Documente Academic
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Process Instrumentation
and Instrumental Analysis
January April, 2015
1. Introduction Instrument characteristics.
Class Revision
Describe about deflection type and null type
instruments with the help of an example (one
example for each type)
[8 marks]
Introduction
The most obvious way to make observations is to use
the human senses of seeing, feeling, and hearing.
In many cases, however, sensors are used that have
been devised by man to enhance or replace our
natural sensors.
The process of sensing is often called transduction
that being made with transducers.
These man-made sensor assemblies, when coupled
with the means to process the data into knowledge.
Introduction
When a fever thermometer
is used to measure a
persons body temperature.
Introduction
if the thermometer gives errors in its use, wrong
conclusions could be drawn.
It could be in error due:
to incorrect calibration of the thermometer or
because no allowance for the dynamic response of the
body temperature.
Measurand (Process)
Characteristic
Fig. Temperature profile
Dynamic
Static
(Steady-State)
Instrument Characteristic
Indication of the capabilities and limitation of the
instrument for particular application.
It is important as it enables us to have quantitative
estimate of pros/cons of instrument
Instrument performance Characteristic
1. Static Characteristic
2. Dynamic Characteristic
Instrument Characteristic
A mercury-in-glass fever thermometer is placed in a patients
mouth.
The indication slowly rises along the glass tube to reach the final
value, the body temperature of the person.
The slow rise seen in the indication is due to the time it takes for
the mercury to heat up and expand up the tube.
The static Sensitivity will be expressed as so many scale divisions
per degree and is all that is of interest in this application.
The dynamic characteristic will be a time varying function that
settles to unity after the transient effects have settled.
This is merely an annoyance in this application but has to be
allowed by waiting long enough before taking a reading. The wrong
value will be viewed if taken before the transient has settled.
Temperature, oC
Instrument Characteristic
Time, s
Dynamic Characteristic
Instrument rarely respond instantaneously to changes in
the measured variables
It exhibit a characteristic slowness/sluggishness due to
mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electric
capacitance.
Pure delay in time is often encountered where the
instrument are wait for some reaction to take place.
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by
subjecting its primary element to some known and
predetermined variation in measured quantity.
Static characteristics
When the desired input (process response) to the
instrument constant/varying slowly with time, the
dynamic characteristic is not important.
Accuracy
Precision
Resolution
Sensitivity
5.
6.
7.
8.
Linearity
Hysteresis
Drift
Over load
9. Capacity
10. impedance
loading
Static Characteristic
1. Error and uncertainties
2. Static performance parameters
Types of error
Error the difference between the measured and the
true value (as per standard)
Diff. types of error:
Error
Systematic/
Cumulative
Accidental /
Randomly
Miscellaneous
Environment errors
Loading errors
Miscellaneous
Mainly cause by:
A. Human error
Due to limitations in the human senses
Necessary to exercise extreme care with mature & considered
judgement in recording the observations
STATIC PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
Accuracy
Static
sensitivity
Precision
Resolution
Threshold
Linearity
Range &
Span
Hysteresis
Dead
band
Backlash
Drift
Accuracy
The closeness of the instrument output to the true value of the
measured quantity (as per standard)
It is specified as the % deviation or inaccuracy of the measurement
from true value
Depends on inherent limitations of the instrument & on the various
systematic error involved in measurement
%
The accuracy of the instrument can be specified:
% =
100
% =
100
# accuracy specification of the instrument as % of fsd less accurate than % of TV
Precision
The ability of the instrument to reproduce a certain
set of readings within a given accuracy
Dependent on repeatability (ability of the
instrument to reproduce a groups of
measurements of the same measured quantity)
High precision
with poor accuracy
High precision
with high accuracy
Poor precision
with poor accuracy
Resolution / Discrimination
The smallest increment in the measured value that can
be detected with certainly by the instrument
It is the degree if fineness with which a measurement
can be made
The least count of any instrument is taken as the
resolution of the instrument. A high resolution is one
can detect smallest possible variation in the input
Example:
A ruler with a least count of 1 mm may be used to measure
to nearest 0.5 mm by interpolation. Its resolution is
considered 0.5 mm
Threshold
The minimum/maximum value of the input below
which no output can be detected
It is particular case of resolution.
Both threshold & resolution can either be specified
as absolute quantities in term of input units/ as %
of full scale deflection.
Statistic Sensitivity
The ratio of the magnitude of response (output signal)
to the magnitude of the quantity being measured
(input signal)
Also termed as scale factor /gain of the instrument
Determined from result of static calibration
Static Sensitivity, K =
Linearity
A linear indicating scale is one of most desirable
features of any instrument
Linearity is never completely achieved and the
deviations from the ideal are termed as Linearity
error
In commercial instruments, the max departure
from linearity is specified by this following way:
Independent of the input
Proportional to input
combined
Proportional to input
If the deviation of the output of the instrument
from idealized straight line vary with the input,
then non-linearity is specified as function of the
input
The max deviation point on the + and sides of
idealized straight line are join with the origin and
their slope are determined
The higher value of % change slope with respect to
the idealized line is expressed as % non linearity
with respect to the magnitude of input values
Hysteresis
The magnitude of the error caused in the output
for a given value of the input, when this value is
approached from opposite directions
Dead band
The largest change of measurand to which the
instrument does not respond
Backlash
The max distance / angle through which any part of
the mechanical system may be moved in one
direction w/o causing motion of the next part
Can be minimized if the component are made to
very close tolerances
Drift
the variation of the output for a given input caused
due to change in the sensitivity
Example:
A load cell calibrated at a T of 200C has the following output/input
characteristic
0.4
0.8
0.12
0.16
0.20
Deflection of meter in
mm
14
25
36
47
58
Determine: (i) zero drift (ii) sensitivity drift (iii) sensitivity drift per 0C
change in ambient T
If 0.5 mm of scale division can be read with a fair degree of certainty,
determine the resolution od the instrument in both case
Solution
65
60
y = 27.5x + 3
55
50
45
40
o/p 20C
y = 25x
35
o/p 40C
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Solution
a-i) load cell at 400C. The zero drift which represents no load
deflection & considered the instrument bias/systematic
error is found to be 3 mm. A systematic error of 0.109 kN at
400C output-input characteristic
ii) at 200C
Static Sensitivity, K =
10
0.4
= 25 mm/kN
at 400C
Static Sensitivity, K =
11
=
0.4
27.5 mm/kN