensic science is a very large domain made up of many specialized sub-disciplines. When it
comes to a criminal investigation, every field can make significant contributions that ultimately lead
police to the perpetrator. So far in this lecture, you have learned about some of the history, individuals,
and fields that have led to the development of modern forensics, and you have seen how diverse the
forensics field can be through the various positions of forensic specialty. With this introduction under
your belt and more fascinating forensic details to come in the next lesson you are ready to discover
what cases you will be solving!

An Introduction to the Case Scenarios

Imagine that you are a police detective. A crime has been committed. All of the forensic
evidence has been submitted. Now, your job is to piece together the puzzle and solve the crime. Sounds
exciting, right? During this course, you will become a virtual detective and work to solve two different
crimes. Since forensic studies usually involve expensive, specialized equipment, it will not be possible for
you to perform the actual tests. However, as the lead investigator, youll receive test results and use them
to analyze the case. Youll interpret the evidence and then develop your problem-solving skills as you
decide which one of the suspects committed the crime. Throughout the course, checkpoints will challenge
you to analyze any new information and incorporate it with clues you already know.
The two case scenarios that you will be following throughout this course, The Great Art Heist
and Summer Love Lost, are based on actual criminal cases. Both are currently unsolved. Because the
crimes are unsolved and neither has gone to trial, investigators have released very few facts about the
actual crime scenes and evidence to the public. Therefore, many facts and names have been added to give
you evidence to work with. Although both crimes may have been publicized, it is still important to respect
the victims, so their names have been changed. In the two activities for this lesson, you will learn the first
details of the two cases you, as lead investigator, will be solving. As the course proceeds, you will learn
more about each case, making choices along the way. You will find yourself asking questions such as:
Which types of evidence might I find? What types of forensic tests should I order? Who are the suspects?
What is the motive? How did the criminals trip up and leave clues? Ultimately, your knowledge of
forensics will lead you to the perpetrator.
As you leave Lesson 1, you should be feeling confident that you now have a good foundation
to build upon. In the next lesson, you will learn exactly what a crime scene is (how do investigators
determine where to focus their search?) and the steps they take to make sure evidence is not lost. Also,
you will ponder some of the more interesting things that can happen at crime scenes evidence that
seems to vanish and other quandaries.
Establishing the Crime Scene
So far in this course, you have learned about the history of forensics as well as some of the
professionals who work to solve crimes. Now, its time to get to the good stuff, the reason that many of you
probably took this course to learn about everything related to crime scenes and solving crimes. Who hasnt
watched a television show like Forensic Files or read a crime thriller like The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and
been fascinated? This lesson will place you in the shoes of an investigator responding to a crime scene, detailing
everything from what to do upon arrival to how evidence should be processed. Then, youll learn more about some
of the challenges investigators face with disappearing and damaged evidence. Finally, you'll finish up the lesson
with a Case Checkpoint, which will give you a chance to summarize the case scenarios introduced in Lesson 1 and
tie up some loose ends.

What Qualifies as a Crime Scene?

What does qualify as a crime scene? There is both a long and a short way of answering this
question. The short version is that everything related to the crime qualifies as the "crime scene." Now,
although that answer is acceptable, it really does not give you the complete picture. A better answer is
found in The Forensic Casebook. It states that the crime scene should be thought of as more than just the
physical location (gas station, bedroom, bar room, laptop computer, heavily wooded area) in which the
crime occurred. This physical location is called the scene of the crime, and although it no doubt holds
extremely vital clues and evidence that investigators and forensic experts must collect, there is much
more about the crime that is important. The components that make up a crime scene are the primary
location of the crime as well as the secondary locations places where the crime was planned or places to
which the criminals may have fled. Less obvious, but just as important, are the various forms of evidence
and potential witnesses to the crime. In short, a crime scene is anything and anyone involved from the
first moments of planning, to the last moments of the crime, to what happens until the suspects are caught

and charged.
Imagine that a robbery takes place at a 24-hour convenience store. A car pulls up to the front
door and a masked man emerges from the passenger side. He enters the store, pulls out a gun, and
demands cash from the clerk. Wisely, the clerk hands over the money, and the assailant flees on foot.
What is the scene of the crime? The inside of the store? The store plus the parking area? Both of these
plus wherever the thief went after the crime? Have you found an answer yet? The scene of the crime is
obviously going to include the store, for this is where the actual robbery occurred. Here, the victim (the
store clerk) made contact with the thief, and this is where the money was stolen.
The parking lot should also be included, but as part of the overall crime scene. Someone, now
considered an accessory to the crime, let the thief out of the car there, and valuable evidence was likely
left when the thief exited the vehicle. Also, anyone else in the parking lot at the time is a potential witness
to the crime. Investigators would want to be sure to get statements from these people, asking them what
they saw and heard before, during, or after the robbery. They might ask witnesses about the make, model,
color, condition, and license plate of the drop-off car, as well as physical descriptions of the driver and
thief. They might also ask in what direction the car came from and left.
Finally, investigators should treat the route the suspect used when fleeing from the store as
part of the crime scene. According to Locards principle, the thief may have transferred valuable evidence
as he ran with the money. What else? Investigators notice a patch of muddy ground outside the store.
What type of evidence could be there? If you thought the thief could have left a footwear impression (a
pattern of the type of shoe he was wearing), you are correct. Forensics experts would look for this and
countless other types of evidence that youll learn about in upcoming lessons. So why do investigators
need to decide quickly and accurately what qualifies as the crime scene? It is important that the proper
area be cordoned off that is, sealed off from the public to prevent disturbance of the evidence. This is
usually accomplished with some kind of barrier, whether it is the easily recognizable POLICE LINE
DO NOT CROSS tape or another type of physical barricade
Now that you have an idea of what a crime scene actually is, what happens when the first
emergency responders (police, emergency medical technicians, firefighters, or any other type of law
enforcement authority) arrive on the scene? In our convenience store robbery example, the clerk may
have set off an alarm button, alerting police dispatchers that a robbery was in progress, or a bystander
may have called 911. In either case, no matter who responds first to the scene, a logical sequence of
events should happen.
First, the responder should observe the scene and be sure there is no immediate danger the
perpetrator of the crime may still be in the vicinity! He or she should be aware of any important details,
such as people who are coming and going from the scene. A keen sense of observation is a vital skill for a
first responder. Consequently, responders are trained to pay attention to the smallest details, even under
stressful situations. Those seemingly minute details could prove crucial later on in the investigation.
Next, first responders should identify any victims and witnesses who need immediate medical
attention. Someone whose life is in jeopardy takes precedence over the preservation of evidence until
victims are properly cared for or until additional assistance becomes available. A victim or witness who
dies obviously cannot provide any details about the crime to investigators, which could be detrimental to
the case.
Also, investigators must secure the scene. This is a combination of protecting the location
and evidence from destruction or contamination, preventing bystanders from viewing potentially sensitive
material (i.e., a deceased victim), and documenting everything that happens at the scene (i.e, persons who
enter and exit, diagrams of the scene, and any evidence found).
Finally, only when the scene has been secured can investigators and forensic experts begin to

process the evidence. This step involves the painstaking process of identifying, diagramming,
documenting, photographing, and carefully removing the evidence for testing in the proper forensics labs.
Trained crime scene analysts (CSAs), who respond to the actual crime scene, do most of this initial onsite work. It is important to remember that CSAs and many other forensic experts are not law
enforcement officers, but are trained in the private sector to work alongside police investigators (although
many police officers are trained to collect evidence). In addition to CSAs, many of the forensic experts
you learned about in Lesson 1 may visit the crime scene to collect evidence.
In fact, several experts often examine the same piece of evidence, but from their own unique
perspective. What type of expert might process a soda can with a partial fingerprint on it? A crime scene
analyst could dust it at the scene. It might be sent to a latent fingerprint examiner for further testing in the
laboratory. A DNA specialist could gather the evidence left when a persons lips and saliva come into
contact with the can. These combined efforts help to paint a complete picture of the history for a given
piece of evidence, and often lead to compelling testimony in court. In the next section, you will explore
some of the difficulties that these investigators and forensic experts encounter when processing crime
scenes. Its not always as easy as it may seem.
Disappearing Crime Scenes, Vanishing Evidence, and Other Oddities
As you learned in the previous section, determining the scope of the crime scene and
preserving evidence are two extremely important tasks that investigators and forensic scientists must
accomplish after a crime is committed. After all, the odds that criminals will be captured and successfully
prosecuted in a court of law diminish considerably if there is no way to find them and no evidence to
support a conviction. If the prosecutions goal is to prove, beyond a reasonable doubt, that the suspect
committed the crime in question, then the more solid evidence that is available, the better. You might
hope, then, that all crime scenes were preserved in pristine condition after the crime was committed and
that forensic scientists could easily find all the evidence that was left behind. Of course, things dont
usually work out this well in the real world. Adverse weather conditions, the movement of people through
the scene before it can be secured, and the presence of very subtle evidence are all factors that can make it
a challenge for investigators to process the scene.
Returning to Edmond Locards principle, anyone who enters or leaves a crime scene
permanently changes it by either adding evidence or taking it away. For example, imagine that the police
are racing to the scene of a murder. They pull up to the house identified as the crime scene and park in the
dirt driveway, adding new tire tracks to the ones already present. Once the forensic investigation begins,
the tracks from the police cruisers must be distinguished from any potential tracks left by the fleeing
murderer. When officers enter the house and perform a search of the dwelling, they inadvertently shed
pieces of hair and clothing fibers that could mix with those already present. Every single addition to the
scene must be accounted for, whenever possible. Likewise, the movement of emergency personnel or
bystanders through the scene before it can be secured may take away precious evidence, and sometimes,
that evidence may never be recovered.
On the Case:Washed Away
Very often, forensic evidence can be carried out of a crime scene albeit inadvertently by
uninvolved passers-by, investigators, police, and even the criminal. Also, some evidence, such as certain odors, are
fleeting by nature. But what happens when Mother Nature gets in on the act? In 1998, an elderly woman called
police after she returned home from a visit with her daughter and found her house burglarized. Shortly before
officers arrived, a light mist had begun to fall. Not much later after they pulled up to the home, the mist turned to a
downpour which persisted for over ten minutes, literally washing away any potential evidence that might have been
left behind outside the home by the thief.
Miraculously, one of the burglar's muddy shoe prints was found intact on the woman's front porch. If it
weren't for an awning above the porch, all traces of the criminal might have been permanently erased. Eventually,
police were able to match it to footwear owned by one of the lead suspects, prompting a confession from him, and

solidifying the evidence presented against him at trial. He was convicted of larceny and given a long prison
sentence.

Often, crime scene analysts or officers have a rough idea of what types of evidence could be
present at the scene. For example, if a body showing a stab wound injury is found floating in a lake, it
might make sense to look for blood on the shore but not in the water itself because it would have been
diluted. If the crime in question involves a shooting, investigators might try to look for a bullet or bullet
casing. Important information can be gathered when the person shot is treated at the hospital. In cases
where the bullet is lodged inside the victims body, investigators wouldnt need to spend time searching
for it at the scene if this information was relayed back to the scene as quickly as possible. And we must
not forget that witnesses often provide important clues that, when taken together, can help to solve cases.
For example, if witnesses heard two shots fired but only one casing was recovered, there is still one
missing. The list of possibilities is endless. Forensics experts must take all of these things into
simultaneous consideration when solving crimes. Collecting evidence is rarely a simple process.
The process becomes even more complicated when outside forces come into contact with the
crime scene. As you learned earlier, people can inadvertently carry evidence away from the scene.
Inanimate objects, such as shoes, vehicle tires, and even animals, can move evidence. Recall Clayton
Spencers account of this phenomenon in The Forensic Casebook. A boy had ridden his bicycle through
the scene of a shooting as it took place. By chance, his tire intercepted the bullet that the investigators had
been doggedly searching for! Very often, police must be problem solvers, working to connect information
from witnesses to found (or missing) evidence using the simple laws of physics and motion. If the bullet
moved completely through the victims body, it had to be somewhere else. However, collecting the
evidence got more difficult when the bullet could not be found. As you can tell, the odds were probably
high that the bullet would never be found, save for a stroke of luck and one observant, and apparently
civic-minded, boy. Therefore, even the most experienced investigators encounter frustrations as they
search a crime scene for clues.
Besides the obvious types of problems that can happen with evidence, some types of evidence
are, by nature, very difficult to find or isolate. Anything that is small, difficult to see, or impossible to see
with the unaided eye can pose a unique challenge to investigators. If you cant see it, how are you going
to collect it? Fortunately, advancements in forensic science (as well as some old standbys) have given
investigators the tools to overcome many of these challenges. Magnifying instruments allow investigators
to view the crime scene in more minute detail. Special sticky tapes are good for collecting trace evidence
evidence that is hard to see such as hairs and fibers. Tweezers help crime scene analysts pick up tiny
pieces of evidence. But what if the problem is that you cant see the evidence?
Many types of evidence found at crime scenes remain invisible unless the proper equipment is
used. Some criminals clean up blood from crime scenes "without a trace." That is, without a trace to the
naked eye. Forensic scientists can reveal where someone cleaned up blood by simply spraying the
chemical Luminol on the surface and dimming the lights. The areas glow a brilliant blue color, revealing
what was once invisibletraces of blood and the patterns that they make. Click here to learn more about
Luminol at Court TVs Forensics Lab.
Consider the Evidence:Evidence and the Environment
Moisture is a major life requirement for bacteria and fungi, two types of microscopic organisms that
feed off and decompose dead organisms. This natural process can greatly affect the efforts of forensic specialists,
who race to collect information about the condition of a victim's body before nature damages it. Dry weather can
help examiners by slowing these processes, in some cases for many years. In the case of mummified Egyptian
pharaohs, this is true for a span of several thousand years! Specialized embalming salts used to dry the bodies
created an environment hostile to bacteria and fungi. This dry condition, in combination with the desert heat,
resulted in perfectly mummified remains. Interestingly, mummification is possible even in cold climates, as in the
case of the "Iceman" mummy (later named "Oetzi" after the valley he was found in), discovered high in the Italian
Alps by hikers in 1991.The frigid temperatures and very dry climate effectively desiccated his body.

Finally, environmental factors can pose unique challenges to crime scene analysts and
forensic experts. Any environmental extremes, such as heat and cold, and wet or dry locations, can
degrade or alter evidence before investigators have a chance to isolate it and preserve its original state.
This presents frustrations when evidence is extremely difficult or impossible to collect, or is so corrupted
that it holds little or no value for the investigation. Biological samples, especially those containing high
amounts of protein (one of the bodys building blocks), tend to break down when they are exposed to
heat, which explains why bodies decay most rapidly when there is heat and moisture involved.
Another environmental danger is ultraviolet (UV) radiation, a component of sunlight. UV rays
are a strong form of electromagnetic energy that can penetrate the individual cells of living tissue and
damage DNA and proteins, leaving some types of evidence tainted. With all of these environmental
hazards present, you might think forensic scientists would never be able to find quality evidence.
Fortunately, the opposite is true. Even though perfectly preserved evidence would be ideal, forensic
experts use specialized tests and technologies to enhance even damaged clues. You will learn more about
these individualized techniques starting in Lesson 3. In the next section, you will have your first Case
Checkpoint, an opportunity to compare your thoughts about the two cases you have been working on, The
Great Art Heist and Summer Love Lost, to the facts to be revealed.
Case Checkpoint: Reviewing the Facts
Youve learned a lot of new information about forensics in this lesson. Put that knowledge to
work as you continue to investigate your two cases in Activities 1 and 2. The plot thickens in The Great
Art Heist and shocking details emerge in Summer Love Lost. For now, though, its time to review what
you know about each case so far. This is the first of many Case Checkpoints.
The Great Art Heist: A theft of priceless art has taken place during the early morning hours at
one of San Franciscos oldest art museums. Two suspects dressed in SFPD uniforms stole nine paintings
in total. Could the suspects have a police connectionin fact, could they be police officers? The fact that
both suspects took time to plan their disguises tells you that this was probably a premeditated crime,
unless, of course, two officers are found beaten or tied up with their uniforms missing. Their approach to
the museum was cool and collected, not haphazard. They had a carefully laid-out plan, and may have
rehearsed the crime before. They probably watched the nightly activity at the museum and knew Bill and
Charlies routine. Was it coincidence that they rang the buzzer as Charlie was on his rounds, knowing
both of them could easily overtake one man? By attempting to gain access by being let in, not by breaking
in, the suspects tried to avoid drawing attention to the museum. There were no ringing alarms, crawling
through windows, or the like. That way, they could make their getaway as smooth as their entrance.
The suspects did not conceal their faces. What could this tell you about the crime? Their
victims, Charlie and Bill, most likely did not know them. The two guards could easily name, identify, or
describe their attackers if they knew who the fake officers were. The suspects did not murder or seriously
injure either guard, which could mean the focus of the crime was stealing the paintings, and that the crime
wasn't fueled by personal revenge, rage, or out-of-control adrenaline. Again, both thieves were probably
well practiced and "professional." This was likely not their first job. Maybe, however, Charlie and Bill
were in on the heist. After all, Bill did let the officers in, against company policy, his best judgment, and
years of experience. If both guards looked injured, it would be even more convincing to investigators.
One question remains, with perhaps a clearer answer: Were the suspects "professional" enough not to
leave any evidence behind? As Locard might say, "Not a chance."
Summer Love Lost: Elizabeth McGrath, once a lover of high fashion and high society, was
murdered in her home on Long Island. The obvious fact is that she was killed, but by whom and why?
One of the most important clues was the lack of forced entry, and that the suspect was able to gain easy
entrance to the home. This could have a few meanings. Elizabeth may have known, trusted, or been
comfortable with her killer, inviting him or her inside. The suspect could have even had a key to her
house. Or, perhaps she left the door open by accident, giving her attacker the opportunity to enter

unnoticed. Several people recently involved in Elizabeths lifeand in close geographic vicinityshould
stand out to you as possible suspects: Tom Hodgson, Elizabeths former lover; Barbara Hodgson, Toms
wife who found out about their affair; and Ellis Creighton, her neighbor and Elizabeth's former boyfriend.
Other key suspects are Elizabeths father, George, Georges young girlfriend, Melinda Katz, and Harold
James, Elizabeths other neighbor with whom she was negotiating a land purchase. Of course, you still
have to do some more detective work before you complete the list or start clearing any of the people
above. Could an unknown attacker be a possibility? Could Elizabeths murder be a random act with no
motivation? Go to Activity 2 for information you need to start firming up your suspect list and searching
for clues.
Now that youve completed Lesson 2, you should have a firm knowledge of the nature of
crime scenes, what they are composed of, and how investigators should treat them. Now, get ready for the
meat-and-potatoes of the forensic worldthe evidence. From fingerprints to footprints to tire marks,
learn how forensic scientists collect and interpret these cluesand more! All this is waiting for you in
Lesson 3, "Collecting the Evidence."

Lesson 3 Lecture & Discussion

Collecting the Evidence
As you get ready to journey further into the world of forensics, lets take a quick moment and review
where youve been. From securing the crime scene (and the evidence) to the effects of environmental conditions on
evidence, you have learned what it takes to thoroughly examine the scene of a crime. Now its time to start
examining, in detail, the various types of evidence found at crime scenes. What is it like to search for fingerprints
on a soda can, window, or other piece of evidence? What information can you get from a shoe print or tire mark at
the scene of the crime? How does all of this relate to your two cases? Read on to find out!

Fingerprints 101: Your Personal Trademark

Heres a question for you to ponder: What makes you different from your family members,
neighbors, or even the person standing in line with you in the grocery store? The answer could be very
lengthy! You may have different physical characteristics, such as hair color and height; different
personality traits, such as optimistic or goal-oriented; and even different likes and dislikes, from music to
food to sports. There is always one defining characteristic, however, that will set you apart from anyone
else you know and the estimated 6.5 billion other people on the planet your fingerprints. So why do
you have unique fingerprints? What exactly are the differences among them? How do forensic scientists
collect them? And why are they so useful in crime solving?
The reason for fingerprint individuality originates in DNA, the genetic recipe for making a
person (or any living thing, for that matter). You, and every other person in the world, have DNA that is
similar enough to make you a human being with human characteristics. However, there are subtle
differences in DNAs structure (which you will learn more about in Lesson 5) that produce the variety of
traits seen in people. Some of these traits, such as hair, eye, and skin color, vary greatly, although some
people may have very similar or even identical traits. Fingerprints do not fall into this category, however.
As far as scientists can tell from genetic studies and research, no two persons can or will ever have
identical fingerprints. What about identical twins, you may ask, since they share an identical set of DNA?
(Identical [monozygotic] twins form when one fertilized egg splits into two embryos at a crucial time
during development in the womb. Fraternal [dizygotic] twins develop when two separate eggs are
released from the mothers ovary and are fertilized by different sperm. Therefore, fraternal twins do not
have identical DNA.)
To answer the question above, lets look at exactly how and when your fingerprints form.
Approximately 12 weeks after fertilization, tiny bumps appear on an embryos hands and feet. These
volar pads give rise to ridges of skin under a layer called the epidermisthe top layer of skin. Through a

complex process of cell growth and skin ridge formation, the fingerprints develop distinctive shapes and
tiny details, called minutiae (singular, minutia). It is actually the shape of the volar pad that influences
which print pattern develops. The volar pad shape is directed by a combination of genetics (DNA) with
factors in the external environment, such as the quality of nutrition the embryo receives, and even the
embryos position in the womb. This external environment (sometimes called the nurture factor) can be
even more important than genetic inheritance when it comes to the development of the volar pads. This is
the reason why identical twins develop fingerprints that are usually similar, but not carbon copies.
Eventually, by the fifth month of development, an embryo has a full set of fingerprints, which it will have
for the rest of its life. These fingerprints will never change because the skin ridges are underneath the
epidermis, protected from damage or wear.
Now that you have an understanding of fingerprint development, along with some of the
history of fingerprinting that you learned in Lesson 1, lets look at fingerprint classification in more depth.
Let us return to our discussion about Sir Francis Galton in Lesson 1. In 1892, he developed a system of
fingerprint classification system that deals with minutiae. However, it was actually another scientist,
Johannes Purkinje, who in 1823 divided fingerprints down into nine different categories, and
consequently created the very first classification system. His system is based on three general fingerprint
patterns the loop, the arch, and the whorl. From there, he also described a specialized arch called a
tented arch, and six different types of whorls. For more specific descriptions, refer back to page 40 of
The Forensic Casebook. Please note that current systems for fingerprinting generally acknowledge eight
different fingerprint patterns, as listed in the book.
As you can imagine, fingerprints can be vital pieces of evidence when left at a crime scene. If
suspects leave prints behind, there is very little doubt that they were at the scene at some point in time. Of
course, it is up to the detectives to discover if the print was left before or during the crime. Imagine a case
where a man is murdered in his home, and his wife is the prime suspect. Her fingerprints are, naturally,
found all over the house. Is this necessarily an incriminating piece of information? Probably not, since she
lived there, and no doubt came in contact with many surfaces on a regular basis. What might be of more
forensic value? (If you said her fingerprints on his body, or her prints found on a weapon, you are
probably right.) With this in mind, imagine any scenario in which crime scene analysts find prints at a
crime scene. Using the eight-pattern system, they conclude that the print found is a radial loop. Police
discover the primary suspect in the crime also has one radial loop among his fingerprints. Does this
constitute a match? Obviously, the pattern type matches, so the suspect cannot be excluded yet. More
information is needed, however, to show that there is an exact match.
This is where Galtons minutiae come into play. These tiny details, best observed under
magnification, show the true distinctiveness of fingerprints. Most minutiae have to do with the ridges of
the fingerprints themselves, not the type of pattern present. Also, most are categorized based on how
individual ridges start, stop, or split. For example, if a single ridge suddenly breaks into two ridges, like a
fork in a road, that minutia is called a bifurcation. Other types of minutiae are lakes, islands, dots, and
bridges, and these may occur in any number or combination. Carefully observe the photo of the
fingerprint shown at right. Can you identify the print pattern? It may be hard to tell since the photo is a bit
blurry, but the print appears to be a loop. Is it possible to say if the loop is ulnar pointing away from the
thumb or radial pointing toward the thumb? If you said "no," you are correct, because you have no
person to compare the print to. Because you don't know what hand the print came from, you have no way
of telling whether the loop points toward or away from the thumb. If youd like to test your fingerprint
identification skills in a quick matching game, click here and go to "Play Fingerprint Game."
By now, you have a good idea of why fingerprints are unique and what details a forensic
expert would look for in a print, but you may not know why you leave a print behind when you touch an
object or surface. The answer has to do with oils and proteins. The skin, in order to stay soft and pliable,
secretes an oily substance called sebum from specialized glands under the epidermis; these sebaceous
glands are usually attached to hair follicles. Have you ever pressed your face onto a window trying to see
inside? No doubt you left behind a mark composed of oily sebum and dead skin cells that were rubbed

off. Normally, however, people dont wander around pressing their faces onto everything they see (which
would be a strange sight indeed!). Instead, they touch and hold things with their hands, so that the oils
as well as the print patterns are left behind. Also, fingerprints contain amino acids, the building blocks
of protein. These amino acids come from a substance called keratin, a specialized protein that
waterproofs and toughens skin, in addition to being the main component of fingernails and hair. The
keratin is sloughed off from skin surfaces as dead cells are shed and objects are touched. See the Evidence
and Chemistry box below to learn about special tests that react with amino acids left behind by
fingerprints.
So far, youve learned how and why fingerprints form, the different patterns and minutiae that
characterize fingerprints, and why fingerprints get left behind. Now, turn your attention to the scene of the
crime, since that is where crime scene analysts or fingerprint examiners find prints that perpetrators leave
behind.
How does a crime scene analyst (CSA) find and collect a print? First, he or she scans the
scene, and objects at the scene, for visible (patent) prints (those that are not readily visible will be
covered in the next section). Once a print is found, the CSA selects the proper type of powder, depending
on the type of surface on which the print is found. For example, it only makes sense that black powder
should not be used when the print is located on a black background. Whenever possible, a powder of
contrasting color should be used. If an object is too delicate or large to be removed from the scene, the
prints may be developed right there. Sometimes, however, objects are removed and then brought back to a
forensic lab for further analysis, as in the case of hidden prints. The print is then lightly dusted with a
special brush applying too much pressure could distort the print. Once the print is developed, it can be
photographed or lifted. To lift a print, the CSA or fingerprint examiner applies a specialized clear tape
over the dusted print. Then, the tape is peeled off, taking the print with it. The tape is affixed to a
fingerprint card and collected from the scene as evidence. Click here to view a lifting demonstration at
Court TVs Forensics Lab. (Visit the first floor and click on the microscope icon for "Fingerprinting.") It
may be sent for further analysis or direct comparison to a suspects print. If there is no suspect at the time,
the print may be entered into a computer database called Automated Fingerprint Identification System
(AFIS), and compared to thousands of other prints. If the suspect has been arrested or printed before and
entered into the database, technicians might hit upon a match. Keep in mind that fingerprints found at
crime scenes are often smudged, distorted, or incomplete. Forensic fingerprint examiners have a variety
of techniques to overcome these obstacles, such as adjusting the lighting above a print to bring out more
detail. Once enhanced, these distorted or partial prints often yield important details and can even be used
to make a positive identification based on minutiae. But the job of the print specialist is not done yet.
There are several more ways that we can leave a trail for the trained eye to follow.
If only all fingerprints were always obvious and visible to the naked eye! The work of a
fingerprint examiner would be much simpler. Very often, fingerprints at a crime scene are latent, or
invisible, meaning examiners must employ different techniques to bring out those hidden prints. Once an
object is taken from the crime scene and brought to the lab, it can be developed using one of a slew of
different chemical compounds. (Please note that some of these techniques can be used at the scene itself,
such as Super Glue fuming, although many must be performed in a controlled lab setting.) Many of these
chemicals work ideally on certain types of surfaces (e.g., a nonporous plastic bottle or a porous piece of
paper) or certain print materials (i.e., a bloody fingerprint).
Consider the Evidence:Evidence and Chemistry
Special chemicals can be used to collect fingerprints and then either fade away (refer to page
46, Iodine Fumes), or remain permanently. One of the techniques that develops a print permanently is
cyanoacrylate or super glue fuming. Cyanoacrylate, the active ingredient in most "super glues," readily
sticks to the amino acids left behind by fingerprints. When the glue is heated in an enclosed container
(which can be as simple as a cardboard box), the vapors adhere to the print, leaving a powdery white
buildup, which becomes highly visible to the naked eye.

Ninhydrin, another chemical that reacts with amino acids, permanently turns the print a
purple color. In addition, there are special dyes, dips, and fluorescent powders (that glow or fluoresce
under certain wavelengths of light outside the visible spectrum) that present fingerprint examiners with a
whole host of techniques to help get the best prints possible. The job of the examiner hinges on an
accurate assessment of the material on which the print is located and the level of permanency desired,
along with a chemical developer to match those two parameters. With that accomplished, a good print can
be found on nearly any surface.
Collecting the Evidence :Ears, Lips, and Feet: The Future of Printing?
An eavesdropping ear pressed up against a wall. A lipstick kiss left on a napkin. Bare feet
walking across a wood floor. What do these all have in common? If you guessed that they could all be a
source of prints, youre correct! Think back to the physiological reason most prints are left behind oils
on the skin. Ears, lips, and feet all produce oils. Also, many women have the habit of applying lipsticks,
glosses, or balms that coat the skin with yet another sticky, greasy layer. With those facts in mind, coupled
with the knowledge that ear, lip, and footprints could be found at a crime scene as evidence, you might
think that those prints would be used more often to prove a suspect was at the scene. However, one
question comes to mind. Are these prints unique enough to positively identify one individual?
The answer is quite simple. Scientists have not studied ear and lip prints enough to know if
they are indeed unique to every individual person. After all, it took from ancient times (when the
individuality of fingerprints was recognized) until the 1800s for scientists to develop a practical
fingerprinting system. Perhaps in the future, scientists will discover a way to classify ear and lip prints
if they prove to be unique enough to sift one person out from among 6.5 billion others! Footprints,
especially prints of the toes, do show the same types of individual patterns and minutiae as are found on
the fingers. Can you think of one of the problems associated with footprints? If you said that they are not
as commonly found as fingerprints at crime scenes, youre right. It is much more likely for a perpetrator
to touch something at the scene with his or her hands than it is for him or her to walk around barefooted.
Also, the majority of police jurisdictions do not footprint a suspect upon booking. It is just not practical
because it is not likely that a suspects footprints would be found at the scene. Good fingerprint systems
and databases currently exist, but these would need to expand to include footprints before they could
prove useful in forensic investigations.
Impression Evidence: Shoe Prints, Tire Tracks, and Tool Marks, Oh My!
Thus far in this lesson, youve learned about prints that come from hands, feet, lips, and ears
in other words, bodily structures. But what about other types of marks left at crime scenes? Those prints
or marks that are of nonhuman origin are often called impression evidence, and everything from shoes
and tires to bricks and knives, hammers, crowbars, and other tools belong to this group. Basically,
anything that creates a flat or three-dimensional mark on a surface is impression evidence. Just as with
fingerprint evidence, crime scene analysts use specialized procedures and techniques to collect impression
evidence. To most effectively discuss these methods, lets break up the impression evidence category into
shoe prints, tire tracks, and tool marks.
Shoe Print Impressions Shoe prints, like fingerprints, are commonly found at crime scenes.
The moment a perpetrator walks through the scene, it is likely that he or she will leave a print of their
shoe soles behind. Often, the best shoe prints are found outdoors, in materials such as sand, dirt, mud, or
even snow. These media can be soft or malleable, and when the perpetrator walks through them, the shoe
sole sinks down, creating an impression of its treads or design patterns. Investigators can probably thank
many a shoe company for including their logo or some other distinctive design as part of the sole these
marks can help police to identify the brand, model, and size of shoe. The goal is to match the print to a
shoe that the suspect owned or owns.
You may recall a famous pair of shoes from the O.J. Simpson civil murder trial size 12

Bruno Magli loafers. According to the plaintiffs, a somewhat blurry 1993 photograph of Simpson at a
football game showed him wearing the same type of Bruno Magli shoes that made footwear impressions
both at the murder scene and inside the Ford Bronco Simpson drove. Coincidence perhaps, but Simpson
also wore a size 12. No Bruno Magli shoes were ever found in Simpsons possession, however, and he
claimed to have never owned a pair.
On the Case: Step by Step
Casting shoe prints in dirt or mud is fairly routine for police officers and crime scene analysts.
It's when shoe prints are found in snow that things can get tricky. Such a case occurred in Ontario,
Canada. On a cold winter night, a woman badly injured in a fierce attack by two strangers called
police. Her husband was dead, and she feigned death until her attackers left. They made off into the
darkness with a large sum of money. When police arrived, they found approximately 10 footprints in the
snow outside the house, as well as a sneaker print inside on one of the wood floors. Knowing the snow
prints were very fragile, yet important, pieces of evidence, officers worked quickly to cast and preserve
them.
Traditional casting would not work on these delicate prints in the snow. The heavy dental
stone would likely destroy any tiny details made by the shoe soles. Thinking quickly, the officers decided
to use a method called sulfur casting. Solid sulfur was heated, causing it to melt. (The tricky part of this
technique is that the sulfur must remain in its liquid form to capture the details of the print, yet it must be
cool enough not to melt the snow). Then, just above the crystallization pointthe temperature at which
the sulfur would begin to re-solidify the liquid sulfur was poured into the prints, hardening on contact
with the snow. Based on this shoe print evidence which matched the shoe print inside the house and a
pa

Lesson 4 Lecture & Discussion

Collecting More Evidence
In Lesson 3, you learned about three types of physical evidence commonly collected at crime
scenes. Now its time to complete your study of physical evidence with a look at three new types: trace,
firearms, and questioned documents. Explore the world of trace evidence examiners the forensic experts
always scouring crime scenes for tiny bits of hair, fibers, dirt, and glass that may provide clues to the
crime. If they cant really see the evidence, how do they collect it? What types of tools do they use? Then,
find out how bullets are often matched up to the guns they came from and look over a recently popular
case in the firearms section. Round out the lesson on physical evidence with a study of questioned
documents. Everything from forged documents to ransom notes to verifying document authenticity and
lots of stuff in between is the domain of forensic document examiners. Finally, see how your skills of
deduction (and detection!) match up when you read the synopses of your two cases in this lesson's Case
Checkpoint.
Trace Evidence: Finding the Needle in the Haystack
In many instances, crime investigators are lucky enough to find evidence that is pretty large in
size: a basketball sneaker, a cigarette butt, or a handgun. These types of evidence can be processed in
fairly routine ways. An imprint of the sneaker sole can be made by rolling it in ink, DNA can be extracted
from the cigarette butt, and a handgun can be dusted for fingerprints. However, things get tricky when
investigators start dealing with trace evidence usually tiny pieces of hairs, fibers, dirt, and glass that are
found at crime scenes. To the untrained observer, these valuable items could go unnoticed, but to the
experienced trace examiner, even a scene that looks clean at first glance can hold myriad clues. In this
section, youll examine two of the most common types of trace evidence, hairs and fibers, noting the
differences between them, how they are transferred, and what information they can tell about a crime.
Youll also look at one of the most famous cases involving trace evidence, the murder of Shirley Duguay,

and find out how some little white hairs helped to capture her killer.
To someone who is not familiar with forensic science, the terms "hair" and "fiber" may have
roughly the same meaning something found in a strand or a very thin and long form. Although these
descriptions are not incorrect, they dont give a specific enough picture of what fibers and hairs are.
Generally speaking, hair is something that comes from an animal source. In other words, many animals
are placed in a special group called mammals, or those possessing hair as part of their bodily
characteristics. Hair has basically the same structure, no matter what animal it is found on. Thus, whether
we call it fur, a pelt, a coat, a mane, or whiskers, hair has the same basic components from an examiner's
point of view.
On the Case: Hair Today, Jail Tomorrow
The importance of hair and fiber evidence should not be underestimated. Many cases have been solved
using associative evidence that has placed the perpetrator at the crime scene or somehow in contact with the victim.
One of the most well-known cases involving hair comparison occurred in 1994 on Prince Edward Island in Canada.
That year, Shirley Duguay went missing from her home. A few weeks later, a blood-stained leather jacket (which
investigators later discovered belonged to Shirleys boyfriend Doug Beamish) was found a mere five miles from
Shirleys home and it was her blood all over it. Inside the lining of the jacket, investigators found white hairs.
Knowing that Doug Beamish had a white cat, they ordered DNA to be extracted from the hairs. Analysts created a
DNA profile of Snowball the cat from the hairs and then compared that to a known blood sample drawn from
Snowball. The match was exact. The hairs were Snowballs. The jacket had Shirleys blood on it. And, Shirleys
remains were eventually found in a shallow grave the next year. Based on all the evidence linking him to the crime,
and even though no weapon was ever found, Doug Beamish was convicted of second-degree murder in 1996, and
sentenced to 18 years in prison without parole.

More specifically speaking, hair is a structure made up of a protein called keratin (see Lesson
2s Lecture for a definition of keratin), and is divided into two distinct parts. First, the part of the hair that
grows above the skins surface is called the shaft. The shaft is made up of dead, keratinized cells, and has
a protective layer called the cuticle. The cuticle lies in the direction of the hair end. For a quick
demonstration of this, grasp a single hair between the thumb and index finger of your left hand. Then,
slide your right thumb and index finger down the hair, away from your scalp. It should feel smooth
because this is the direction the cuticle runs in. Now, slide your fingers in the opposite direction. You may
feel some resistance because you are rubbing the cuticle against its natural direction. If your hair is dry,
colored-treated, or damaged, your cuticle may feel quite rough. The shape of the cuticle is actually one of
the most common characteristics used to distinguish human hair from all other animal hair. For example,
the cuticle of human hair tends to lie in large, flat, shingle-like sheets. In contrast, animal hair may have
cuticles that are very bristly or raised. In fact, many labs keep hundreds of comparison exemplars
samples of known origin to which they can compare an unknown sample under a microscope. Hairs
second major structure is found underneath the skin. The hair follicle (the part that contains actively
dividing cells) is the living segment anchored in the dermis. The follicle has its own blood supply that
brings nutrients to these living cells, and when these cells divide the hair grows longer.
Hair has three distinct growth phases. In the first and longest phase, called the anagenic or
growth phase, the hair is actively growing and taking in nutrients. Around 90% of your hair is in this
phase at any one time, since it is the longest. During the second phase, called the catagenic or shedding
phase, the growth and activity of the hair stops, and the hair falls out. Finally, the hair follicle ends up in
the telogenic or rest phase. Approximately 10% of your hair is in this phase as you sit and read this
paragraph. Normally, the scalp sheds about 100 hairs every day. Of course, this number can sharply
increase under the influence of certain genetic disorders, diseases, and even medications.
On the other hand, fibers may be of plant origin, like cotton and linen, or made synthetically,
like nylon, polyester, and rayon. Each type has its own set of defining characteristics, whether it is
average fiber diameter, length, ability to accept dyes, or overall strength. In general, synthetic fibers are
stronger than their natural counterparts. Typically, individual fibers are twisted into larger threads, which

can then be woven together to make a piece of fabric. For a quick demonstration, look down at the shirt
you are wearing, and observe how the threads are woven. Then, check the label to see what types of fiber
the shirt is made of. Is it made of a natural or synthetic fiber? Of course, animal hairs such as wool,
angora, and cashmere may also be twisted into larger strands and then made into knitted fabrics.
Hairs and fibers are very useful as associative forensic evidence something that can
associate or link a particular suspect to the crime scene. Thinking back to Locards principle, you'll
remember that there is almost always a transfer of evidence from victim to perpetrator, and vice versa.
Fabrics of many kinds shed fibers (or attract other fibers and hairs) very easily. The shirt of a perpetrator
may transfer fibers to a victims clothing or skin. Areas where small fibers can lodge, such as underneath
the fingernails or armpits, are places that investigators can often find a wealth of evidence. For a quick
demonstration, rake your fingernails across your shirt or pants a few times. Now, turn on a lamp for some
extra light and peer under your nails. Chances are that you caught many tiny fibers. If you, as the victim
of a crime, tried to push your assailant away, trace examiners would likely swab under your nails and find
fibers that they could then match up to clothing worn by the perpetrator using a comparison microscope.
This tool is nothing more than two microscopes joined together to make a split-screen effect. The two
samples are loaded onto their respective microscopes, and their structures are studied for similarities
under high magnification. Click here to explore more about hair and fiber comparison at Court TVs
Forensic Lab. (Visit the second floor and click on the microscope icon for "Fiber Comparison.")
Trace examiners, through experience and training, can often deduce several pieces of
information from a hair found at a crime scene. Due to differences in structure, they can determine if the
hair is of human or animal origin. If the hair is human, it is often possible to distinguish where on the
body the hair originated. Body hair, head hair, and pubic hair all have slightly different characteristics.
For example, facial hair usually has ends that are triangular, and pubic hair is highly pigmented and very
dark in color. Also, examiners may be able to determine the race of the person who left the hair behind.
Currently, three categories of hair origin Mongoloid (Asian and Native American descent), Caucasoid
(European descent), and Negroid (African descent) exist. However, these three categories cannot cover
the hundreds of thousands of people who have mixed racial heritage and, therefore, a combination of
characteristics.
Firearms: Youll Go Ballistic Over This One
Cops and robbers. What does this phrase make you think of? Guns probably came to mind. In
a perfect world, only those who are licensed to own a gun and are properly trained to operate firearms
would have them. Law enforcement officers carry them for their own safety, as well as to protect innocent
bystanders from harm. Hunters use them for sport, and often to catch their own food. Unfortunately,
however, firearms often fall into the wrong hands and are one of the most common weapons used in the
perpetration of violent crimes, primarily murders. It is no surprise, then, that the examination of firearms
a field officially called ballistics is extremely important. If enough information can be found that
links a bullet to a particular firearm, and that firearm can be linked to a suspect, police may nab their
criminal.
One of the most important things to understand about firearms (those weapons that use an
explosive propellant to shoot a projectile) is that they create microscopic marks in the projectile that they
shoot. Like a fingerprint, these marks can be used to positively match a bullet to its firearm. For example,
the inside of a firearms barrel (a structure called the bore) may be smooth or spiraled. When the slug
portion of the bullet exits a spiraled barrel, the marks are transferred onto the slug. Rifles and handguns,
when fired, both produce slugs with these spiral marks. Shotguns, because they are smooth-bored, do not
make spiral marks on the shot. As long as a slug is recovered and in decent condition, it can be studied for
microscopic details by a firearms examiner. Comparison microscopes are commonly used to produce
side-by-side images of the marks on a particular slug. If the gun in question is recovered, test bullets can
be fired once it has been processed for prints and trace evidence. Theoretically, the test bullets slug
should match up exactly with the recovered slug.

Another characteristic often used to link bullets to their firearms is the mark made by the
firing pin. The firing pin is the part of the firearm that strikes the primer, sets off the propellant, and
forces the slug to separate from the jacket. Firing pin impressions and cartridge marks are, again,
characteristically unique to each individual gun. Click here to learn more about firearms evidence at
Court TVs Forensic Lab. (Visit the second floor and click on the microscope icon for "Firearm
Comparisons.")
One of the most recent highly publicized cases involving bullet matching occurred in the case
of the "Serial Snipers," which began on October 2, 2002, in Maryland, eventually stretching to include
areas of Virginia and Washington, D.C. as well. Tragically, by the time the shootings were over, 10
innocent people were killed, sniper-style, each by bullets from a .223-caliber rifle. After intense ballistic
analysis, images of the slugs and casings found at each crime scene were entered into the Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) National Integrated Ballistic Information Network. After each
shooting, images were entered and compared, clueing investigators in to the fact that the same gun (and
likely the same suspects) was involved in each. Charged in the case were John Allen Muhammed and
John Lee Malvo. When arrested 22 days after the first shooting, the pair was found with a .223-caliber
high-powered Bushmaster rifle in the trunk of the Caprice Classic in which they were sleeping. Finally,
after intense ballistic analysis with the suspected murder weapon, examiners concluded that the bullets
fired from the rifle microscopically matched those recovered from the crime scenes of all the shootings.
The suspects were soon awaiting trial.
As you have seen, experts in the field of ballistics perform many important tasks, one of
which is matching bullets with the guns they came from. Next, youll see how a new type of evidence,
questioned documents, is also used to link perpetrators with their crimes. Here, examiners attempt to
match handwriting, inks, and papers from samples gathered at crime scenes to samples provided by
suspects and many other tasks as well.
"Ill Take Ransom Notes and Forged Wills for $100, Please."
Although perhaps not the most glamorous job in forensics, the questioned document examiner
plays an important role in the investigation of many a crime. This expert's domain includes papers, notes,
and official documents, which may not seem very interesting on the surface. However, document
examiners are often some of the most observant and knowledgeable forensic scientists in the field, trained
to spot tiny differences in handwriting or the slight distinctions between, say, a paper printed on an ink-jet
printer versus a laser-jet.
Forgeries are probably the type of questioned document with which you are most familiar. In
fact, the term questioned document refers to the questioning of its authenticity. Forgeries generally fall
into three categories based on how theyve been altered: typed or handwritten insertions such as adding
two zeros to a personal check to make $10 into $1000; deletions or obliterations such as erasing
someones name from a will; and alterations which are much like insertions, except that they involve
changing an existing word into something else, such as changing the word "fourteen" into the word
"forty." The tools of the forger can range from pens or pencils and other writing implements, to machines
such as copiers, fax machines, and typewriters, to computers and their printers. In case you were
wondering exactly what the difference is between an ink-jet and laser-jet printer, here it is: a document
examiner would know that if an ink-jet printer was used, the type actually appears sunken into the paper
slightly. A laser-jet printer, on the other hand, creates characters that sit on top of the paper. (Laser-jet
printers use a plastic-based powder that, when heated, fuses together in the desired shape.)
When it comes to ransom notes, another favorite topic of fictional crime investigators,
handwriting analysis is key. Very often, criminals will attempt to disguise their writing by printing or
slanting at a different angle or even using a computer. However, document examiners look for
consistencies in the printing or even the use of language or spelling in the ransom note to compare it to a
sample taken from a suspect.

Surely noting the differences between two handwriting samples or what type of printer a
document came from doesnt seem all that difficult. But what about a suspected forged document where
all the writing is in blue ballpoint pen? How would an examiner handle that one, considering that the ink
looks identical throughout? Forensic document examiners regularly employ a variety of techniques to
make these differences obvious. For example, alternative light sources, such as those that use the infrared
or ultraviolet portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, cause inks to behave differently based on their
chemical makeup. Even though two inks may be identical in color, the chances that they are made from
the same combination and proportion of dyes or chemicals is remote. For example, when certain inks are
exposed to ultraviolet light, the electrons (a type of subatomic particle) absorb energy and become
"excited." They cannot maintain this high level of excitement for long, so they release energy in the form
of visible light to compensate. In other words, they glow brightly in the dark. (This is the same concept
behind glow-in-the-dark items.)
Heres an interesting case involving document examination. A man was interested in buying a
"WANTED" poster of the infamous bank robber John Dillinger, who along with his buddies robbed
several banks in 1933. The poster was dated 1934. Given the large amount of money asked by the seller,
the prospective buyer wanted to verify the authenticity of the poster. After a careful forensic examination,
the answer was clear: the poster was a fake. How did the document examiner know? Some of the typed
print on the poster was set in the Courier-style font seen here: Courier. The examiner knew that the
Courier font was not introduced by the IBM Company until about 20 years after the poster was
supposedly printed! Good thing the buyer checked first!
Case Checkpoint: Uncovering More Evidence
The Great Art Heist: With the crime scene analysis proceeding smoothly and several pieces
of important evidence collected, your investigation of the theft is moving in the right direction. The
forensic fingerprint examiner has found fingerprints all over the service door, but what about the rest of
the museum? Its a very large space, with 24 rooms total (plus a basement and attic), so asking her to dust
the entire museum would be a waste of time and materials. Theoretically, the suspects could have left
prints in every room. You had to make an educated decision about where she should focus her search. The
knowledge that the thieves entered through the service door makes that a logical place to start. Also, the
painting frames should be dusted as well, because its likely that the suspects had to physically handle the
paintings to remove them from the frames.
Another important piece of evidence collected is the blue fibers. Based on his experience with
trace examination, Wu speculates that the fibers are nylon. Nylon is a synthetic fabric primarily made
from long strands of the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. It has a slippery feel and is
often made into items such as flags, parachutes, ropes, and clothing. Even with this preliminary
identification, the fibers will need to be studied and compared to known samples in the lab, using highpowered microscopes to be accurate. You may have concluded that the only explanation of the fibers
origin is from the police uniforms the suspects were wearing during the theft. As of now, you still dont
have any idea that one of them carried a backpack, so you cannot make this connection yet. Youll have to
wait until the lab analysis comes back to try to make a formal identification. No cheating!
Also, the lab is working to identify the cutting utensil used to free the paintings from their
frames. One of the ways to determine what type of sharp object was used is to collect a variety of cutting
implements, as well as a sample of canvas similar to the ones painted on. The examiner would set up the
canvas in a frame of roughly the same size and cut. After testing several of the cutting implements, such
as different types of knives, saws, and razors, a match could be found by comparing the fragments left in
the paintings' frames to the fragments made in the lab. No doubt there is more evidence still waiting to be
found, so get on over to Activity 1 to find it.
Summer Love Lost: It seems as though you are coming closer to determining a motive for
this crime: money. After your interview with George McGrath, Elizabeths father, you learn some key

pieces of information. First, Elizabeth (who seemed to have few enemies, if any) might actually have a
big one: Melinda Katz. About three months earlier, around the time of the Christmas holiday, Elizabeth
had confronted and humiliated Melinda about her gold-digging habits. Second, George had taken out a
trust fund, payable on his death, for Elizabeth in the sum of approximately 1.5 million dollars. After their
fight, George removed Elizabeth as the beneficiary and replaced her name with Melindas. Then, feeling
uneasy with the change, he reverted back to the trusts original state a few weeks before Elizabeths
murder. Finally, Melinda was a former drug abuser with a shady boyfriend. Considering that her past is
less than pristine, she is looking more than a little suspicious to you.
The most important evidence you have right now is the fingerprints found on the back door to
Elizabeths house. Once the medical examiner prints Elizabeths postmortem, you can compare the two
samples. Also, you have ruled Ellis out as a source of those prints, but was there anyone else who was
known to frequent Elizabeths house? Tom Hodgsons boots were found in the bedroom, which is
suspicious because he and Elizabeth ended their relationship roughly three months prior to her murder.
Tom is evasive when Officer Reid questions him about Elizabeth, and going with your gut feeling, you
think he has more to tell. Could Tom be the killer? What could be his motive? Discover more gripping
details when you proceed to Activity 2!
Now that your analysis of physical evidence collection and interpretation is complete, you
should have a better understanding of why even the smallest cluealthough difficult to findcan be a
major break in any crime investigation. So far, youve mostly learned about evidence of the nonhuman,
nonbiological kind. Coming up in Lesson 5, youll begin your exploration of one of the hottest types of
evidence: DNA. What exactly is it? Why is it such a powerful tool when placed in the hands of
investigators? Find out the answers to these questions and more when you begin examining biological
evidence!

Lesson 5 Lecture & Discussion

Examining Biological Evidence
As youve seen in the past few lessons, many types of crime scene evidence, from fibers and
fingerprints, falls into the category of physical evidence. For the purposes of this course, physical
evidence means any evidence that does not contain DNA. Evidence containing DNA or from which DNA
might be extracted is placed into the category of biological evidence. Although hair, in particular the bulb,
does contain DNA, it is usually paired in conversation
with fibers, so that topic was covered in a previous
Consider the Evidence:
lesson. With that in mind, its time to delve into the
Paternity Case
subject of biological evidence. In this lesson, youll
learn about the basic structure and importance of
DNA. Also, youll finally find out what all the hype is
The above diagram is an example of a DNA analysis completed
about, and why DNA evidence is showing up more using RFLP techniques to determine the paternity of the child. As
and more in the fight against crime.
you can see, each lane of the diagram corresponds to a lane on
an electrophoresis gel. The dark lines are the bands of DNA
produced when it was cut with restriction enzymes. First, it is
Over the past 50 years, DNA technology important to know that the child inherited half its DNA from its
and its use as a crime-solving tool has become more mother and half from its father. As the maternity of the mother is
and more advanced. In the 1950s, "DNA" was a brand not in question, you can easily match up which of the child's
bands came from her. In this case, there are two men who are the
new term, and many people were and are still potential father of the child. Theoretically, then, the other half of
mystified by its name. Simply put, the host of DNA- the child's bands should match up to one of the men. Who is the
related vocabulary being tossed around today, from child's father?

PCR to RFLP to STR, is enough to make even the

most science-savvy person c-o-n-f-u-s-e-d. This
lesson puts everything into easy-to-understand terms,The bands the child inherited from its mother are marked in red.
and youll gain the knowledge you need to follow The child's unmarked bands should match up to one of the men.
along with your favorite crime show or book, even Marked in green is an analysis of Man #1. There is only one band

that is a match, which could be by coincidence. Both of the bands

must match to show paternity. Marked in blue is an analysis of
Man #2. As you can see, both bands are a match. Man #2 is the
father.

when it gets technical. Also, this lecture explores one of the hottest areas of DNA analysis: mitochondrial
DNA. Why is it so special that its given its own section? Find out how its used to catch criminals and
identify old bones. Finally, work your way through important case summaries for The Great Art Heist and
Summer Love Lost in this lessons Case Checkpoint.
DNA Evidence: A Modern Fingerprint? Ever since the late 1980s, DNA evidence has found
its way into crime labs and courtrooms, starting with the first case ever, in 1987. In the town of
Narborough, England, in 1983 and 1986, two young teenage girls were found dead. Each had been
sexually assaulted. Richard Buckland, a local teenager with a history of bad behavior, was the main
suspect and eventually confessed to the crimes. The police were interested in verifying Bucklands
confession against some of the evidence left at the scene. They contacted Dr. Alec Jeffreys, a professor
working at a nearby university. He had developed a method of DNA profiling to originally study
evolutionary patterns in local sparrow populations. The DNA profile would allow him to track different
birds and the ways they inherited their genetic material from generation to generation.
Dr. Jeffreys agreed to run a profile on the semen samples found on the victims, and then to
compare the resulting profiles to those created from blood samples volunteered by about 3,700 local men.
When all the profiles were finished, police were alerted to some surprising results. Two of the samples
had matching profiles, something that could only occur if two identical twins had given blood. Checking
back to their donors, they realized there were no twins. Someone gave blood twice, once for himself and
once for someone else. That someone was a man named Ian Kelly, and when questioned, he admitted to
the duplicate donation. The man he donated it for was Colin Pitchfork, who had been previously
convicted of sexual assault. When questioned by police, Pitchfork admitted to the crime. His newly
provided blood sample matched the profile created by the semen samples perfectly. Pitchfork was
convicted of the two Narborough murders in 1988 and given a lifetime prison sentence. Buckland
returned to a life of relative obscurity. With this case, the modern DNA "fingerprint" was born.
DNA is the genetic code for creating anything alive, from single-celled bacteria to mushrooms
to humans. At the moment of fertilization, when a sperm and an egg unite, these two single cells join and
their DNA combines. You began life as a two-celled structure, but considering how complex your body is
in its adult form, there had to be a set of directions that got you from two cells to billions of them. DNA is
that set of directions. In this section, youll find out a little more about DNAs structure and importance.
As you go through this lecture, youll find an appreciation for why DNA is so important to forensic
investigations.
DNA is an initialism, standing for deoxyribonucleic acid. This long name describes its
structure and its chemical makeup. DNA is microscopic and is made up of several single atoms bonded
together. The deoxy part means that it is missing one oxygen atom (in comparison to RNA). Ribo refers to
its ring of five carbon atoms joined into a circle to make the sugar ribose. Nucleic acid refers to the
macromolecule category that DNA, along with its sister RNA, is part of. Simply put, a macromolecule is
a very large molecule that assists in "building" a person. There are four types of macromolecules:
carbohydrates primarily store energy for the body; lipids, such as fats, provide cushioning and store
excess energy; proteins have several different body functions, such as structural support (as in the case of
keratin) and enzyme activity; finally, nucleic acids, the category of DNA and RNA, hold the directions
for making all the bodys parts and directing all the bodys activities.
All DNA is roughly the same, save for one detail: the combination of four special molecules
called bases. One single base, of which there are four different kinds (represented by the letters A, T, C,
or G) bonds to one deoxyribose ring, and when billions of deoxyribose molecules link together, they
create a strand of DNA. When the bases line up in certain patterns, they create the genetic recipe. For
example, most humans have a stretch of bases on their DNA that is the recipe for making an enzyme
called lactase, which helps the body break down the sugar lactose thats found in dairy products. (In more
technical terms, these genetic recipes are called genes.) Many people lose the ability to digest milk sugars
early on in life because the body tells the lactase gene to turn off (that subset of the population labeled

"lactose-intolerant" a very uncomfortable gastrointestinal condition that occurs when the undigested
milk sugars are gobbled up by bacteria, which produce gases as a by-product). After years of genetic
research, scientists have concluded that the switching off of this lactase gene is actually the normal
condition. (Early on in the evolution of the human species, the only milk that was available to infants
came from nursing mothers. The theory goes that as the practice of raising animals for food and milk
became more commonplace, the gene for lactase evolved, too.) Children and adults who are able to digest
dairy products do so because their lactase gene contains a mutation a change in the recipe that may be
as small as one base that keeps the gene in the on position, just like a light switch. Youll learn more
about DNA bases in the next section of the lecture.
As youve just learned, DNA is made up of repeating nucleic acid units. In fact, billions and
billions of these units link together to form long strands called chromosomes. Each chromosome
(humans have 46 in each cell) contains different genes. Thanks to the Human Genome Project, completed
in 2001, scientists know on which chromosomes several genes are found. For example, the condition
cystic fibrosis occurs when there is a mutation in a specific gene on chromosome 7. You may be asking
yourself how 46 chromosomes worth of DNA fit into one tiny, usually microscopic, cell. The answer is by
folding. The body has special mechanisms for folding DNA that make it small enough to fit in the
nucleus the command center of a cell. Thus, this type of DNA is often called nuclear DNA. From the
nucleus, the steps of the genetic recipe are carried out, giving your body its wide array of complex
functions. Surprisingly, DNA is also found in other areas of the cell, one of the most important of which is
the mitochondria structures inside cells that are like tiny power plants, essentially creating the bodys
energy. You'll find more on this unique type of DNA in the upcoming section, "Mitochondrial DNA: Girl
Power!"
As youve seen, DNA directs how the body forms and how it functions. But how is it a useful
identification tool? You may be thinking that all this talk of DNA as a sort of molecular fingerprint is
contradictory: how can all people have similar enough DNA to make us part of the same human species,
yet different enough to potentially match us up to DNA left at a crime scene? You just learned that genes
are the short genetic recipes that direct the production of everything from lactose-digesting enzymes, to
special proteins that give your eyes their color to hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. We all
have a gene that tells the body to start developing limb buds where arms and legs will later form. Except
for individuals who may have a gene mutation, all people have the same gene structures with slight
variations that make us all look different, but still recognizably human. The true barometer of our
uniqueness, then, must be found somewhere outside of these similar or even identical genes, and in fact,
much of our DNA is junk. Junk DNA is not so named because it is mutated or defective. Rather, junk
DNA is segments of DNA of varying length that have no known job. Simply put, all nongene DNA falls
into this category. It is the variations in your own junk DNA that set you apart from every other person on
the planet and that could be used to create your DNA profile, as youll see in the next section.
DNA fever began to build during the early 1980s. Researchers in universities and laboratories
all over the world were working at a frenzied pace to discover the intricate details of the gene as well as
the implications of using DNA as an identification tool. By 1987, the year of the Colin Pitchfork case,
DNA profiling had begun to make its way into the hands of law enforcement officials worldwide. Here
was this new technology, capable of bringing statistical certainty to the guilt or innocence of a wide
variety of criminals when nothing more than a few drops of blood or saliva or semen, a hair follicle, or a
tooth was left behind at the crime scene. You shouldnt be surprised, then, that DNA profiling was
revolutionary. Genetic research continues to press on and is currently one of the hottest fields in biology,
as it has been for many years and will undoubtedly be far into the future. So much still remains unknown
about our human genome the collective term for the DNA contained in all 46 chromosomes.
A few different qualities have made DNA the darling of forensic investigations. First,
although DNA can be very fragile (its susceptible to mutation by UV light, for instance), it is also
extremely resilient. DNA thousands of years old has been extracted from bones, teeth, and mummified
remains. Second, certain analyses can place probability of a sample of DNA as a match to a suspect in the

1 in 1,000,000 range (or higher), making it ideal courtroom evidence. Third, forensic DNA analysts can
create suspect profiles using specialized procedures that are as good as, if not better, than traditional
fingerprints in distinctiveness. Finally, DNA analyses created for many convicted criminals particularly
those that were found guilty of a crime before the introduction of DNA technology have resulted in the
exoneration of prisoners who were actually innocent all along.
PCR, RFLPs, and STRs: Breaking Down the Acronym Overload!
With the boom in DNA technology, it seems that more and more jargon is being tossed around
in the general media, as well as in television shows, movies, and books that explore forensics. When
forensic DNA analysts are commissioned to create a profile on a suspected criminal, a father who
questions his paternity, or a mass-disaster victim, they usually use one of two existing methods: RFLP
analysis or STR analysis. If the amount of DNA in the sample provided by law enforcement (from
evidence collected at the scene) is not large enough to be profiled, then analysts may use a method called
PCR to produce more copies of the genetic material. While all three are relatively common techniques,
they have their own distinct processes. Each of these three acronyms will be demystified and studied in
more detail below.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is easily visualized using this familiar scenario. Your
boss asks you to make 1,000 sheets of the same memo one for every person in the company. Your input:
the original memo, surely not enough for everyone. Your expected output: 1,000 replicas. Your tool of
choice: a photocopy machine. PCR works the same way on a molecular level to make multiple, exact
copies of a particular DNA sample.
PCR, developed in the early 1980s by Kerry Mullis, a young researcher, is a fairly simple
technique involving a small sample of the questioned DNA and some molecular building blocks. When
heated to a precise temperature, the DNA strands (which look like parallel railroad tracks) separate. Then,
materials needed to make more strands such as the deoxyribose sugars and A, T, C, G bases are added
along with an enzyme called DNA polymerase, which builds the new strands. After several repetitions of
these steps, a small amount of DNA is multiplied into an amount large enough to create a DNA profile.
Even if the sample collected from a crime scene is large, analysts usually do PCR to ensure against
accidents during the sample analysis or to store extra DNA for future testing. Click here to visit Court
TVs Forensic Lab and learn more about the PCR process. (Visit the first floor and click on the
microscope icon for "DNA Evidence.")
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs)
Dont try to say that five times fast! Its a mouthful, and its long name doesnt tell you much
at first glance. A RFLP (pronounced "rif-lip") is a piece of DNA created when special restriction
enzymes cut up a strand of DNA. These restriction enzymes act on the whole genome at once, cutting
both genes and junk DNA at the same time. Fragments of various lengths are the result mainly because
every person has a different amount and different composition of junk DNA. So, lets break down the
name. "Restriction fragments" are the segments created by restriction enzymes, and "length
polymorphisms" refers to the fact that the segment length can take many different forms. In fact, RFLP
lengths are specific enough to each individual person, that, when combined, they create a highly specific
and highly accurate DNA profile. RFLP analysis is one of the oldest, but still one of the most reliable
techniques used by forensic DNA analysts. The profile created is actually a picture, showing the
fragments (or bands) and is read vertically from top to bottom. Once the restriction enzymes are added to
the DNA, the mixture is placed into a gel electrophoresis chamber. The "gel" is like a harder version of
gelatin, and the chopped up DNA is inserted into small depressions (or wells) at one end of the gel. The
gel rests in a small chamber, and a special solution is poured in to help conduct the electric charge. DNA
is actually a molecule that has a slightly negative electric charge due to the atoms it contains. A positive

electrode is placed at one end of the chamber the end farthest from the wells and a negative electrode
at the other end. When the power supply is turned on, the positive electrode attracts the negatively
charged DNA. The fragments slowly migrate through the gel to the far end. Small fragments go farther,
so theyre most likely to be found at the bottom of the gel, and vice versa for the large fragments. After
they are out of the electrophoresis chamber, the bands are still not visible because DNA is clear. At this
point, the profile is ready, and the gel may be stained with a dye to make the bands appear and then be
photographed. Or, it may be treated with a special set of chemicals that, when exposed to radioactivity,
make the images of the bands appear. Either way, the gel electrophoresis/RFLP technique is a relatively
easy way for forensic DNA analysts to compare DNA found at a crime scene, say in a spot of blood, to
DNA samples taken from one or multiple suspects, all at the same time. When the issue of paternity is
concerned, the mother, child, and potential father can all donate DNA samples, and a visual profile is
created. Since DNA has a 50/50 inheritance, you would expect half of the childs bands to match up to the
mother. If the other half of the childs bands match up to the man in question, he must be the biological
father!
Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)
Much like RFLPs, short tandem repeats (STRs) are mostly dependent on junk DNA. STRs
(sometimes called microsatellites) are short usually made up of base combinations that repeat as many
as 10 to 100 times. For example, the following sequence could be an STR:
TAGTAGTAGTAGTAGTAGTAGTAGTAGTAG. In that sequence, the base combination was the unit
"TAG," and it repeated ten times. The number of repetitions an individual has, not the bases themselves,
is highly variable among the human species. For example, at one location in the genome, the "TAG" STR
may repeat itself 45 times, but at another location, it may repeat 79 times, and so on. It is estimated that
out of the entire genome, anywhere from 10-20% may be made up of sequences like STRs. That gives
analysts quite a lot of DNA to search through when studying STRs. In fact, STRs are slowly replacing
RFLPs in forensic analyses because, unlike RFLPs, they can be used in conjunction with PCR.
Currently, most forensic DNA labs study a combination of 13 different locations around the
genome when creating an STR profile on a suspect and a crime-scene sample. Because each STR is
highly variable, when placed in combination with each other, the odds of a sample-suspect match
belonging to someone in addition to the suspect in other words, the possibility that someone else at the
crime scene had the same STR combination could rise into the billion-to-one range. The power of DNA
has greatly improved and expanded forensic science, but theres quite a bit more to the story.
Mitochondrial DNA: Girl Power!
On the Case: The Wisdom of mDNA
Besides the interesting genealogical applications of mDNA, its been making its way into the forensic
arena recently. One of the more common uses for mDNA is in the identification of human skeletal remains. For
example, a young woman named Tina Mott disappeared from her home and authorities suspected her boyfriend of
foul play. Two months later, a skull with only the wisdom teeth intact was pulled from a local pond. How could
investigators determine the identity of the skull? Going on prior clues, police suspected the skull belonged to Tina.
They had mDNA extracted from one of the teeth and asked her mother to provide a DNA sample as well. When the
two profiles were created, they matched exactly. The skull was Tinas. Later, her boyfriend confessed to her
murder, pulling out all her teeth to make a dental comparison impossible or so he thought. What he didnt know
was that Tinas wisdom teeth were never removed and remained perfectly intact deep inside the jaw. He was
subsequently convicted of her murder.

From the title of this section, you might surmise that only females have mitochondrial DNA.
This conclusion would be incorrect, for everyone has mitochondrial DNA, males and females alike. The
girl connection has to do with how mitochondrial DNA, called mDNA for short, is inherited. It is, in
fact, only passed from mother to daughter or mother to son. Sorry, dads, but nobody ended up with your
mDNA. The reason why will soon be explained, but first, go back in your mind to one of the things you

learned in the first section of the lecture: all cells have DNA in their nuclei. Even some structures smaller
than cells the so-called mitochondrial powerhouses contain their own DNA. All cells contain
mitochondria, but the amount varies depending on the cells job. For instance, muscle cells must get
enough energy to keep contracting and relaxing all day long, moving you from one place to another,
contracting your heart, and even helping to digest your food. Consequently, they are filled with
mitochondria, providing constant cellular power.
Another important cell relies on mitochondria for energy, for its sole purpose in life is to
swim. Can you guess which cell it is? If you said "sperm," youre correct. Sperm cells, created only by
males, are basically DNA transporters, designed to move DNA from the male from which they originated
to a females egg cell. Besides this bundle of DNA, a sperm cell is mostly tail, designed to get that DNA
package through the female reproductive tract to the waiting egg. Since there is quite a long distance for
these sperm to cover, they need to swim for hours and hours, thrashing their tails, moving forward a little
bit at a time. This would put the sperm in a quite a predicament, except that at the base of the sperms tail,
where it meets the DNA package, there are lots and lots of mitochondria, making an almost endless
supply of energy.
Let's now consider the reason that mitochondrial DNA is inherited maternally. Contrary to
popular belief, at the moment of fertilization, the entire sperm does not enter the egg which is really a
very large cell, with its own nucleus and mitochondria and other cellular machinery. Instead, just the head
of the sperm, the DNA package, is allowed inside. The tail along with the mitochondria is kept out.
Meanwhile, the sperm and egg DNA combine inside, directing the development of those two cells into
what will eventually become a human being. To understand that the mDNA in your cells is actually quite
old, all it takes is a simple mental exercise: Travel back in your mind through your mother, your
maternal grandmother, your maternal great-grandmother. Like other forms of DNA, mDNA has been
passed from parent (mother, in this case) to offspring through the generations. In fact, in his book The
Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes suggests that all the people in the worldthose once living and
currently livingcan supposedly trace their mDNA back to only a handful of women who lived
thousands of years ago.
DNA evidence and analysis, in conjunction with more traditional forensic practices, can be
very powerful and convincing to a jury, although DNA evidence still remains controversial in some
respects. We will explore the nature of this controversy a little later in Lesson 7, "Challenging the New
Technologies." In Lesson 6, youll continue your exploration of the human body and its ties to forensic
investigation as you learn about forensic dentistry, anthropology, entomology, and medical examination.
Case Checkpoint: Interpreting the Clues
The Great Art Heist: As you continue to interview witnesses and gather more information on
the case, it should be becoming clear that multiple people are involved in the crime. Lets review the facts
so far. First, you know that two men completed the theft itself; they are the ones who physically removed
the paintings from the museum. Their haste in cutting the art out of the frames tells you a few things: they
were probably in a hurry, and they were not overly concerned about leaving the paintings intact. The
suspects, therefore, had to be working for someone else, probably receiving money to carry out the theft.
Second, you suspect the French trio who asked so many questions of Janie Clark is in on the theft as well.
Given their behavior and inquiries, which were strange enough to be considered suspicious, they may
have been scouting out potential stolen works for themselves, or even for some third party. Bruce Clark
seems to be fitting into the puzzle as well. Although you have yet to question him, his prior connection to
the museum, his unquestionable knowledge about the art and museum operation, and the nature of his
current business venture make him a probable suspect. Perhaps Clark provided the means for the
paintings to reach France or some other destination, be it foreign or domestic.
One of the most interesting developments is the print match you learned about at the end of
the activity. As you think back on the progression of the case, you realize that the print spoken about had

to be one of those that were found on the doorway by Amanda Morin. Although she found latent prints on
the flashlight, there was not enough time to search for a match. Therefore, the match must have come
from the door. Also, the blood and hair found on the flashlight is most likely a match to either Charlie or
Bill, who were each struck in the head. A strong blow would be enough to break the skin and cause
bleeding. As Bill lay on the floor, unconscious, the blood puddled around the site of his injury. Also, the
impact may have torn hair from either mans scalp out by the root.
At this point in the investigation, you have some strong suspect leads and some good
evidence. Now, the true test will be fitting all of these puzzle pieces together. Will they start locking
together, creating an image of the crime? Or will you be left with a pile of mismatched pieces, only
throwing you into more confusion? Find out in Activity 1, when the search for biological clues gets
underway.
Summer Love Lost: Another suspect bites the dust! Harold James, the elderly man involved
in a stalled real estate deal with Elizabeth McGrath, passed away before the murder was committed. Your
suspect list appears to be shrinking and that spells good news for your investigation. What about some
of the other people who have aroused your suspicion? First, theres Tom Hodgson. He just admitted
after originally denying any recent involvement with Elizabeth to their rekindled affair. Or at least thats
his side of the story. Perhaps he did take interest in her again. Maybe Elizabeth shrugged off his advances,
and he killed her in anger? The boot evidence and eyewitness account put him near Elizabeths around the
afternoon she was murdered. Second, you are starting to suspect Melinda Katz. According to Elizabeths
father, there was a considerable amount of friction between the two women a clash that had to do with
Georges money. You know, from George, that the trust fund was altered twice in the months leading up
to Elizabeths murder. To many people, money equals power. Could Melinda (or her sleazy ex-boyfriend
Leo White) share this belief? Did Melinda want the upper hand in the struggle for Georges attention?
Things have started to heat up in the evidence department. Two very interesting pieces, the
sand and the legal pad, may hold important clues about the crime. Perhaps the sand is the result of a lazy
housekeeper, or perhaps it had another origin. The legal pad and its "phantom" note could hold the most
promise for determining a motive. Could the note be penned in Elizabeths own writing, hinting at some
sort of transaction between her and Tom Hodgson? The only other possibility is another, currently
unknown author who left hints about a bank, a box, and a key. In Activity 2, youll learn more about the
note, the sand, and the motive for murder.

Lesson 6 Lecture & Discussion

Examining More Biological Evidence
In Lesson 5, you learned what DNA is, how it works, how it makes people unique, and how its used
(through techniques such as PCR, RFLPs, and STRs) to catch criminals, determine paternity, and even identify the
unknown victims of crime. Now, in Lesson 6, youll learn more about the human body, how its able to leave clues
about crimes (e.g., through bite marks), and how experts can interpret things like sex, age, disease history, and even
time of death from these types of evidence. Next, you'll delve into the world of forensic anthropology, a discipline
in which scientists study differences in human physical development to help gather and interpret vital evidence
about human skeletons. Learn how these experts can read a body for clues (e.g., blood type, past injury, or medical
conditions) and even use these clues to create an image of a person from just a skeleton.

Then, you'll learn how and why insects are usually the first visitors to a crime scene, getting
there even before the first responders and investigators arrive. Find out what clues these silent spectators
hold when you learn more about forensic entomology. Later, youll finally debunk the mystery
surrounding coroners and medical examiners, the so-called death investigators of forensics. What makes
one different from the other? How are they the same? Finally, wrap up the lecture with a closer look at all
of the evidence for The Great Art Heist and Summer Love Lost in the latest Case Checkpoint!
From Bite Marks to Identifications: Its All in a Days Work for a Forensic Dentist

Everyone in the world has his or her own phobias or things they just dont like to do. For
many folks, a trip to the dentist is no picnic in the park. The scraping, the drilling, and those funny pieces
of plastic you bite on to take x-rays to some people, its downright unpleasant. Sometimes, dentists get a
bad rap for doing what is just part of their job, but some dentists actually go above and beyond a day at
the office. Many dentists are also trained in the field of odontology (or forensic dentistry) and provide
consultation to law enforcement when called upon to help out in a case. The nature of the case may be
criminal, as in determining the identity of a victim of foul play, or it may be accidental, such as figuring
out the identities of plane crash victims. Whatever the case, the job of a forensic dentist usually falls into
two broad categories: identifying persons based on dental records and x-rays, and matching bite marks to
their maker.
Heres a quick demonstration. Get an apple from your kitchen. Open wide and take a partial
bite, just making tooth impressions on the fruit. Or, get a piece of chewing gum, unwrap it, and chew it
until it's soft. Move it to the side portion of your teeth and gently bite down. Whether you used an apple
or gum, you should be left with a pattern of tooth impressions called bite marks. In the case of the apple,
you may have been able to make a complete set of upper and lower teeth bite marks. On the gum, since it
is a small piece of material compared to the apple, the bite marks are probably partial. Nevertheless,
theres a good chance that a forensic dentist could analyze that apple or piece of gum, and determine with
a great deal of accuracy that you made the marks. How do they do it?
Most semi-soft materials, when bitten with enough force, create impressions of teeth. (If
youre a pencil-biter, you definitely know all about this!) Flesh, different types of food, and chewing gum
are just a few examples of materials that will take on bite marks. When a forensic dentist is called in to do
a bite mark comparison, the case usually involves some sort of foul play, such as assault or murder. Bite
marks usually show up on victims as secondary injuries when the perpetrator bites during the crime. Also,
victims may bite their attackers in an attempt to ward them off, leaving the criminal with a visual
reminder of the crime. Bite marks, if forceful enough, can leave large bruises under the skin and even
become infected with bacteria if the skin is punctured.
In the case of assault, police take an inventory of the injuries and usually photograph the
living victim. Sometimes, bite marks are not evident immediately after injury, so the victim may be
monitored for developing bruises or marks. In cases involving a death, the medical examiner or coroner
usually does the photography, noting all obvious and subtle injuries. The whole point of this process is to
gather the impressions of the teeth, in the hope that they can be matched up to the perpetrator at some
point in time. Police may order a suspect to provide a dental impression, which is usually created under
an odontologists supervision. From this impression, the odontologist can create an image of the known
bite mark and compare it to the bite mark taken from the victim, attempting to a make an exact match.
But why are teeth such good indicators of identity?
Tooth development, just like any other part of the body, is influenced by a combination of
genetics and environmental factors. Teeth come in the same basic shapes and sizes, though there are many
variations. Also, characteristics such as tooth angle, crookedness, and missing or damaged teeth are
important factors to a forensic dentist. When taken individually, these unique tooth characteristics could
provide identification when compared to a known sample, such as an x-ray. However, when taken
together (as in a complete set of teeth), the variations add up to state, to a high degree of certainty, that a
particular set of bite marks or teeth belong to a particular individual. When x-rays are available,
odontologists get an even better view of dental work that may not show up in bite marks, such as fillings,
bridgework, or false teeth. In fact, many forensic identifications (usually those that occur when a
deceased person is unrecognizable for some reason) hinge on the presence of x-rays or past dental history.
It is common for forensic dentists to lend their expertise to court cases involving bite marks.
One such case involved a young girl who was murdered in a poor area of a large city. Her killers moved
her body to an old abandoned burial vault in a nearby cemetery. The case provided few clues to her
killers identities. One piece of evidence a wad of chewing gum found in the vault proved to be

pivotal in the case. Police, through a tipster, became suspicious of two young local men in the murder. A
forensic dentist created a mold from the chewing gum that showed the shapes of the teeth involved. When
compared to molds created by the two suspects, police found an exact match to one of the men. It seemed
highly unlikely that the gum would have gotten into the previously sealed vault unless it had been
dropped by one of the killers during the crime. The gum-chewer confessed and implicated his friend in
the murder as well. Both were convicted of murder and sentenced to long prison terms.
Youve just seen how teeth and bite marks are important in forensic investigations. From
individual cases to mass disasters, the work of forensic dentists is invaluable. To learn even more about
forensic dentistry and bite mark evidence, click here to visit the Court TV Forensics Lab. (Visit the first
floor and click on the scientist icon for "Bite Marks.") In the next section, youll study bones, another part
of the body that can tell stories and divulge important information, if interpreted correctly.
Bone Storytellers: Forensic Anthropologists
Believe it or not, to the trained forensic anthropologist, seemingly inanimate objects hold
stories, just waiting to be read. In particular, forensic anthropologists study bones, usually human,
although they must have experience in identifying other types of animal bones so that the two types can
be distinguished from each other. The bones of many large mammals are very similar in size and shape to
human bones. Deer, bears, and dogs have bones that are sometimes confused with the bones of people.
Very often, forensic anthropologists are called in when all that is left of a body is the skeleton, because the
absence of flesh makes identification very difficult. Although dental records could be used in the
identification, as noted in the section above, they are not always available, especially if the person lacked
medical insurance or just did not like to frequent the dentist. Therefore, there must be other methods of
gathering information about an unknown body, in hopes of making identification (or even narrowing the
field of possibilities) easier. This is where forensic anthropologists, sometimes affectionately called "bone
people," come into play.
One of the first steps of understanding forensic anthropology is to learn the basics of bone
growth. Again, just as with teeth, bone growth is generally shaped by genetics and environmental
conditions, such as nutrition. Our DNA directs the body to produce a chemical called growth hormone,
which influences the rate at which bones lengthen. Also, the long bones of the body (i.e., the arm and leg
bones) are capped at each end with a plate called an epiphysis (epiphyses plural). This epiphyseal
plate, as its called, fuses with the shaft (long portion) of the bone through a process called ossification
also called bone building which is also controlled by the body and various hormones. Besides genetics,
however, nutrition and other environmental factors can influence the growth rate of bones, and
consequently the overall height a person will achieve. The absence of certain vitamins and minerals, such
as calcium and vitamin D, during childhood can lead to stunted bone growth. Also, improvements in the
field of medicine have greatly increased height averages (along with other things, i.e., life expectancies)
over the years.
If a skeleton is like a book, just waiting to be read, then what types of clues can forensic
anthropologists decipher from its pages? First, and most importantly, they can infer the age of a person
based on skeleton size. Bones begin to form and grow during fetal development, and this growth
continues steadily throughout childhood. There are several periods of time, however, when bone growth
seems more marked, leaving someone to say that a child is "growing like a weed" or is within a "growth
spurt." These periods of intense bone lengthening are pre-programmed by DNA, giving scientists and
forensic anthropologists reliable growth standards to use when attempting to determine age based on
skeletal maturity. The skeleton grows very little after puberty, and during adulthood, the rate at which
bone is made roughly equals the rate at which its broken down by the body resulting in a constant
height. As humans progress into older age, however, bone is broken down faster than it can be replaced.
That fact, coupled with diseases such as osteoporosis, usually result in a loss of height over time.
Therefore, inferring the general age of a person from their skeletal development is quite a common task.
Since it is more difficult to pinpoint an exact age due to biological variations, forensic anthropologists

usually give estimated age as a range for example, from 7-14 years of age.
Besides age, forensic anthropologists can usually determine the gender of a skeleton. In
general, due to the influence of the hormone testosterone, males are larger than females and develop
greater muscle mass and bone density. Therefore, male skeletons show a larger bone mass. It is also
possible to infer gender based only on skull features. Here, the rule of "males are larger" applies as well.
Males tend to have more pronounced brow bones, more massive and squared off jaws, and bigger brain
cases the area inside the skull which houses the brain. In comparison, females have less pronounced and
more rounded features. Besides using the skull and overall bone size, the pelvis is another region that
forensic anthropologists can study to determine gender. Since females carry and give birth to babies, their
pelvises evolved a wider shape. In particular, the overall openness of the pelvis is greater in females to
accommodate the head of an infant during birth. Incidentally, this may be one of the reasons why human
infants have evolved to be so much smaller and underdeveloped than their animal kingdom counterparts.
A large head would make birth extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the mother and fetus. Males, on
the other hand, do not need this extra room, and consequently have much narrower pelvises.
One extremely interesting case of bone identification occurred in Russia in 1991. Seventythree years earlier, on an evening in mid-July, Nicholas II, the last tsar of Russia, as well as his wife, five
children, and four servants, were killed by the Bolsheviks in the height of the Russian Revolution. Their
bodies were supposedly buried by the Bolsheviks at a secret location and consequently forgotten. In 1991,
a Russian geologist, after years of research, believed he had located the graves of the Tsar and his family,
with the skeletons mostly intact. After many attempts to persuade the government, the geologist was
given permission to exhume the bodies from the graves. Forensic anthropologists worked for months,
trying to assemble the jumbled bones into skeletons that they could then use to see if these bodies fit the
account of what happened that fateful July night. After intensely studying the skeletons, forensic
anthropologists concluded that the nine recovered skeletons were consistent with those of three young
children, two adult females the Tsarina and her maid, and four adult males the Tsar, the family doctor,
and two other male servants. Two mysteries remained, however. First, even though the skeletons fit the
proper profile, were they really of the Romanov family the Tsar, his wife, and children? Second, what
happened to the other two children?
Consider the Evidence:The Anatomy of Evidence
Forensic anthropologists can also read a skeleton for clues besides age and gender. One of the more
interesting things they can find is evidence of old injuries. When injured, bones (as well as their fleshy counterparts
like skin and muscle) heal through a very complex process. Old bone injuries, such as fractures, produce visibly
healed cracks and even lumpy, scar-like patches especially if a bone healed improperly. In addition to injury,
forensic anthropologists can discover evidence of disease for example, spongy-looking bone may point to
osteoporosis. Other skeletal deformities can be apparent, such as the S-shaped curve of a spine with scoliosis or the
protruding breastbone of a person suffering from rickets. Forensic anthropologists may also find evidence of tool
marks, such as notches created by a knife, or other injury that may have contributed to the persons death, such as a
gunshot wound or blunt force trauma evidenced by shattered bone.

Unfortunately, the answer to this question would take more investigation than just the forensic
anthropologists could do on their own. Can you guess the new method used to figure out the identities of
the skeletons? If you guessed DNA, youre absolutely correct. First, forensic DNA analysts set out to
determine if any of the skeletons were from related people. Can you guess what technique they used?
Mitochondrial DNA, of course. (For a refresher on mDNA, go back to Lesson 5.) When the mDNA was
extracted and tested, the skeleton of one of the females and all three of the children matched perfectly
the Tsarina Alexandra and three of her children (remember that mDNA is passed down maternally). The
skeleton presumed to be the Tsar did not match, which is also consistent with what scientists expected,
since he inherited mDNA from his mother, the Dowager Empress Marie Fedorovna. How could they
show that the "Tsar" was really Nicholas?
If you know anything about royal families from any country, you know that marriages are

carefully arranged so to preserve bloodlines in other words, DNA. Assuming the bloodlines of Nicholas
II had been carefully mapped out, it was possible that there were some relatives still alive who, if traced
through the maternal side of Nicholas IIs family, would share the same DNA. Count Nicolai Trubetskoy,
living in Denmark, was a direct maternal relative of Nicholas, and he agreed to provide a DNA sample for
the investigation. After quite a long analysis (due to a strange new type of mutation that appeared in the
counts DNA), it was concluded that the remains were of the Tsar. Just to be sure of their conclusion,
investigators also performed an mDNA analysis on the Tsarina, tracing her closest living maternal relative
to Prince Phillip, the Duke of Edinburgh and husband to Queen Elizabeth II. Phillip was an exact match
to Alexandra and her three children. Finally, the mystery of the final resting place of the Tsar and his
family was solvedalmost.
Remember that the Tsar had five children Tatiana, Anastasia, Olga, Maria, and Alexei yet
only three skeletons of children were found. Forensic anthropologists used skeletal characteristics to
determine that of the five children, Anastasia and Alexei the only boy were the ones not present in the
graves. In fact, rumors of their escape from the Bolsheviks circulated Europe for several years, with many
young men and women claiming to be the royals. So far as anyone can tell, they were all frauds, so the
mystery of the two missing skeletons is still unsolved. Did they really escape the Bolsheviks? Were they
buried in another location, away from the rest of their family? No one may ever know the answer.
From teeth and bones, hard and calcified structures, forensic investigators can learn many
clues (i.e., age, gender, and past injury) and determine the identities of those who might otherwise remain
unknown. In the next section, see how insects, with their affinity for flesh not bone are important
players in the game of death.
Forensic Entomology: Its a Bugs Life
Snakes, spiders, bugs, and creepy-crawlies of all kinds give some people, well, the creeps.
Maybe its the fact that many of them bite or sting. Maybe its because many folks dont know just how
beneficial they are to earths ecosystems, or that they are important members of food chains and important
scavengers that clear the world of plant and animal debris. However, you may look at insects differently
after reading about how useful they are in some criminal investigations.
Forensic entomologists, scientists who specialize in analyzing insect activity in connection
with criminal cases, almost always perform insect collection at crime scenes. You may be wondering what
insects have to do with crime. Generally, the presence of insects coincides with one of two things. First,
criminals moving through a particular area say, on the way to a crime scene may inadvertently pick up
insects on their clothing or even vehicle (a bug on a windshield or a tick hooked onto a pant leg are good
examples of this). Coupled with the knowledge that certain insects are found in certain geographical
areas, forensic entomologists can pinpoint exactly where a criminal came from or visited. For example, a
species of beetle (known to inhabit only the desert Southwest) found stuck inside the grill of a car in
upstate New York would most likely raise some eyebrows. It would appear that the suspect had, at some
point, driven that car to or from the southwestern part of the country.
Second, many types of insects are attracted to dead flesh, more properly called carrion, of
many kinds, whether it be of human or animal origin. Insects often eat this carrion for nourishment or lay
their eggs on it, the first step in an insects life cycle. In fact, lets take a moment to learn a bit more about
a generalized bug life cycle, so that youll better understand how and why they are vital to many forensic
investigations.
An insects life cycle begins as an egg laid by the female. This egg contains the newly
developing insect, and when the time is right, it emerges from the egg as a larva. The larvae of most
insects look like tiny worms, which can do nothing more than wriggle around and eat whatever they can
get a hold of hence the advantage to laying eggs on carrion, which is nothing more than a food source.
These larvae keep eating until a genetically determined point in time (which is unique to each species of

insect). Then, they become pupae (pupa singular), at which time they retreat into a cocoon-like
structure and morph into their adult form. During this time of metamorphosis, the pupa is not physically
active, but rather is metabolically active, taking its stored-up food and using it as energy to completely
transform its shape. Finally, the adult (also called the imago) breaks free of the cocoon, emerging in the
form with which you are probably most familiar. Most adult insects have legs or both wings and legs,
allowing them to move from place to place, finding food and a suitable mate. Once mated, the adult
female lays her eggs, and the cycle begins again.
When it comes down to finding a mate and reproducing, insects are nothing like people.
Instead of being able to choose exactly when they want to mate as many humans do insects are preprogrammed when it comes to sex. From the moment they emerge, adult insects follow a genetically
determined timeline for reproduction. Depending on the species, insects may mate the same day they
emerge or up to several weeks later. They certainly dont hunt around for years, looking for that perfect
guy or girl. Consequently, their lives are pretty short once all is said and done. Besides the reproduction
stage of life, insects are also forced by their genes into their life stages at precise times. For example,
entomologists may be able to clock the time between egg-laying and larvae emergence down to the order
of hours or even minutes. In reality, thousands of insect life cycles have been precisely documented,
giving forensic entomologists good resources to turn to when examining bugs found on carrion.
When it comes to the investigation of death, one of the questions that investigators try to
answer is, "When did this person die?" Was the death hours, days, weeks, or even months ago? Forensic
entomologists turn to insects to help determine the answers. For example, it is well documented that flies
are usually the first insects to discover and colonize carrion, laying their eggs shortly after a person has
died. Next, other insects, such as beetles, may visit the carrion, feeding off the fly eggs and so on. If
forensic entomologists are fortunate enough to get to the crime scene, they will collect samples of insect
eggs found on and around the carrion, and bring them back to the lab to hatch. (If the body is examined at
the morgue, then insects will be collected there). Then, they can identify what sort of insect laid the eggs,
reference the life cycle, and count back to the approximate time the eggs were laid. An approximate time
of death can then be extrapolated.
Environmental temperatures, second only to genetics, greatly influence insect development.
As is true with most things biological, heat speeds most processes up, and cold slows them down. For
example, the eggs of certain blowfly species need to absorb a total of 1,000 degrees of heatspread out
over several hoursin order to mature into adults. The warmer the surroundings stay, the faster the
blowfly eggs will mature. Therefore, forensic entomologists often request weather information from the
area in which the body was found to accurately calculate how mature a particular insect is at any one
point in its development.
On the Case: The Flies Have It
One case involving forensic entomology occurred in the state of Oklahoma. During the month of
August, a man named Aureliano Cisneros was found dead in his driveway, lying under a pile of household trash,
after a neighbor called police complaining of a foul odor coming from the residence on a Monday. His wife, Linda
Howell, became an immediate suspect. Four days earlier, on a Thursday night, Howell threatened to kill Cisneros
as they left a local bar after having a fight. Howell, however, claimed that she last saw Cisneros on Saturday. Was
she telling the truth? Cisneross body was in a rapid state of decomposition, due to the hot weather, so investigators
turned to the "bug people" the forensic entomologists to determine when he died. Had Cisneros been murdered
on Thursday night, four days prior to the discovery of his body? Or, had he been dead for less time, suggesting that
someone other than Howell killed him?
Forensic entomologists collected the larvae of the black blowfly (a common insect in that area of the
country) found on Cisneross body and tried to determine how long they had been there. By studying the larvae,
they concluded that the eggs could not have been laid on Saturday they were far too mature by the time they were
collected. Instead, the entomologists traced back the time the eggs were laid to Thursday night, which was the night
of the threat and apparently the night Cisneros died. Howell accepted a plea bargain for the murder of her husband

and was subsequently convicted of his murder.

As youve seen, insects and their clockwork life cycles are indispensable to forensic
investigators. When time of death is in question, forensic entomologists become involved, collecting and
culturing specimens, hoping to discover when the first insect visitors arrived on the scene. Although
insect activity can disclose when a person died, it cannot say how. For that job, police turn to coroners and
medical examiners, otherwise called death investigators.
Coroners or Medical Examiners?: Setting the Record Straight
When it comes to the investigation of death and its causes, there is no doubt that coroners and
medical examiners are the persons called upon to complete such a task. The confusion sets in when trying
to distinguish between the two. Who does what? What sets them apart? What makes them similar?
Death investigators, whether they are coroners or medical examiners, perform the same duty
and are called in when the cause of someones death is questionedthat is, if the death is suspicious or
unnatural. For example, an elderly person that dies in his or her sleep would fall into the category of
natural death. A sufferer of a prolonged illness who finally succumbs to the disease is another example of
a person who dies of natural causes. When the cause of death is natural, the persons physician is allowed
to complete the certificate of death. Only when the cause of death may be unnatural homicide, suicide,
or accident does the law require that the death be reported to and investigated by either the coroner or
medical examiner. This death investigator will perform an autopsy (an external and internal examination
of the body) to determine two pieces of information for the death certificate: cause of death and manner
of death. The cause of death is the actual physiological reason why the person died. It can be anything
from cardiac arrest to cessation of breathing, and scores of other possibilities. The manner of death,
however, must fit into one of five categories: homicide death at the hand of another person; suicide
death by ones own hand; accidental death that was not purposeful; natural death due to the normal
cycle of life, sickness, or disease; or unknown death due to a reason that cannot be determined. This
decision is made using a combination of background knowledge about the death, usually obtained from
doctors, police, or family members, and the results of the autopsy. Besides this one common goal (to
determine cause and manner of death), coroners and medical examiners are very different from one
another.
On one hand, medical examiners are required to earn a degree in medicine (usually with a
specialization in pathology) and to be highly trained in the area of forensics. They are medical doctors
who are employed by each individual jurisdiction to perform the task of death investigation. The more
modern medical examiner system is steadily replacing the Office of the Coroner in many states.
Currently, 22 states, including Virginia, New Mexico, and Connecticut (as well as the District of
Columbia), use the medical examiner system.
On the other hand, coroners are not required to have any medical training, although some do
have a background in medicine, mortuary services, or law enforcement. Unlike medical examiners,
coroners are not privately employed persons, but are instead publicly elected officials, working for the
jurisdiction in the Office of the Coroner. The job of the coroner dates back to medieval England, during
the reign of King Richard I. In 1164, the Office of the Crowner the word "coroner" is a variation on this
name was responsible for investigating death for the sole purpose of being sure that death duties were
paid to the king by the decedents family. When Europeans began to colonize what would one day
become the United States, they brought the Office of the Coroner with them. Eleven states, including
Nevada, Colorado, and South Carolina, currently use the coroner system of death investigation. As an
interesting aside, if youve paid attention, youll notice that only 32 states plus the District of Columbia
have been accounted for. The last 18 states have mixed systems, with some jurisdictions employing
medical examiners and some electing coroners to take care of their death investigations. Some of the
states with mixed systems are California, New York, and Texas.

As you can see, once you know the difference between the two systems of death investigation,
its easy to tell them apart. Even though they both ultimately do the same job, their qualifications are
usually different. Now that youve completed your investigation into biological evidence, take a moment
to assess your caseload progress in this lesson's Case Checkpoint.
Case Checkpoint: Solidifying Your Suspicions
The Great Art Heist: A new suspect, a videotape, a backpack, an anonymous caller, and a
packet of drugs all new developments in the case of the stolen art. What do they all mean, and more
importantly, will they bring you any closer to solving this case? Cameron Judd, the owner of one of the
fingerprints found on the service entrance doorway, has some connection to the crime. He was obviously
at the museum at some point in time, probably checking out entrances and exits and generally staking out
the building prior to the crime. Since hes now locked away in prison, itll be easier to get at him for an
interview, and you may be able to play into his hand. Hes probably heading to jail for grand theft auto,
and he has information you want. Sounds like a plea bargain might be just the medicine the doctor
ordered in this case. First, though, youve got to get to him and hear what he has to say. Will he help or
hinder your case?
The security tape of the three French visitors seems to accurately portray these suspicious
individuals, closely matching Janie Clarks descriptions. With its fuzzy images, however, the tape wont
be very useful when it comes to small details. For example, what type of backpack was the older man
carrying? Does it match the one found by the dumpster at a nearby apartment complex? The presence of
drugs in said backpack casts another spin on the case. Stolen high quality art means money on the black
market for whoever has the goods. Could a drug ring be part of the case, or did the backpacks owner just
have a really bad habit? Also, an anonymous caller only confirms your suspicions of Bruce Clark in this
stolen art game. Perhaps the caller will hit redial at some point and give you more vital information?
Maybe, though, the callers main objective is to throw you off the track of the real culprits.
Finally, a cigarette butt could tell you the identity of one of the perpetrators. The spent filter
probably contains some DNA, which when extracted could produce a DNA profile that could place one of
your suspects at the crime scene. Head on to Activity 1 to find out if the DNA analysis can be done and to
begin the next phase of the investigation!
Summer Love Lost: As you move forward in your investigation, Melinda Katzs name keeps
getting thrown into the mix of suspects. Did greed and jealousy drive her to kill? You finally get a hold of
her on the phone, but will she hang up? Will you ever get a chance to talk to her? Also, the mysterious
note seems to be developing into an important clue. It seems money or some other commodity was
exchanged between Tom Hodgson and the unknown writer (a handwriting comparison showed that the
note was not written by Elizabeth). Was it an honest exchange or some type of payoff? With the writer of
the note still unknown, obtaining handwriting samples from your suspects becomes a top priority. How
will you accomplish this difficult task?
In addition, the beach sand evidence has turned up another interesting eyewitness clue: a midsized white sedan with Maryland plates parked at a beach near Elizabeths house on the day of the
murder. Since the tourist presence is very low at this time of year, you know its unlikely that the car
belonged to someone just passing through. The white car could prove to be evidence that links the
murderer to the crime scene, if that suspect is in possession of such a vehicle. Of course, theres always
the chance that the white car with Maryland plates oddly enough the same state that Melinda, Leo, and
George live in was a coincidental event.
Finally, Tom Hodgsons DNA remains a pivotal piece of evidence in the case. On the one
hand, the presence of Toms semen and even skin cells should not seem shocking, especially if he and
Elizabeth were intimate shortly before the murder. Or, perhaps Toms involvement is deeper than just a
covert lover? If he committed the murder, his DNA would be found on her and vice versa, just the same

as if they were intimate and nothing more. It will be Toms story and his cooperation that could move him
from the "suspect" list to the "cleared" list. Proceed to Activity 2 to see what Melinda has to say about
Elizabeth and just how willing Tom is to give a DNA sample.

Lesson 7 Lecture & Discussion

Challenging the New Technologies
Technology is the application of science to achieve some sort of goal. Theoretically, anything that fits
this definition is classified as technology, whether its a new advancement in vacuum cleaners, car engines, or
computers. One of the goals of technology is to make our lives easier and simpler. Instead of washing clothes down
at a creek or river using a washboard, you now have machines that do the work for you. Instead of adding a whole
list of numbers in your head or using a pen and paper, you can punch them all into a calculator and hit the "=" sign
to get the answer. Granted, these two technologies were revolutionary at the time they were introduced, but theyve
been part of daily life for so long that theyre often taken for granted.

When it comes to forensics, the field is constantly and consistently being changed by new
technologies. For example, the evolution of the computer into the complex tool it is today has had two
effects. On the one hand, some criminals devote their lives to committing crimes by learning how to
bypass computer security devices in order to steal private or classified information otherwise called
hacking. Technology, in these cases, is being manipulated and used for devious pursuits. Ultimately,
police must constantly "keep up" with the bad guys and learn to investigate these high-tech crimes. On
the other hand, the development of new technologies helps law enforcement interpret and gather evidence
faster and more accurately. As you saw in Lesson 5, new types of DNA technology are helping police to
identify criminals when only tiny bits of evidence are left behind. These advancements have helped police
not only to solidify their case against the guilty, but also to exonerate the innocent and wrongly
imprisoned.
Very often, as youve just seen, technology can be a double-edged swordbeneficial when
used for the right reasons, but able to be manipulated and used for corrupt ventures when it falls into the
wrong hands. In this lesson, youll explore some of the pros and cons of the use of technological
advancements in forensic science, starting with forensic photography. How has digitalization of still and
video cameras raised new concerns about crime scene documentation? Next, you'll consider some of the
arguments surrounding the continued advancement and technological complexity of the forensics field in
general. Should high-tech methods take a back seat to more traditional, organic ones? Finally, you'll
round out the lesson with a look at crime scene evidence through the eyes of a jury the people who often
decide the innocence or guilt of an alleged criminal on trial. Is it possible that the presentation of evidence
can confuse a jury rather than help clinch a case? Is it all worth it? Find out the answers to these questions
and others as you consider why some people want to challenge the new technologies.
The Digital Revolution: Enhancing Crime Scene Images
According to the old saying, "A picture is worth a thousand words." Truly, the details captured
in a photographic image can be endless. When it comes to crime scene images, the importance of detail is
immense. Without proper documentation of the crime scene, vital clues could be lost. Although the
importance of paper documentation (e.g., formalized reports, sketches, and chain-of-custody paperwork)
should not be underestimated, these forms are often lengthy and rely on the skills of the writer to
accurately describe the evidence. Therefore, photographic documentation in the form of still-camera
photos (as well as videotape) becomes an essential part of crime scene investigation and analysis.
Crime scene photographers are indispensable to any criminal investigation; with their skills
and knowledge of photography, they capture every aspect of the crime on film. From the general
geographic location, to the evidence, to the victims or witnesses of the crime, photographers record it all.
Once the photos are developed, they have many potential roles. For example, in most cases, it is
impossible to preserve the crime scene indefinitely. Whether it is a busy intersection or an isolated section

of forest, it does not make much sense to keep the area cordoned off and protected forever not to
mention that police budgets are not large enough to maintain them. Crime scene analysts come in after the
crime has been committed, collect evidence, document the findings, and get out in as little time as
possible. Therefore, if investigators would like to re-create a portion of the crime scene for a particular
reason, it would make sense to have a record of the way the area looked. In other words, they would need
photographs taken of the scene to portray it accurately. In addition to photos, verbal or written
descriptions can help fill in gaps or details learned about the crime that are not obvious in the pictures.
Consider the Evidence:Virtual Evidence
With computer technology ever increasing, it's no surprise that many types of crime have gone
"virtual." Hacking and electronic fraud have been problems for some years now, and so has e-spying, but now it's
being taken to the next level. Electronic spying or e-spying for short was once a crime attempted by only the
most seasoned criminals. Recently, however, new types of software have enabled everyday people to view private
e-mails, view recently visited websites, decipher personal information such as credit card numbers, and even record
and detect personal passwords. It should be noted that many employers retain the right to monitor their employee's
computer activity, as provided by the 1996 Federal Electronic Communication Act, so these actions are not illegal.
It is when snooping is taken to the level of one individual to another that laws are being broken. What is your
opinion on e-spying software? Is it legal? If so, to what extent?

Besides having a role in crime scene reconstruction, photos are often used during court cases
to show the judge and jury different aspects of the crime. Since they likely were not present at the crime
scene itself, the jury and judge need a way to visualize pieces of evidence, the crimes location, and other
details. Sometimes, if necessary, the jury may visit the crime scene to view it for themselves. An example
was the court case of Anne Anderson v. W.R. Grace & Co., a civil case in which the plaintiffs sued over
Graces alleged illegal dumping of toxic waste in the city of Woburn, Massachusetts. During the trial, the
jury was actually bussed in to see some of the sites where dumping occurred in close proximity to one of
the citys water treatment facilities.
Though most crime scene photos are accepted as being accurate, sometimes their validity is
called into question. Difficult camera angles, shadowing, and even distorted colors can lead juries and
defense attorneys to question the authenticity of crime scene images, so photographers work hard to
prevent these from showing up on film, when at all possible. Generally, though, since "the camera never
lies," crime scene photos have usually been accepted as truth, without much questioning involvedthat
is, until digital technology was invented.
What makes digital photography different from traditional photography? Well, the most
obvious and most distinguishing difference is that digital still cameras do not use film to capture and store
images. (Digital video cameras do have film, but possess other advanced capabilities and are a different
story.) Instead, digital cameras use devices with removable storage (e.g., floppy disks or CDs) to store
photos. Unlike traditional cameras, in which images are exposed onto film and later developed onto
special paper using special chemicals, digital cameras can directly download or transfer data about each
image right into a computer. Then, using inexpensive software, the photos can be printed out as highquality images or even improved to eliminate some of the woes of film photography such as red-eye,
unwanted shadowing, or darkness.
Although digital cameras generally take better quality photos than traditional ones, there are
many concerns about using such cameras to document crime scenes. In the past, it was possible to
manipulate or alter photographs using the negatives, some very skillful handiwork, and a lot of time. Such
is the stuff of photographic fakes and hoaxes. Now, however, with the push of a key or the click of a
mouse, everything about a digital photo can be altered from the color of someones hair to the position
of a key piece of evidence relative to a victim. Bits of photos can be erased and deleted from memory or
added to give the illusion something was present, even though it was not in the original photo. Even the
slightest details can be changed without leaving behind any clue that it was done. Therefore, forensic
photographers, if they choose to take digital images, must be prepared for the onslaught of questions

about the originality and authenticity of the photos.

In addition, digital photos do not produce negatives of the images they capture. Instead, the
photo itself can be saved by a computer and kept on file. Issues have been raised about protecting the
images from unauthorized viewers (or hackers), because inadvertently divulging information about a
crime could damage an investigation or court case. Also, computer memories can (and often do)
malfunction or fail without any advanced warning. Unless a hard copy or negative of a photo exists, it
could potentially be lost forever.
On the Case: The Hard (Drive) Evidence
Imagine this scenario: You try to open an important document on your computer and you accidentally
delete it instead. Think it's gone for good? Think again.
In May of 1999, Presbyterian minister Rev. William Guthrie returned home to find his wife, Sharon,
unconscious in the bathtub. He called 911, but paramedics were unable to revive her. It appeared she had
swallowed a significant quantity of her husband's prescribed sleeping pills, committing suicide. Everything
appeared accidental until Guthrie found what he claimed to be a suicide note months after Sharon's death. The note
appeared to be typed and printed on a computer.
Forensic computer investigator Judd Robbins froze and examined all the files on Guthrie's computer.
The results were astounding. In the months preceding Sharon's death, Guthrie had researched accidents of all types
from bathtub deaths to the ingestion of household cleaning products. Even more damning: The "suicide note" left
by Sharon Guthrie was typed three months after her death. William Guthrie didn't realize that even if deleted, files
or their remnants can remain on a computer for a very long time.
William Guthrie was tried in a South Dakota court and convicted of premeditated, first-degree murder
of his wife. He is currently serving a life sentence.

Currently, it seems that most judges and juries still prefer to know that the photos they are
viewing have come from film cameras. So, in order to have the convenience and ease of digital with the
reliability of traditional methods, crime scene photographers may use both types of cameras when
documenting a crime scene. If this is the case, they may photograph the entire scene on film, and then go
back with a digital camera, snapping images of the most important pieces of evidence. Or, if there is more
than one photographer available, one may take regular photos while the other takes digital ones.
Although there are definite benefits in photographing a crime scene digitally (e.g., storing
huge amounts of photos, instantly viewing what the printed photo would look like, and correcting for
adverse lighting conditions), drawbacks still remain. Hardware and computer reliability, the chances for
tampering, and the lack of universal acceptance of digital technology still remain as obstacles. For now, it
seems that digital imaging technology wont be completely replacing older methods anytime soon.
Judges, juries, attorneys, and law enforcement officials are in no hurry to trade in the low-tech for the
high-tech. In the next section, youll explore some of the arguments for and against the ever-increasing
modernization of forensic science.
Is Forensics Becoming Too Advanced?
Modern philosophers and independent thinkers have pondered the effects of technological
innovations on society for many years. They have wondered if modernization leads people toward
isolation as they become more reliant on machines and less reliant on one another. Is technology a bad
thing? When it comes to forensics, can anyone ever say that its becoming "too advanced"?
One could answer this question by weighing the following criteria: By accepting a new
technology, is the field of forensics sacrificing something in return?; If there is a sacrifice involved, do the
benefits of accepting the new technology outweigh the consequences of giving up that old method or

procedure?; Also, is the old technology still readily available for use, when appropriate? For an
illustration, consider the "old" method of profiling a criminal through blood type. Each person can be
categorized based on the type of protein markers (like molecular luggage tags) that coat the surface of
their red blood cells. Two types of potential markers, called A and B, are possible. A person with only A
markers is said to have "type A" blood. A person with only B markers is "type B." If both markers are
present on every blood cell, the person is "type AB." The fourth option, "type O," results if the markers
are absent.
In the past, when a perpetrator left blood at a crime scene, it was analyzed for type. Then, any
potential suspects were tested. Often, a match coupled with other evidence from the crime was enough for
prosecuting attorneys to secure a conviction against the suspect even though a 1 in 4 chance of the same
blood type was all that seemed to matter. Much more accurate DNA-based identification methods, such as
genetic fingerprinting and criminal profiling, have replaced blood types as an incredibly more accurate
tool. So, does the replacement of blood type with DNA profiling match the criteria set forth in the
beginning of this discussion? It does not seem as if forensics was sacrificing anything drastic when the
blood type-DNA switch was made. Also, blood typing is still accessible (and still used, when
appropriate). It seems that in this case, the advancement has merit.
Overwhelmingly, advancements in the field of forensics have only increased the chances that
the police will catch the criminal and the right one, at that. Technology has made crime solving easier in
some respects. Its usually the scientific part of forensics (the location, analysis, and interpretation of the
evidence) that has been simplified. However, solving a crime is much more than just the scientific part. It
takes a person to search a scene for clues. It takes a person to interview witnesses. It takes a person to
draw every loose end of the investigation together into a coherent thread of knowledge. It takes a person
to make the arrest. Obviously, it seems that machines will not replace the jobs of police and forensic
investigators any time soon.
Trying to stop the advancement of technology (and its application to all fields, including
forensics) would be pointless. Realistically, science and technology will not begin to regress, going
backward to a time of less knowledge. So, what should forensic scientists do about all this? Should we
embrace innovation and use the new technology at hand to the fullest, without forgetting about some of
the old-fashioned methods that came before? Or, should we use the most modern methods only when
absolutely necessary? It seems that as long as criminals walk among us and case files sit idle (becoming
colder by the day), the argument could be made that forensics is not advanced enough!
In the next section, you'll look at the other side of the technology issue by stepping into the
shoes of jurors, those people fulfilling their civic duty by serving on a court case. Consider some of the
issues surrounding complex evidence and the presentation of the facts when you find out how not to
stump the jury.
Dont Stump the Jury!
Consider the following chain of events: a crime is committed; investigators arrive and gather
all evidence; everything is analyzed; and a suspect is arrested and charged with the crime. What happens
next? The person receives his or her chance at a fair trial, as mandated by law. Until the prosecution
proves the suspect guilty beyond a reasonable doubt, his or her fate is in limbo. Guilty? Prison time, fines,
or a combination of both (depending on the crime) are the outcomes. Not guilty? The suspect is cleared
and free to go. But who ultimately makes the decision of guilty or not guilty? Depending on the plea of
the charged, and the type of crime involved, either a judge or jury will decide the verdict and sentence. In
cases of trial without jury, the judge alone decides the verdict. In cases of trial by jury, the 12-member
jury makes the decision, with the judge overseeing the trial.
Considering that juries are usually composed of 12 citizens with differing educational levels
and occupations, attorneys for both sides of the case should not assume that any juror has technical

knowledge in any of the fields related to forensics. This presents an interesting challenge. Attorneys must
coordinate expert witnesses (more about this in Lesson 8) with the evidence available in the case in order
to make a presentation that is convincing for their side whether they are representing the prosecution or
the defense. Ultimately, since each side is attempting to prove its case while also discrediting that of the
opposition, the jury is caught in the middle. It must rely on the facts and the evidence to decide on a
verdict.
Thinking back to all of the types of evidence, tools for crime scene analysis, specialized gear
and equipment, and laboratory techniques youve learned about in this course, its easy to see how a
forensic investigation can be complex, confusing, and even overwhelming to someone who has never
experienced forensics before. Therefore, utmost care should be taken to present the evidence in a
scientific way describing the results and their implications for the case while not making things too
technical for the jury to understand.
Special care should be taken when technologically "new" types of evidence (e.g., computer
hard drives) or tools (e.g., digital photography) are presented in the courtroom. Many jurors may be
unfamiliar with such technologies, so adequately explaining them is an important step that should not be
missed. Very often, people become skeptical of technology when they dont understand it. Attorneys and
expert witnesses work to ensure that no one feels alienated or confused by technology, thereby giving
jurors the confidence they need to make a decision they can be sure of.
This lesson has just touched on a few of the issues surrounding the introduction of new
technologies into the area of forensics. Certainly, the issues extend beyond the ones presented here. Now
that youve gotten a taste for courtroom action, proceed to Lesson 8, where youll see the other side of a
forensic scientists job as an expert witness.

Lesson 8 Lecture & Discussion

Wrapping Up Your Cases
Youve nearly made it to the end of your journey into the fascinating world of forensic science, and its
been quite a trip! From Lesson 1's account of forensic sciences early history, to Lesson 5's in-depth look at all the
newest DNA profiling techniques and technologies, to Lesson 7s exploration of the pros and cons of forensic
technology, youve seen many different aspects of this fascinating discipline. Interesting and applicable cases, trips
to Court TVs Virtual Forensic Lab, detailed photos and visuals, a variety of special activities, and two engrossing
cases have given you a detailed and realistic look into one of todays most popular fields.

In this final lesson, youll finally learn the conclusions to the cases youve been investigating
since the start of the course. With so many details left unknown, how and when will everything come
together? In The Great Art Heist, find out the identity of the culprits and the motivation behind the
robbery. What other surprising details will emerge from the sea of evidence that you and your team
collected? Summer Love Lost will also come to a close with a shocking twist. Who really committed the
murder and why? Finally, conclude the course with a look at forensic sciences popularity explosion.
Why is it growing so quickly? Is the publics interest in forensics just a passing trend?
The Great Art Heist Conclusion
Cameron Judd smugly looks at you from across the table. He definitely knows something.
You lean forward to hear what he has to say, but he quickly reveals that hes no stranger to the system.
"All I knows that I want my lawyer."
"Excuse me?" you say back./"I said, all I knows that I want my lawyer," Judd repeats.

I almost had you, you think. "Fine, well get him in here."
Nearly an hour later, Ed Sheridan, Judds lawyer, joins you. Hes dressed in a brown polyester
suit thats obviously seen better days (and is about two sizes too small), and his thinning salt-and-pepper
hair is a mess. His comb-over is flopped over to the wrong side. In fact, it looks like he just woke up. He
confirms that he had actually fallen asleep in his car after going to the local diner for breakfast.
Apparently, the coffee wasnt strong enough. Sheridan plops into the chair next to Judd, and they look at
one another.
Sheridan says, "Uh, fellas, Id like to have a minute with my client, if you wouldnt mind."
Deciding that your best bet is to be cooperative here, you comply. A minute or so later,
Sheridan pokes his head out and says, "Hes ready now."
Taking your position at the table across from Judd, you ask what the deal is.
"Hell talk, but its going to cost you," Sheridan says matter-of-factly. "We want a plea
bargain on the grand theft auto charge. And, we want immunity in this stolen art case."
Well, hes trying to straight-shoot this one. Knowing that without Judd, you may have nothing,
you say, "Fine. Its a deal, but he cant hold back or else the deals off."
Sheridan and Judd look at each other. Sheridan nods. Judd breaks out into that strange grin
again. You think that Judd may have won the battle, but youll win the war on this one. Plus, with Judds
prior history, hell be bound to land himself back in prison in the not-too-distant future.
Judd begins. "Well, bout two months ago, I got a call from Bruce Clark." I knew he was in
on this! "Said he needed a job done, and that I was the man to do it." He pauses to look at you, but you
give him no reaction whatsoever. You dont want Judd to read your expressions and play off them. "Said
he wanted some art stolen." Again, he pauses.
"Go on," you say.
"Seems Bruce is in on a larger operation dealin in stolen art. His export business is mainly a
fronta cover up."
"Who is he working for?" you ask, deciding to cut to the chase.
"Well, as far as I know, there are lots of people involved. The higher-ups in the ring travel the
world, deciding what they want kinda like making a Christmas list. Then, they get a hold of Bruce, and
he coordinates the hits from there. This was the first time he hired me, though. Got my name from
someone off the street. From what he told me, the Graves art was going to France, but I dont know
anything else bout that."
"So, you were at the Graves," you say.
"Aw, yeah! Shoot, I went there a few times, lookin at all that art, pretendin I was a fancy
person and all. I had to memorize the ones Bruce wanted. Plus, Id go by the place at all hours, watching
the routines."
"Basically casing the joint," you say./"Absolutely. Had to figure out what was going on and
when. Those two guys they had workin the overnight security... man, they didnt have a clue!" Judd slaps
his leg, and shakes his head. "In fact, right before I got busted for stealin that car, I was there."

"How much did Clark pay you?"

"Well, we started at $5,000 but then I told him I wouldnt do it for less than $8,000. After a lot
of haggling, he agreed to the eight. It was paid in cash, up front. He did it a few weeks before the theft. It
was actually supposed to go down a few weeks ago, but then I ended up in the slammer, so there had to be
a change of plans."/"And who was involved in that?"
"Actually, two days before, I decided to back out of the operation myself. Too risky, and too
much jail time." He winks. "Anyway, I figured that I could find somebody to do it who was lookin for
some quick moneyand was a little dumber than meknow what Im saying?"
"So, what?" you ask.
"So, I got a recruit. Matt Caven. Caven. Craven? Thats the name that Bill gave you. Could
the guy have been enough of a rookie to use his own name? He lives in my neighborhooddoes a lot of
hustling, some small jobs on the side. Called him up, and he was in without a second thought."
"Who was his buddy?"
"Well, Matt calls me up and tells me hes worried about the job. Asks if he can have someone
in with him. Hey, what do I care? As long as the job gets done, right. Plus, the kids too na?ve to realize
that hes gonna get half the money he woulda gotten by doing it alone." Judd turns to his lawyer and says,
"Cause you know I kept 50% right off the top. Each of em only made a couple grand off the deal, but
whatever."
"Who was his buddy?" you repeat.
"Hey, heyno need to get all upset. Im gettin to that part. Jim Rileys his name." OReilly is
Riley. "Hes some kid Matt grew up with or somethin. I dont really know the whole story behind that.
Anyway, they got all into the deal, casin the place and all. They were actually pretty psyched up about
the whole deal. You know, their first big job and all." Judd laughs and smiles, like hes reminiscing about
the days when he first started out. It sounds oddly endearing, coming from him, but you quickly remind
yourself that this guy is a pretty big loser.
Realizing that what Judd is saying is making sense, you ask, "Where can I find these two guys
Caven and Riley?"
Judd gives up the information so easy, its like taking candy from a baby. You almost wonder
if hes not just making this whole thing up, but you quickly decide its unlikely. He knows too much and
hes got all the details even down to the paintings that were stolen. That is information that was not
publicly released.
Seeing that hes being cooperative, you decide to press him about Bruce Clark./"Bruce Clark
where is he?"
He sighs, and then says, "Beats me. Last I heard, he was taking off for Europe. That guy has
so many connections, he could be anywhere. Plus, hes got money. Youll be lucky if you ever find him."
Cameron Judds interview ended shortly after, but his words, "Youll be lucky if you ever find
him," ring in your ears. He could be very right. If Clark has a network throughout Europe, he could
essentially disappear for a very long time. A warrant would have to be issued for his arrest, and his
information put up for Interpol. You doubt (as you have from the start) that the paintings will ever
surface. Underground rings dealing in stolen art (especially international ones) are notorious for keeping
their commodities hidden for years and years. Feeling a little disappointed about this information, you

still remain optimistic that the two thieves will be caught and locked up very soon.
You leave San Diego later on that day and travel back to San Francisco. You arrive back at the
station the next morning and learn that both Jim Riley and Matt Caven were arrested late last night after
you helped secure warrants for their arrests by phone. Detective Williams finds you sitting at your desk,
looking over a brand new file thats been started for Bruce Clark.
"Hey," Williams says, "glad to have you back."
"Yeah, but the only bad part is that I missed being there when our two perps were nabbed,"
you say.
"Dont worry," Williams replies. "I hear the looks on their faces could only be summed up in
one word priceless."
Epilogue: A day after you returned to San Francisco, more lab results came in on some of the
crime scene evidence. The blood sample taken from the security room at the museum matched Bill
Leitners blood type. Also, trace technicians concluded that the canvas scrap found in the backpack left by
the dumpster indeed came from one of the stolen paintings, Almond Tree in Blossom by Van Gogh. The
brush stroke patterns and paint pigments found on the fragment matched pieces lodged in the frame at the
Graves. As for the duct tape, hair was recovered from it that matched hair taken from Jim Riley. After
Rileys arrest, his car was searched for evidence linking him to the crime. There, in the trunk, was a halfused roll of duct tape. It seems that even though they ditched the backpack on the night of the theft, Riley
just couldnt part with the tape although hed never say why. Upon closer examination, the duct tape
taken from Bill and Charlie was shown to be a match to the roll from the trunk. A positive match was
identified because the piece that Riley put over Charlies mouth and the beginning of the roll in the trunk
had a matching pattern where it was torn in two.
Matt Caven was a self-admitted cocaine user it was his baggie of drugs found in the
backpack. Both men later cleared up the mystery of the blue backpack. It seems that the bag belonged to
the mysterious "Gaston" and was later handed off (with instructions inside) to Bruce Clark. He, in turn,
passed it off to Judd, who transferred it to Caven. All the while, specific directions about which paintings
were to be stolen remained inside, passed from person to person.
After the arrests, buccal swabs of Riley and Caven were sent to GenTech for comparison to
the cigarette butt profile. Seven weeks later, the results were in. There was a match. Matt Cavens swab
and the DNA in the cigarette were one and the same, placing him at the museum within a very small time
frame. It was later revealed during his trial that he was a chain smoker, and Marlboros were his favorite
brand. He smoked the cigarette right before the theft.
Based on all the evidence submitted at trial, Jim Riley and Matt Caven were both convicted of
armed robbery at separate trials and each sentenced to 25 years in prison. Not surprisingly, their friend
Cameron Judd also landed himself in prison eight months later for drug trafficking.
The French trio Pierre, "Gaston," and "Yvette" are also still at large, their true identities a
mystery. They are believed to be at the core of a much larger international art theft operation being
investigated by the FBI, in conjunction with Scotland Yard and several other law enforcement agencies
around the world. Janie Clark quit her job at the museum shortly after she discovered her father's
involvement in the theft and has not seen or heard from him since. Bruce Clark still remains at large,
evading arrest, although the expectation remains that he will be brought to justice soon.
Shortly after the theft, Bill Leitner was fired from his job at the museum. Although the crime
may have happened anyway, the Board of Trustees found him negligent on the night of the theft for
allowing the perpetrators into the museum. Charlie Fortin decided that he was "getting too old" for the job

and accepted an early retirement package. The museum is now staffed by a separate, outside agency with
a top-of-the-line security system.
The Frances Dion Graves Art Museum reopened two months after the theft. Instead of trying
to cover up the fact that several of their precious art works were stolen, the Board of Trustees voted
unanimously to hang the empty frames back up on the walls. Their intention is that every person who
visits the museum may see and understand the magnitude of the crime. Their hope, also, is that one day,
the paintings will be returned to their former home./As for you, Detective, youve moved on to other
cases, but The Great Art Heist is one that will always remain one of your favorites and most
challenging. Through a combination of keen observational skills, cutting edge forensic technology, and
good old-fashioned detective work, you managed to put away some of the criminals. You keep Bruce
Clarks file in the top drawer of your desk, waiting for the day when the phone rings and a voice on the
other end says, "Weve finally got him." That will definitely be sweet music to your ears.
Summer Love Lost Conclusion
The content of Melindas suicide note strikes you in two different ways: either she is bluffing
or shes serious. On the one hand, Melinda seems to be a liar, an actress of sorts. She could probably
convince someone to buy the Brooklyn Bridge considering that she seems to be pulling the wool over
Georges eyes so easily. On the other hand, writing a suicide note, then swallowing a bottle of pills and a
bottle of alcohol seems like a pretty serious attempt at ending it all. You look over Officer Jaworskis
shoulder. The note continues, saying, "It was meI did it. I never liked her, but now I wont have to
worry about that anymore. Shes gone, and I will be, too. Say goodbye to Georgie for me." It was signed
with a large capital "M."
"Whoa," Jaworski says. That about sums up your reaction, too.
"All right. Bag the note. Well get to it later. First, I want you to stay here and look around a
little bit moresee if you can find anything else of interest. Im going down to the hospital."
You drive to the hospital in Glenbrook, the next town over. You enter through the emergency
entrance, bumping into a gurney that someone left too close to the door. One of the doctors spots you and
waves you over. You explain that youre here to get some information on Melinda. He says that they are
working on her right now, trying to stabilize her condition. Shes having a hard time breathing, a result of
the depressive action of the pills coupled with the alcohol. You have a seat and decide to wait. About 45
minutes later, a doctor in green scrubs emerges from the emergency ward.
"Detective," the woman says, "Im Dr. Harris. Melindas condition has stabilized. Shes out of
danger at least for now. Were going to monitor her for the next few days. I understand she may have
information about a murder case, and I know thats why youre here. Unfortunately, I have to warn you
that Melinda may not remember much about the last few days, or weeks, or even months when she really
comes to. I just want to prepare you for that possibility." You nod, showing her you understand. "Of
course, well really have to wait until she starts to recover."
"Can you give me a ballpark estimate of how long itll be until I can question her?" you ask.
She sighs. "You know, thats a very hard thing to do right now. Well let you know when it
seems appropriate, but Id say at least a few days. She has to make it through the next 24 hours before we
can really begin to make those sorts of predictions."
She looks at you, knowing youre probably disappointed. "Well, can I have your extension
here at the hospital so I can call to inquire about her status?"
"Sure. Its number 113. You can call and leave me a voice mail whenever youd like, and Ill

return that call as soon as possible."

Feeling frustrated that you may not be able to get the information soon (if at all), you decide
its not worth waiting around the hospital and driving yourself crazy about it. You go back to the station to
review some of the case files that youve accumulated since Elizabeths murder.
While you are sitting, reading over the files, you realize its been a while since you talked to
George McGrath. Since Elizabeths murder, you havent been able to get a hold of him. Ironically, he was
not staying at the same hotel as Melinda. He checked himself into a fancier hotel a few towns over on the
night he originally came into town. You decide he should be notified about Melindas condition hes the
closest thing to a next-of-kin that shes got. You dial his cell phone number, and he picks up after the
second ring.
He must have Caller ID, because he says, "Hi, Detective. What can I do for you?"
"Hello, George. Its been a while since weve talked. I tried to contact you on a couple of
different occasions, but I had no luck. I wanted to let you know about some of the developments in the
case." You proceed to summarize the newest developments the sand, the white car with Maryland
plates, the shooting. You decide to be tactful and ask George if he knew that Elizabeth and Tom had
rekindled their affair. He says he had no idea. He seems interested by the new information you give, but
nothing seems to strike him as shocking. Then, you decide to drop a hint about the safety deposit box.
"George, do you and Melinda have a safety deposit box at a Coastal Savings Bank in
Maryland?"
"Yes, we do. Why?" he asks.
"George, someone took something out of that box a day after Elizabeths death. Was it you?"
"Wwell, no. How could I if I drove out to Lithia the same day as the murder?"
"Could Melinda have visited the box?" you ask.
"Well, I dont see why not. I mean, she had the key. Ive got a few safety deposit boxes of my
own, and I was always getting the keys mixed up. So, I gave that one to her, for safe keeping." How
ironic.
"I hope I dont sound too forward here, George, but what exactly was in that box?" You have
yet to tell him about the note on the legal pad.
"Call me old fashioned, but I like to always have cash available. There was about $24,000 in
cash in that box. Why?"
You proceed to explain to him the contents of the phantom note, tying in the piece that
perhaps someone was paid to kill Elizabeth. Then, you drop the bombshell: Melinda is one of your key
suspects, and shes in the hospital recovering from a suicide attempt. George can hardly believe it. He
sounds shocked and flabbergasted. Then, he turns angry.
"I cant believe you would accuse her! Shes done nothing wrong. Elizabeth never liked her,
but that doesnt make her a murderer!"
You try to calm him, citing your evidence (and suspicions): the suicide note and Melindas
confession to Officer Jaworski; Melindas past run-ins with the law; her connection to Leo White; the car
with Maryland plates only a short distance from Elizabeths day of the murder; and her apparent hatred

for Elizabeth. George is on the other end of the phone, in stunned silence. You actually have to ask if hes
still there at one point because he hasnt made a sound. He manages to get out a groan of sorts.
After a long pause, George asks, "So what does this mean about Melinda? Is she going to be
arrested?"
"Well, no, not yet. We need to question her further about this when she begins to recover from
her ordeal. Were going to need some direct evidence placing Melinda at the crime scene that day." You
know full well that youre waiting for the results of the DNA analysis on the skin sample found under
Elizabeth's fingernail. You are going to also need to get a handwriting sample from Melinda, but these are
two things youre not telling George, in case he talks to her first. Some things, after all, have to be kept
confidential at this point.
George still sits on the other end of the phone in relative silence. Then, he says, "Ive made
arrangements to bury my daughter. I wanted to bury her in Lithia, because she really loved it so much
there. She once said there was no place in the world shed rather be. But, Im just afraid her grave will
become a site for curiosity seekers or vandals. Im having her brought back home to Maryland. Shell be
buried next to her mother."
Deciding George has probably had enough shock for one day, you let him off the phone, but
make him promise to keep it turned on, in case you have to call. You want to call it a day, but first you
dial up the hospital to check on Melindas condition. Shes improving slowly but steadily, and should be
ready for discharge later the next day. Its too early to tell if shes suffered memory damage or another
neurological impairment, but the doctors predict shell make a full recovery without any lasting effects. In
other words, she got very lucky. You close Elizabeths case file, shut off your desk light, and head home
for the evening.
Later the next day, Dr. Harris phones you to confirm Melindas release. Shes coherent and
talking and can move around just fine. The first order of business is to get a handwriting sample from her.
You need to find out if she penned the note left in Elizabeths kitchen. Plus, its your chance, once and for
all, to question her. You arrive at the hospital soon after and make it up to the third floor and to her room.
You knock and then walk in. Melinda is sitting halfway up in bed, looking exhausted and pale.
You address her and tell her the reason for your visit. She doesnt look surprised. You say that
you found the suicide note. She doesnt even blink at this either. You explain that she is now a key suspect
in Elizabeths murder. Again, she isnt fazed by the news.
"Yeah, its like I said in the note, I did it," she reports matter-of-factly. You still cant tell if
shes bluffing or serious.
"Before we go any further with you, Id like to request a handwriting sample from you, as
well as a swab of cheek cells for DNA analysis. She looks downtrodden, but agrees to both without any
resistance. You perform the swab, and then secure it in a plastic vial filled with a special preservation
solution. It will be sent out for a DNA profile as soon as you leave the hospital. Next, you hand her a
piece of paper and request her signature multiple times as well as for her to copy the name "Coastal
Savings Bank" and "Annapolis, Maryland" several times. By asking for multiple samples, youll be more
likely to see if shes trying to disguise her writing. Also, you later locate and photocopy the signature on
her drivers license to compare the samples she just provided to a known, previous sample.
After all this is said and done, you ask her to speak. "Tell me about the safety deposit box at
Coastal," you say.
"Well, uh, me and George started it after we got together."

"Whats in that box, Melinda?"

"Cash. Lots of cash," she says, staring off into nothing. Her eyes look blank, almost robotic.
Going out on a limb, you ask, "Who did you write that note for the one in the kitchen at
Elizabeths?"
She pauses and then mumbles, "Note? No note."
You start to get a little irritated with her. One minute, shes providing details; the next, its like
she doesnt know anything. "Melinda, now I want you to listen to me and listen to me good. Were you
involved in Elizabeth McGraths death?"
She admits, again, to the murder. Some things about her story dont make any sense, though.
Her account of the timing of the murder is offshes placing all events about an hour too early. In the
back of your mind, something is not making sense. She knows some details, but they dont completely
add up. Shes describing the murder weapon as a .38-caliber handgun. Sure, she could just be wrong, but
you dont think so. Deciding that she needs to be watched, you talk to Dr. Harris briefly in the hallway.
She agrees to extend Melindas stay at least 24 more hours. You decide to place Melinda under protective
police custody. She is to have an officer with her in her room, supervising her activities at all times. She
could be a flight risk or worse, attempt to hurt herself again. Right now, Melindas confession (one that
doesnt even make total sense) is not enough to arrest her.
Officer Reid arrives shortly after you call him, and he relieves you so that you can send the
handwriting samples to Lou Richardson. Theres no time to drive them to Manhattan, so you settle on
faxing them. You also get Melindas buccal swab out to the lab. Theyll be able to create a profile on her
DNA, as well as Toms.
Melinda rests in her hospital bed for the remainder of the day, and a visitor surprises her that
evening. Its George coming to check on her. You are about to leave for the night, but decide to stick
around, waiting strategically just outside the door. George shuffles past you with a heavy gait his age is
starting to show. That gleam in his eye has faded. "Detective," he says, "I just cant leave her now. She
needs me." He shakes his head and walks into the room. Sitting down next to the bed, he stares at her, his
eyes softening. You conclude that George is completely attached to Melinda. They sit silently for a long
time, and then George gets up to talk to you.
"Im going to spend the night," he informs you. "I dont want her to be alone right now." So
the old phrase, "Love is blind," is still alive and well. This woman may be using him for money and
cheating on him, as well as using drugs. What's more, she may have murdered his daughter. How can he
still accept her? He could be crazy either that, or hes in shock and not thinking straight. Whatever the
case is, your head is too full of information right now to try to rationalize Georges visit. You decide that
Melinda is under close enough watch. Officer Reid will spend the night, so its safe for you to go home.
On your way back, you remember that youve left your wallet in your desk at the station. A
short time later, you pull up in the parking lot. Its dark out by now, and just before you cut the headlights,
you notice a figure off by the corner of the building. Its someone sitting on the curb, curled up into a ball,
face hidden from view. You slowly step out of your vehicle you can never be too careful. As you walk
closer to the person, you hear what sounds like sobbing. The sound of your footsteps on the sidewalk
startles the person, and you are equally startled when you realize its Tom Hodgson. His eyes are redrimmed and his cheeks are salt-stained. He stares at you, and you quietly inquire, "Tomwhats the
matter?"
Between broken sobs, he manages to get out, "Icacantgoonlilivliving
likethis."

By now youve knelt down to his level. You touch him lightly on the shoulder. "Living like
what, Tom? Its okay. You can tell me."
He takes a deep breath, and his chest heaves. "Kn...knowinthatIIvelosther."
"Lost who, Tom?" Hes now stopped crying, and the words come out a little easier. His head
is in his hands, and his face is hidden from you. "Who have you lost?" You know all along who hes
talking about.
"Mmy summer love. Lizthats whwhat I used to call her." He pauses for a moment,
looks up at you and says, "Im turning myself in for my role in Elizabeths murder."
Some part of you is stunned, but the other is not surprised at Tom Hodgsons confession. You
take him into the station for more questioning, and he spills his guts. He knew about the letter, the safety
deposit box, the shooting, and everything about the murder. His story, which you later verified every part
of, went like this: In late February, Tom got a phone call from Melinda Katz a woman he had never
previously spoken to. He recalled hearing her name once from Elizabeth during one of their
conversations. Melinda didnt mince words she wanted to scare Elizabeth and to make it "good."
Melinda was infuriated by Elizabeths confrontation during Christmas and doubly angered when she
found out George was planning to change the trust fund from her name back to Elizabeths. Melinda felt
she deserved that money if and when George died.
Together with Leo White, Melinda concocted the scheme, with Tom at the center of the
deception. She needed a way for Leo (who would go in and beat Elizabeth up) to get into her house
without much of a problem. She knew that Elizabeth kept her doors locked and was very wary of
strangers Leo was someone she definitely wouldnt just let inside willingly. Melinda wanted to use Tom
as bait. He would go to Elizabeths, they would fool around, and after, he would offer her a glass of
drugged wine. When Elizabeth was unconscious, Tom would leave and let Leo in. Leo would assault
Elizabeth maybe giving her a black eye and the like and slip out the door relatively unnoticed.
At first, Tom didnt want any part in Melindas game. Sure, he had resented the way their
affair ended, but that didnt mean he wanted any harm to come to Elizabeth. Melinda was persistent,
though. She called Tom several times, filling his head with negative things about Elizabeth, and then she
made him an offer he couldnt refuse money. Melinda offered Tom $20,000 for his participation in the
assault. That amount seemed like pocket change to her when she compared it to $1.5 million. His fishing
business was slowly sinking a deflating economy, coupled with a decrease in fish populations in the
Northeast, was crippling him financially. He was on the verge of losing everything. Slowly, the deal
started to sound better and better. Eventually, he agreed. The plan was that Tom would receive the safety
deposit box key in the mail. Leo would pass him a note with the name of the bank and number of the box,
so he could retrieve the money. Tom would drive to Maryland the next day, sign into the bank as George,
and leave with the cash.
One of the only hitches to the crime was the fact that Tom and Elizabeths relationship was
over. In the weeks before her murder, Tom pursued her, saying that Barbara and he were in the process of
divorce. He charmed her, buying her dinners and flowers. She was romanced and quickly fell back into
her old pattern of loving him. He, meanwhile, was being cold and calculated. It wasnt very long until
they became intimate again, and Tom would frequently stop by after work to partake in this privilege.
As the plan unfolded, Tom insisted to Melinda that he not be present during the assault. He
didnt even want to be in the house at the same time as Leo. She agreed, reassuring him that things would
go smoothly and that he neednt worry. He recalled that she said, "Come on now, Leos a professional at
this sort of thing!" All Tom had to do was to complete his end of the bargain. Obviously, looking back in
retrospect, things did not go according to plan.

On March 24th, Tom docked his boat early and drove over to Elizabeths. She met him at the
door. He went in and they talked for a while. Not long afterward, they went to the bedroom. A short time
later, Tom re-emerged from the room partially dressed. He had slipped his pants back on but left his shirt
off he didnt want to give Elizabeth the impression that hed be running out the door anytime soon. He
went out to the kitchen to prepare the glasses of wine Lizs would have the drug in it. Tom began to get
nervous. He had to look through all the cabinets to find the one with the wine glasses she had moved
things around since their initial affair. He got ready to pour the wine and then realized hed forgotten the
pills out in his truck.
Quickly, he exited the house to look for them. By this time, his hands were shaking, and he
was having thoughts of backing out. "I mean, I think my conscience started to kick in. I couldnt believe
what I was about to do," he says to you. Just then, Leo White pulled up in the driveway in a white, rented
Buick Century with Maryland plates. He and Tom locked eyes. Leo was early, but he didnt care. He was
sent to do a job, and there was nothing going to stop him or get in his way. Tom found the envelope with
the pills in it it had fallen out of his pocket and slid behind the driver seat. Leo emerged from the car.
Tom made an about-face and walked back into the house, trying desperately not to look back.
Leo White was a frightening looking man. He was balding on top, but had long, straggly,
greasy hair on the sides and in the back. He was wearing torn jeans and a camouflage jacket that was full
of holes. He was carrying a billy club in his left hand. He said nothing, but instead followed Tom inside.
Tom had really begun to panic at this point. The whole time schedule was off, and the plan was falling
apart in his head. He was supposed to be gone by this time, but he said nothing, afraid that Leo would
hurt him, too.
By this time, Elizabeth had gotten dressed in her "comfy clothes" (her slippers, t-shirt, and
pajama pants) and come out into the kitchen to get some water. "What were you doing outside with no
shirt on?" she asked Tom, giving him a chuckle. He walked straight past her and into the bedroom,
reaching for his shirt. He felt he had to get out of there, and fast. With the door slightly ajar, he could hear
footsteps coming up the back steps and into the kitchen.
Elizabeth said, "Can I help you?" She was talking to Leo. To her, he was a total stranger. Her
voice raised, sounding agitated. "Excuse me! You cant just come in here. Tom! Tom!" He heard a slap
and Elizabeth fell to the floor. He didnt even put on his boots, he just ran out of the bedroom and through
the kitchen. Elizabeth was huddled on the floor, off to the side. A trickle of blood ran down her cheek.
Leo was standing over her, staring silently. Tom got in his truck and drove away. It wasnt until he got
about a mile away from Elizabeths house that he remembered the note Leo never gave him the note./In
a split second, Tom decided to turn around and go back this may have been when the witness spotted
him going toward Elizabeths house. By the time he arrived at the house, Leo was gone. The kitchen was
trashed. It looked like Leo had ransacked it there were papers, pots, and pans all over the place. Tom
later recalled thinking that maybe Leo was trying to make the assault look like part of a robbery gone bad
ultimately to throw the police off the trail.
Tom expected to see Elizabeth battered and beaten up, but it was far worse. On the kitchen
floor, not far from where she was crouched when he had left, he saw Elizabeths body. At that moment, he
realized the plan had gone totally wrong. He later said, "I looked, but I didnt feel bad. I felt no remorse.
Does that make me an evil person?" Then, he saw the gun and the casing on the floor. He remembered
feeling panicked that Leo would leave these two things behind, providing police with possible evidence.
So, before he left the house, he took a paper towel and wrapped up the .22-caliber gun and casing. Tom
had become distracted with the gun, but he didnt forget the reason he came back: the note. On the
counter next to the kitchen table, Tom saw the legal pad with:/scrawled across it. He tore off the top sheet
and shoved it into his pocket. Realizing he had to get rid of the gun, he stashed it on his boat on the way
back to the coffee shop. Officer Reid had gone down to question Tom at the shop, and after that was over,
Tom returned home to find a small white envelope, postmarked MD with no return address, in his
mailbox. The rest of the day, he stayed home, planning out how he would get rid of the gun and when he

would drive to Annapolis.

The next day Tom got down to the dock very early. It was still dark around 4 a.m. Tom took
out his boat, and once he got about a mile out from shore, he placed the gun and casing inside a small,
rusty metal box and dumped it overboard. He drove straight home, and just as he walked in the kitchen,
you called him. Thats why he had sounded so awake to you despite the early hour. Tom had gone to the
station for the interview, and once he left, he drove to Maryland to collect the money. Clutching a paper
grocery bag in hand, he entered the bank, signed in as George McGrath, and withdrew the money from
safety deposit box 147 without incident. For some reason, the staff member in charge of admittance to the
vault never asked him for any identification. Bank camera recordings secured after Toms confession
confirmed his visit to the vault. Incidentally, the bank released the employee and is currently reviewing its
sign-in process.
Tom confessed that in the days after Elizabeths murder, guilt began to consume him. He
knew his role in the crime was punishable by law, but he also knew he could not hide the secret
indefinitely. That night, he made the decision to give himself in. "Elizabeth," he kept repeating during his
interrogation, "my summer love."
Epilogue: Immediately after Toms interrogation and subsequent booking as an accessory to
the crime of murder, you were on the phone with Sam Harper, filling him in on the details. You woke him
out of a sound sleep (after all, it was past midnight), but he was excited to hear that you had a break in the
case. He immediately called his station and put out an APB for the arrest of Leo White. Leo, as it turned
out, was too foolish to get out of town after the murder. Police staked out the apartment he shared with
Melinda, and as he left it the next morning on the way to buy drugs, he was arrested for the murder of
Elizabeth McGrath. He said nothing as he was put into the back of the cruiser, and was reluctant to
cooperate with investigators during interrogation.
Meanwhile, back on Long Island, George McGrath was startled awake by the sound of
knocking on Melindas hospital room door. He had indeed spent the night, keeping watch over her. You
entered the room, read Melinda her Miranda rights, and cuffed her. She was arrested on the charge of
conspiracy to murder in the first degree, for the death of Elizabeth McGrath. Melinda was later given a
polygraph test, where it was shown that she did lie to police about the murder, essentially trying to cover
for Leo White. When asked if the plan all along was to murder Elizabeth, Melinda answered "Yes," which
was the truth. Melinda duped Tom Hodgson, making him believe Elizabeth was only going to be
assaulted. Together, she and Leo had constructed the murder scheme based on her jealousy and hatred of
Georges only daughter.
At the time of his arrest, Leo had two long scratches across his face. He claimed they came
from Melindas mangy and temperamental cat, Max. You suspected the cuts werent from a cat they
were too wide to coincide with claw marks. Also, Leo would not agree to provide a buccal swab for the
construction of a DNA profile. Knowing this could hinder your case, you decided to get the DNA
covertly. Leo was an incessant gum chewer and during one round of interrogation, you offered him a
stick. Later on during the interview, he spit his gum into a paper cup, leaving it on the table. Once he was
taken away, you sprang into action preserving the gum in a special plastic tube and immediately sending
it to the lab. Strangely, despite his resistance to provide a DNA sample, Leo willingly gave you a
handwriting sample. It was sent to Lou Richardson in New York City for comparison to the note. It was a
match, and that information was one clue that would place Leo White at the crime scene on the day of
Elizabeths murder.
A search of rental car companies in the area turned up a record of Leo Whites rental of the
white Buick Century from a Bethesda franchise of the Alamo company on the day before Elizabeths
murder. When Leo returned the car the day after the murder, it was parked in the back of the lot and
hadnt been rented since. The Alamo staff had never even cleaned it. Amazingly, when the Bethesda P.D.
searched it for clues, they came up with some very damning evidence: fine-grained beach sand. Upon

analysis, this sand had the same unique composition as the sand from Paterson Street Beach. This match
only strengthened the case against Leo White and again, placed him in Lithia Springs. In fact, before his
trial, Leo admitted that on the day he killed Elizabeth, he parked down at the beach for a few hours,
rehearsing the crime over and over in his mind.
As for the gun, Tom Hodgson decided to cooperate with police to help locate it. You
together with Officer Reid, three Coast Guard officers, and two CG sonar experts and their equipment
accompanied Tom on a small Coast Guard boat that sailed out of Lithia Harbor two days after Toms
arrest. Tom directed you to an area not far from shore where he thought he dumped the gun. He had used
a red and white buoy as a landmark, remembering he steered his boat close to it. After several hours of
searching with the sonar equipment, something was located in the shallow area near the buoy. Not long
after, the rusty metal box with the gun and casing inside was pulled from the water. Luckily, the gun
had not been in the salty ocean water for too long, so it sustained very little corrosion. Forensic ballistics
experts, through a battery of tests, showed a match between the casing, the gun, and the bullet extracted
from Elizabeth during the autopsy. In another astounding development, the gun used in the murder was
registered to none other than Melinda Katz. She had become so wrapped up in the murder plot that she
had forgotten the gun could be traced back to her.
As the threesome Tom, Melinda, and Leo were formally charged and awaited court
hearings, the lab results you had been patiently awaiting for (the DNA profiles) finally arrived after 11
long weeks. As expected, the DNA profile of the semen belonged to Tom Hodgson. That, coupled with
the autopsy results that there was no forced intercourse, confirmed Toms story of a consensual
relationship. The skin cells found underneath Elizabeths nails told another tale. That DNA belonged to
Leo White and clearly explained the origin of the marks on his face. At some point before she was killed,
Elizabeth struggled against Leo, scratching him in self-defense. Consistent with accounts of Elizabeths
personality, it seems that she was a fighter and didnt give up, even in the face of death.
With the trials of Tom, Melinda, and Leo approaching, one piece of evidence remained a
mystery: the handprint found on Elizabeths back door. It was not a match to Leo, Tom, or Ellis Creighton
one of the suspects cleared early on. In fact, no match was ever found. Perhaps a friend, neighbor, or
repairman left the print behind. Nevertheless, you collected enough forensic evidence to strengthen the
cases against the perpetrators.
Based on the overwhelming forensic and circumstantial evidence, Tom Hodgson (charged as
an accessory to murder in the first degree), Melinda Katz (charged with conspiracy to murder in the first
degree), and Leo White (charged with carrying out first degree murder) were all found guilty of the
crimes charged against them. All three are currently appealing their sentences, although the strength of the
evidence and soundness of the investigative work makes it unlikely that any of their sentences will be
overturned. Melinda will be the first released from prison in the year 2016.
George McGrath buried his daughter in a private memorial service in Maryland, nine days
after her death. The media pursued him for months throughout the trials, constantly asking for his
comments and for interviews. Many reporters pushed the idea that his relationship with Melinda
ultimately led to Elizabeths death. Perhaps from the strain and stress or from a pre-existing condition,
George suffered a stroke four months after Elizabeth died. He remains in an extended care facility, being
looked after by nieces and nephews.
As for you, the lead investigator in the death of Elizabeth McGrath, you decided to do
something else with your career about a year after you first started the case. Knowing good detectives are
always in need, but feeling a pull from a different direction, you left the Lithia Springs Police
Department. You have always felt that inspiring young adults is a necessary, but very noble duty.
Currently, youve put that belief to use, and you are pursuing a career teaching crime scene analysis to
eager young students at a college in California.

Forensic Science: "Here Today, Gone Tomorrow" or "Here to Stay"?

Now that youve almost completed this course, it might be appropriate to think back on an
important question: What made you take it? For the vast majority of you, hopefully, the answer is that
forensics interested you in some way. But stop and take a minute to think about exactly what aspects of
forensic science are so appealing.
Okay, your minute is up. What did you think? Why is forensic science so popular? Do you
think it can maintain its current popularity?
Lets ponder the second question for a moment: What is the appeal? The answer may just be
as simple as the desire to see those people who have done wrong get caught. Honesty is a very valuable
trait to many. If a person has been dishonest, we believe that they should have to admit their wrongdoing
and face retribution for it. In the world of career criminals and other scoundrels, such a conscience is not
usually of foremost importance. Therefore, its up to law enforcers to seek out the "wrong doers" and
bring them to justice. Unfortunately, if and when they are caught, many of these dishonest folk do not
necessarily own up to their deeds. It then falls to the forensic scientists to figure out what really happened.
Continuing in that vein, popular forensics (as is often found in television and print dramas)
may hook so many people because it affords them a chance to live vicariously through the eyes of
investigators for a few hours. A career in law enforcement (although generally not forensics) carries an
element of danger with it. Being a part of the action without actually being in harms way is probably a
huge draw.
In addition, forensic sciences foray into the popular media may be helping folks to see that
science can be applicable to real life and that it can be engrossing and not always "over their heads."
Science often gets a bad rap for being unapproachable and cold. Ask students what their least favorite
subject is and many will say "science" because, often, those real-world applications that bring the subject
matter to life are not taught. Hopefully, the popularity of forensics will help turn people on to science and
show them how it can be a truly fascinating discipline. An even better outcome would be that individuals
whose only exposure to forensics was through the media might decide to explore forensics as a career.
Forensics may also be a kind of social equalizer. Throughout history, people of social
importance or clout (basically, the wealthy), have held the upper hand in court cases. Many times,
celebrity and status could earn criminals acquittals or shorter prison sentences sometimes, there
wouldnt even be a trial! Now, more than ever, forensic evidence is assuring that even the powerful and
rich cannot cover up their misdeeds. DNA, for one example, does not lie.
Many people may also cite the power of forensics to exonerate the wrongly accused as a
reason for praising the discipline. Many times, the poor, the undereducated, and racial minorities have
become scapegoats for those with power. Currently, many organizations are working to test and retest
forensic evidence with modern day technology in the hopes that the wrongly accused will be set free.
On the flip side, many people would argue that forensic television shows and movies as well
as books are highly stylized, glamorous versions of real life. Although definitely grounded in fact, it
seems producers have carefully crafted their works to be high-paced and very dramatic. This is not to say
that real forensic investigators never work under these types of circumstances, but it is probably not a
constant condition. After all, these programs are designed to entertain, and that is usually what they do
well.
So, will forensic science stand the test of time? In terms of the field itself, there are no good
reasons why forensics would be phased out of crime scene investigations. The information provided by
new technologies, coupled with other types of detective work, have led to the arrest and prosecution of
many notorious (as well as small-time or first-time) criminals. Technology, it seems, will continue to

grow and become more complex and detailed. Being a criminal should become harder by the day. Will the
publics interest in forensics remain? Truly, only time will tell. But hopefully, more people will come to
appreciate and support the efforts of all law enforcement officers and the forensic scientists who search
for evidence and bring it to light.