CHM092 2 Matter Quan Config Periodicity

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Chapter 2
The Components of Matter
Quantum numbers
Electron Configuration
Chemical Periodicity
2-1
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The Components of Matter, Quantum Numbers,

Electron Configuration,Chemical Periodicity
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2-2
Elements and compounds

Atomic structure
Atomic number, mass number and isotopes
Bohrs atomic model
Quantum numbers
Electron configuration
The periodic table
Periodic Trend: atomic and ionic radius,
ionization energy and electron affinity
Molecular View of
Elements and Compounds
2-3
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2.1 Components of Matter

Element - the simplest type of substance with unique physical and
chemical properties. An element consists of only one type of atom. It
cannot be broken down into any simpler substances by physical or
chemical means. Examples Na, Mg , Zn , S, C , Cl2 , H2 . Can be
divided into atomic element and molecular element.
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Compound - a substance composed of two or

more elements which are chemically combined in
fixed or constant proportions by mass.
It has a definite chemical formula. Can be
classified into molecular compound (chemically link
by covalent bonds) and ionic compounds.
Examples: H2O, NH3, H2SO4 , K2O and NaCl.
Mixture - a group of two or more

elements and/or compounds that
are physically intermingled.
Constituents in the mixture can be
separated by physical means.
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Figure 2.1
The distinction between mixtures and compounds.
Fe
Physically mixed therefore can
be separated by physical
means; in this case by a
magnet.
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Allowed to react chemically

therefore cannot be separated
by physical means.
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Atom - the smallest particle of an element that gives the characteristic

properties of that element. It is also the smallest particle of an element that
can combine with itself or with other atoms in a chemical reaction.
Examples: Iron (Fe), sodium (Na), aluminium (Al), sulphur (S),
oxygen (O) and phosphorus (P).
Molecule - a structure that consists of two or
more atoms of the same or different element that
are chemically bound together by covalent bonds
and thus behaves as an independent unit.
Elements like H2, O2, N2 and the halogens e.g.
F2 occur as diatomic molecules and are refer to
as molecular elements
Other elements occur as polyatomic molecules:
O3, P4, S8, Se8
HCl , CO2 and CH4 are molecular compounds.
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Elements that occur as molecules.

1A
2A
3A
4A
5A
6A
7A
8A
(1)
(2)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
N2
O2
F2
P4
S8
Cl2
Se8
Br2
H2
I2
octatomic molecules
diatomic molecules
tetratomic molecules
2-8
P4
S8
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Properties of some elements and an ionic compound

2.1
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2.2 The law of mass conservation:

Mass remains constant during a chemical reaction.
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The total mass of substances does not change during a

chemical reaction.
reactant 1
reactant 2
total mass
calcium oxide
CaO
product
carbon dioxide
CO2
total mass
calcium carbonate
CaCO
3
56.08g
2-11
44.00g
100.08g
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2.3
Law of Definite (or Constant) Composition:
No matter the source, a particular compound is composed of

the same elements in the same parts (fractions) by mass.
Example : Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
Analysis by Mass
(grams/20.0g)
8.0 g calcium
2.4 g carbon
9.6 g oxygen
20.0 g
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Mass Fraction
(parts/1.00 part)
Percent by Mass
(parts/100 parts)
0.40 calcium
0.12 carbon
0.48 oxygen
40% calcium
12% carbon
48% oxygen
1.00 part by mass
100% by mass
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2.4
Structure of Atom ---- General features of the

atom today.
The atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composes of a

positively charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more
negatively charge electrons.
The atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
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Table 2.2 Properties of the Three Key Subatomic

Particles
Charge
Mass
Location
Name(Symbol) Relative Absolute(C)* Relative(amu) Absolute(g) in the Atom
Proton (p+)
Neutron (n0)
Electron (e-)
1+ +1.60218x10-19
1.00727 1.67262x10-24
1.00866
1-
-1.60218x10-19
0.00054858
Nucleus
1.67493x10-24 Nucleus
9.10939x10-28
Outside
Nucleus
* The coulomb (C) is the SI unit of charge.
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The atomic mass unit (amu) equals 1.66054x10-24 g.

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Definations
Atomic symbol a definite symbol for every element, sometimes
known as element symbol. Example, carbon (C),
Magnesium (Mg)
Atomic number (Z) -- the total number of protons (p+) in the nucleus of
each atom of an element.
Mass number (A) -- the sum of all the protons (p+) and neutrons (no)
present in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons

= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = A Z
Nuclear charge -- the total positive charge contributed by all the
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
For example, a sodium atom has a nuclear charge of +11 because it
has 11 protons in its nucleus.
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2.5 Symbolic representation of an

atom, isotopic or nuclear symbol
A
ZX
The Symbol of the Atom or Isotope
X = Atomic symbol of the element

A = mass number; A = Z + n
Z = atomic number
n = number of neutrons in the nucleus
Isotope = atoms of an element with the same number

of protons, but different number of neutrons.
e.g 1H, 2H and 3H. 12C, 13C and 14C.
Since chemical properties of an element are primarily
determined by the number of electrons, so all isotopes of
an element have nearly identical chemical behavior, but
different physical properties which involve masses
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Sample Problem 2. 1
Determining the Number of Subatomic

Particles in the Isotopes of an Element
PROBLEM: Silicon(Si) is essential to the computer industry as a major

component of semiconductor chips. It has three naturally
occurring isotopes: 28Si, 29Si, and 30Si. Determine the number
14
of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each silicon isotope.

PLAN:
We have to use the atomic number (14) and atomic masses

(28,29,30)
SOLUTION: The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore
2-17
28Si
has 14p+, 14e- and 14n0 (28-14)
29Si
has 14p+, 14e- and 15n0 (29-14)
30Si
has 14p+, 14e- and 16n0 (30-14)
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Sample Problem 2.2
Calculating the Atomic Mass of an Element
PROBLEM: Silver(Ag: Z = 47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two occur
naturally, 107Ag and 109Ag. Given the following mass
spectrometric data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:
Isotope
107Ag
Mass(amu)
106.90509
Abundance(%)
51.84
109Ag
108.90476
48.16
We have to find the weighted average of the isotopic masses,

so we multiply each isotopic mass by its fractional abundance
PLAN:
and then sum those isotopic portions.

SOLUTION:
mass(g) of each
isotope
portion of atomic mass

from each isotope
atomic mass
mass portion from 107Ag =

106.90509amu x 0.5184 = 55.42amu
mass portion from 109Ag = 108.90476amu x 0.4816 = 52.45amu
atomic mass of Ag = 55.42amu + 52.45amu = 107.87amu
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Sample Problem 2.3
Given the following mass spectrometric data for Ga,

calculate the atomic mass of Ga in amu
Ga-69 = 60.11%, 68.9256 amu
Ga-71 = 39.89%, 70.9247 amu
atomic mass, amu
isotope masses,
isotope fractions
avg. atomic mass
Nuclear or isotopic symbol of an ion

Formation of Ions
an atom is electrically neutral because
number of protons
( positive charges)
number of electrons
( negative charges)
Atoms do not lose or gain protons in any chemical reactions but

lose or gain electrons and become ions.
releases electron/electrons positive ion (cation)
no. of electrons in an atom > no. of electrons in its ion
Charge = no. of electrons in atom no. of electrons in its ion
Eg: Al 3e Al3+
Charge on aluminium ion= 13 10 = +3
Atom
accepts electron/electrons negatively charged ion (anion)
no. of electrons in an atom < no. of electrons in its ion
Charge = no. of electrons in an atom no. of electrons in its ion
Eg: S + 2e S2
2-20
Charge on sulphide ion = 16 18 = 2

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Aluminium atom and ion, atomic no = 13 , mass no = 27

Nuclear symbol of aluminium atom =
27
Al
Aluminium ion =
13
27Al3+
13
Sulphur atom and ion, atomic no = 16 , mass no = 32
Nuclear symbol of sulphur atom =
32S
sulphur ion =
16
32S216
Sample Problem 2.4

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate response.
19
(a)
9W
(b) _____ e
24
(c)
2-21
12Y
2n
________
40
19
X+
______
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Sample Problem 2.5
(a) The element Bi has a nuclear charge of +83. How many

electrons are there in the ion Bi3+?
(b) The total number of neutrons in the nucleus of ion X3+ is 1 more
than its number of protons. The mass number of the element X
is 9 times the charge on the ion. Write the appropriate symbol
for the ion X.
(c)
2-22
The mass number of element R is 60. The atom has the same
number of neutrons, protons and electrons. What is the
complete symbol of atom R?
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2.6 The Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory

1. All matter is composed of atoms. The atom is the smallest body that
retains the unique identity of the element.
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another
element in a chemical reaction. Elements can only be converted
into other elements in nuclear reactions.
3. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and
electrons, which determines the chemical behavior of the element.
Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons, and thus
in mass number. A sample of the element is treated as though its
atoms have an average mass.
4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more
elements in specific ratios.
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2.7 The modern periodic table.
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Metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.

Copper
Cadmium
Lead
Chromiu
m
Bismuth
Arsenic
Silicon
Antimony
Chlorine
Bromine
Sulfur
Boron
Tellurium
Carbon
(graphite)
Iodine
The Atomic Symbols

Some symbols are one capital letter, like C, S, and I. Others are two
letters, and the second is lowercase, like Br and Sr
Some symbols come from the element s name, like C for carbon. Others
come from the Latin name of the element, like Au for gold (aurum), Cu for
copper (cuprium), Fe (Ferum), Sn (Stanum), Pb (Plumbum) etc
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2.8 Bohrs Atomic Model of Hydrogen

The single electron in H atom moves around the nucleus
in orbits or energy levels
The orbits are pictured as concentric circles around the
nucleus. Energy levels are arranged in parallel lines.
Bohrs major idea was that the energy of the atom was
quantized (discrete), known as photons and that the
amount of energy in the atom was related to the
electrons position in the atom
quantized means that the atom could only have very specific
amounts of energy
The electrons travel in orbits that are at a fixed distance

from the nucleus
therefore the energy of the electron was proportional to the
distance the orbit was from the nucleus
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Figure 2.2 Principal Energy Levels in Hydrogen
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Electron Transitions
For transition to a higher energy state, the electron must
gain the correct amount of energy corresponding to the
difference in energy between the final and initial states
Electrons in high energy states are unstable. They are in
the excited state, and tend to lose energy and fall back to
lower energy states
Electrons emit radiation when they jump from an orbit
with higher energy down to an orbit with lower energy
the emitted radiation was a photon of light
the distance between the orbits determined the energy of the
photon of light produced
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Figure 2.3
2-29
Quantum leap
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2.9 quantum-mechanical model

The quantum-mechanical model explains the
manner in which electrons exist and behave in atoms
Many of the properties of atoms are related to the
energies of the electrons
Schdingers Equation allows us to calculate the
probability of finding an electron with a particular amount
of energy at a particular location in the atom which is
refer to as orbital.
An orbital is a region (space) around the nucleus in which
an electron of certain energy may be found. an orbital
characterizes the energy of the electrons reside in it.
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The size, shape, and orientation in space of an orbital

are determined by three integer terms called quantum
numbers n, and m.
In quantum mechanics, the distribution of electrons in an
atom or an atomic orbital is specified by quantum
numbers n, and m.
They are called the principal quantum number (n), the
angular momentum quantum number (), and the
magnetic quantum number (m).
These quantum numbers will be used to describe atomic
orbitals and to label electrons that reside in them. A
fourth quantum number the spin quantum number
(ms) describes the spin of a specific electron and
completes the description of electrons in atoms.
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Principal quantum number or principal energy levels (n)
Figure 2.3
Quantum staircase.
As n gets larger, energy difference between orbitals

gets smaller
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A positive integer of 1,2,3 . infinity. It specifies the energy of

an orbital.
Energy increases with the value of n. The higher is the energy of

the orbital, the less stable are the electrons which reside in it.
It relates to the average distance of the electron in a particular

orbital from the nucleus. The larger n is, the greater is the
average distance of an electron in the orbital from the nucleus
The maximum number of electrons that can reside in each

principal shell is given the formula 2n2 in which n is the principal
quantum number of the orbital.
Name of principal shell
Distance from nucleus
Energy
Closest to nucleus
Lowest energy
increases
2-33
Furthest from nucleus
increases
Highest energy
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Angular momentum quantum number ()

It designates the particular sub-energy level or subshell within a
principal energy level. It describes the geometrical shape of the
orbital.
has possible integral values from 0 to (n1). If n = 1, there is only
one possible value of , that is, = 11 = 0. If n = 2, there are 2
values of (that is, = 0 and = 21 = 1) and so on. The value of is
generally designated by the letters, s, p, d, ....
The energy of the subshells within the same principal quantum
number, n, increases according to the order of s < p < d < f and so
on.
Name of subshell
Maximum number of electrons in

the subshell
10
14
18
Energy
2-34
Low
increases
High
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Magnetic quantum number (m)

designates a particular orbital within a given sublevel. It describes the
orientation of the orbital in space relative to other orbitals.
the value of m depends on the value of the angular momentum
quantum number, . For a certain value of , m can have any integral
value ranging from to +.
There are (2 + 1) integral values of m in each .
Examples: If = 0, m = 0; (2 + 1 = 1 value of m )
If = 1, m = 1, 0, +1; (2 + 1 = 3 values of m )
If = 2, m = 2, 1, 0, +1, +2; (2 + 1 = 5 values of m )
All the orbitals (different values of m ) within the same subshell (same
value of () are degenerate orbitals which means they have the same
energy but different orientation in space.
An atomic orbital can accommodate a maximum number of two
electrons.
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Table 2.3 The Hierarchy of Quantum Numbers for Atomic Orbitals

Name, Symbol
(Property)
Allowed Values
Quantum Numbers
Principal, n
Positive integer
(size, energy)
(1, 2, 3, ...)
Angular
momentum, l
0 to n-1
(shape)
Magnetic, ml
-l,,0,,+l
(orientation)
-1 0 +1
-1 0 +1
-2
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-1
+1 +2
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Describing an Orbital
Each set of n, l, and ml describes one orbital
Orbitals with the same value of n are in the same
principal energy level
Orbitals with the same values of n and l are said to be in

the same sublevel
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Sample Problem 2.6
Determining Quantum Numbers for an Energy Level
PROBLEM: What values of the angular momentum (l) and magnetic (ml)
quantum numbers are allowed for a principal quantum number (n) of
3? How many orbitals are allowed for n = 3?
PLAN: Follow the rules for allowable quantum numbers found in the text.
l values can be integers from 0 to n-1; ml can be integers from -l
through 0 to + l.
SOLUTION: For n = 3, l = 0, 1, 2
For l = 0 ml = 0
For l = 1 ml = -1, 0, or +1
For l = 2 ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2
There are 9 m values and therefore 9 orbitals with n = 3.
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Sample Problem 2.7
Determining Sublevel Names and Orbital Quantum

Numbers
PROBLEM: Give the name, magnetic quantum numbers, and number of orbitals
for each sublevel with the following quantum numbers:
(a) n = 3, l = 2
(b) n = 2, l = 0
(c) n = 5, l = 1 (d) n = 4, l = 3
PLAN: Combine the n value and l designation to name the sublevel.

Knowing l, we can find ml and the number of orbitals.
SOLUTION:
n
(a)
3d
-2, -1, 0, 1, 2
(b)
2s
(c)
5p
-1, 0, 1
(d)
4f
-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
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sublevel name
possible ml values
# of orbitals
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Figure 2.4
Probability of finding an electron in the s-orbitals in different

energy levels = 0
Each principal energy

level has one s orbital
Lowest energy orbital
in a principal energy
state
Spherical
2-40
1s
2s
3s
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Figure 2.5
The 2p orbitals, =1
Each principal energy state above n = 1 has three p

orbitals, ml = 1, 0, +1
Each of the three orbitals points along a different axis :
px, py, pz
2nd lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy state
Two-lobed
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d orbitals, =2
Each principal energy state above n = 2 has five d orbitals :
ml = 2, 1, 0, +1, +2
Four of the five orbitals are aligned in a different plane
the fifth is aligned with the z axis, dz squared
dxy, dyz, dxz, dx squared y squared
3rd lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy level
Mainly four-lobed
one is two-lobed with a toroid
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Figure 2.6
2-43
= 2, d orbitals
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Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Electrons spin on their own axes and it is this motion that causes
the electron to behave like a magnet.
It describes the two possible spinning motions of an electron, one
clockwise and the other counterclockwise.
ms takes the values of + and . These values correspond to
the two possible spinning motions of the electron, that is,
clockwise () and counterclockwise () .
Sample Problem 2.8
Choose the sets of quantum numbers which are possible.
2-44
2
2
4
4
2
2
3
2
1
1
0
2
1
-2
0
ms
-
-
+
-
-
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Sample Problem 2.9
(a) Refer to the five sets of quantum numbers given below for electrons
e1 to e5 of an atom. Choose the sets of quantum numbers which are
not possible.
n
m
ms
e1
e2
e3
e4
e5
3
2
1
2
1
2
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
(b) Correct the unacceptable sets of quantum numbers which you have
chosen in (a).
(c) Choose from e1 to e5
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
2-45
an electron which has the highest energy.

two electrons which occupy the same orbital.
an electron which resides in d subshell.
an electron which resides in p subshell and in energy level L.
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2.10 Electron Configuration and orbital diagram

Table 2.4 Summary of Quantum Numbers of Electrons in Atoms
Name
Symbol
Permitted Values
Property
principal
positive integers(1,2,3,) orbital energy (size)
angular
momentum
integers from 0 to n-1
orbital shape (The l values

0, 1, 2, and 3 correspond to
s, p, d, and f orbitals,
respectively.)
magnetic
integers from -l0+l
orbital orientation
spin
ms
direction of e- spin
2-46
or
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Distribution of electrons among the atomic orbitals

(a) Electron configuration in sublevel notation uses
numbers to designate the principal energy levels and
the letters, s, p, d, and f to identify the sublevels. A
superscript number following the letter indicates the
number of electrons in the designated subshell. For
example, the electron configuration of nitrogen atom
2
2
3
7N, is 1s 2s 2p .
(b) The orbital diagram uses boxes to indicate orbitals
within subshells and arrows to represent electrons in
these orbitals. The directions of the arrows represent
the directions of the electron spins. The orbital diagram
for some atoms in the Periodic Table is shown in Table
2.5.
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Figure 2.7
Electron Configuration of H atom
1s1
principal energy level
of orbital occupied by
the electron
2-48
number of electrons in
the orbital
sublevel of orbital
occupied by the
electron
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Table 2.5 Electron configurations in sublevel notation and

orbital diagrams for some elements
Elements
Energy
levels
Full Electron
configuration
Orbital diagram
11Na
2.8.1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
5B
2.3
1s2 2s2 2p1
7N
2.5
1s2 2s2 2p3
8O
2.6
1s2 2s2 2p4
12Mg
2.8.2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
In order to write the electron configurations in the sublevel notation for

the atoms, we need to describe three basic principles that govern the
distribution of electrons among atomic orbitals. The principles are:
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(1) Electrons occupy orbitals of the lowest energy available the

Aufbau Principle
The energies of principal quantum numbers, n, increases with the

values of n, Therefore, the energy of each energy level increases
according to the order K < L < M < N
The order of filling of subshells can be predicted by using the Aufbau
Principle shown below:
Aufbau Principle
1s
2s
3s
4s
5s
6s
2p
3p
4p
5p
6p
3d
4d
5d
6d
4f
5f
6f
The orbitals will be filled up following the direction of the arrows.
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Figure 2.8
Order of Sublevel filling of electrons when writing the electron

configuration in Sublevel notations.
Start by drawing a diagram

putting each energy shell on
a row and listing the sublevels,
(s, p, d, f), for that shell in
order of energy (left-to-right)
Next, draw arrows through

the diagonals, looping back
to the next diagonal
each time
1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
4d
4f
5s
5p
5d
5f
6s
6p
6d
7s
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Order for filling energy sublevels with

electrons
Illustrating Orbital Occupancies
The electron configuration
of electrons in the sublevel
nl
as s,p,d,f
The orbital diagram (box or circle)
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(2)
Paulis Exclusion Principle

- No two electrons in an atom can have four identical quantum
numbers n, , ml and ms.
- An atomic orbital can accommodate only up to two electrons

and these electrons must have opposite spins.
Hunds Rule
(3)
- Electrons will occupy all orbitals of the same energy level singly
and with same or parallel spin before they start pairing up

- This rule can be rationalised as follows: Two electrons with identical
charges tend to repel each other. Therefore, electrons prefer to
occupy orbitals separately as long as empty orbitals of the
appropriate energy are available.
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Sample Problem 2.10
The symbols given below describe four elements W, X, Y and Z (not the
actual chemical symbols of the elements).
17W28
15X
7
41Y2+
31Z
20
15
a) Calculate the number of neutrons in ion W2-.

b) Write the electron configuration i) of atom Y in sublevel notation
ii) in orbital diagram of atom Z.
c) Give the set quantum number (n, , m, ms) for the unpaired valence
electrons which occupy the highest sub-shell of atom W.
d) How many electrons are there in the ion Z3- which have the
quantum numbers of = 1 and m = 0?
Sample Problem 2.11
How many electrons are there in

i) Calcium ion which has the quantum numbers of m = 0 and ms = -?
ii) Fluorine atom which has the quantum numbers of = 1, m = 1?
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2.11
Core Electrons and Valence Electrons
Core electrons are electrons that reside in the inner

energy levels or lowest energy level of an atom.
Valence electrons are electrons that reside in the outer

shell (principal shell containing electrons with the highest
quantum number) of an atom. They are the electrons that
can be involved when atoms participate in chemical
reactions or in chemical bonding.
Sample Problem 2.12
Determining Quantum Numbers from Orbital

Diagrams
PROBLEM: Write a set of quantum numbers for the third electron and a set
for the eighth electron of the F atom.
PLAN:
2-55
Use the orbital diagram to find the third and eighth electrons.
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9F
1s
SOLUTION:
2s
2p
The third electron is in the 2s orbital. Its quantum numbers

are
n= 2
l= 0
ml = 0
ms= + or -
The eighth electron is in a 2p orbital. Its quantum numbers are

n= 2
l= 1
ml = -1, 0, or +1
ms= + or -
Choose only one for m and one for ms
2.12 Periodic Classification of Elements

The periods and the groups of elements in the periodic table correlate
closely with the electron configurations of the elements concerned. The
length of each block of elements in the periodic table is the maximum
number of electrons the sublevel can hold
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(1) The period number is the same as the principal quantum

number, n, of the electrons in the outermost principal shell.
Example:
All elements in the third period have one or more electrons with n = 3
and none with a higher value of n. The period begins with Na (1s2 2s2
2p6 3s1), and ends with Ar (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6).
The next subshell to fill after 3p is 4s, so the next element after Ar is K.
K which is at the beginning of the fourth period has an electron
configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1.
(2) The periodic table group number of an A group element (main
group or representative elements) is the same as the number
of outer shell electrons or valence electrons of the element.
Example:
All the elements in Group IA have a single electron in an s orbital of

the outermost principal shell and all the noble gases except He in
group 8A have 8 outershell electrons.
2-57
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.9
A periodic table of partial
ground-state electron
configurations
2-58
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.10 Number of electrons in the subshells of the different blocks
s1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
s2
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 s2
p6
d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10
f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 f14d1
2-59
L.H.SIM
2.13 Periodic Table

It is a systematic classification and arrangement of the elements
according to increasing atomic numbers. According to the type of
subshell being filled, the elements can be divided into categories the representative elements, the noble gases, the transition
elements, the lanthanides, and the actinides. Elements are
arranged in vertical columns called groups and horizontal rows
called periods.
Elements in the same group of the periodic table possess
same number of valence electrons, therefore similar valence
shell electron configurations. As a result elements in the same
group show similar chemical properties.
Some groups are given special names as shown :
2-60
L.H.SIM
Group
Special name
Group
Special name
IA
Alkali metal
VIIA
Halogen
IIA
Alkali earth metals
VIIIA
Noble/rare gases
Generally, metal atoms have small numbers of electrons in their
valence shells. Except for hydrogen and helium, all s block elements
(groups I and II) are metals. All d and f block elements are metals.
A few of the p block elements like Al, Ga, Pb, Sn, In and Bi are also
metals.
Hydrogen is a group IA element but not an alkali metal because
it does not have any of the chemical characteristics of a metal. It
is a nonmetal.
2-61
Metalloids are elements that have the physical appearance of

metals but some nonmetallic properties. This group of elements
separates the metals from the nonmetals in the periodic table. Boron
(B), silicon, (Si), germanium (Ge) are some examples of metalloids.
L.H.SIM
Nonmetal atoms generally have larger numbers of electrons in
their valence shell than do metals, except H. Non-metals are all p

block elements (groups IVA to VIIA).
Examples:
H2, N2, O2, F2 and Cl2

Noble gases
C, P4, S8, I2
Br2
=
=
=
=
diatomic gas
monatomic gas
solids with low melting points
liquid.
The noble gases (the group VIIIA elements) all have a
completely filled p subshell except He. The electron

configurations are 1s2 for He and ns2 np6 for the other noble
gases, where n is the principal quantum number for the
outermost shell.
2-62
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.11
Electron Configuration from the Periodic Table

8A
1A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2A
Ne
3s2
P
3p3
P = [Ne]3s23p3
P has five valence electrons
2-63
L.H.SIM
8A
1A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2A
Ar
3d10
4s2
As
4p3
As = [Ar]4s23d104p3
As has five valence electrons
2-64
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.12
Orbital occupancy for the first 10 elements, H through Ne.
2-65
L.H.SIM
Table 2.6
3p
2-66
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.13
2-67
Condensed electron configurations in subshell

notation in the first three periods.
L.H.SIM
Transition Elements
For the d block metals, the principal energy level is one
less than valence shell
one less than the Period number
sometimes an s electron is promoted to d sublevel
Zn
Z = 30, Period 4, Group 2B
[Ar]4s23d10
4s
3d
Irregular Electron Configurations

Due to sublevel splitting, the 4s sublevel is lower in
energy than the 3d; and therefore the 4s fills before
the 3d. But the difference in energy is not large
2-68
68
L.H.SIM
Some of the transition metals have irregular electron

configurations in which the ns only partially fills before the
(n1)d or doesnt fill at all
Their electron configuration has stability associated with
half-filled or completely filled subshell.
Anomalous Electron Configurations
Expected
Cr = [Ar]4s23d4
Cu = [Ar]4s23d9
Mo = [Kr]5s24d4
Pd = [Kr]5s24d8
2-69
Half-filled or full subshells

Cr = [Ar]4s13d5
Cu = [Ar]4s13d10
Mo = [Kr]5s14d5
Pd = [Kr]5s04d10
L.H.SIM
Electron Configurations of Transition Metal Cations

When transition metals form cations, the first electrons removed
are the valence electrons (the ns subshell), even though other
electrons were added after
Electrons may also be removed from the sublevel closest to the
valence shell {the (n-1)d} sublevel after the valence electrons
The iron atom has two valence electrons
Fe atom = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
When iron forms a cation, it first loses its valence electrons
Fe2+ cation = 1s22s22p63s23p63d6
It can then lose 3d electrons
Fe3+ cation = 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
2-70
L.H.SIM
Table 2.7
3d
2-71
L.H.SIM
Table 2.8
4p
2-72
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.14
The relation between orbital filling and the

periodic table
Aufbau principle
Diamagnetic elements are elements in which all the valence electrons are
paired which means their subshells are complete. Paramagnetic elements
consists one or more unpaired electrons in their outermost sublevels.
2-73
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.13

PROBLEM:
Determining Electron Configuration
Using the periodic table on the inside cover of the text, give the full
and condensed electrons configurations, partial orbital diagrams
showing valence electrons, and number of inner electrons for the
following elements:
(a) potassium (K: Z =19) (b) molybdenum (Mo: Z = 42) (c) Stannum (Sn: Z = 50)
PLAN:
Use the atomic number for the number of electrons and the periodic
table for the order of filling for electron orbitals. Condensed
configurations consist of the preceding noble gas and outer electrons.
SOLUTION:
(a) for K (Z = 19)
1s22s22p63s23p64s1
full configuration
condensed configuration [Ar] 4s1

partial orbital diagram
2-74
There are 18 inner electrons.
4s1
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.13
continued
(b) for Mo (Z = 42)

2
2
6
2
6
2
10
6
1
5
full configuration 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d
condensed configuration [Kr] 5s14d5
There are 36 inner electrons
and 6 valence electrons.
5s1
4d5
(c) for Sn (Z = 50)

full configuration
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p2
condensed configuration
[Kr] 5s24d105p2
There are 46 inner electrons

and 4 valence electrons.
2-75
5s2
4d10
5p2
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.14

Writing Electron Configurations of Main-Group Ions
PROBLEM:
Using condensed electron configurations, write reactions for the

formation of the common ions of the following elements:
(a) Iodine (Z = 53)
(b) Potassium (Z = 19)
(c) Indium (Z = 49)
PLAN: Ions of elements in Groups 1A(1), 2A(2), 6A(16), and 7A(17) are usually
isoelectronic with the nearest noble gas.
Metals in Groups 3A(13) to 5A(15) can lose their np or ns and np
electrons.
SOLUTION:
(a) Iodine (Z = 53) is in Group 7A(17) and will gain one electron to be isoelectronic
with Xe: I ([Kr]5s24d105p5) + eI- ([Kr]5s24d105p6)
(b) Potassium (Z = 19) is in Group 1A(1) and will lose one electron to be isoelectronic
with Ar: K ([Ar]4s1)
K+ ([Ar]) + e(c) Indium (Z = 49) is in Group 3A(13) and can lose either one electron or three
electrons: In ([Kr]5s24d105p1)
In+ ([Kr]5s24d10) + e+
In ([Kr]5s24d105p1)
2-76
In3+([Kr] 4d10) + 3eL.H.SIM
2.14 Periodic Trends

From left to right across a period, there is a transition from metals to
metalloids to nonmetals. There is also a gradual periodic variation in
the characteristic physical properties of metallic and nonmetallic
elements across a period.
Factors Affecting Atomic Orbital Energies
(a)
The Effect of Electron Repulsions (Shielding)
(i) Additional electron in the same orbital/energy sublevel

An additional electron raises the orbital energy through electron
-electron repulsions.
(ii) Additional electrons in inner orbitals/energy sublevels
Inner electrons shield outer electrons more effectively than do
electrons in the same sublevel. This is due to the fact that repulsive
forces between electrons in different sublevels are stronger than
that between electrons in the same sublevel.
2-77
L.H.SIM
The presence of shielding electrons reduces the electrostatic attraction

between the positively charged protons in the nucleus and the outer
electrons.
The shielding effect increases down a group as each succeeding
member has one inner shell more than the preceding member of the
group, OR the quantum number of the valence electron increases.
All the elements across a period have the same shielding effect
because the number of inner shells remains the same across a period.
(b)
The Effect of Nuclear Charge (Zeffective)
The repulsions between electrons in different energy shells cause the

valence electron to have a net reduced attraction to the nucleus it is
shielded from the nucleus
The total amount of attraction that an electron especially the valence
electron feels for the nucleus is called the effective nuclear charge of the
electron. The shielding causes a reduction on the attractive forces
between the nuclear charge and the valence electron.
2-78
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.15
2-79
The effect of nuclear charge on orbital energy.
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.16
2-80
Shielding
L.H.SIM
The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, acting on an electron is the

actual nuclear charge, Z, less the screening effect of inner
electrons in the atom.
Zeff = Z number of inner shell electrons
Example: Sodium atom with 1 valence electron in 3s sublevel
which is shielded from the positively charged nucleus by the 1s
and 2s electrons. Therefore, experience an effective nuclear
charge (Zeff) of +11 10 = +1.
Across a period, the value of Z increases while the number of
inner electrons remains the same. Effective nuclear charge
increases from left to right of a period of representative elements
in the periodic table.
The effective nuclear charge remains the same from top to
bottom within a vertical group A of the periodic table. The
effective nuclear charge calculated for elements Be, Mg and Ca
in group II are shown to be equal to +2.
2-81
L.H.SIM
Table 2.9 The effective nuclear charge of elements

Element Nuclear Total core electron
Effective nuclear
charge (inner-shell electrons)
charge
4Be
+4
-2
+2
12Mg
+12
-10
+2
20Ca
+20
-18
+2
13Al
+13
-10
+3
15P
+15
-10
+5
17Cl
+17
-10
+7
2.15
Atomic Radius
The atomic radius of an element is one-half the distance

between the two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms or two like
atoms joined into a particular diatomic molecule.
2-82
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.17
2-83
Defining metallic and covalent radii
L.H.SIM
2-84
Atomic radii of the representative elements decrease from

left to right in a horizontal row of the periodic table (refers
to as a period of the periodic table) because of a steady
increase in the effective nuclear charge across the
period which causes the valence electrons to be held more
strongly by the nucleus.
Atomic radii increase from top to bottom within a

group of the periodic table because the principal
quantum number, n, of the valence electrons increases
down a group which causes the outer electrons to be
farther from the nucleus.
L.H.SIM
Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and

Effective Nuclear Charge
Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the positive charge felt by an
electron.
Zeff = Z - s
0 < s < Z (s = shielding constant)
Zeff Z number of inner or core electrons

Z
Core
Zeff
Radius (pm)
Na
11
10
186
Mg
12
10
160
Al
13
10
143
Si
14
10
132
Figure 2.18
Atomic radii of the maingroup and transition
elements.
2-86
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.19
2-87
Periodicity of atomic radius
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.15

PROBLEM:
Using only the periodic table, rank each set of main group
elements in order of decreasing atomic size:
(a) Ca, Mg, Sr

PLAN:
Ranking Elements by Atomic Size
(b) K, Ga, Ca
(c) Br, Rb, Kr
(d) Sr, Ca, Rb
Elements in the same group increase in size and you go down;

elements decrease in size as you go across a period.
SOLUTION:
(a) Sr > Ca > Mg
These elements are in Group 2A(2).
(b) K > Ca > Ga
These elements are in Period 4.
(c) Rb > Br > Kr
Rb has a higher energy level and is far to the left.

Br is to the left of Kr.
(d) Rb > Sr > Ca
Ca is one energy level smaller than Rb and Sr.

Rb is to the left of Sr.
2-88
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.20
2-89
Depicting ionic radius.
L.H.SIM
2.16
Trends in Ionic Radius
Ions in same group have same charge

Ion size increases down the column
higher valence shell, larger
Cations smaller than neutral atoms; anions larger than

neutral atoms
Cations smaller than anions

except Rb+ & Cs+ bigger or same size as F and O2
Larger positive charge = smaller size of cation

for isoelectronic species
isoelectronic = same electron configuration
Larger negative charge = larger size of anion

for isoelectronic species
2-90
L.H.SIM
INCREASE
INCREASE
2-91
L.H.SIM
INCREASE
INCREASE
2-92
L.H.SIM
Ionic Radius ()
2-93
L.H.SIM
2.17 Trends in Cation Radius

When atoms form cations, the valence electrons are
removed. The rest of the electrons will be attracted more
strongly and closer to the nucleus.
Result: cations are smaller than their parent atoms
These new valence electrons also experience a larger
effective nuclear charge than the old valence electrons,
shrinking the ion even more
Traversing down a group increases the (n 1) level or inner
shells causing the cations to get larger.
Traversing to the right across a period increases the
effective nuclear charge for isoelectronic cations, causing
the cations to get smaller. Example: Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+
2-94
L.H.SIM
2.18 Trends in Anion Radius

When atoms form anions, electrons are added to the
valence shell, Zeff remains unchanged. Repulsion between
electrons in the valence shell causes the valence electron
to be further from the nucleus.
These new valence electrons experience a smaller
effective nuclear charge than the old valence electrons,
increasing the size
Results: Anions are larger than their parent atoms
Traversing down a group increases the n level, causing the
anions to get larger
Traversing to the right across a period increases the
effective nuclear charge for isoelectronic anions, causing
the anions to get smaller. The more negative charge the
anion the larger the size. Example: N3 > O2 > F
2-95
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.21
2-96
Ionic vs. atomic radius.
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.16

PROBLEM:
Ranking Ions by Size
Rank each set of ions in order of decreasing size, and explain your
ranking:
(a) Ca2+, Sr2+, Mg2+
PLAN:
(b) K+, S2-, Cl -
(c) Au+, Au3+
Compare positions in the periodic table, formation of positive and

negative ions and changes in size due to gain or loss of electrons.
SOLUTION:
(a) Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+
(b) S2- > Cl - > K+
(c) Au+ > Au3+
2-97
These are members of the same Group (2A/2) and

therefore decrease in size going up the group.
The ions are isoelectronic; S2- has the smallest Zeff and
therefore is the largest while K+ is a cation with a large Zeff
and is the smallest.
The higher the + charge, the smaller the ion.
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.17

PROBLEM:
Rank each set of ions in order of increasing size, and explain your
ranking:
Zr4+,
Ti4+,
Na+,
Mg2+,
I,
Br,
Hf4+
F,
Ga3+
same column & charge,

therefore Ti4+ < Zr4+ < Hf4+
isoelectronic,
Ne therefore Mg2+ < Na+ < Ne < F
Ga3+ < Br < I
2-98
98
L.H.SIM
2.19
Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the minimum energy required to

remove an electron from a ground state atom (ion) in the
gaseous state. The greater the ionization energy of an atom, the
more inclined the atom is to retain its electrons.
The first ionization energy is the minimum energy required to
remove the first valence electron from the gaseous atom in its
ground state.
M(g) 1e
M+(g)
H = First ionization energy
The second ionization energy is the energy required to remove

the second electron from the gaseous positive ion in its ground
state.
M+(g) 1e M 2+(g)
2-99
H = Second ionization energy
L.H.SIM
The first ionization energies generally increase going from
left to right through a period in the periodic table.

As the atomic radii decrease from left to right of a period, the outer
electrons are more tightly held to the nucleus and higher ionization
energies have to be supplied to remove the first electron.
The first ionization energies decrease with elements moving
down a group.
As the atomic radii of the elements within a group increase from
top to bottom, the average distance between the valence electrons
and the nucleus increase resulting in weaker nucleus-valence
electron attraction. Therefore, lower ionization energy down a
group. Consequently, the metallic character of the elements as well
as the reactivity of the metals increase down a group.
2-100
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.22
2-101
Periodicity of first ionization energy (IE1)
L.H.SIM
Anomalies in the Variation of the First Ionization

Energy Across a Period
The increase in the 1st ionization energy (I.E.) across a period
is not uniform. Two anomalies occur in Periods 2 and 3:
From groups 2A to 3A (13) and groups 5A (15) to 6A (16)
B and Al (gp 3A) with smaller atomic radius are expected to
have higher I.E. than Be and Mg (gp 2A), respectively, but the
reverse occurs.
The I.E. of B and Al are lower than that in Be and Mg due to
the valence electrons in the filled 2s and 3s orbitals of Be
and Mg, respectively are more stable than the single valence
electron in the partially filled 2p and 3p orbitals of B and Al,
respectively.
2-102
L.H.SIM
The single electron in the 2p and 3p orbitals are better

shielded by the inner electrons than the electrons in 2s and
3s orbitals.
The I.E. of the gp 6A elements are expected to have higher
energy than the gp 5A elements but the reverse occur because:
Half-filled p orbitals have special stability.
In addition,the valence electrons in the 2p and 3p orbitals of N
and P, respectively are in 3 separate orbitals with minimum
repulsion, whereas, the paired electrons in one of the p
orbitals of O and S experience strong repulsion.
Therefore , it is easier to remove the valence electron from O
and S than the valence electron of N and P which are more
stable with the least repulsion among the valence electrons.
2-103
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.23
2-104
First ionization energies of the main-group elements.
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.24
2-105
The first three ionization energies of beryllium (in

MJ/mol).
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.25
2-106
Similar reactivity within a group
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.18

PROBLEM:
Using the periodic table only, rank the elements in each of the
following sets in order of decreasing IE1:
(a) Kr, He, Ar

PLAN:
Ranking Elements by First Ionization Energy
(b) Sb, Te, Sn
(c) K, Ca, Rb
(d) I, Xe, Cs
IE decreases as you proceed down in a group; IE increases as

you go across a period.
SOLUTION:
(a) He > Ar > Kr
Group 8A(18) - IE decreases down a group.
(b) Te > Sb > Sn
Period 5 elements - IE increases across a period.
(c) Ca > K > Rb
Ca is to the right of K; Rb is below K.
(d) Xe > I > Cs
I is to the left of Xe; Cs is furtther to the left and

down one period.
2-107
L.H.SIM
Table 2.10
2-108
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.19
PROBLEM:
PLAN:
Identifying an Element from Successive

Ionization Energies
Name the Period 3 element with the following ionization energies

(in kJ/mol) and write its electron configuration:
IE1
IE2
IE3
IE4
IE5
1012
1903
2910
4956
6278
IE6
22,230
Look for a large increase in energy which indicates that all of the
valence electrons have been removed.
SOLUTION:
The largest increase occurs after IE5, that is, after the 5th valence
electron has been removed. Five electrons would mean that the
valence configuration is 3s23p3 and the element must be
phosphorous, P (Z = 15).
The complete electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p3.
2-109
L.H.SIM
2.20
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when a free

electron is accepted by an atom in its gaseous state. The more
energy that is released, the larger the electron affinity.
The more negative the electron affinity, the greater the tendency of
the atom to accept an electron.
Example : F(g)
Li(g)
Na(g)
Ne(g)
+
+
+
+
e
e
e
e
F(g)
Li(g)
Na(g)
Ne(g)
H =
H =
H =
H =
320 kJ
61 kJ
54 kJ
+29 kJ
For multiple charge anions, the electrons are added stepwise with a
different electron affinity for each step. Consider the formation of an
oxide ion from an oxygen atom.
O (g)
O(g)
2-110
+ e
+ e
O (g)
O2(g)
H = 142 kJ
H = +745 kJ
L.H.SIM
The second electron affinity is a positive quantity because an

electron approaches an ion with a net charge of 1. It is strongly
repelled, and work must be done to force the extra electron onto
the O (g) ion.
The electron affinity values become more negative from left to

right across a period.
As the atomic radius of the element decreases, the attractive forces
of the nucleus increases, hence the tendency to accept electrons
increases. The electron affinities of metals (left) are generally more
positive (or less negative) than those of nonmetals.
Group 5A generally lower EA than expected because extra electron
must pair.
Group 2A and 8A generally very low EA because added
electron goes into higher energy level or sublevel
2-111
L.H.SIM
Within a group, electron affinity values of elements become less

negative from top to bottom.
The increase in atomic radii causes the attractive forces of the
nucleus to decrease and so there is less tendency to accept an
electron.
the atom with the Highest Electron Affinity in any period = halogen
Ionisation energy and electron affinity apply only to isolated
gaseous atoms, and not directly to atoms in molecules.
All noble gases exist as monatomic species because they are

very unreactive and have little or no tendency to combine among
themselves or with other elements.
The electron configurations of the noble gases show that their
atoms have completely filled outer s and p subshells, indicating
great stability. Thus, the group VIIIA ionization energies are among
the highest of all elements, and they have no tendency to accept
extra electrons (smallest electron affinity).
2-112
L.H.SIM
Electron affinities of the main-group elements.
Figure 2.26
-2
-5
-10
2-113
L.H.SIM
2-114
114
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.27
Trends in three atomic properties.
2-115
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.28
2-116
Trends in metallic behavior.
L.H.SIM
Metallic Character
Metallic character is how closely an elements properties
match the ideal properties of a metal
more malleable and ductile, better conductors, and
easier to ionize
Metallic character decreases left-to-right across a period
metals are found at the left of the period and nonmetals
are to the right
Metallic character increases down the column
nonmetals are found at the top of the middle Main
Group elements and metals are found at the bottom
Measuring the magnetic behavior of a sample.
The apparent mass of a

diamagnetic substance is
unaffected by the magnetic
field.
The apparent mass of a

paramagnetic substance
increases as it is attracted by the
magnetic field.
Magnetic Properties of Transition Metal

ions
Magnetic behavior can provide evidence for the
electron configuration of a given ion.
Ti (Z = 22)
4s
Ti2+
4s
3d
4p
3d
4p
Ti2+ has 2 unpaired electrons and is paramagnetic,

providing evidence that the 4s electrons are lost before
the 3d electrons.
Alkali Metals
Table 2.11
2-122
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.29
2-123
The trend in acid-base

behavior of element
oxides.
L.H.SIM
Figure 2.30 Main-group ions and the noble gas configurations.
2-124
L.H.SIM
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.20
Choose the more metallic element in each pair

i) Sn or Te ii) P or Sb
iii) Ge or In
vi) Si or Sn vii) Br or Te
2-125
iv) S or Br v) Mg or Al
viii) Se or I
L.H.SIM

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The Components of Matter, Quantum Numbers,

Elements and compounds

2.1 Components of Matter

Compound - a substance composed of two or

Mixture - a group of two or more

The distinction between mixtures and compounds.

Allowed to react chemically

Atom - the smallest particle of an element that gives the characteristic

Elements that occur as molecules.

Properties of some elements and an ionic compound

2.2 The law of mass conservation:

The total mass of substances does not change during a

Law of Definite (or Constant) Composition:

No matter the source, a particular compound is composed of

1.00 part by mass

Structure of Atom ---- General features of the

The atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composes of a

Table 2.2 Properties of the Three Key Subatomic

* The coulomb (C) is the SI unit of charge.

The atomic mass unit (amu) equals 1.66054x10-24 g.

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons

2.5 Symbolic representation of an

The Symbol of the Atom or Isotope

X = Atomic symbol of the element

Isotope = atoms of an element with the same number

Determining the Number of Subatomic

PROBLEM: Silicon(Si) is essential to the computer industry as a major

of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each silicon isotope.

We have to use the atomic number (14) and atomic masses

SOLUTION: The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore

has 14p+, 14e- and 14n0 (28-14)

has 14p+, 14e- and 15n0 (29-14)

has 14p+, 14e- and 16n0 (30-14)

Sample Problem 2.2

Calculating the Atomic Mass of an Element

We have to find the weighted average of the isotopic masses,

and then sum those isotopic portions.

portion of atomic mass

mass portion from 107Ag =

Sample Problem 2.3

Given the following mass spectrometric data for Ga,

avg. atomic mass

Nuclear or isotopic symbol of an ion

Atoms do not lose or gain protons in any chemical reactions but

Charge on aluminium ion= 13 10 = +3

Charge on sulphide ion = 16 18 = 2

Aluminium atom and ion, atomic no = 13 , mass no = 27

Sulphur atom and ion, atomic no = 16 , mass no = 32

Nuclear symbol of sulphur atom =

Sample Problem 2.4

Sample Problem 2.5

(a) The element Bi has a nuclear charge of +83. How many

2.6 The Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory

2.7 The modern periodic table.

Metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.

The Atomic Symbols

2.8 Bohrs Atomic Model of Hydrogen

The electrons travel in orbits that are at a fixed distance

Figure 2.2 Principal Energy Levels in Hydrogen

2.9 quantum-mechanical model

The size, shape, and orientation in space of an orbital

Principal quantum number or principal energy levels (n)

As n gets larger, energy difference between orbitals