Chess - History

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ChessWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Chess
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Chessisatwoplayerstrategyboardgameplayedon
achessboard,acheckeredgameboardwith64squares
arrangedinaneightbyeightgrid.Itisoneofthe
world'smostpopulargames,playedbymillionsof
peopleworldwideinhomes,urbanparks,clubs,
online,correspondence,andintournaments.Inrecent
years,chesshasbecomepartofsomeschool
curricula.
Eachplayerbeginsthegamewith16pieces:oneking,
onequeen,tworooks,twoknights,twobishops,and
eightpawns.Eachofthesixpiecetypesmoves
differently.Theobjectiveisto'checkmate'the
opponent'skingbyplacingitunderaninescapable
threatofcapture.Tothisend,aplayer'spiecesare
usedtoattackandcapturetheopponent'spieces,while
supportingtheirown.Inadditiontocheckmate,the
gamecanbewonbyvoluntaryresignationbythe
opponent,whichtypicallyoccurswhentoomuch
materialislost,orifcheckmateappearsunavoidable.
Agamemayalsoresultinadrawinseveralways,
whereneitherplayerwins.Thecourseofthegameis
dividedintothreephases:opening,middlegame,and
endgame.
Chess
PartofaStauntonchessset(fromlefttoright):a
whiteking,ablackrook,ablackqueen,awhite
pawn,ablackknight,andawhitebishop
Years
active
c.6thcenturyIndiatopresent
Genre(s)
Boardgame
Abstractstrategygame
Players
Setuptime 1minute
ThefirstofficialWorldChessChampion,Wilhelm
Steinitz,claimedhistitlein1886thecurrentWorld
Playing
Casualgamesusuallylast10to60
ChampionistheNorwegianMagnusCarlsen.In
time
minutestournamentgameslast
additiontotheWorldChampionship,therearethe
anywherefromabouttenminutes
Women'sWorldChampionship,theJuniorWorld
(blitzchess)tosixhoursormore.
Championship,theWorldSeniorChampionship,the
Random
None
CorrespondenceChessWorldChampionship,the
chance
WorldComputerChessChampionship,andBlitzand
RapidWorldChampionships.TheChessOlympiadis
Skill(s)
Strategy,tactics
apopularcompetitionamongteamsfromdifferent
required
nations.Onlinechesshasopenedamateurand
Synonym(s) Westernchess,internationalchess
professionalcompetitiontoawideandvariedgroup
ofplayers.Chessisarecognizedsportofthe
InternationalOlympicCommitteeandinternationalchesscompetitionissanctionedbytheWorldChess
Federation(FIDE),whichadoptedthenowstandardStauntonchesssetin1924foruseinallofficial
games.Therearealsomanychessvariants,withdifferentrules,differentpieces,anddifferentboards.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess#Mathematics_and_computers
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Sincethesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,computershavebeenprogrammedtoplaychesswith
increasingsuccess,tothepointwherethestrongesthomecomputersplaychessatahigherlevelthanthe
besthumanplayers.Inthepasttwodecadescomputeranalysishascontributedsignificantlytochess
theory,particularlyintheendgame.ThecomputerDeepBluewasthefirstmachinetoovercomea
reigningWorldChessChampioninamatchwhenitdefeatedGarryKasparovin1997.
Contents
1Rules
1.1Setup
1.2Movement
1.3Castling
1.4Enpassant
1.5Promotion
1.6Check
1.7Endofthegame
1.7.1Win
1.7.2Draw
1.8Timecontrol
2Notationforrecordingmoves
3Strategyandtactics
3.1Fundamentalsoftactics
3.2Fundamentalsofstrategy
4Phases
4.1Opening
4.2Middlegame
4.3Endgame
5History
5.1Predecessors
5.2Originsofthemoderngame(10001850)
5.3Birthofasport(18501945)
5.4Postwarera(1945andlater)
6Placeinculture
6.1Premodern
6.2Modern
7Composition
7.1Example
8Competitiveplay
8.1Organizationofcompetitions
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8.2Titlesandrankings
9Publications
10Mathematicsandcomputers
11Psychology
11.1Chessandintelligence
12Variants
13Gametheory
14Seealso
15References
16Furtherreading
17Externallinks
Rules
Theofficialrulesofchess
aremaintainedbythe
WorldChessFederation.
Alongwithinformationon
officialchesstournaments,
therulesaredescribedin
theFIDEHandbook,Laws
ofChesssection.[1]
Setupatthestartofagame
Setup
1
a
Chessisplayedonasquareboardofeightrows(calledranksand
Initialposition,firstrow:rook,
denotedwithnumbers1to8)andeightcolumns(calledfilesand
knight,bishop,queen,king,bishop,
denotedwithlettersatoh)ofsquares.Thecolorsofthe64
knight,androoksecondrow:
squaresalternateandarereferredtoas"light"and"dark"squares.
pawns
Thechessboardisplacedwithalightsquareattherighthandend
oftheranknearesttoeachplayer,andthepiecesaresetoutas
showninthediagramandphoto,witheachqueenonasquareofitsowncolor.
Byconvention,thegamepiecesaredividedintowhiteandblacksets,andtheplayersarereferredtoas
"White"and"Black"respectively.Eachplayerbeginsthegamewith16piecesofthespecifiedcolor,
whichconsistofoneking,onequeen,tworooks,twobishops,twoknights,andeightpawns.
Movement
The"white"playersalwaysmovesfirst.Afterthefirstmove,playersalternatelymoveonepieceperturn
(exceptforcastling,whentwopiecesaremoved).Piecesaremovedtoeitheranunoccupiedsquareor
oneoccupiedbyanopponent'spiece,whichiscapturedandremovedfromplay.Withthesoleexception
ofenpassant,allpiecescapturebymovingtothesquarethattheopponent'spieceoccupies.Aplayer
maynotmakeanymovethatwouldputorleavehisorherkingunderattack.Aplayercannot"pass"at
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eachturntheyhavetomakealegalmove(thisisthebasisforthefinessecalledzugzwang).Iftheplayer
tomovehasnolegalmoves,thegameisoveritiseitheracheckmate(alossfortheplayerwithnolegal
moves)ifthekingisunderattack,orastalemate(adraw)ifthekingisnot.
Eachchesspiecehasitsownstyleofmoving.Inthediagrams,thedotsmarkthesquareswherethepiece
canmoveifnootherpieces(includingone'sownpiece)areonthesquaresbetweenthepiece'sinitial
positionanditsdestination.
Movesofaking
b
Movesofarook
h
Movesofaknight
h
Movesofaqueen
b
Movesofabishop
Movesofapawn
h
Thekingmovesonesquareinanydirection.Thekinghasalsoaspecialmovewhichiscalled
castlingandinvolvesalsomovingarook.
Therookcanmoveanynumberofsquaresalonganyrankorfile,butmaynotleapoverother
pieces.Alongwiththeking,therookisinvolvedduringtheking'scastlingmove.
Thebishopcanmoveanynumberofsquaresdiagonally,butmaynotleapoverotherpieces.
Thequeencombinesthepoweroftherookandbishopandcanmoveanynumberofsquaresalong
rank,file,ordiagonal,butitmaynotleapoverotherpieces.
Theknightmovestoanyoftheclosestsquaresthatarenotonthesamerank,file,ordiagonal,thus
themoveformsan"L"shape:twosquaresverticallyandonesquarehorizontally,ortwosquares
horizontallyandonesquarevertically.Theknightistheonlypiecethatcanleapoverotherpieces.
Thepawnmaymoveforwardtotheunoccupiedsquareimmediatelyinfrontofitonthesamefile,
oronitsfirstmoveitmayadvancetwosquaresalongthesamefileprovidedbothsquaresare
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unoccupied(black""sinthediagram)orthepawnmaycaptureanopponent'spieceonasquare
diagonallyinfrontofitonanadjacentfile,bymovingtothatsquare(black"x"s).Thepawnhas
twospecialmoves:theenpassantcaptureandpawnpromotion.
Castling
Onceineverygame,eachkingisallowedtomakeaspecialmove,
knownascastling.Castlingconsistsofmovingthekingtwo
squaresalongthefirstranktowardarook(whichisontheplayer's
firstrank[note1])andthenplacingtherookonthelastsquarethe
kinghasjustcrossed.Castlingispermissibleunderthefollowing
conditions:[2]
Neitherthekingnortherookmayhavebeenpreviously
movedduringthegame.
Theremustbenopiecesbetweenthekingandtherook.
Examplesofcastling
Thekingmaynotbeincheck,normaythekingpassthrough
squaresthatareunderattackbyenemypieces,normovetoasquarewhereitisincheck.
Notethatcastlingispermissibleiftherookisattacked,oriftherookcrossesasquarethatisattacked.
ViktorKorchnoiaskedthearbiterforclarificationonthispointduringhis1974matchwithAnatoly
Karpov.[3]
Enpassant
Whenapawnadvancestwosquaresfromitsstartingpositionand
thereisanopponent'spawnonanadjacentfilenexttoits
destinationsquare,thentheopponent'spawncancaptureiten
passant(inpassing),andmovetothesquarethepawnpassedover.
However,thiscanonlybedoneontheverynextmove,otherwise
therighttodosoisforfeit.Forexample,iftheblackpawnhasjust
advancedtwosquaresfromg7(initialstartingposition)tog5,then
thewhitepawnonf5maytakeitviaenpassantong6(butonlyon
white'snextmove).
Promotion
Examplesofpawnmoves:
Whenapawnadvancestotheeighthrank,asapartofthemoveit
promotion(left)andenpassant
ispromotedandmustbeexchangedfortheplayer'schoiceof
(right)
queen,rook,bishop,orknightofthesamecolor.Usually,thepawn
ischosentobepromotedtoaqueen,butinsomecasesanother
pieceischosenthisiscalledunderpromotion.Inthediagramontheright,thepawnonc7canbe
advancedtotheeighthrankandbepromotedtoanallowedpiece.Thereisnorestrictionplacedonthe
piecethatischosenonpromotion,soitispossibletohavemorepiecesofthesametypethanatthestart
ofthegame(forexample,twoqueens).
Check
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Whenakingisunderimmediateattackbyoneortwoofthe
opponent'spieces,itissaidtobeincheck.Aresponsetoacheck
isalegalmoveifitresultsinapositionwherethekingisno
longerunderdirectattack(thatis,notincheck).Thiscaninvolve
capturingthecheckingpieceinterposingapiecebetweenthe
checkingpieceandtheking(whichispossibleonlyifthe
attackingpieceisaqueen,rook,orbishopandthereisasquare
betweenitandtheking)ormovingthekingtoasquarewhereit
isnotunderattack.Castlingisnotapermissibleresponsetoa
check.Theobjectofthegameistocheckmatetheopponentthis
occurswhentheopponent'skingisincheck,andthereisnolegal
waytoremoveitfromattack.Itisillegalforaplayertomakea
movethatwouldputorleavehisownkingincheck.
Endofthegame
Win
Gamesmaybewoninthe
followingways:
Checkmate
Resignationeither
playerresign,
concedingthegame
totheother
player.[4]Itis
1
a
Black'skingisincheckfromthe
rook.
Whiteisincheckmate,beingunable
toescapefrombeingattackedbythe
Blackkingandbishops.
StalemateifitisBlacktomove.It
isnotcheckmate,andsinceBlack
cannotmove,thegameisadraw.
usuallyconsidered
pooretiquettetoplayoninatrulyhopelessposition,andforthisreasonhighlevelgamesrarely
endwithacheckmate.
LossontimeIngameswithatimecontrol,aplayermayalsolosebyrunningoutoftime,even
withamuchsuperiorposition.
Forfeitaplayerwhocheats,orviolatesthelawsofthegame,orviolatestherulesspecifiedfor
theparticulartournamentmaybeforfeited.Inhighleveltournaments,playershavebeenforfeited
forsuchthingsasarrivinglateforthegame(evenbyamatterofseconds),receivingacallortext
onone'scellphone,refusingtoundergoadrugtest,refusingtoundergoabodysearchfor
electronicdevicesandunsportingbehaviour(suchasrefusingtoshaketheopponent'shand).
Draw
Gamesmayendinadrawinseveralways:
Drawbyagreementdrawsaremostcommonlyreachedbymutualagreementbetweenthe
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players.Thecorrectprocedureistoverballyofferthedraw,makeamove,thenstartthe
opponent'sclock.Traditionallyplayershavebeenallowedtoagreeadrawatanytimeinthegame,
occasionallyevenwithoutplayingamoveinrecentyearseffortshavebeenmadetodiscourage
shortdraws,forexamplebyforbiddingdrawoffersbeforemovethirty.
Stalematetheplayerwhoseturnitistomoveisnotincheck,buthasnolegalmove.
Threefoldrepetitionofapositionthismostcommonlyoccurswhenneithersideisabletoavoid
repeatingmoveswithoutincurringadisadvantage.Thethreeoccurrencesofthepositionneednot
occuronconsecutivemovesforaclaimtobevalid.FIDErulesmakenomentionofperpetual
checkthisismerelyaspecifictypeofdrawbythreefoldrepetition.
Thefiftymoveruleifduringtheprevious50movesnopawnhasbeenmovedandnocapturehas
beenmade,eitherplayermayclaimadrawthisrequirestheplayerstokeepavalidwrittenrecord
ofthegamesothattheclaimmaybeverifiedbythearbiterifchallenged.Thereareinfactseveral
knownendgameswhereitistheoreticallypossibletoforceamatebutwhichrequiremorethan50
movesbeforethepawnmoveorcaptureismadeexamplesincludesomeendgameswithtwo
knightsagainstapawnandsomepawnlessendgamessuchasqueenagainsttwobishops.These
endingsarerare,however,andfewplayersstudythemindetail,sothefiftymoveruleis
consideredpracticalforovertheboardplay.Somecorrespondencechessorganizationsallow
exceptionstothefiftymoverule.[note2]
Insufficientmaterialaplayermayclaimadrawiftheiropponenthasinsufficientmaterialto
checkmate,forexampleiftheplayerhasonlythekingleftandtheopponenthasonlythekingand
abishop.Suchaclaimisonlyvalidifcheckmateisimpossible.
Timecontrol
Amoderndigitalchessclock
Chessgamesmayalsobeplayedwithatimecontrol,mostlyby
clubandprofessionalplayers.Ifaplayer'stimerunsoutbefore
thegameiscompleted,thegameisautomaticallylost(provided
hisopponenthasenoughpieceslefttodelivercheckmate).The
durationofagamerangesfromlonggamesplayeduptoseven
hourstoshorterrapidchessgames,usuallylasting30minutesor
onehourpergame.Evenshorterisblitzchess,withatime
controlofthreeto15minutesforeachplayer,andbulletchess
(underthreeminutes).Intournamentplay,timeiscontrolled
usingagameclockthathastwodisplays,oneforeachplayer's
remainingtime.
Notationforrecordingmoves
Chessgamesandpositionsarerecordedusingaspecialnotation,mostoftenalgebraicchessnotation.[6]
Abbreviated(orshort)algebraicnotationgenerallyrecordsmovesintheformat"abbreviationofthe
piecemovedfilewhereitmovedrankwhereitmoved".Forexample,Qg5means"queenmovesto
thegfileand5thrank"(thatis,tothesquareg5).Iftherearetwopiecesofthesametypethatcanmove
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tothesamesquare,onemoreletterornumberisaddedtoindicatethefileorrankfromwhichthepiece
moved,e.g.Ngf3means"knightfromthegfilemovestothesquaref3".TheletterPindicatingapawn
isnotused,sothate4means"pawnmovestothesquaree4".
Ifthepiecemakesacapture,"x"isinsertedbeforethedestinationsquare.ThusBxf3means"bishop
capturesonf3".Whenapawnmakesacapture,thefilefrom
whichthepawndepartedisusedinplaceofapieceinitial,
andranksmaybeomittedifunambiguous.Forexample,exd5
(pawnontheefilecapturesthepieceond5)orexd(pawnon
theefilecapturesapiecesomewhereonthedfile).
Ifapawnmoves
toitslastrank,
achieving
promotion,the
piecechosenis
indicatedafterthe
move,forexample
e1Qore1=Q.
Castlingis
Namingthesquaresinalgebraicchess
indicatedbythe
notation
specialnotations
00forkingside
castlingand000forqueensidecastling.Anenpassant
captureissometimesmarkedwiththenotation"e.p."Amove
"Scholar'smate"
thatplacestheopponent'skingincheckusuallyhasthe
notation"+"added.(Thenotation"++"foradoublecheckis
consideredobsolete).Checkmatecanbeindicatedby"#".Attheendofthegame,"10"means"White
won","01"means"Blackwon",and""indicatesadraw.[7]
Chessmovescanbeannotatedwithpunctuationmarksandothersymbols.Forexample"!"indicatesa
goodmove,"!!"anexcellentmove,"?"amistake,"??"ablunder,"!?"aninterestingmovethatmaynot
bebest,or"?!"adubiousmovenoteasilyrefuted.[8]
Forexample,onevariantofasimpletrapknownastheScholar'smate(seeanimateddiagram)canbe
recorded:
1.e4e5
2.Qh5?!Nc6
3.Bc4Nf6??
4.Qxf7#10
Strategyandtactics
Chessstrategyconsistsofsettingandachievinglongtermpositioningadvantagesduringthegamefor
example,wheretoplacedifferentpieceswhiletacticsconcentrateonimmediatemaneuver.Thesetwo
partsofthechessplayingprocesscannotbecompletelyseparated,becausestrategicgoalsaremostly
achievedthroughtactics,whilethetacticalopportunitiesarebasedonthepreviousstrategyofplay.A
gameofchessisnormallydividedintothreephases:opening,typicallythefirst10moves,whenplayers
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movetheirpiecestousefulpositionsforthecomingbattlethenmiddlegameandlasttheendgame,
whenmostofthepiecesaregone,kingstypicallytakeamoreactivepartinthestruggle,andpawn
promotionisoftendecisive.
Fundamentalsoftactics
Botvinnikvs.Yudovich,1933[9]
Inchess,tacticsingeneralconcentrateonshorttermactions
soshorttermthattheycanbecalculatedinadvancebya
humanplayerorbyacomputer.Thepossibledepthof
calculationdependsontheplayer'sability.Inquietpositions
withmanypossibilitiesonbothsides,adeepcalculationis
moredifficultandmaynotbepractical,whilein"tactical"
positionswithalimitednumberofforcedvariations,strong
playerscancalculatelongsequencesofmoves.
Simpleonemoveortwomovetacticalactionsthreats,
exchangesofmaterial,anddoubleattackscanbecombined
intomorecomplicatedcombinations,sequencesoftactical
maneuversthatareoftenforcedfromthepointofviewofone
orbothplayers.[10]Theoreticiansdescribemanyelementary
tacticalmethodsandtypicalmaneuversforexample,pins,
forks,skewers,batteries,discoveredattacks(especially
discoveredchecks),zwischenzugs,deflections,decoys,
sacrifices,underminings,overloadings,andinterferences.[11]
Aforcedvariationthatinvolvesasacrificeandusuallyresults
inatangiblegainiscalledacombination.[10]Brilliant
combinationssuchasthoseintheImmortalGameare
consideredbeautifulandareadmiredbychesslovers.A
commontypeofchessexercise,aimedatdevelopingplayers'
skills,isshowingplayersapositionwhereadecisive
combinationisavailableandchallengingthemtofindit.[12]
1
a
Aftersacrificingapieceto
exposeBlack'sking,Botvinnik
played1.Bh5+andYudovich
resigned,asmateisinevitable.
1.Bh5+
1...Kxh52.Ng3+Kh43.Qe4+Rf4
4.Qxf4#
1...Kf52.g4#
1...Kh72.Nf6+(doublecheck)
Kh83.Qh7#
Fundamentalsofstrategy
Chessstrategyisconcernedwithevaluationofchesspositionsandwithsettingupgoalsandlongterm
plansforthefutureplay.Duringtheevaluation,playersmusttakeintoaccountnumerousfactorssuchas
thevalueofthepiecesontheboard,controlofthecenterandcentralization,thepawnstructure,king
safety,andthecontrolofkeysquaresorgroupsofsquares(forexample,diagonals,openfiles,anddark
orlightsquares).
Themostbasicstepin
evaluatingapositionisto
countthetotalvalueof
piecesofbothsides.[14]
Thepointvaluesusedfor
thispurposearebasedon
experienceusuallypawns
areconsideredworthone
point,knightsandbishops
Exampleofunderlyingpawnstructure
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aboutthreepointseach,
Blacktomove
Whitetomove
rooksaboutfivepoints
a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
(thevaluedifference
8
8
8
8
betweenarookanda
7
7
7
7
bishoporknightbeing
6
6
6
6
knownastheexchange),
5
5
5
5
andqueensaboutnine
points.Thekingismore
4
4
4
4
valuablethanallofthe
3
3
3
3
otherpiecescombined,
2
2
2
2
sinceitscheckmateloses
1
1
1
1
thegame.Butinpractical
a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
terms,intheendgamethe
After12...Re8inTarrasch
...anditspawnskeleton(the"Rauzer
kingasafightingpieceis
formation")
Euwe[13]...
generallymorepowerful
thanabishoporknightbut
lesspowerfulthana
rook.[15]Thesebasicvaluesarethenmodifiedbyotherfactorslikepositionofthepiece(forexample,
advancedpawnsareusuallymorevaluablethanthoseontheirinitialsquares),coordinationbetween
pieces(forexample,apairofbishopsusuallycoordinatebetterthanabishopandaknight),orthetype
ofposition(knightsaregenerallybetterinclosedpositionswithmanypawnswhilebishopsaremore
powerfulinopenpositions).[16]
Anotherimportantfactorintheevaluationofchesspositionsisthepawnstructure(sometimesknownas
thepawnskeleton),ortheconfigurationofpawnsonthechessboard.[17]Sincepawnsaretheleast
mobileofthechesspieces,thepawnstructureisrelativelystaticandlargelydeterminesthestrategic
natureoftheposition.Weaknessesinthepawnstructure,suchasisolated,doubled,orbackwardpawns
andholes,oncecreated,areoftenpermanent.Caremustthereforebetakentoavoidtheseweaknesses
unlesstheyarecompensatedbyanothervaluableasset(forexample,bythepossibilityofdevelopingan
attack).[18]
Phases
Opening
Achessopeningisthegroupofinitialmovesofagame(the"openingmoves").Recognizedsequences
ofopeningmovesarereferredtoasopeningsandhavebeengivennamessuchastheRuyLopezor
SicilianDefence.TheyarecataloguedinreferenceworkssuchastheEncyclopaediaofChessOpenings.
Therearedozensofdifferentopenings,varyingwidelyincharacterfromquietpositionalplay(for
example,theRtiOpening)toveryaggressive(theLatvianGambit).Insomeopeninglines,theexact
sequenceconsideredbestforbothsideshasbeenworkedouttomorethan30moves.[19]Professional
playersspendyearsstudyingopeningsandcontinuedoingsothroughouttheircareers,asopeningtheory
continuestoevolve.
Thefundamentalstrategicaimsofmostopeningsaresimilar:[20]
Development:Thisisthetechniqueofplacingthepieces(particularlybishopsandknights)on
usefulsquareswheretheywillhaveanoptimalimpactonthegame.
Controlofthecenter:Controlofthecentralsquaresallowspiecestobemovedtoanypartofthe
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boardrelativelyeasily,andcanalsohaveacrampingeffectontheopponent.
Kingsafety:Itiscriticaltokeepthekingsafefromdangerouspossibilities.Acorrectlytimed
castlingcanoftenenhancethis.
Pawnstructure:Playersstrivetoavoidthecreationofpawnweaknessessuchasisolated,doubled,
orbackwardpawns,andpawnislandsandtoforcesuchweaknessesintheopponent'sposition.
MostplayersandtheoreticiansconsiderthatWhite,byvirtueofthefirstmove,beginsthegamewitha
smalladvantage.ThisinitiallygivesWhitetheinitiative.[21]BlackusuallystrivestoneutralizeWhite's
advantageandachieveequality,ortodevelopdynamiccounterplayinanunbalancedposition.
Middlegame
Themiddlegameisthepartofthegamewhichstartsaftertheopening.Thereisnoclearlinebetweenthe
openingandthemiddlegame,buttypicallythemiddlegamewillstartwhenmostpieceshavebeen
developed.(Similarly,thereisnocleartransitionfromthemiddlegametotheendgameseestartofthe
endgame.)Becausetheopeningtheoryhasended,playershavetoformplansbasedonthefeaturesof
theposition,andatthesametimetakeintoaccountthetacticalpossibilitiesoftheposition.[22]The
middlegameisthephaseinwhichmostcombinationsoccur.Combinationsareaseriesoftacticalmoves
executedtoachievesomegain.Middlegamecombinationsareoftenconnectedwithanattackagainstthe
opponent'skingsometypicalpatternshavetheirownnamesforexample,theBoden'sMateorthe
LaskerBauercombination.[23]
Specificplansorstrategicthemeswilloftenarisefromparticulargroupsofopeningswhichresultina
specifictypeofpawnstructure.Anexampleistheminorityattack,whichistheattackofqueenside
pawnsagainstanopponentwhohasmorepawnsonthequeenside.Thestudyofopeningsistherefore
connectedtothepreparationofplansthataretypicaloftheresultingmiddlegames.[24]
Anotherimportantstrategicquestioninthemiddlegameiswhetherandhowtoreducematerialand
transitionintoanendgame(i.e.simplify).Minormaterialadvantagescangenerallybetransformedinto
victoryonlyinanendgame,andthereforethestrongersidemustchooseanappropriatewaytoachieve
anending.Noteveryreductionofmaterialisgoodforthispurposeforexample,ifonesidekeepsa
lightsquaredbishopandtheopponenthasadarksquaredone,thetransformationintoabishopsand
pawnsendingisusuallyadvantageousfortheweakersideonly,becauseanendgamewithbishopson
oppositecolorsislikelytobeadraw,evenwithanadvantageofapawn,orsometimesevenwithatwo
pawnadvantage.[25]
Endgame
Theendgame(orendgameorending)isthestageofthegamewhentherearefewpiecesleftonthe
board.Therearethreemainstrategicdifferencesbetweenearlierstagesofthegameandendgame:[26]
Duringtheendgame,pawnsbecomemoreimportantendgamesoftenrevolvearoundattempting
topromoteapawnbyadvancingittotheeighthrank.
Theking,whichhastobeprotectedinthemiddlegameowingtothethreatofcheckmate,becomes
astrongpieceintheendgame.Itisoftenbroughttothecenteroftheboardwhereitcanprotectits
ownpawns,attackthepawnsofoppositecolor,andhindermovementoftheopponent'sking.
Zugzwang,adisadvantagebecausetheplayerhastomakeamove,isoftenafactorinendgames
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butrarelyinotherstagesofthegame.Forexample,the
diagramontherightiszugzwangforbothsides,aswith
Blacktomovehemustplay1...Kb7andletWhitepromote
apawnafter2.Kd7andwithWhitetomovehemustallow
adrawby1.Kc6stalemateorlosehislastpawnbyany
otherlegalmove.
2
2
Endgamescanbeclassifiedaccordingtothetypeofpiecesthat
remainonboard.Basiccheckmatesarepositionsinwhichone
1
1
sidehasonlyakingandtheothersidehasoneortwopiecesand
a b c d e f g h
cancheckmatetheopposingking,withthepiecesworking
Anexampleofzugzwang:theside
togetherwiththeirking.Forexample,kingandpawnendgames
havingtomoveisatadisadvantage.
involveonlykingsandpawnsononeorbothsidesandthetaskof
thestrongersideistopromoteoneofthepawns.Othermore
complicatedendingsareclassifiedaccordingtothepiecesonboardotherthankings,suchasthe"rook
andpawnversusrookendgame".
History
Predecessors
8
8
ChessisbelievedtohaveoriginatedinEasternIndia,c.280
550CE,[27]intheGuptaEmpire,[28][29][30][31]whereits
7
7
earlyforminthe6thcenturywasknownaschaturaga
6
6
(Sanskrit:
),literallyfourdivisions[ofthemilitary]
5
5
infantry,cavalry,elephants,andchariotry,representedby
thepiecesthatwouldevolveintothemodernpawn,knight,
4
4
bishop,androok,respectively.Theearliestevidenceof
3
3
chessisfoundinthenearbySassanidPersiaaround600,
2
2
wherethegamecametobeknownbythenamechatrang.
ChatrangisevokedinthreeepicromanceswritteninPahlavi
1
1
(MiddlePersian).ChatrangwastakenupbytheMuslim
a b c d e f g h
worldaftertheIslamicconquestofPersia(63344),whereit
Ashtpada,theuncheckered8x8
wasthennamedshatranj,withthepieceslargelyretaining
board,sometimeswithspecialmarks,
theirPersiannames.InSpanish"shatranj"wasrenderedas
onwhichchaturangawasplayed
ajedrez("alshatranj"),inPortugueseasxadrez,andin
Greekas(zatrikion,whichcomesdirectlyfrom
thePersianchatrang),[32]butintherestofEuropeitwasreplacedbyversionsofthePersianshh
("king"),whichwasfamiliarasanexclamationandbecametheEnglishwords"check"and
"chess".[note3]MurraytheorizedthatMuslimtraderscametoEuropeanseaportswithornamentalchess
kingsascuriosbeforetheybroughtthegameofchess.[30]
ThegamereachedWesternEuropeandRussiabyatleastthreeroutes,theearliestbeinginthe9th
century.Bytheyear1000ithadspreadthroughoutEurope.[33]IntroducedintotheIberianPeninsulaby
theMoorsinthe10thcentury,itwasdescribedinafamous13thcenturymanuscriptcoveringshatranj,
backgammon,anddicenamedtheLibrodelosjuegos.Anothertheorycontendsthatchessarosefrom
thegamexiangqi(Chinesechess)oroneofitspredecessors,[34]althoughthishasbeencontested.[35]
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Originsofthemoderngame(10001850)
Around1200,therulesofshatranjstartedtobemodifiedin
southernEurope,andaround1475,severalmajorchangesmade
thegameessentiallyasitisknowntoday.[33]Thesemodernrules
forthebasicmoveshadbeenadoptedinItalyandSpain.[36][37]
Pawnsgainedtheoptionofadvancingtwosquaresontheirfirst
move,whilebishopsandqueensacquiredtheirmodernabilities.
Thequeenreplacedtheearliervizierchesspiecetowardstheend
ofthe10thcenturyandbythe15thcenturyhadbecomethemost
KnightsTemplarplayingchess,Libro
[38]
powerfulpiece consequentlymodernchesswasreferredtoas
delosjuegos,1283
[39]
"Queen'sChess"or"MadQueenChess". Thesenewrules
quicklyspreadthroughoutwesternEurope.Therulesconcerningstalematewerefinalizedintheearly
19thcentury.TheresultingstandardgameissometimesreferredtoasWesternchess[40]orinternational
chess.[41]inordertodistinguishitfromitspredecessorsaswellasregionalversionsofchessthat
evolveddifferently.
Writingsaboutthetheoryofhowtoplaychessbegantoappearinthe15th
century.TheRepeticindeAmoresyArtedeAjedrez(RepetitionofLove
andtheArtofPlayingChess)bySpanishchurchmanLuisRamirezde
LucenawaspublishedinSalamancain1497.[37]Lucenaandlatermasters
likePortuguesePedroDamiano,ItaliansGiovanniLeonardoDiBona,
GiulioCesarePolerioandGioachinoGreco,andSpanishbishopRuyLpez
deSeguradevelopedelementsofopeningsandstartedtoanalyzesimple
endgames.
Inthe18thcentury,thecenterof
Europeanchesslifemovedfromthe
SouthernEuropeancountriestoFrance.
ThetwomostimportantFrenchmasters
Atacticalpuzzlefrom
wereFranoisAndrDanicanPhilidor,a
Lucena's1497book
musicianbyprofession,whodiscovered
theimportanceofpawnsforchess
strategy,andlaterLouisCharlesMahdeLaBourdonnais,whowona
famousseriesofmatcheswiththeIrishmasterAlexanderMcDonnell
in1834.[42]Centersofchessactivityinthisperiodwerecoffeehouses
inbigEuropeancitieslikeCafdelaRgenceinParisandSimpson's
DivaninLondon.[43][44]
FranoisAndrDanican
Philidor,18thcenturyFrench
chessmaster
Asthe19thcenturyprogressed,chessorganizationdevelopedquickly.
Manychessclubs,chessbooks,andchessjournalsappeared.There
werecorrespondencematchesbetweencitiesforexample,theLondonChessClubplayedagainstthe
EdinburghChessClubin1824.[45]Chessproblemsbecamearegularpartof19thcenturynewspapers
BernhardHorwitz,JosefKling,andSamuelLoydcomposedsomeofthemostinfluentialproblems.In
1843,vonderLasapublishedhisandBilguer'sHandbuchdesSchachspiels(HandbookofChess),the
firstcomprehensivemanualofchesstheory.
Birthofasport(18501945)
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ThefirstmodernchesstournamentwasorganizedbyHoward
Staunton,aleadingEnglishchessplayer,andwasheldin
Londonin1851.Itwaswonbytherelativelyunknown
GermanAdolfAnderssen,whowashailedastheleading
chessmaster.Hisbrilliant,energeticattackingstylewas
typicalforthetime.[46][47]SparklinggameslikeAnderssen's
ImmortalgameandEvergreengameorMorphy'sOpera
gamewereregardedasthehighestpossiblesummitofthe
chessart.[48]
Deeperinsightintothenatureofchesscamewithtwo
youngerplayers.AmericanPaulMorphy,anextraordinary
chessprodigy,wonagainstallimportantcompetitors(except
HowardStaunton,whorefusedtoplay),includingAnderssen,
The"ImmortalGame",Anderssen
duringhisshortchesscareerbetween1857and1863.
Kieseritzky,1851
Morphy'ssuccessstemmedfromacombinationofbrilliant
attacksandsoundstrategyheintuitivelyknewhowto
[49]
prepareattacks. PraguebornWilhelmSteinitzlaterdescribedhowtoavoidweaknessesinone'sown
positionandhowtocreateandexploitsuchweaknessesintheopponent'sposition.[50]Thescientific
approachandpositionalunderstandingofSteinitzrevolutionizedthegame.Steinitzwasthefirsttobreak
apositiondownintoitscomponents.[51]BeforeSteinitz,playersbroughttheirqueenoutearly,didnot
completelydeveloptheirotherpieces,andmountedaquickattackontheopposingking,whicheither
succeededorfailed.Thelevelofdefensewaspoorandplayersdidnotformanydeepplan.[52]In
additiontohistheoreticalachievements,Steinitzfoundedanimportanttradition:histriumphoverthe
leadingGermanmasterJohannesZukertortin1886isregardedasthefirstofficialWorldChess
Championship.Steinitzlosthiscrownin1894toamuchyoungerplayer,theGermanmathematician
EmanuelLasker,whomaintainedthistitlefor27years,thelongesttenureofallWorldChampions.[53]
Aftertheendofthe19thcentury,thenumberofmaster
tournamentsandmatchesheldannuallyquicklygrew.Some
sourcesstatethatin1914thetitleofchessGrandmasterwasfirst
formallyconferredbyTsarNicholasIIofRussiatoLasker,
Capablanca,Alekhine,Tarrasch,andMarshall,butthisisa
disputedclaim.[note4]Thetraditionofawardingsuchtitleswas
continuedbytheWorldChessFederation(FIDE),foundedin
1924inParis.In1927,theWomen'sWorldChessChampionship
wasestablishedthefirsttoholdthetitlewasCzechEnglish
masterVeraMenchik.[54]IttookaprodigyfromCuba,JosRal
Capablanca(WorldChampion192127),wholovedsimple
positionsandendgames,toendtheGermanspeakingdominance
inchesshewasundefeatedintournamentplayforeightyears,
until1924.HissuccessorwasRussianFrenchAlexander
Alekhine,astrongattackingplayerwhodiedastheWorld
championin1946.HebrieflylostthetitletoDutchplayerMax
Euwein1935andregainedittwoyearslater.[55]
ChessPlayersinlate19thCentury
Istanbul,byStanisawChlebowski
Betweentheworldwars,chesswasrevolutionizedbythenew
theoreticalschoolofsocalledhypermodernistslikeAronNimzowitschandRichardRti.They
advocatedcontrollingthecenteroftheboardwithdistantpiecesratherthanwithpawns,whichinvited
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opponentstooccupythecenterwithpawns,whichbecomeobjectsofattack.[56]
Postwarera(1945andlater)
AfterthedeathofAlekhine,anewWorldChampionwassought.FIDE,whichhascontrolledthetitle
sincethen(exceptforoneinterruption),ranatournamentofeliteplayers.Thewinnerofthe1948
tournament,RussianMikhailBotvinnik,startedaneraofSovietdominanceinthechessworld.Untilthe
endoftheSovietUnion,therewasonlyonenonSovietchampion,AmericanBobbyFischer(champion
197275).[57]Botvinnikrevolutionizedopeningtheory.PreviouslyBlackstroveforequality,to
neutralizeWhite'sfirstmoveadvantage.AsBlack,Botvinnikstrovefortheinitiativefromthe
beginning.[58]InthepreviousinformalsystemofWorldChampionships,thecurrentchampiondecided
whichchallengerhewouldplayforthetitleandthechallengerwasforcedtoseeksponsorsforthe
match.FIDEsetupanewsystemofqualifyingtournamentsandmatches.Theworld'sstrongestplayers
wereseededintoInterzonaltournaments,wheretheywerejoinedbyplayerswhohadqualifiedfrom
Zonaltournaments.TheleadingfinishersintheseInterzonalswouldgoonthe"Candidates"stage,which
wasinitiallyatournament,andlateraseriesofknockoutmatches.ThewinneroftheCandidateswould
thenplaythereigningchampionforthetitle.Achampiondefeatedinamatchhadarighttoplaya
rematchayearlater.Thissystemoperatedonathreeyearcycle.Botvinnikparticipatedinchampionship
matchesoveraperiodoffifteenyears.Hewontheworldchampionshiptournamentin1948andretained
thetitleintiedmatchesin1951and1954.In1957,helosttoVasilySmyslov,butregainedthetitleina
rematchin1958.In1960,helostthetitletothe23yearoldLatvianprodigyMikhailTal,an
accomplishedtacticianandattackingplayer.Botvinnikagainregainedthetitleinarematchin1961.
Followingthe1961event,FIDEabolishedtheautomaticrightofadeposedchampiontoarematch,and
thenextchampion,ArmenianTigranPetrosian,aplayerrenownedforhisdefensiveandpositional
skills,heldthetitlefortwocycles,196369.Hissuccessor,BorisSpasskyfromRussia(champion
196972),wongamesinbothpositionalandsharptacticalstyle.[59]Thenextchampionship,theso
calledMatchoftheCentury,sawthefirstnonSovietchallengersinceWorldWarII,AmericanBobby
Fischer,whodefeatedhisCandidatesopponentsbyunheardofmarginsandclearlywontheworld
championshipmatch.In1975,however,FischerrefusedtodefendhistitleagainstSovietAnatoly
KarpovwhenFIDEdidnotmeethisdemands,andKarpovobtainedthetitlebydefault.[60]Fischer
modernizedmanyaspectsofchess,especiallybyextensivelypreparingopenings.[61]
KarpovdefendedhistitletwiceagainstViktorKorchnoianddominatedthe1970sandearly1980swith
astringoftournamentsuccesses.[62]Karpov'sreignfinallyendedin1985atthehandsofGarry
Kasparov,anotherSovietplayerfromBaku,Azerbaijan.KasparovandKarpovcontestedfiveworldtitle
matchesbetween1984and1990Karpovneverwonhistitleback.[63]In1993,GarryKasparovand
NigelShortbrokewithFIDEtoorganizetheirownmatchforthetitleandformedacompeting
ProfessionalChessAssociation(PCA).Fromthenuntil2006,thereweretwosimultaneousWorld
ChampionsandWorldChampionships:thePCAorClassicalchampionextendingtheSteinitzian
traditioninwhichthecurrentchampionplaysachallengerinaseriesofmanygames,andtheother
followingFIDE'snewformatofmanyplayerscompetinginatournamenttodeterminethechampion.
KasparovlosthisClassicaltitlein2000toVladimirKramnikofRussia.[64]TheWorldChess
Championship2006,inwhichKramnikbeattheFIDEWorldChampionVeselinTopalov,reunifiedthe
titlesandmadeKramniktheundisputedWorldChessChampion.[65]InSeptember2007,helostthetitle
toViswanathanAnandofIndia,whowonthechampionshiptournamentinMexicoCity.Anand
defendedhistitleintherevengematchof2008,[66]2010and2012.In2013,MagnusCarlsenbeatAnand
inthe2013WorldChessChampionshipandisreigningchampion.[67]
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Placeinculture
Premodern
IntheMiddleAgesandduringtheRenaissance,chesswasapartof
noblecultureitwasusedtoteachwarstrategyandwasdubbedthe
"King'sGame".[68]Gentlemenare"tobemeanlyseeneintheplayat
Chestes",saystheoverviewatthebeginningofBaldassareCastiglione's
TheBookoftheCourtier(1528,English1561bySirThomasHoby),but
chessshouldnotbeagentleman'smainpassion.Castiglioneexplainsit
further:
Andwhatsayyoutothegameatchestes?Itistruelyanhonest
kyndeofenterteynmenteandwittie,quothSyrFriderick.Butme
thinkithathafault,whicheis,thatamanmaybetocouningatit,
forwhoeverwillbeexcellentintheplayeofchestes,Ibeleavehe
mustbeestowemuchtymeaboutit,andapplieitwithsomuch
study,thatamanmayassoonelearnesomenoblescyence,or
compaseanyothermatterofimportaunce,andyetintheendein
beestowingallthatlaboure,heknowethnomorebutagame.
TherforeinthisIbeleavetherehappenethaveryrarething,
namely,thatthemeaneismorecommendable,thenthe
excellency.[69]
Noblechessplayers,
Germany,c.1320
Manyoftheelaboratechesssetsusedbythearistocracyhave
beenlost,butotherspartiallysurvive,suchastheLewis
chessmen.
Chesswasoftenusedasabasisofsermonsonmorality.An
exampleisLiberdemoribushominumetofficiisnobiliumsive
superludoscacchorum('Bookofthecustomsofmenandthe
dutiesofnoblesortheBookofChess'),writtenbyanItalian
DominicanmonkJacobusdeCessolisc.1300.Thisbookwas
Twokingsandtwoqueensfromthe
oneofthemostpopularoftheMiddleAges.[70]Theworkwas
Lewischessmen(BritishMuseum)
translatedintomanyotherlanguages(thefirstprintededition
waspublishedatUtrechtin1473)andwasthebasisforWilliam
Caxton'sTheGameandPlayeoftheChesse(1474),oneofthefirstbooksprintedinEnglish.[71]
Differentchesspieceswereusedasmetaphorsfordifferentclassesofpeople,andhumandutieswere
derivedfromtherulesofthegameorfromvisualpropertiesofthechesspieces:[72]
Theknyghtoughttobemadeallearmeduponanhorsinsuchewysethathehaueanhelme
onhisheedandaspereinhisryghthande/andcouerydwythhissheld/aswerdeandamace
onhislyftsyde/Claddwythanhawberkandplatestoforehisbreste/leggeharnoysonhis
legges/Sporesonhisheelisonhishandeshisgauntelettes/hishorswellbrokenandtaught
andaptetobataylleandcoueridwithhisarmes/whantheknyghtesbenmaadtheyben
baynedorbathed/thatisthesignethattheysholdledeanewelyfandnewemaners/also
theywakeallethenyghtinprayersandorysonsvntogodthathewyllegyuehemgracethat
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theymaygetethatthyngethattheymaynotgetebynature/Thekyngeorpryncegyrdetha
boutethemaswerdeinsigne/thattheysholdabydeandkepehymofwhomtheytaketheyr
dispensesanddignyte.[73]
Knowninthecirclesofclerics,students,andmerchants,chessentered
intothepopularcultureofMiddleAges.Anexampleisthe209thsongof
CarminaBuranafromthe13thcentury,whichstartswiththenamesof
chesspieces,Roch,pedites,regina...[74]
Modern
DuringtheAgeofEnlightenment,chesswasviewedasameansofself
improvement.BenjaminFranklin,inhisarticle"TheMoralsofChess"
(1750),wrote:
TheGameofChessisnotmerelyanidleamusementseveralvery
valuablequalitiesofthemind,usefulinthecourseofhumanlife,
aretobeacquiredandstrengthenedbyit,soastobecomehabits
readyonalloccasionsforlifeisakindofChess,inwhichwe
haveoftenpointstogain,andcompetitorsoradversariesto
contendwith,andinwhichthereisavastvarietyofgoodandill
events,thatare,insomedegree,theeffectofprudence,orthewant
ofit.ByplayingatChessthen,wemaylearn:
19thcenturydecorative
chesspawns,China(National
MuseuminWarsaw)
I.Foresight,whichlooksalittleintofuturity,andconsidersthe
consequencesthatmayattendanaction[...]
II.Circumspection,whichsurveysthewholeChessboard,or
sceneofaction:therelationoftheseveralPieces,andtheir
situations[...]
III.Caution,nottomakeourmovestoohastily[...][75]
Withtheseorsimilarhopes,chessistaughttochildreninschools
aroundtheworldtoday.Manyschoolshostchessclubs,andthere
aremanyscholastictournamentsspecificallyforchildren.
Tournamentsareheldregularlyinmanycountries,hostedby
organizationssuchastheUnitedStatesChessFederationandthe
NationalScholasticChessFoundation.[76]
Chessisoftendepictedintheartssignificantworkswherechess
playsakeyrolerangefromThomasMiddleton'sAGameat
ThroughtheLookingGlass:theRed
ChesstoThroughtheLookingGlassbyLewisCarrolltoThe
Kingissnoring.IllustrationbyJohn
RoyalGamebyStefanZweigandVladimirNabokov'sThe
Tenniel
Defense.ThethrillerfilmKnightMovesisaboutachess
grandmasterwhoisaccusedofbeingaserialkiller.Chessis
featuredinfilmslikeIngmarBergman'sTheSeventhSealandSatyajitRay'sTheChessPlayers.Chessis
alsopresentinthecontemporarypopularculture.Forexample,J.K.Rowling'sHarryPotterplays
"Wizard'sChess",whilethecharactersofStarTrekprefer"TriDimensionalChess".Theheroof
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SearchingforBobbyFischerstrugglesagainstadoptingtheaggressiveandmisanthropicviewsofa
worldchesschampion.[77]Chesshasbeenusedasthecorethemeofamusical,Chess,byTimRice,
BjrnUlvaeus,andBennyAndersson.
LargechesssetinFranklinSquare,
Tasmania
Composition
Chesscompositionistheartofcreatingchessproblems(theproblemsthemselvesaresometimesalso
calledchesscompositions).Apersonwhocreatessuchproblemsisknownasachesscomposer.[78]
Therearemanytypesofchessproblems.Thetwomostimportantare:
Directmates:whitetomovefirstandcheckmateblackwithinaspecifiednumberofmoves
againstanydefense.Theseareoftenreferredtoas"mateinn"forexample"mateinthree"(a
threemover)twoandthreemoveproblemsarethemostcommon.Theseusuallyinvolve
positionswhichwouldbehighlyunlikelytooccurinanactualgame,andareintendedtoillustrate
aparticular"theme",usuallyrequiringasurprisingorcounterintuitive"keymove".[79]
Studies:orthodoxproblemsinwhichthestipulationisthatwhitetoplaymustwinordraw.
Almostallstudiesareendgamepositions.[80]
Chesscompositionisadistinctbranchofchesssport,andtournaments(ortourneys)existforboththe
compositionandsolvingofchessproblems.[81]
Example
ThisisoneofthemostfamouschessstudiesitwaspublishedbyRichardRtiin1921.Itseems
impossibletocatchtheadvancedblackpawn,whiletheblackkingcaneasilystopthewhitepawn.The
solutionisadiagonaladvance,whichbringsthekingtobothpawnssimultaneously:
1.Kg7!h42.Kf6!Kb6
Or2...h33.Ke7andthewhitekingcansupportitspawn.
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3.Ke5!!
Nowthewhitekingcomesjustintimetosupporthis
pawn,orcatchtheblackone.
3...h34.Kd6draw[82]
RichardRti
OstrauerMorgenzeitung,4Dec.1921
a
1
a
Whitetomoveanddraw
Competitiveplay
Organizationofcompetitions
Contemporarychessisanorganizedsportwithstructuredinternationalandnationalleagues,
tournaments,andcongresses.Chess'sinternationalgoverningbodyisFIDE(FdrationInternationale
deschecs).Mostcountrieshaveanationalchessorganizationaswell(suchastheUSChessFederation
andEnglishChessFederation)whichinturnisamemberofFIDE.FIDEisamemberofthe
InternationalOlympicCommittee,[83]butthegameofchesshasneverbeenpartoftheOlympicGames
chessdoeshaveitsownOlympiad,heldeverytwoyearsasateamevent.
ThecurrentWorldChessChampionisMagnusCarlsenof
Norway.[84]ThereigningWomen'sWorldChampionisHou
YifanfromChina.[85]Theworld'shighestratedfemaleplayer,
JuditPolgr,hasneverparticipatedintheWomen'sWorldChess
Championship,insteadpreferringtocompetewiththeleading
menandmaintainingarankingamongthetopmaleplayers.[86]
OthercompetitionsforindividualsincludetheWorldJunior
ChessChampionship,theEuropeanIndividualChess
Championship,andtheNationalChessChampionships.
Invitationonlytournamentsregularlyattracttheworld'sstrongest
players.ExamplesincludeSpain'sLinaresevent,MonteCarlo's
MelodyAmbertournament,theDortmundSparkassenmeeting,
Sofia'sMtelMasters,andWijkaanZee'sTataSteeltournament.
TheformerWorldChessChampion
ViswanathanAnand(left)playing
chessagainsthispredecessorVladimir
Kramnik
RegularteamchesseventsincludetheChessOlympiadandtheEuropeanTeamChessChampionship.
TheWorldChessSolvingChampionshipandWorldCorrespondenceChessChampionshipsincludeboth
teamandindividualevents.
Besidestheseprestigiouscompetitions,therearethousandsofotherchesstournaments,matches,and
festivalsheldaroundtheworldeveryyearcateringtoplayersofalllevels.Chessispromotedasa"mind
sport"bytheMindSportsOrganisation,alongsideothermentalskillgamessuchasContractBridge,Go,
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andScrabble.
Titlesandrankings
Thebestplayerscanbeawardedspecificlifetimetitlesbytheworld
chessorganizationFIDE:[87]
Grandmaster(shortenedasGMsometimesInternational
GrandmasterorIGMisused)isawardedtoworldclasschess
masters.ApartfromWorldChampion,Grandmasteristhehighest
titleachessplayercanattain.BeforeFIDEwillconferthetitleon
aplayer,theplayermusthaveanElochessrating(seebelow)ofat
least2500atonetimeandthreefavorableresults(callednorms)in
tournamentsinvolvingothergrandmasters,includingsomefrom
countriesotherthantheapplicant's.Thereareothermilestonesa
playercanachievetoattainthetitle,suchaswinningtheWorld
JuniorChampionship.
InternationalMaster(shortenedasIM).Theconditionsaresimilar
toGM,butlessdemanding.TheminimumratingfortheIMtitleis
2400.
GrandmasterGarry
Kasparov,formerWorld
ChessChampion,is
consideredbymanytobethe
greatestchessplayerofall
time.
FIDEMaster(shortenedasFM).Theusualwayforaplayerto
qualifyfortheFIDEMastertitleisbyachievingaFIDEratingof2300ormore.
CandidateMaster(shortenedasCM).SimilartoFM,butwithaFIDEratingofatleast2200.
Allthetitlesareopentomenandwomen.Separatewomenonlytitles,suchasWomanGrandmaster
(WGM),areavailable.BeginningwithNonaGaprindashviliin1978,anumberofwomenhaveearned
theGMtitle,andmostofthetoptenwomenin2006holdtheunrestrictedGMtitle.[note5]
AsofAugust2011,thereare1363activegrandmastersand3153internationalmastersintheworld.Top
threecountrieswiththelargestnumbersofgrandmastersareRussia,Ukraine,andGermany,with208,
78,and76.ThecountrywithmostgrandmasterspercapitaisIceland,with11GMsand13IMsamong
thepopulationof310,000.[88]
Internationaltitlesareawardedtocomposersandsolversofchessproblemsandtocorrespondencechess
players(bytheInternationalCorrespondenceChessFederation).Nationalchessorganizationsmayalso
awardtitles,usuallytotheadvancedplayersstillunderthelevelneededforinternationaltitlesan
exampleistheChessexperttitleusedintheUnitedStates.
Inordertorankplayers,FIDE,ICCF,andnationalchessorganizationsusetheEloratingsystem
developedbyArpadElo.Eloisastatisticalsystembasedontheassumptionthatthechessperformance
ofeachplayerintheirgamesisarandomvariable.ArpadElothoughtofaplayer'strueskillasthe
averageofthatplayer'sperformancerandomvariable,andshowedhowtoestimatetheaveragefrom
resultsofplayer'sgames.TheUSChessFederationimplementedElo'ssuggestionsin1960,andthe
systemquicklygainedrecognitionasbeingbothfairerandmoreaccuratethanoldersystemsitwas
adoptedbyFIDEin1970.[note6]ThehighestFIDEratingofalltime,2881,wasachievedbyMagnus
CarlsenontheMarch2014FIDEratinglist.[89]
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Publications
Chesshasaveryextensiveliterature.In1913,thechesshistorianH.J.R.Murrayestimatedthetotal
numberofbooks,magazines,andchesscolumnsinnewspaperstobeabout5,000.[90][91]B.H.Wood
estimatedthenumber,asof1949,tobeabout20,000.[91]DavidHooperandKennethWhyldwritethat,
"Sincethentherehasbeenasteadyincreaseyearbyyearofthenumberofnewchesspublications.No
oneknowshowmanyhavebeenprinted."[91]Therearetwosignificantpublicchesslibraries:theJohn
G.WhiteChessandCheckersCollectionatClevelandPublicLibrary,withover32,000chessbooksand
over6,000boundvolumesofchessperiodicals[92]andtheChess&DraughtscollectionattheNational
LibraryoftheNetherlands,withabout30,000books.[93]GrandmasterLotharSchmidownedtheworld's
largestprivatecollectionofchessbooksandmemorabilia.[94]DavidDeLucia'schesslibrarycontains
7,000to8,000chessbooks,asimilarnumberofautographs(letters,scoresheets,manuscripts),and
about1,000itemsof"ephemera".[95]DirkJantenGeuzendamopinesthatDeLucia'scollection"is
arguablythefinestchesscollectionintheworld".[96]
Mathematicsandcomputers
Thegamestructureandnatureofchessisrelatedtoseveral
branchesofmathematics.Manycombinatoricalandtopological
problemsconnectedtochesswereknownofforhundredsof
years.In1913,ErnstZermelousedchessasabasisforhistheory
ofgamestrategies,whichisconsideredasoneofthe
predecessorsofgametheory.[97]
Thenumberoflegalpositionsinchessisestimatedtobebetween
1043and1047(aprovableupperbound[98][99]),withagametree
complexityofapproximately10123.Thegametreecomplexityof
chesswasfirstcalculatedbyClaudeShannonas10120,anumber
knownastheShannonnumber.[100]Typicallyanaverage
positionhasthirtytofortypossiblemoves,buttheremaybeas
fewaszero(inthecaseofcheckmateorstalemate)orasmanyas
218.[101]
MathematiciansEuler,Legendre,de
Moivre,andVandermondestudied
theknight'stour.
Oneofthemostimportantmathematicalchallengesofchessisthedevelopmentofalgorithmsthatcan
playchess.Theideaofcreatingachessplayingmachinedatestothe18thcenturyaround1769,the
chessplayingautomatoncalledTheTurkbecamefamousbeforebeingexposedasahoax.[102]Serious
trialsbasedonautomatons,suchasElAjedrecista,weretoocomplexandlimitedtobeuseful.
Sincetheadventofthedigitalcomputerinthe1950s,chessenthusiasts,computerengineersand
computerscientistshavebuilt,withincreasingdegreesofseriousnessandsuccess,chessplaying
machinesandcomputerprograms.[103]Thegroundbreakingpaperoncomputerchess,"Programminga
ComputerforPlayingChess",waspublishedin1950byShannon.[note7]Hewrote:
Thechessmachineisanidealonetostartwith,since:(1)theproblemissharplydefined
bothinallowedoperations(themoves)andintheultimategoal(checkmate)(2)itisneither
sosimpleastobetrivialnortoodifficultforsatisfactorysolution(3)chessisgenerally
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consideredtorequire"thinking"forskillfulplayasolutionofthisproblemwillforceus
eithertoadmitthepossibilityofamechanizedthinkingortofurtherrestrictourconceptof
"thinking"(4)thediscretestructureofchessfitswellintothedigitalnatureofmodern
computers.[105]
TheAssociationforComputingMachinery(ACM)heldthefirst
majorchesstournamentforcomputers,theNorthAmerican
ComputerChessChampionship,inSeptember1970.CHESS3.0,
achessprogramfromNorthwesternUniversity,wonthe
championship.Nowadays,chessprogramscompeteintheWorld
ComputerChessChampionship,heldannuallysince1974.At
firstconsideredonlyacuriosity,thebestchessplayingprograms,
forexampleRybka,havebecomeextremelystrong.In1997,a
computerwonachessmatchagainstareigningWorldChampion
1990schessplayingcomputer
forthefirsttime:IBM'sDeepBluebeatGarryKasparov32
(itscoredtwowins,oneloss,andthreedraws).[106][107]In2009,
amobilephonewonacategory6tournamentwithaperformancerating2898:chessengineHiarcs13
runningonthemobilephoneHTCTouchHDwontheCopaMercosurtournamentwithninewinsand
onedraw.[108]Thebestchessprogramsarenowabletobeatthestrongesthumanplayers.
Withhugedatabasesofpastgamesandhighanalyticalability,computerscanhelpplayerstolearnchess
andprepareformatches.InternetChessServersallowpeopletofindandplayopponentsalloverthe
world.Thepresenceofcomputersandmoderncommunicationtoolshaveraisedconcernsregarding
cheatingduringgames,mostnotablythe"bathroomcontroversy"duringthe2006World
Championship.[109]
Zermelo'stheoremstatesthatitispossibletosolvechess,i.e.todeterminewithcertaintytheoutcomeof
aperfectlyplayedgame(eitherwhitecanforceawin,orblackcanforceawin,orbothsidescanforceat
leastadraw).[110]However,accordingtoClaudeShannon,thereare1043legalpositionsinchess,and
thetimeframerequiredtocomputeaperfectgameputsthispossibilitybeyondthelimitsofanyfeasible
technology.[111]
Psychology
Thereisanextensivescientificliteratureonchesspsychology.[note8][note9][113][114][115][116]AlfredBinet
andothersshowedthatknowledgeandverbal,ratherthanvisuospatial,abilityliesatthecoreof
expertise.[117][118]Inhisdoctoralthesis,AdriaandeGrootshowedthatchessmasterscanrapidly
perceivethekeyfeaturesofaposition.[119]AccordingtodeGroot,thisperception,madepossibleby
yearsofpracticeandstudy,ismoreimportantthanthesheerabilitytoanticipatemoves.DeGroot
showedthatchessmasterscanmemorizepositionsshownforafewsecondsalmostperfectly.Theability
tomemorizedoesnotaloneaccountforchessplayingskill,sincemastersandnovices,whenfacedwith
randomarrangementsofchesspieces,hadequivalentrecall(abouthalfadozenpositionsineachcase).
Rather,itistheabilitytorecognizepatterns,whicharethenmemorized,whichdistinguishedtheskilled
playersfromthenovices.Whenthepositionsofthepiecesweretakenfromanactualgame,themasters
hadalmosttotalpositionalrecall.[120]
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Morerecentresearchhasfocusedonchessasmentaltrainingtherespectiverolesofknowledgeand
lookaheadsearchbrainimagingstudiesofchessmastersandnovicesblindfoldchesstheroleof
personalityandintelligenceinchessskillgenderdifferencesandcomputationalmodelsofchess
expertise.Theroleofpracticeandtalentinthedevelopmentofchessandotherdomainsofexpertisehas
ledtoalotofresearchrecently.Ericssonandcolleagueshavearguedthatdeliberatepracticeissufficient
forreachinghighlevelsofexpertiseinchess.[121]Recentresearchindicatesthatfactorsotherthan
practicearealsoimportant.Forexample,FernandGobetandcolleagueshaveshownthatstronger
playersstartedplayingchessatayoungageandthatexpertsbornintheNorthernHemispherearemore
likelytohavebeenborninlatewinterandearlyspring.Chessplayersaremorelikelytobenonright
handed,thoughtheyfoundnocorrelationbetweenhandednessandskill.[122]
Chessandintelligence
Althoughthelinkbetweenperformanceinchessandgeneralintelligenceisoftenassumed,researchers
havelargelyfailedtoconfirmitsexistence.[123]Forexample,a
2006studyfoundnodifferencesinfluidintelligence,as
measuredbyRaven'sProgressiveMatrices,betweenstrongadult
chessplayersandregularpeople.[124]Thereissomeevidence
towardsacorrelationbetweenperformanceinchessand
intelligenceamongbeginningplayers.However,performancein
chessalsoreliessubstantiallyonone'sexperienceplayingthe
game,andtheroleofexperiencemayoverwhelmtheroleof
intelligence.Chessexpertsareestimatedtohaveinexcessof
10,000andpossiblyasmanyas300,000positionpatternsstored
intheirmemorylongtrainingisnecessarytoacquirethat
amountofdata.[125]
A2007studyofyoungchessplayersintheUnitedKingdom
foundthatstrongplayerstendedtohaveaboveaverageIQ
scores,but,withinthatgroup,thecorrelationbetweenchessskill
andIQwasmoderatelynegative,meaningthatsmarterchildren
tendedtoachievealowerlevelofchessskill.Thisresultwas
explainedbyanegativecorrelationbetweenintelligenceand
practiceintheelitesubsample,andbypracticehavingahigher
influenceonchessskill.[125]
Achildren'schesstournamentinthe
UnitedStates
Variants
Therearemorethantwothousandpublishedchessvariants,[126]mostofthemofrelativelyrecentorigin.
Variantscaninclude,butarenotlimitedto:
directpredecessorsofchesssuchaschaturangaandshatranj
traditionalnationalorregionalgamessuchasxiangqi,shogi,janggi(Korean),makruk(Thai),and
sittuyin(Burmese)whichsharecommonancestorswithWesternchess
modernvariants,whichmaybeplayedonadifferentboard(e.g.hexagonalchess),orusedifferent
forces(e.g.Dunsany'schess)ordifferentrules(e.g.losingchess)ornonstandardpieces(e.g.
Grandchess).OneofthemostpopularsuchvariantsisChess960,wherethestartingpositionis
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selectedrandomly,renderingtheuseofpreparedopeninglinesimpracticable.[127]
Gametheory
The11category,gametheoreticaltaxonomyofchessincludes:twoplayer,nochance,combinatorial,
Markovstate(presentstateisallaplayerneedstomovealthoughpaststateleduptothatpoint,
knowledgeofthesequenceofpastmovesisnotrequiredtomakethenextmove),zerosum,symmetric,
perfectinformation,noncooperative,discrete,extensiveform(treedecisions,notpayoffmatrices),
sequential.[128]
Seealso
Referenceaids
Outlineofchess(subjectwidetableofcontents)
Glossaryofchess
Indexofchessarticles
Lists
Listofchessbooks
Listofchessgames
Listofchessplayers
Listofchessworldchampionshipmatches
Listofstrongchesstournaments
Gliski'shexagonalchess.Threebishopsper
sidearethenormforhexagonalvariants.
References
Notes
1. Withoutthisadditionalrestriction,whichwasaddedtotheFIDErulesin1972,itwouldbepossibleto
promoteapawnontheefiletoarookandthencastleverticallyacrosstheboard(aslongastheother
conditionsaremet).Thiswayofcastlingwas"discovered"byMaxPamandusedbyTimKrabbinachess
puzzlebeforetheruleswereamendedtodisallowit.SeeChessCuriositiesbyKrabb.Seealsode:Pam
KrabbRochadeforthediagramsonline.
2. The50moveruleisnotappliedatFICGS.[5]
3. AtthattimetheSpanishwordwouldhavebeenwrittenaxedrez.TheSpanish"x"waspronouncedasEnglish
"sh",asthePortuguese"x"stillistoday.ThespellingofajedrezchangedafterSpanishlostthe"sh"sound.
4. ThisisstatedinTheEncyclopaediaofChess(1970,p.223)byAnneSunnucks,butisdisputedbyEdward
Winter(chesshistorian)inhisChessNotes5144and5152
(http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter38.html).
5. CurrentFIDElistsoftopplayerswiththeirtitlesareonlineat"WorldTopChessplayers"
(http://ratings.fide.com/toplist.phtml).FIDE.Retrieved20100720.
6. Fortheofficialprocesssee"02.FIDERatingRegulations(QualificationCommission)"
24/33
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6. Fortheofficialprocesssee"02.FIDERatingRegulations(QualificationCommission)"
(http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=11&view=category).FIDE.Retrieved20081129.
7. AlanTuringmadeanattemptin1953.[104]
8. AsurveyisgiveninMarkJeays,"Abriefsurveyofpsychologicalstudiesofchess"
(http://jeays.net/files/psychchess.htm).
9. Chessisevencalledthe"drosophila"ofcognitivepsychologyandartificialintelligence(AI)studies,because
itrepresentsthedomaininwhichexpertperformancehasbeenmostintensivelystudiedandmeasured.[112]
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Board.EverymanChess.ISBN9781857443264.
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Rizzitano,James(2004).UnderstandingYourChess.GambitPublications.ISBN1904600077.
Externallinks
Chess(https://www.dmoz.org/Games/Board_Games/Abstract/Battle_Games/Chess/)atDMOZ
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FIDE(http://www.fide.com/)WorldChessFederation
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