410 Optpolygen.

OPTIPOLYGEN
WP2
Technical Potential for Polygeneration
in the
Food Processing Industry
Contents
1
Introduction........................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Definition of Polygeneration ...................................................................4
1.2 Definition of Food Sectors ......................................................................4
Process Descriptions ............................................................................................. 5
Specific energy requirements................................................................................ 6
Current On-Site Energy Production in the Food and drink Industry .................... 7
Process Waste and By-Products............................................................................ 8
Potential Technologies for On-Site Energy Production........................................ 9

6.1 Combined heat and Power (CHP) ...........................................................9
6.2 CHP combined with absorption cooling (Tri-generation) .....................10
6.3 CHP using biogas from process waste as fuel .......................................10
Energy use in the food industry .......................................................................... 11
Technical potential for polygeneration in the food processing industry............. 13

8.1 Methodologies used for the estimations of the potential for
polygeneration .......................................................................................14
8.2 Calculation of threshold values used for the estimations of co-, triand poly-generation ...............................................................................14
8.3 Results of estimated technical polygeneration potentials......................17
8.4 Implemented CHP capacity compared to the technical potential of
co-generation .........................................................................................23
8.5 Result of estimated CO2 saving potential ...........................................25
Main results and conclusions .............................................................................. 27
APPENDIX:
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Fish and meat (fresh, frozen, cooked)

Cooked food & vegetables
Oils, fats, olive oil
Beverages, juices, brewery, wine and spirits
Flours, cereals, corn, pastry, bakery, coffee and tea
Chocolate, sugar & confectioneries
Dairy, milk and ice-creams
Abbreviations
CHP
Combined Heat and Power
CIP
Cleaning in Place
COP
Coefficient of Performance
COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand
MW
Megawatt
kW
Kilowatt
VS
Volatile Solid Substances
ORC
Organic Rankine Cycle
Introduction
The overall aim with WP2 of the OPTIPOLYGEN project is to investigate and
perform a first estimation of the general potential for polygeneration in the food
industry in the EU-15 countries of Europe.
1.1
Definition of polygeneration
Polygeneration is the use of multiple primary energy inputs to create multiple energy
outputs.
The term primary energy includes fossil fuels, biofuels, renewable energy sources,
etc. Energy output means the different forms of energy which are useful in an activity.
In the case of the food industry this could mean electricity, and heat in various
temperature levels i.e. steam, hot water, chilling mediums etc. Other useful products,
which might come out from a polygeneration process like e.g. compost fibers will be,
treated as secondary by-products of polygeneration.
1.2
Definition of food sectors
In order to facilitate these estimations for the whole food industry, investigations of
the general processes utilised in the food processing and the energy requirements
(thermal and electrical) for these industries were undertaken.
In order to make this investigation possible the food processing industry was divided
into 7 main sectors covering different kinds of food products and each industry sector
was investigated separately.
The seven food sectors are:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Fish and meat (fresh, frozen, cooked)

Cooked food & vegetables.
Oils, fats, olive oil
Beverages, juices, brewery, wine and spirits.
Flours, cereals, corn, pastry, bakery, coffee and tea.
Chocolate, sugar & confectioneries.
Dairy, milk and ice-creams
In this report general results and findings of the whole WP2 are described and
discussed. The details on the processes and in detailed results as well as estimations
done for the evaluations are described in the APPENDIX I VII for each food sector
respectively.
Process descriptions
In general, almost all food processing requires both electric power as well as heat for
some kind of thermal processing. Electric power is required for mechanical
processing such as pumping, ventilating, mixing and conveying etc., but a great part is
also used for cooling by mechanical compression coolers.
The required thermal processing comprises both high temperatures processing such as
pasteurisation, cooking and evaporation as well as low temperature processing such as
freezing and cooling. In Table 1 the most common thermal processes are listed and
indicated in which food sector they are predominating.
The detailed descriptions of processes and products are further described and
explained in the APPENDIX I VII for each food sector.
Table 1: Summary of some of the most common thermal processes used in the food
processing industry, indicated for each food sector
Thermal
Process
Cooling,
chilling
Freezing
Blanching
Cooking,
boiling, frying
Degumming
Roasting
Pasteurisation
Bleaching
Deodorization
CIP
Baking
Distillation,
Evaporation
Proofing
Defrosting
Freeze storage
Cooled storage
Air condition
Temp
Food Sector
I
II III
IV
VI
VII
4 to 8C
-15 to -40C
80 C
90 to 150C or
100 to 300C
100 C
X
X
X
X
X
X
370 to 540C (coffee)

130 to 150 C (cacao)
72C
150 C
180 270 C
> 50C
300 to 400 C
> 100 C
40C
20 to 40 C
-18 to -40C
4 to 8 C
10 to 20 C
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Specific energy requirements
In order to be able to estimate the total potential for polygeneration, the amount and
type of energy required for the food processing has to be known or qualitatively
approximated. Therefore, a significant part of the work within WP2 has been to
determine and identify the specific energy requirements for the most common
products in each food sector. By determine the specific energy requirements i.e.
thermal and electric energy required per tonne food produced or processed, the energy
requirements for the whole EU-15 can be calculated from available statistical data of
food produced.
The specific electric power and thermal energy required for producing or processing
one tonne of food product in respective food sector are listed in Table 2.
The results from the collections of the data showed that even for the same food
product, great variations in the specific energy requirements can be expected (see
Table 2). The reason is that the energy demand of each process depends on the design,
technology and also scale of the plants investigated. In some cases several products
are produced in the same plant and thereby the specific energy for one product will
also depend on the amount of the other products processed or produced in the plant.
Therefore, to keep the number of possible variations on a reasonable level, average
values were derived from these data and used for the subsequent estimations of the
polygeneration potentials.
The calculations and origin of the data in Table 2 are descried in detail in the
APPENDIX I-VII for respective food sector.
Table 2: Summary of specific energy needs per tone food produced or processed in
each food sector
Food
Sector
Product
Thermal energy /tonne

product
Electricity / tonne
product
MWh/ tonne food processed

1
Fish
Meet1
II
Cooked food &

vegetables
Cotton seed
Ground nut
Rape-seed
Safflower
Sesame
Sunflower
Soyabeen
Olive oil
Corn
Bakery
Cereal
Coffee
Sugar
Chocolate and Conf.
Consumer milk
Cheese
Butter
Milk powder
Ice Cream
Cultured products
III
VI
VII
IV
Beer
Spirits
Juice, etc
0 0.97
0 1.52
0 - 0.80
0.60 0.97
MWh/ tonne food product
0.3 0.9
0.3 0.9
1.22
0.69
0.64
1.02
0.73
0.71
1.51
0.87
0.12
0.14
0.2 - 0.87
5.05
0.26
0.055
0.2 0.6
0.14 0.2
0.3 0.4
0.45 0.6
0.0552
0.16
0.09
0.09
0.13
0.10
0.11
0.16
0.29
0.90
0.43
0.14
0.5 - 1.9
0.56
0.41
0.128
1.3 - 1.2
0.98 1.9
2 5.7
0.5 - 0.9
0.1282
kWh/ hl
53.6
13.4
302 kWh/hl pure alcohol 2 kWh/hl pure alcohol
36.4
7.3
1depends on which case is considered see APENDIX I, 2estimated
Current on-site energy production in the food and drink industry
Several factors are important the most suitable energy solution has to be chosen for a
food processing plant. Not only is the nature of the processes but also the operating
environment of a food factory a major factor. These local factors could be local price
of fuel, energy taxes, distance to grids, possibility to sell and buy waste energy or
excess electricity to the grid or neighbour industries, etc.
The performed investigation reveals that already several food industries have
implemented combined heat and power (CHP) generation. Some of these are
described in the database at the webpage of the OPTIPOLYGEN project.
Commonly these CHP plants are based on natural gas combusted a in a gas turbine
and the exhaust heat is used for hot water and steam production.
Moreover, where the natural gas network is not available, heating needs are covered
with onsite oil or solid fuel burners, and electricity is bought from the electricity grid.
District heat, where available, is also used, especially in the Scandinavian countries.
More details on specific energy production in each food sector are described in the
Appendixs.
The current installations of CHP units in the food, beverage and tobacco industry
are discussed in more detail in section 8.4.
Process waste and by-products
Many sectors of the food industry produce significant amounts of biodegradable

waste or by-products that could be used for energy production. This utilisation could
either be directly as a solid biomass fuel or as a raw material for biogas production.
The amount of bio-waste per food sector and ton product produced or processed
depends on the raw material processed and the utilised cleaning technologies at the
plant. Typical values for the amounts of waste produced were estimated for each food
sectors and are listed in Table 3 as either kg solid or amount of chemical oxygen
demand (COD). Average values of these data was subsequent used for the
estimations shown in the following sections.
Table 3 : Examples on amounts of waste and by-products from respective foodindustry
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
kg solids
COD
Main waste products from the process
100 450 kg
ton carcase
250 kg / ton
product
1000-5000
kg/ton product
23 kg /hl beer
40 kg / ton
carcase
Residues from fish and animal carcase

Waste from vegetables, fish and meet
Trash-rests from oil-press
Spent grains from beer production
1-250 kg/ ton

product
8000 kg / tonne
sugar
Rest products from cereal production
80 130 mg /
kg cheese
Diffusion waste from the sugar

process
Mainly whey from cheese production,
rest in water from CIP
Potential and feasible polygeneration technologies for on-site

energy production
The processes of each food sector were analysed and possible co- tri- and
polygeneration technologies were derived for the subsequent estimations. From this
investigation three general technologies were extracted as plausible for all the food
sectors and subsequently used as cases for calculating the theoretical technical
potential for polygeneration in the food industry in EU-15.
These chosen cases used as a comparison for all food sectors were:
1. co-generation of heat and electricity in a natural gas fired gas turbine,
2. tri-generation by using heat from the gas turbine as a source for absorption
cooling and,
3. usage of biodegradable waste streams for production of biogas which in turn is
used in the gas turbine
The following sections (see section 6.1- 6.3) explain the chosen technologies and
there limitations in terms of size and operation. These limitations were subsequently
utilised for the estimations of potentials of the whole food industry.
6.1
Cogeneration - CHP
Combined heat and power production is a standard technology in large central energy
producing plants. During recent years, new smaller scale CHP technologies has been
developed for use onsite, reducing electricity transmission losses and costs, and
giving more reliability to the electricity supply, both onsite and in the neighbourhood.
Also, environmentally harmful fuels, such as oil, have been replaced by less harmful
ones, such as natural gas or even biogas.
The feasibility of implementing onsite CHP, e.g. in food factories, depends on several
things, but often on that a sufficient heat demand can be guaranteed from the process.
Moreover, assuming that electricity can be bought from or sold to the grid with
reasonable prices, the remaining question concerning the applicability of CHP is the
durability of heat loads. Many food factories, even big ones, operate only in one, or at
most, in two shifts which results in significant fluctuation of the loads. The same
problem applies for factories using batch processing which causes short time
fluctuations in the energy demand.
However, strong daily fluctuation of loads does not necessarily have to be an obstacle
to the application of onsite CHP. Combining heat storage of suitable size with a CHP
unit makes it quite easy to cope with daily load fluctuations, even if the fluctuations
are strong and the difference between minimum and maximum load high.
The same principle can be applied in the production of cold i.e., storage of cold as
ice baths in order to deal with the daily variations in the cooling demand.
There are several CHP technologies available for onsite energy production, some of
which are standard technology (gas engines, gas turbines, steam turbines), others
more or less mature (Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), Stirling engines, fuel cell
technologies). In most food industries, steam is used for the heat transfer and thus
9
thermal energy at more than 100 C is needed. Because of this gas turbine technology
is selected as the most feasible CHP technology in almost all the estimations
performed for the different food sectors investigated in this work.
6.2
Tri-generation - CHP combined with absorption cooling
Tri-generation is based on the use of absorption cycles to produce cool using the
exhaust heat energy from a CHP unit. The set-up of an absorption cycle depends on
the temperatures where this cycle is operating. Absorption cycles are usually based
on LiBr /water or on Ammonia/water binary mixtures. Details of these processes and
there function can be found elsewhere1 and is out of the scope of this report.
Absorption chilling and freezing equipment is commercially available in different
sizes and operational temperatures suitable for food industry applications2. Absorption
coolers have typically lower coefficient of performance (COP) compared to
compressor driven coolers (see Table 4 in section 8.2) requires more space and also
higher investment costs. On the other hand absorption coolers need much lower
maintenance and can be combined with almost any source of heat for their operation.
This fact makes this technology ideal to combine with a CHP unit producing waste
heat. The minimum commercial available absorption coolers are about 150 kW and
their COP (Coefficient of Performance) ranges from 0.6 - 1 depending on the freezing
cycle served and on the heat available.
The polygeneration benefit from applying tri-generation, is that electricity
consumption from the grid for freezing or chilling ceases and at the same time
additional electricity is efficiently co-generated by the CHP unit. Because of this a
double positive energy saving effect occurs.
6.3
Polygeneration -CHP using biogas from process waste as fuel
Almost all food processing industries produces some kind of organic waste- or byproducts. Instead of disposal many of these materials can be used to generate thermal
energy and power at the plant by direct combustion, thermal gasification or
anaerobically treated to produce biogas.
Among these technologies anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste from the food
industry, is the most flexible option of utilising food industry process wastes or low
value by-products. The resulting biogas, rich with methane, can be combusted in gas
burners and utilised as for hot water or steam production, or it can be used to run a gas
engine or turbine in a CHP applications.
1
2
ASHRAE handbook, absorption cooling, www.ashrae.org,

Colibri bv, www.colibri-bv.com, December 2005
10
Energy use in the food industry
In order to estimate the potential for polygeneration in different food sectors, the total
energy used in each food sector had to be estimated. This was mainly performed by
combining the specific energy requirements defined in section 3 with best available
statistical data for the production or processing of the each specific product. Typically
the used data for these estimations are the amounts of food products produced in the
EU-15 in combination with size and number of enterprises in each food sector.
Most of the data of produced amounts of food products were extracted from the
EUROSTAT database PRODCOM3, but also other sources have been used when
more resent and detailed data has been available elsewhere. The different data
sources and total amounts of products considered are described in detail in the
APPENDIX of respective food sector.
In order to calculate the total energy consumption in the food and drink industry in the
OPTIPOLYGEN project a number of estimations, extrapolations and averring of data
was necessary. Thus the results can only be indicative and not seen as exact figures.
Currently, there is no statistic data for exactly the same industries which are covered
by the OPTIPOLYGEN to compare to. However, the EUROSTAT database does
contain statistic data for the energy consumption in the Food, drink and tobacco
industry in each country of the EU-15. These values were thus compared with the
energy consumption calculated in the OPTIPOLYGEN project and are shown in
Figure 1 to Figure 3.
According to the EUROSTAT, the total energy consumption for the Food, drink and
tobacco industry for the EU-15 countries was 316 TWh in 2004. The calculation in
the OPTIPOLYGEN project revealed a figure of 211 TWh (Figure 1) which is lower
but in the same size range. Investigating the different countries, the correlation for
some countries such as Denmark, Finland and Germany are quite good while e.g. Italy
and the Netherlands are not so close.
EUROSTAT, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
11
Figure 1: Energy consumption in food drink and tobacco compared to

OPTIPOLYGEN calculations
350
300
250
TWh
200
150
100
50
-
EU15 Swe
EUROSTAT 2004
OPTIPOLYGEN
316
211
6
4
Fin
Den
Ger
Bel
Neth
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra
Spa
Por
3
3
8
7
53
49
12
10
26
10
42
22
6
6
7
5
44
25
59
36
36
28
6
3
The energy was further compared in terms of consumption of electric power (Figure
2) and energy demand in form of heat (Figure 3). The general result is that the
calculation of the electricity consumption is closer and sometime slightly
overestimated compare to the EURSOSTAT data. The total consumption of electricity
in the food, drink and tobacco industry and the EU-15 countries is 94 TWh and
according to the OPTIPOLYGEN calculations 88 TWh.
Figure 2: Consumption of electricity in the food, drink and tobacco industry
compared to OPTIPOLYGEN calculations
100
90
TWh electricty
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
EUROSTAT 2004
OPTIPOLYGEN
EU15
Swe
Fin
Den
Ger
94
88
2,52
1,60
1,55
1,12
2,34
3,73
14,97 4,08
18,12 4,65
Bel
Neth
6,54
4,16
UK
Ir
12,36 1,67
7,86 3,11
Aus
1,54
2,23
Ita
Fra
Spa
Por
12,70 19,57 10,64 1,69

11,65 15,70 11,28 1,47
Gre
1,90
1,10
While the OPTIPOLYGEN calculations of electricity consumption are close and

sometimes overestimated the calculated consumption of heat is lower than the
EUROSTAT data (Figure 3). This is an important fact as the calculation of the
potential polygeneration potential described later on in this report is mainly limited by
the amount of heat needed of each food processing plant. Thus the calculated
12
technical polygeneration potential in this report is more likely to be an underestimate

than an overestimate.
Figure 3: Consumption of heat in food, drink and tobacco industry compared to
OPTIPOLYGEN calculations
240
200
TWh
160
120
80
40
-
EU15
Swe
Fin
Den
Ger
Bel
Neth
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra
Spa
Por
EUROSTAT 2004
222
3,1
1,4
5,6
38
8,2
19
29
4,8
5,5
31
40
26
4,3
Gre
5,6
OPTIPOLYGEN
123
2,1
1,8
3,7
31
5,4
14
2,7
3,0
13
20
17
1,7
1,6
Moreover, taking into account the great number of estimations necessary for being
able to carry out the calculation of the energy demand within the OPTIPOLYGEN
project, the correlations with the EUROSTAT database has to be seen as plausible and
absolutely within the correct size range. Due to this fact the calculated values of the
polygeneration potential revealed in the following sections should be within a
plausible size range to.
Technical potential for polygeneration in the food processing

industry
The technical potential for co-, tri- and poly-generation was estimated for each of the
food sectors specified in section 1.2. The investigation comprises the technical
potential based upon estimated energy demands of the processes. No concerns were
taken to economical constrains making the implementation of polygeneration less
beneficial. Economical restrictions are by far much more complex than the technical
and do also vary considerably by regional and political differences which considering
the resources needed not possible to take into account for in this project.
Attempts were made to account for already implemented CHP and polygeneration in
the food industry when calculating the potentials for new implementation. However,
no statistical data was found covering this type of information from the food industry
and the collection of own data would be a work far beyond the resources available for
this project. The calculated potentials are thus the maximum technical potential
including already implemented CHP and polygeneration in the food processing
industry.
13
8.1
Methodologies used for the estimations of the technical potential for

polygeneration
Due to the lack of detailed data for energy use, size and number of food processing
plants in whole Europe, two basic types of methodologies were developed for the
estimations.
The first of the methodologies is based on the assumption that a certain production
volume per employee can be estimated and thereby the number of plants (enterprises)
having production capacities above a certain threshold value is used in the
calculations of the total polygeneration potential. The number of employees was
collected from EUROSTAT using the NACE code separation.
The second methodology is based upon detailed data from at least one country where
the number and production distribution between existing food processing plants is
known. By using this detailed information from one country, the production
distribution in other EU-15 countries is estimated.
In some food sectors a hybrid methodology between the two methodologies described
above had to be developed in order to get useful results. For more detailed
descriptions please see APPENDIX I to VII.
Based on these data, estimations of the total energy requirements (electrical and
thermal) can be calculated. However, due to the fact that some of the food producing
industry consist of very small units there certain technological limitation to the
amount of the used that can be replaced or enhanced by polygeneration at the plants.
Thus threshold values had to be determined for each food product and technology in
order to get a estimations closer to the true value.
The determination of these thresholds values as well as the potentials for
polygeneration is explained in next section.
8.2
Calculation of threshold values used for the estimations of co-, tri- and
poly-generation
Threshold estimation for co-generation:

Due to the development of small turbine units (micro turbines), CHP technology has
become available in smaller and smaller size class applications. Currently, the
smallest commercially available micro turbine are found at about 304 to 100 kWel,
which are used as the threshold values in the calculations of most of the industries.
In the case of the production of sugar which is produced in very large complexes a
minimum threshold of 5000 kW for the gas turbine was considered more realistic and
thus used for this specific industry.
Other requirement data used for the threshold calculations were a minimum peak-load
hours of operation at 4000 h/year for all technologies. In addition, 50 % additional
thermal load is required, due to the seasonal load variations. The ratio of thermal
energy output to the electrical energy output is approximately 2.5 for micro turbines.
Capstone Turbine Corporation, www.capstoneturbine.com; December, 2005.
14
These values result in the minimum onsite heat load requirement of 450 MWh/year,
rounded up to 500 MWh/year in the calculations. The same heat to electricity ratio
(2.5) is used regardless of CHP technology or unit size.
Threshold estimation for tri-generation:
The smallest commercially available absorption cooler has presently 100 kW cooling
capacity . This means about 125 kW thermal driving force in the deep freezing
applications (COP 0.8) and about 85 kW in the refrigeration applications (around +4
C; COP 1.2).
These are both higher than the thermal output of the smallest available micro turbine,
which means that the minimum capacity of the absorption cooler is the technical
threshold in the combination of CHP and absorption cooling. This can be used
directly if the capacity of the cooling equipment, or the overall cooling load, at a site
is known. In the polygeneration potential calculations it is assumed, however, that
only the overall electricity load of a food factory is known and the threshold load is
calculated using the following assumptions:
Table 4 : Typical technical data used for the calculating cooling energy
Cooling temperature
+ 4 C
- 30 C
Compressor cooling COP
2.5
1.2
Absorption cooling COP
1.2
0.8
Threshold estimation for biogas production (polygeneration)

Two types of methodology to estimate the threshold value for the production of
biogas from waste streams have been used in the different food sectors analysed.
One methodology to define the threshold by assuming that the biogas reactor must
produce as much biogas (methane) as is needed to feed the CHP unit.
The other methodology is to define the threshold from data indicating the smallest
operative biogas reactor available which was set to 5 000 tons of solid waste/year
Considering the first methodology, the smallest available CHP unit sets the threshold
for the biowaste utilisation. Thereby, the limiting values of a micro turbine of 30 kWel
and the threshold for the biogas production can be defined as follows:
15
Table 5 : Used threshold values for the potential evaluation in the different food
sectors
Sect. Food Product
Fish1
Meet1
III
Cotton seed
Ground nut
Rape-seed
Safflower
Sesame
Sunflower
Soybean
Corn
Bakery
Cereals
Coffee
Sugar
Chocolate3
Milk
Cheese
Butter
Milk powder
Ice Cream
Cultured products
VI
VII
IV
Beer
Spirits
Juice
II
CoTriBiogas
generation
generation production
Tonnes processed /year
4 000
989
10 417
1 875
1 552
35 519
Tonnes product/year
3 000
1 700
n.a.
Solid
3 000
n.a.
Biomass
2 500
n.a.
2 500
n.a.
17 000
3 000
n.a.
Biogas
2 500
n.a.
1 100
n.a.
1 640
1 640
283 843
8 857
3 490
577 778
n.a.
n.a.
19 923
2 708
7882
n.a.
400 000
n.a.
6 410
82 286
18 581
n.a.
11 719
32 727
n.a.
1 250
6 000
32 581
1 531
14 619
n.a
429
10 286
n.a.
1 875
3 333
n,a
11 538
32 727
n.a.
hl product / year
22 721
27 975
217 391
n.a.
71 429
4 972
hl pure
hl pure
alcohol
alcohol
15 790
n.v.
400 000
Number of employees in the factory
17
20
96
Cooked food &

Vegetables
Explanations: 1. Case 3 see APPENDIX I, 2.. freeze-dried coffee, 3.. Case 2
see APPNDIX VI, n.a. not applicable according to estimation calculations,
n.v.no values available
By defining biogas has an energy content of 6 kWh/Nm3 and a min energy
requirement of 450 MWh/year, determined by the CHP unit, a minimum production
of 75 000 Nm3 biogas is required.
The next step is then to define the yield of biogas production per kg of waste material.
Unfortunately, the biogas yield from different waste fractions can vary quite a lot, and
depends on the anaerobic digestion process details, such as temperature, pressure, pH
management, etc.
16
In this work it is therefore used an average value of 400 Nm3/ton of volatile solids
(VS) or 0.35 Nm3/ton per kg COD for the calculations which in turn give threshold
values of 190 ton VS/year or 215 kg COD/year respectively.
The amount of solid waste or COD per kg of produced food product depends on
which food product that is investigated (see also Table 3) and thereby the threshold
values for biogas production for each food product.
In Table 5 the threshold values used for the estimations of co- ,tri- or poly-generation
(biogas production) for each food sector and food product are listed in values of
produced amounts.
8.3
Results of estimated technical polygeneration potentials
By using the methodologies and technologies described above the technical potentials
for co- tri- and poly-generation were calculated and the results summarised in Table 6
and the figures 1 to 5.
The results of the calculations are shown in total electrical energy per year, which can
be generated if the existing methodologies separated by co- or trigeneration or
energy production of waste streams (biogas or solid biomass waste CHP combustion)
take place in the EU-15 countries, split by food sector.
In the food sector III, large quantities of solid biomass residues occurs which are not
suitable for biogas production but could instead be used as a solid biomass fuel in
CHP unit (steam turbine). Thus for this food sector a fourth methodology is added.
By summing up the calculated values for all four methodologies (co-, tri- and waste
stream utilisation) the total polygeneration potentials are revealed.
The main part of the total polygeneration potential is made up from co-generation
(56%). The possibility for co-generation is also the basic for the other methods and
technologies are more or less add-ons to this type of technology.
Moreover, the results in Table 6 and Figure 5 show that the single largest technical
potential for polygeneration is found in the meat industry (food sector I). About half
of this potential is by co-generation and the other half from tri-generation by
absorption cooling. The beer and the sugar industry do also show quite high potentials
for especially co-generation. In the cereal industry a remarkable potential for
utilisation of waste streams for biogas production is revealed.
By instead looking at the technical potentials divided by each country in the EU-15
(Figure 6), the largest potentials for polygeneration in the food sector are found in the
highly populated countries Germany, France, Spain , UK and Italy.
Digging further down in detail the distribution of the technical potential for each food
product per methodology (co-,tri- or waste product utilisation) are shown in Figure 7
to Figure 9. The results show that the potential for co-generation is dominated from
meat and beer industry (Figure 7), the potential for tri-generation is to a large part
made by the meat industry (Figure 8) and the utilisation of waste streams for biogas
production by the cereal industry (Figure 9).
17
Furthermore, by further looking at Figure 5- Figure 9 the interested reader can get an
idea which industry and food products has the highest potential for either cogeneration, tri-generation or waste product utilisation in a specific EU-15 country.
Table 6 : Technical polygeneration potential in food industry of the EU-15
CoTrigeneration generation
Waste stream
utilisation
(gas
turbine)
Waste
stream for
biogas prod
(gas turbine)
(gas turbine +
abs
cooler/freezer)
Tot
Waste
stream as
solid
biomass
fuel (CHP)
GWhel
I
II
III
IV
VI
Fish
Meet
Cooked food &
vegetables
Cotton seed
Ground nut
Rape-seed
Saf & Sun
flower
Sesame
Soya been
Olive oil
Beer
Spirits
Juice
744
9 701
974
638
8 327
1 635
207
1 029
111
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
1 588
19 057
2 720
0
7
620
354
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
0
0
23
15
0
2
193
97
0
9
836
466
0
688
584
6 311
3 135
1 743
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
1 545
n.a.
n.v.
0
18
0
1 485
1 064
41
0
185
183
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
891
766
9 341
4 199
1 784
Corn
Bakery
Cereals
Coffee
Tea
Sugar
Chocolate
2 900
727
0
376
n.a.
3 463
115
0
1 117
0
95
n.a.
47
681
0
9 206
0
n.a.
2 473
37
n.v.
n.v.
n.v.
n.v.
n.v.
n.a.
n.a.
3 580
1 844
9 206
471
5 936
199
VII
Consumers
1 434
514
0
n.a.
1 948
milk
Cheese
3 047
635
11
n.a.
3 692
Butter
614
64
0
n.a.
678
Milk powder &
2 405
100
0
n.a.
2 505
Cond milk
Ice Cream
611
478
0
n.a.
1 089
Cultivated
230
81
0
n.a.
311
products
Sum EU-15
40 784
15 276
16 399
660 73 119
Explanations: n.a. not applicable according to estimation calculations, n.v.no
values available
18
The detailed data of all calculations and background analyses in the different food
sectors are revealed in the APENDIX I-VII. It should be noticed that in some of these
reports the values for tri-generation potentials also includes co-generation. However,
in this summary report the values for these two technologies are reported separated.
Figure 4 : Technical polygeneration potential by food sector
Total polygeneration potential in EU 15: 73,1 TWhel
25.000
Solid biomass combustion
Biogas production
20.000
GWhel
Tri-generation
Co-generation
15.000
10.000
5.000
Fish
Meat
Cooked f &
Cotton
GroundRape-seed
Saf & sunSesame
Soyabean
Olive oil
Beer
Spirits
Juice
Corn
Bakery
Cereals
Coffee
Tea
Sugar
Chocolate
Consumers
Cheese
Butter
Powder &
IceCream
Yoghurt
II
III
IV
VI
VII
Figure 5: Technical polygeneration potential by EU-15 country

Total polygeneration potential in EU 15: 73,1 TWhel
18.000
Solid biomass comb.
16.000
Biogas production
14.000
Trigeneration
GWhel
12.000
Cogeneration
10.000
8.000
6.000
4.000
2.000
Swe Fin Den Ger
Bel Neth Lux
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra Spa Por Gre
19
Figure 6: Technical potential coverage of electricity demand by polygeneration in

EU-15 country
120%
100
90
70
80%
60
50
40
40%
30
% coverage
TWh electricty
80
20
10
-
EU1
Swe Fin
5
0%
Den Ger Bel Neth Lux
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra Spa
Por
Gre
Estimated consum.
88
1,6 1,1
3,7
18,1 4,6
4,2
0,1
7,9
3,1 2,2 11,6 15,7 11,3 1,5
1,1
Pot. Polygeneration
73
1,3 0,9
2,7
15,3 3,4
3,6
0,0
8,4
1,6 1,7
0,9
% covered by poly
8,2 14,7 9,4
1,1
83% 82% 82% 72% 84% 73% 87% 41% 106 50% 74% 70% 94% 84% 76% 79%
20
Figure 7: Detailed distribution of the technical cogeneration potential among the

different food products and countries investigated
Total co-generation potential: 40.8 TWhel
Sugar
8%
Juice
4%
Meat
Fish
Cooked food &vegetables
Consumer milk
Cheese
Butter
Milk powder & Cond Milk
Ice Cream
Cultured Products
Cereals
Bakery
Coffee
Corn
Beer
Spirits
Juice
Cotton seed
Ground-nut
Rape-seed
Saf- & Sun-flower
Sesame
Soyabean
Virgin olive oil and refined oilve oil
Sugar
Chokolat
Meat
24%
Spirits
8%
Beer
15%
Cheese
7%
Corn
7%
Milk powder &

Cond Milk
6%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Swe
Fin
Den Ger
Bel Neth Lux
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra
Spa Por
Gre
21
Figure 8: Detailed distribution of additional tecnical tri-generation potential by

absorption cooling by the different food products and countries investigated
Meat
Fish
Consumer milk
Cheese
Butter
Ice Cream
Cultured Products
Cereals
Bakery
Coffee
Corn
Beer
Spirits
Juice
Cotton seed
Ground-nut
Rape-seed
Saf- & Sun-flower
Sesame
Soyabean
Sugar
Chokolat
Total pure trigeneration potential: 15.3 TWhel
Bakery
7%
Beer
10%
Cheese
4%
Meat
55%
Cooked food
&vegetables
Fish
11%
4%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Swe
Fin
Den Ger
Bel Neth Lux
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra
Spa Por
Gre
22
Figure 9: Distribution of technical biogas production potential of the different food

products and countries investigated
Total biogas production potential : 16.4 TWhel
Sugar
15%
Meat
Fish
Consumer milk
Cheese
Butter
Ice Cream
Cultured Products
Cereals
Bakery
Coffee
Corn
Beer
Spirits
Juice
Cotton seed
Ground-nut
Rape-seed
Saf- & Sun-flower
Sesame
Soyabean
Sugar
Chokolat
Meat
6%
Spirits
6%
Beer
9%
Corn
4%
Cereals
56%
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Swe
8.4
Fin
Den Ger
Bel Neth Lux
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra
Spa
Por
Gre
Implemented CHP capacity compared to the technical potential of cogeneration
According to data collected by COGEN Europe for the year 2003, there are 595 CHP
units installed in the food, beverage and tobacco industry in EU-15 5. Together they
have a total production capacity of 3048 MWel, when running in CHP mode. The
distribution of these plants among the EU-15 countries is shown in Table 7.
The countries with the currently highest implementation and utilisation of CHP within
this industry are Spain, UK, Germany, France and the Netherlands. It is also
5
CHP Statistics in European Member States 2003 data, COGEN EUROPE 2005
23
noticeable that some countries such as Finland, Greece and Luxembourg are supposed
to have no CHP units installed. This is probably due to incomplete data as the
OPTIPOLYGEN project has identified at least one Finnish CHP unit of 4.2 MWel (see
database at www.optipolygen.org).
Table 7 : Installed CHP capacity and number of installed CHP units in the food,
beverage and tobacco industry in EU-15
Sweden
Finland
Denmark
Germany
Belgium
Netherlands
Lux
UK
Irland
Austria
Italy
France
Spain
Portugal
Greece
EU 15
Installed CHP
capacity
Number of installed
units 2003
[Mwel]
#
27
131
723
n.v.
2
24
151
n.v.
316
378
78
72
265
503
543
12
3.048
61
41
13
6
107
43
143
5
596
The data collected in the COGEN statistics is collected for the Food products,
beverages and tobacco industry and is thus not 100% comparable to the technical
potential calculated for food and drink industry in the OPTIPOLYGEN project.
However they are a good indication and thereby the total amount of produced
electricity from CHP units (running in CHP mode) are used as comparison to the
OPTIPOLYGEN values in Figure 10.
The result reveals that in 2003, 10.76 TWhel was produced from CHP-units in the
Food products, beverages and tobacco industry in EU-15. This is about of the
technical potential for co-generation estimated for the food and drink industry in the
OPTIPOLYGEN project.
24
Figure 10: Produced electric power by CHP units in the food, beverage and tobacco
industry in EU-15 (2003) compared to technical potential for CHP in the food and
drink estimated by OPTIPOLYGEN
Tot (EU-15) produced by CHP in food, drink and tobacco industry 10,76 Twhel
Tot estimated CHP potential (EU15) in food, drink industry 40,78 Twhel
(COGEN 2003)
(OPTIPOLYGEN 2004)
10,0
9,0
8,0
TWh
7,0
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
-
8.5
Swe
Fin
Den
Ger
Bel
Neth
UK
Ir
Aus
Ita
Fra
Spa
Por
COGEN 2003
0,0
0,5
1,7
1,5
1,9
0,4
0,3
0,6
1,4
2,4
0,03
Gre
OPTIPOLYGEN
0,7
0,5
1,4
8,9
2,2
2,3
4,7
0,9
1,0
4,5
7,5
5,1
0,7
0,4
Result of estimated CO2 saving potential
In addition to the potential for electricity generation, the environmental impact of

polygeneration can also be quantified in terms of annual CO2 savings. This is done
assuming that the on site more produced electricity is produced with a higher
efficiency (due to higher efficiency of combined cycles) and thereby replace
electricity produced from fossil fuels in power plants and distributed on the grid. I.e.
the more electricity produced and saved at the plant the more CO2 is saved.
Accordingly the CO2 saving effect in the case of tri-generation is the highest. This is
a result of the fact that when electricity is tri-generated a double benefit is achieved as
earlier explained in section 6.2.
By using the values for grid transmission losses and for CHP total cycle efficiencies,
the values of CO2 savings by the different polygeneration methodologies were
calculated as:
0,26 kg CO2/kWhel for co-generation;

0,436 kg CO2/kWhel for tri-generation;
0,210 kg CO2/kWhel for waste stream utilisation
By using these figures the total results for the potential CO2 savings by
polygeneration in the food industry in the EU-15 amounts to 20 839 ktonnes CO2/
year.
The allocation of these savings among the different polygeneration technologies
methodologies is shown in Figure 6 and on the EU-15 countries in Figure 7.
25
Figure 11: Summarised technical potential of CO2-savings in the food industry by

polygeneration methodologies
[*1000 tonnes CO2]
Co-generation
132
3.443
Tri-generation
Waste stream utilisation
(biogas)
10.604
Waste stream utilisation

(solid combustion)
6.660
Figure 12: Summarised technical potential CO2-savings in the food industry by

polygeneration per EU-15 country
Total potential CO2 savings by polygeneration in EU 15: 20 839 ktonnes CO2/year
5.000.000
4.500.000
ktonnes CO2/year
4.000.000
3.500.000
3.000.000
Solid biomass comb.
Biogas production
Trigeneration
Cogeneration
2.500.000
2.000.000
1.500.000
1.000.000
500.000
-
Swe Fin Den Ger Bel Neth Lux UK
Ir Aus Ita Fra Spa Por Gre
The revealed figures for saving CO2 emissions by the technical potential in the food
industry are calculated without withdrawing the current installed CHP discussed in
section 8.4. This due to that the data for current installed CHP also contain the
tobacco industry while the estimated technical potentials in the OPTIPOLYGEN
project only consider the food processing industry.
However, if these values should be used, about of the technical potential from cogeneration is already implemented. Applying this assumption the total actual potential
should be reduced to about 18 188 ktonnes CO2/year instead.
26
Main results and conclusions
The technical polygeneration potential for the food industry has been calculated for
the EU-15 countries. The performed calculations were based on data for energy
consumption, existing in the literature as well as on information collected via energy
audits performed by the partners of the project. Data from EUROSTAT, PRODCOM ,
as well as food sector specific data bases were used as sources to gather data on the
size distribution of food processing plants as well as produced amounts of food
products in each EU 15 country. Despite these public available data, several
assumptions and estimations have been necessary in order to get useful results.
The plausibility of the data has been tested by comparing energy demands calculated
in the OPTIPOLYGEN project with EUROSTAT data on the actual consumption of
heat and electricity in the industry sector food, beverage and tobacco. The results
revealed that the despite the insecurity in all the estimations that had to performed the
OPTIPOLYGEN values for the energy demand in the food processing industry are
feasible and in the correct size range. Thereby the calculated technical potentials for
polygeneration based upon the calculated energy demands of each food sector should
also be feasible.
The calculated results reveal a total technical polygeneration potential (co- + trigeneration and full utilisation of biomass waste stream) for all EU-15 countries to
amount to about 73 TWhel/year, subsequently resulting in a potential CO2 emission
saving of about 20 millions tonnes CO2/ year.
More than half of the technical potential for polygeneration in the food industry is
identified to be co-generation. By comparing with available data of installed
capacities of CHP in the food, beverage and tobacco industry it can be assumed that
up to of the calculated technical potential is already installed. However due to the
different bases for the data calculated in the OPTIPOLYGEN project and the
available data in the literature, this comparison should only be used indicative.
Though, if used as valid values for the food processing industry it would reduce the
additional total technical polygeneration potential to about 63 TWhel and
subsequently the additional potential CO2 emission savings by polygeneration to
about 18 million tonnes CO2/year.
The high potential of co-generation is followed by tri-generation and the technical
potential for converting waste streams into biogas which is subsequently used in a
onsite CHP application. Both these technologies revealed technical potentials of about
16 TWhel each.
No data for the actual total usage of these technologies in the food industry was found
in the literature, although examples of both technologies implemented can be found.
The fourth technology investigated was the utilisation of solid waste used as solid
biomass fuel in a CHP plant using a steam turbine cycle. This technology was
however only found feasible for the food sector III and was estimated to be around 0,6
TWhel for the whole EU-15.
The differences between the different food sectors in terms of applicable
polygeneration technologies is further shown by that e.g. in the food sector III trigeneration is not at all technically plausible while in food sector I and II, which both
27
includes a lot of freezing and cooling, tri-generation with absorption freezing or

chilling cycles are very significant.
The individually totally highest technical polygeneration potential is also found in the
meat processing industry (food sector I). Other industries with significant technical
potentials are beer production (food sector IV) and cereal production (food sector V).
In the cereal production industry, the production of biogas from biomass waste
residues shows the dominating technical potential. The potential for biogas generation
is otherwise limited in most of the other food sectors, mainly because of the threshold
value for building a biogas plant at the food plant. In order to make biogas generation
viable, significant amounts of wastes for the biogas installation are needed. Although
todays food processing plants are generally getting larger and larger, there is also a
trend to more efficiently use of waste- and by- products as lower value products for
non-human consumption purposes in the animal by-products industry. The value of
such products is typically higher than the value of the waste as a source for energy
production.
With respect to the distribution of the technical potential for polygeneration in the
food industry among the European countries (EU-15), he potential practically follows
the population distribution in the same way as the production and consumption of
food does. Thereby the largest technical potentials are typically found in the order
Germany, France, Spain, UK and Italy.
By comparing data for the electric power produced by CHP in the food, beverage
and tobacco industry with the amounts consumed, this show production that on an
average cover about 12% of the demand in EU-15 (2003). By applying the total
technical polygeneration potential calculated for the food industry in the
OPTIPOLYGEN project this figure would be increased to about 80% (2004).
28
WP2-Fish & meat industry
OPTIPOLYGEN
OPTIPOLYGEN
OPTimum Integration of POLYGENeration in the food industry
WP2
Potential for Polygeneration in the
Fish & meat Industry
ESTIA consulting & engineering S.A.

P.O. BOX 60649, GR 570 01, Thessaloniki, Macedonia-GREECE
el. +30-2310-487501, 487502, fax +30-2310-489927
e-mail : info@estiaconsulting.gr, www.estiaconsulting.gr
Author:
Dr Ing Athanasios Katsanevakis

\\Pc09\c\Documents and Settings\Administrator\Desktop\ok wp2\APPENDIX I ESTIA-WP2-Fish and meat Industry.doc
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................2
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................4
2.1
2.2
GENERAL .................................................................................................................................................... 4
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................... 4
PROCESS DESCRIPTION .....................................................................................5

3.1
3.2
THE FISH INDUSTRY .................................................................................................................................... 5

THE MEAT INDUSTRY. ................................................................................................................................. 8
ON-SITE POWER GENERATION IN THE FISH AND MEAT PROCESSING

INDUSTRY............................................................................................................11
4.1
4.2
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 11
CHARACTERISTICS OF ON-SITE POWER GENERATION PLANTS.................................................................... 11
PROCESS WASTE AND BY- PRODUCTS IN THE FISH AND MEAT

PROCESSING INDUSTRY. ..................................................................................13
5.1
5.2
THE FISH INDUSTRY. ................................................................................................................................. 13

THE MEAT AND POULTRY INDUSTRY. ........................................................................................................ 13
POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR ON-SITE POWER GENERATION AND

POLYGENERATION IN THE FISH AND MEAT PROCESSING INDUSTRY.......14
6.1
6.2
6.3
CHP.......................................................................................................................................................... 14
TRIGENERATION ....................................................................................................................................... 14
SOLID WASTES AND BY-PRODUCTS USE. ................................................................................................... 15
TECHNICAL POTENTIAL OF ON SITE POWER GENERATION & EMISSION

SAVINGS BY POLYGENERATION IN THE FISH AND MEAT/POULTRY
INDUSTRY IN EUROPE .......................................................................................17
7.1
7.2
7.3
METHODOLOGY. ....................................................................................................................................... 17
FISH AND MEAT/POULTRY PRODUCTION IN EUROPE .................................................................................. 20
RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................... 24
CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................29
REFERENCES......................................................................................................30

OPTIPOLYGEN
1 Executive Summary
On-site power generation in conjunction with the processes involved in the food industry
may form an efficient alternative and a step towards sustainability. It is however important to estimate the real potential of on-site power generation methods which are currently available in the European Food industry sector.
A part of this sector is the Fish and meat poultry processing industry.
Polygeneration potential in the fish and meat processing industry has been calculated
for the Eur-15 countries.
Calculations were based on data for energy consumption, which exist in the open literature and collected via energy audits performed by the authors. The data from Eurostat
for fish and meat/poultry production all over Europe were also used together with estimations for the size of the processing plants located in every country.
Results show that polygeneration potential for all Eur-15 countries for this specific
industry sector reach the 25.000 GWh el /year resulting in CO2 emission savings of
over 11 million tones CO2 /year.
The higher potential about 19000 GWh/year- comes from combination of cogeneration+trigeneration using absorption freezing or chilling cycles followed by cogeneration
and biogas generation using anaerobic digestion of the solid residues of the processes.
The reason for this is that a significant amount of thermal energy consumed in the fish
and meat-processing industry concerns freezing and chilling loads at temperatures
down to 20C. These loads operate more smoothly over the day and the year creating
opportunities for base load efficient use of the heat co-generated by the CHP units.
Biogas generation potential is limited mainly because of the size of the food plants
there is a need for significant amount of wastes for a biogas installation to be viableand the limited generation of by-products as most of them is used as lower value products for non-human consumption purposes in the animal by-products industry. Depending on the legislation and the current industrial practice in this sector biogas potential
generation can be doubled in the future i.e. the electricity, which can come from biogas,
may increase by 100%.

OPTIPOLYGEN
2 Introduction
2.1 General
The aim of this report is to describe the general processes in the fish and meat processing industry, focusing on energy usage (thermal and electrical) and the type of processes using this energy, with the goal to estimate the total polygeneration potential in
the fish and meat processing industry in Europe.
2.2 Terms and Definitions

2.2.1 Polygeneration.
outputs.
The term primary energy includes fossil fuels, biofuels, renewable energy sources etc.
Energy output means the different forms of energy which are useful in an activity. In the
case of the Food industry this could mean electricity, and heat in various temperature
levels i.e. steam, hot water, chilling mediums etc. Other useful products, which might
come out from a polygeneration process like e.g. compost will be, treated as secondary
by-products of polygeneration.
This work aims to calculate the potential of polygeneration application in the European
fish & meat processing industry and the corresponding emission savings, which may
arise.
2.2.2 Fish and Meat industry.
Fish and Meat industry includes all processes whose products incorporate as a main
component fish or meat. For the purposes of this report fish and meat industry does not
include fish or animal farming activities nor retailing of the food products. More specifically fish and meat industry products are ranked under the NACE codes 15.11, 15.12,
15.13, & 15.20 and are shown in the tables A1 & A2 in the appendix.
2.2.3 Geographical coverage.
This report covers fish and meat processing industry in the European Union of the 15
states forming the European Union until 2004. The methodology however is easy to be
used in the rest 10 countries, which jointed EU in the summer 2004.

OPTIPOLYGEN
3 Process description
3.1 The fish industry
3.1.1 Process flow chart in the fish industry
Fish industry processes can be generally represented in the following simple process
chart.
The raw material for the fish industry is fish or other seafood coming from open sea fishing or fish farming. Raw fish is either send directly to the sales or to the fish processing
plants. Big fish is sometimes pre-processed and fish portions are then send to the
processing plants. There raw fish is usually frozen and stored. Freezing usually takes
place at around20oC and refrigeration cycles driven by compressors are mainly used.
Part of this frozen fish is directly sold as frozen fish and part is being defrost and then
processed. Defrosting is usually take place in water tanks at about 20oC.
The defrost fish is usually processed (slicing, de-heading, de-skinning, etc) and during
this processing some solid residues come out tails, heads etc-. As already mentioned
this process step can take place before the initial freezing of the fish.
Resulting fish is either frozen again and send to the sales or is being further processed,
usually cooked and canned before send to the sales. Cooking may take place at temperatures varying up to 120oC while an important part of packaging or canning is the
sterilisation process, which follows different heating and cooling curves up to 120oC.
Part of the cooked fish is frozen and stored before sold as frozen cooked food while the
rest is send to the sales.
Detailed description of the processes which take place in the whole spectrum of the fish
industry activities can be found in specialised reports e.g. [1, 2]. It has to be mentioned
that several differences exist between plants; the main processes however remain the
same. Moreover it should be mentioned that not all the processes take place in a single
plant. There are plants where all the processes operate under a single roof while others
where frozen raw fish is stored and only part of the described processes take place e.g.
canning only.

OPTIPOLYGEN
fresh fish from

open sea fishing
or fish farming
sales
freezing
Fish processing
industry
Defrosting/
de-icing
solid
residues
Preprocessing
(de-heading,
slicing etc)
BIOGAS
packaging
-freezing storage
waste
water+
solids
cookingcanning
storage selling
Figure 1. Simplified process chart of the fish industry.
3.1.2 Utilities energy use and by-products in the fish industry

Utilities in the fish processing industry include mainly water and energy. The present
study will focus on energy needs as these are important for calculating polygeneration
potential.
OPTIPOLYGEN
Energy in the fish industry is used mainly for:

-Freezing-cooling
-Heating cooking- sterilising-pasteurising
-Drivers and other electricity consumption.
Electricity is used in all processes while heat need is limited to de-icing, canning and
sterilizing/cleaning. An important part of the energy needed in the industry is used to
cover the freezing- cooling loads needed for product freezing, chilling and storing in the
storehouses.
The energy consumed in each process varies considerably between plants depending
on the equipment and the details of the process used, on the specific nature of the
product and on several other parameters. It is not the purpose of this report to describe
the details of the various specific processes, which can be met in the fish industry. For
every process however there is some energy demand. The following table shows the
ranges where these energy needs often fall. Data have been taken from several
sources e.g.[1,2] and from own measurements performed in 3 fish processing plants
operating in Greece, [3,4,5]
Fish processing by-products consist mainly from fish bones, tails, heads and other fish
parts and water. The first are the process solid residues while the waste water is
treated in Waste Water Treatment Plants WWTP-.
Table 1. Energy demand and by-product ranges in the fish industry processes.
In the table the potential for biogas produced via anaerobic digestion of the process
solid by-products is also shown. Biogas is the main renewable energy source, which
can come out from the fish processing industry. Utilisation of fish processing byproducts for biogas production might be of importance for potential polygeneration
schemes in the fish industry. Values used in the table come out from own data recovered from gasability tests [3], while the range came from oral communication with biogas plant manufacturers. In every case where an application is sought there is a need
for analysis of the solid residues. The above-mentioned values can however be used
for the planning purposes of this work.

OPTIPOLYGEN
3.2 The meat industry.

3.2.1 Process flow chart in the meat industry.
A simplified process flow chart for the meat processing industry is shown in fig.2
The raw material for the meat industry is animal or poultry coming from animal farming
or poultries. Living animals are first send to the slaughterhouses. There raw meat
named as carcase is the output while significant amount of solid and liquid by-products
are generated. These by-products were used to prepare animal food and as raw material for other industries ranging from animal food staff industry to pharmaceutical industry. Animal by-products use is the raw input of a whole industry sector, the animal byproducts industry. During the last years however and because of the BSE Bovine
Spongiform Engephalopathy-, use of animal by-products has been gradually decreased
and now days several of them are treated as wastes. Nowadays the options available
for these by-product wastes are incineration, anaerobic treatment to produce biogas,
composting, landfilling. Incineration is used in small slaughterhouses using fossil fuels
and the heat generated by the incineration process is usually released to the environment. Incineration is also used in big slaughterhouses and there are incineration plants
dedicated to serve slaughtering plants. Biogas generation has been reported to be
problematic in some cases, successful in other cases and is being reconsidered as an
option, [6].
Raw meat is, after chilling, either send to the sales or is being processed in the meat
processing plants. Part of the meat can also be frozen at temperatures around 20oC
and sold as frozen meat portions.
Meat processing might include pre-processing i.e. portioning, slicing etc, thermal processing /cooking and packaging. An important part of packaging is the sterilisation process. Cooking may take place at various temperature levels up to 150oC depending on
the final product.
Final cooked meat products can either be frozen and stored before send to the sales or
sold directly as cooked meat products e.g. delicatessen. A significant part of the meat
exiting the pre-processing stage is directly stored and sold as fresh meat portions without any further processing cooking etc.Further details on the processes involved in the meat and poultry processing industry
can be fount in specialised documents e.g. [2,6].
3.2.2 Utilities and energy use in the meat industry.
Utilities in the meat and poultry processing industry include mainly water and energy.
The present study will focus on energy needs as these are important for calculating polygeneration potential.
Energy in the meat and poultry industry is used mainly for:
-Freezing-cooling
-Heating cooking- sterilising-pasteurising
-Drivers and other electricity consumption.
Electricity is used in all processes while heat need is limited to canning, defrosting, sterilizing and cleaning. An important part of the energy needed in the industry is used to

OPTIPOLYGEN
cover the freezing/chilling/cooling loads. It has been reported that about 50% of the
electricity demand is devoted to freezing /chilling needs, [6].
Living animals
or poultry from
animal farms
or poultries
meat processing
industry
Slaughtering
solid
residue
sales
Freezing
BIOGAS/incineration
preproces
sing
waste
water+
solids
cookingcanning
defrosting
packaging
-freezing storage
storage selling
Figure 2. Simplified process chart for the meat industry.

OPTIPOLYGEN
The energy consumed in each process varies considerably depending on the equipment and the details of the process used, on the specific nature of the product and on
several other parameters. It is not the purpose of this report to describe the details of
the various specific processes which can be met in the meat and poultry industry. For
every process however there is some energy demand. The following table shows the
typical ranges of these energy needs.
Table 2. Typical ranges of energy demand and wastes in the meat processing industry.
In the table the potential for biogas produced via anaerobic digestion of the process
solid wastes and water effluent is also shown. Biogas is the main renewable energy
source which can result from the meat and poultry processing industry. Because of
this it is important to be incorporated into the potential polygeneration schemes.
Values used in the table resulted from oral communication with biogas plant manufacturers. In every case there is a need for analysis of the solid residues, if an application
is sought. The above-mentioned values can however be used for the planning purposes
of this work.

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OPTIPOLYGEN
4 On-site power generation in the fish and meat processing

industry
4.1 Introduction
On-site power generation includes Cogeneration of Heat and Power using the now days
available techniques and systems.
Cogeneration of Heat and Power is the efficient use of the heat co-generated with the
Power when thermal cycles are used electricity generation.
Cogeneration includes steam cycles using steam turbines, open cycles using gas turbines and Internal Combustion Engines ICE- using various fuels. During the last decades CHP technologies based on fuel cells, Stirling engines and hybrid systems have
been also developed and demonstrated although they are not the standard in the industry.
Use of sun or wind or other RES, not arising from the food processes examined to generate power on site, will not be considered in this report.
Efficient use of on-site power generation depends on the capability to use the cogenerated heat to meet real heat demand of the site. This is a demanding task and it is
easier met when co-generated heat is of high temperature level. This condition is met
when a gas turbine is the CHP driver. However for many reasons including cost, operational flexibility and electric efficiency ICE are favourable in certain cases.
There are plants within the fish and meat processing industry, which operate on-site
power generation units. It is expected that a significant number of them will be filled
when database of the OPTIPOLYGEN project will be fully ready. They are typically installed in large processing plants where heat needs are continuous and of considerable
amount. Several of the operating CHP plants in this industry sector are based on ICEs.
Fuels used for on-site power generation include natural gas & diesel oil while the majority of installations are gas-fired. Sometimes biogas produced on-site is also used resulting in real polygeneration schemes. There are also cases where use of heat for cooling purposes is also reported trigeneration plants-.
During the last years increased attention has been drawn to the capabilities arising by
the development of mini and micro CHP units. These are units with a nominal electricity
generating capacity of less than 1000 kW, [7]. Mini and micro CHP is usually based
on turbines, ICEs, Stirling engines while research is under way for fuel cell based micro CHP.
4.2 Characteristics of on-site power generation plants.

Several parameters of the on-site power plants are of importance when application of
such technology is under consideration. Information exists in several sources e.g. [7].
For the purposes of this work the following parameters have been used.

11
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table 3. Parameter ranges for on-site power units used in this report.
Electric efficiency is the ratio of the electrical energy-or power- produced over the total
fuel power input to the CHP unit i.e
nel
= Pel/Pfuel
(1)
Total efficiency of the CHP unit is the ratio of the summary of the electrical energy-or
power- and useful thermal energy or power- produced over the total fuel power input
to the CHP unit i.e.
ntotal = (Pel+Ptherm)/Pfuel
(2)
Thermal efficiency of a CHP unit is derived from eq. (1) and (2) and is
ntherm = ntotal nel
(3)
It is obvious that electrical efficiency depends most of the times solely on the CHP
equipment characteristics while thermal efficiency depends strongly and in all cases on
the way the heat generated by the CHP unit is used in the plant. From this point of view
the whole plant is a part of the CHP unit and participates in the calculation of the thermal efficiency of the CHP unit.
CHP size is usually ranged according to its electrical generation capacity. The typical
applications in the fish and meat industry sector can reach several MWs of installed
power capacity. Although there are now days equipment available at the mini and micro
range they are hardly used in industrial applications; most of the plants where on-site
power has been applied concern much bigger units at the range of MWs. This can be
partially assigned to the relative size of the expected profits compared to the size of the
plants and the IRR achieved by this kind of investments.

12
OPTIPOLYGEN
5 Process waste and by- products in the fish and meat

processing industry.
5.1 The fish industry.
Process waste and by-products consist mainly from solid residues and waste water.
Solid residues arise mainly in the pre-processing stage where the tails, the heads and
the guts of the fish are separated from the fillets. Waste water result in most of the fish
processing stages and is usually polluted by fish solid residues, spillages and other contaminants like grease from the canning process or fats and liquids from the cleaning of
the plant and the machinery. Sometimes solid by-products are used to produce animal
feeds or other lower value products although this trend has been reduced during the recent years because of the BSE. Now days an increased number of by-products are
treated as solid wastes. Expected amount of solid residues arising in each process
stage have been shown in table 1.
5.2 The meat and poultry industry.

Process waste and by-products consist mainly from solid residues and wastewater.
Solid residues arise mainly in the slaughtering stage and at a second stage during preprocessing filleting, slicing etc-.
Most of the solid by-products arising in the meat
processing are used to create lower value products. Wastewater comes out from most
of the meat processing stages and is usually polluted by blood, spillages and other contaminants like grease from the machinery or fats and liquids from the cleaning of the
plant and the machinery. During the past decade solid by-products were used to produce animal feeds or other lower value products. A whole industry sector has been
developed based on the by-products arised in the slaughtering stage, the animal byproducts industry ranging from animal foods, leather and fats to pharmaceuticals. This
trend has been reduced during the recent years because of the BSE resulting in an increased number of by-products treated as solid wastes. In most cases these wastes
are incinerated while other ways for healthy treatment are also in use or under consideration. Wastewater in most of the meat processing plants has a high COD content and
is treated in WWTP. Further information on the by-products arising in the meat
processing industry can be found in [2,6].
Expected amount of solid residues arising in each process stage have been shown in
table 2. Data in table 2 show a big range of by-products in the slaughtering stage. This
comes out from the fact that the situation on the use of the solid by-products is not
presently clear. A decade ago most of the solid by-products were used to produce
Bonne and Meat Meals -BMM- or other products. Thus the amount of waste was significantly reduced. After the epidemy of BSE the whole cycle of by-products use has
been reconsidered and several precautions have been taken. The interested can consult the legislation, [8]. Current practice has not been reach equilibrium yet as it depends on the processing cost of the by-products according to the new regulations and
to the alternative routes for by-products to be used. One of the alternative routes is
their use for energy production. The high value of the amount of the solid by-products
ranged in table 2 corresponds to the case that most of the slaughtering by-products
would be used for energy production.
13
OPTIPOLYGEN
6 Potential technologies for on-site power generation and

polygeneration in the fish and meat processing industry
By investigating the utilities and the by-products and effluents involved in a fish or meat
processing plant the following technologies have been identified as potential participants for polygeneration:
1) Cogeneration of Heat and Power CHP2) Trigeneration Use part or all of the heat co-generated to meet chilling/freezing
needs via absorption cycles-.
3) Use of the by-products for energy production. This can be done by incineration
or by anaerobic treatment to produce biogas. Other routes include gasification.
Each technology is associated with thresholds and economical values affecting applicability with respect to the size and other important characteristics of the plant.
6.1 CHP
As already mentioned applicability of CHP depends among other parameters on the capability to use efficiently the heat cogenerated with the power. This is not a straightforward task especially in cases where various temperature levels of heat are needed by
the process. The optimum CHP fit to the process needs becomes more difficult when
batch operation is used this being quite often in the fish and meat processing industry.
For the purposes of this report the following parameters shown in table 4 have been
considered to be valid for CHP to be viable in a plant.
In several steps of the fish and meat processing industry significant amount of heat is
needed. Heat is normally needed at temperatures ranging from 40oC up to 150oC. For
simplicity CHP units generating heat at high temperatures have been considered for potential capacity calculations. These are turbine based CHP sets.
Other important parameter affecting the applicability of CHP is the total yearly operating
hours. Usually these should exceed 4000 hours/year for a CHP plant to be viable.
It has been already mentioned that efficient use of the heat co generated in a CHP unit
defines the applicability of CHP. If micro CHP is used then the total plant requirements
should exceed 1,5 GWh /year based on the minimum yearly operating hours of the
CHP unit and the minimum size of unit available in the market.
6.2 Trigeneration
Trigeneration is based on the use of absorption cycles to produce cool. The set-up of
an absorption cycle depends on the temperatures where this cycle is operating. Absorption cycles are usually based on LiBr /water or on Ammonia/water binary mixtures.
Details of these processes can be found elsewhere, e.g. [9]. At this stage it is of interest
that there is available in the market absorption chilling equipment suitable for food industry applications i.e. suitable to generate cool down to 40oC, e.g. [10].

14
OPTIPOLYGEN
The minimum size of this equipment is about 150 kW and their COP ranges from 0,6-1
depending on the freezing cycle served and on the local conditions. The important fact
when trigeneration is applied efficiently is that electricity consumption virtually ceases as
far as freezing or chilling concerns. Moreover additional electricity is efficiently cogenerated by the CHP unit. Because of this a double positive effect exists:
Not only grid electricity consumption produced with low efficiency (40-50%) stops, but
also electricity generated with efficiencies up to 85% is produced. In contrast with a
typical CHP only efficient electricity is generated and sent to the grid.
6.3 Solid wastes and by-products use.

Solid wastes and by-products can be used to generate thermal energy and power. It
has been reported that the LCV of carcass solid wastes is about 5000kJ/kg while it is
reported that can reach 10-15000 KJ/kg, [6]. Moreover solid wastes can be anaerobic
ally treated to produce biogas. Gasification of solid wastes has also been reported, [6].
All these technologies have positive impacts and drawbacks and are at the moment under consideration within R&D programs or via demonstration applications. More information can be found in [6].
Burning of the solid wastes generate heat which can be used to generate steam which
can be used in the plants and/or for power generation. High water content of the solid
wastes up to 70%- require a significant amount of heat for drying before combustion.
Emissions from combustion and their dioxin and heavy metal content is also under consideration. The size of viable combustion units is also an important factor limiting applications in large size plants. High pressure steam boilers need supervision, this being a
cost parameter which makes small applications unviable.
Anaerobic digestion of the solid by-products seems to be a promising way of treating
these wastes. Water content of the wastes is needed for the anaerobic treatment.
Based on the above characteristics the energy use of the by-products in terms of their
capacity to produce biogas will be examined.
Biogas generated can be used for driving CHP units or generating steam and hot water.
The resulting waste output of the process can be land filled as its organic content has
been reduced and has been sterilised. However not all the solid by-products are suitable for biogas generation. In several cases it has been reported that they should be
mixed with manure from farms to produce suitable for biogas generation solids mixture,
[6].
Gasification is a technology much less mature for industrial applications. Very few applications have been reported, [6]. Because of this, gasification of the solid wastes of
the fish and meat industry will not be further examined here.

15
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table 4. CHP parameters used in the present report for calculation

16
OPTIPOLYGEN
7 Technical Potential of on site power generation & emission savings by polygeneration in the fish and
meat/poultry industry in Europe
7.1 Methodology.
7.1.1 General
The goal of this report is to determine within accuracy needed for strategic planning the
technical potential of polygeneration CHP, trigeneration, RES- in the meat and fish
processing industry within the wider frame of the European food industry. Studies for
the other food sectors are undertaken by the other partners of the OPTIPOLYGEN project.
The results of the calculations will be the total electrical energy per year, which can be
generated if fully use of the existing methodologies for cogeneration, trigeneration and
polygeneration take place in the European food industry split by country.
This part of the work is focused in the fish and meat food products sector i.e. the industrial plants whose products fall within NACE 15.11, 15.12, 15.13, 15.20 codes.
The countries where the calculations are focused include the 15 member states of the
EU until summer 2004.
On top of the total potential for electricity generation, the environmental impact of polygeneration potential will be quantified in terms of annual CO2 savings.
7.1.2 Model development.
To achieve the goal i.e. to estimate the polygeneration potential several assumptions
should be made and data should be used. Then by performing suitable calculations the
goal can be achieved. The whole set of assumptions; data and calculations are the
parts of the calculation model. These parts are described below.
7.1.3 Assumptions
The assumptions, which were used, include:
1. Electricity generation potential in the case of cogeneration or trigeneration application depends on the amount of useful heat,
which can be absorbed in the process served by the CHP unit.
This means that dumping or spoiling the heat co-generated is not
accepted and electricity can be co-generated only as a byproduct when useful heat is demanded.
2. It has been assumed that as far as the total yearly operating
hours of the CHP or trigeneration unit exceed 4000 hours per
17
OPTIPOLYGEN
year application of these methodologies is possible and financially attractive.

3. Financial factors have not been examined. It is known that applicability of cogeneration or trigeneration or polygeneration depends strongly on the cost of the fuels, the electricity, the equipment etc.
4. It has been assumed that as far as equipment of suitable size exist in the market and yearly operating hours exceed 4000 hours
/year application of polygeneration is feasible.
7.1.4 Calculations.
The calculations performed are:
Potel = Heat need*(Pel/Ptherm)
[ kWhel]
(4)
The heat need was calculated as follows:

Heat need = Total tones of product * specific heat need of the process
When trigeneration is examined the calculation of the heat needed for a potential absorption cycle Heat abs- was calculated as
Heatabs = [electricity need for chilling/ COPel ]/COPabs
(5)
PotelBG = biogas * Pel [kWhel]
(6)
Biogas = Msolids*%DS%VS*580*6
[kWh]
Msolids = Total tones of product *specific solid waste generated by the process
(7)
(8)
The data used in the calculations are summarised in the following table.
Table 5. General technical data for the calculations

18
OPTIPOLYGEN
Data in the above table show a significant improvement of the CO2 emission savings
when electricity is trigenerated. This comes out from the fact that when electricity is trigenerated a double benefit comes out. Electricity spent for compressors ceases i.e.
there is reduction of the electricity demand from the grid and additional efficient electricity is trigenerated and sent into the grid i.e. additional grid electricity from the grid is replaced. By using the values shown in the table for grid transmission losses and for CHP
total cycle efficiencies etc, the values of CO2 savings can be calculated.
The specific energy demand and solid waste generation of the processes in the fish and
meat processing industry, which have been used, for the calculations are shown in the
next tables.
Table 6 Specific process energy need and solid generation used in the calculations fish industry-

19
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table 7 Specific process energy need and solid generation used in the calculations meat industry-.
7.2 Fish and meat/poultry production in Europe

As shown in the paragraph 6.1.4.to conclude to the potential of polygeneration the production of a plant is needed. Then a decision on the applicability of Polygeneration on
the specific plant can be made based on the threshold parameters set up in the assumptions total heat demand of the plant, yearly operating hours, solid waste yearly
production. If application of polygeneration is possible then calculation of the potential
kWhs polygenerated per year can be done based on eqs 4-8.
Total polygeneration potential can be calculated if
1 The amount of the production of the fish and meat processing plants in the European countries is known and
2 The percentage of the production, which comes from plants,
which meet the thresholds imposed by the assumptions, developed above is known.
Fish and meat poultry production is a highly developed food sector within Europe.
It accounts for about 21% of the total value of the European food industry and employs
about 25% of the total food industry workforce (2000 data), [2].
Fish and meat/poultry production is spread all over Europe and takes place in plants
ranging from very small to very big complexes. Especially some of the processes taking
place in the food processing chain e.g. slaughtering-of the meat and fish industry is
significantly concentrated to large companies, [6].
20
OPTIPOLYGEN
Fish and meat-poultry production and processing concern the NACE codes 15.11,
15.12, 15.13, 15.20. The investigation of the sector data needed for the purposes of
this report were done using the Eurostat database for the year 2003, [11].
7.2.1 Fisheries production data
The following fig.3 shows the total fisheries production for all the Eur-15 countries in
2003. Numeric data can be found in the Appendix.
fisheries production in Europe
tonnes/year -2003-
1.400.000
1.200.000
1.000.000
800.000
600.000
400.000
200.000
0
be
dk
Ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 3. Total fisheries production in the Eur-15 countries for 2003
Based on Eurostat data for Spain, [11], and from other sources, [1], the total fisheries
production was split into 4 main categories in conjunction with the processes presented
in fig.1.
These categories include
-raw fish used for human food without processing fresh fish -,
-raw fish used for human food processed via processes 1, 3 and 5 frozen fish-raw fish used for human food are processed via processes 1,2,3, 4-cooked or canned
fish-raw fish used for human food processed via processes 1,2,3,4,5 cooked or canned
fish frozen ater cookingAlthough different portions of fisheries production follow one of the above routes in each
European country, because of lack of data the following percentages were used for
every eur-15 country. In case that data would be available for each country it is easy to
repeat the analysis. The figures used for the analysis are:
-35% of the raw fish is consumed without processing as fresh fish.
-25% of the raw fish is consumed as frozen
-30% of the raw fish is consumed as cooked/canned
-10% of the raw fish is consumed as frozen cooked fish.
Based on these figures the total production of each country belonging to every one of
the above routes was calculated.
21
OPTIPOLYGEN
One more parameter which would affect the polygeneration potential is the part of each
country production that comes from plants whose capacity is above the determined
thresholds shown in the next table.
Table 8. Plant capacity threshold for polygeneration applications for the fish industry
In this way the plant size and the applicability of polygeneration technologies in the
specific plant are taken into account.
The data used for each country are shown in the calculation table in the appendix and
were estimated based on the relative size of each countrys total production.
7.2.2 Meat and poultry production data.
The following figure 4 shows the total meat and poultry production data for the Eur-15
countries.
Based on Eurostat data for Germany, [11], the total meat production was split into 3
main categories in conjunction with the processes presented in fig.2.
These categories include
-raw meat products used for human food coming out of the slaughteries,
-raw meat products that have been processed via processes 2 & 4
products-raw meat products that have been cooked or canned
frozen meat
Although different portions of meat production follow one of the above routes in each
European country the following percentages were used for every eur-15 country.
-100% of the meat products are coming out of the slaughter houses carcasses-.
-15% of the carcasses are processed and consumed as frozen meat products.
-30% of the carcasses is processed and consumed as cooked/canned meat products.
Based on these figures the total production of each country belonging to every one of
the above routes were calculated.
One more parameter which would affect the polygeneration potential is the part of each
country production that comes from plants whose capacity is above the determined
thresholds shown in the next table.

22
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table 9. Plant capacity thresholds for polygeneration applications used for the meat industry.
In this way the plant size and the applicability of polygeneration technologies in the
The data used for each country are shown in the calculation table A.4 in the appendix
and were determined based on the relative size of each countrys total production.
meat and poultry production in Europe -200310.000.000
9.000.000
8.000.000
tonnes/year
7.000.000
6.000.000
5.000.000
4.000.000
3.000.000
2.000.000
1.000.000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 4. Total meat & poultry production in the Eur-15.

23
OPTIPOLYGEN
7.3 Results
7.3.1 Fish processing industry.
The following figure 5 shows the polygeneration potential in the fish processing industry
in Europe split by country. Model set-up and calculations have been described in
par.6.1.
Polygeneration potential in Europe-15
300000
250000
MWh el/year
200000
cogeneration
trigeneration
150000
biogas
100000
50000
0
be
dk Ger gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 5. Polygeneration potential in the fish industry
As expected polygeneration potential is proportional to the capacity of each countrys

production.
In total European level results are shown in figure 6
Polygeneration potential in the fish industry in Europe-15 in
Mwhel/year
206504
743868
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
1381625
Figure 6. Total European fish processing industry potential for polygeneration
Outcome of figures 5 & 6 is that the higher potential comes for trigeneration applications
devoted to cover chilling and freezing loads. Their potential for energy savings are far
higher than the other technologies examined.

24
OPTIPOLYGEN
Polygeneration potential is far more important if CO2 reduction is examined. Results

are shown in figures 7 & 8.
Emission savings potential by Polygeneration in Europe-15

100000
90000
80000
tonnes CO2/year
70000
60000
cogeneration
50000
trigeneration
biogas
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
be
dk ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 7. CO2 savings potential from polygeneration applications in the European fish industry.
Emission savings from Polygeneration in the fish industry in
Europe-15 in tonnes CO2/year
43366
193406
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
471468
Figure 8. Total CO2 savings potential in the European fish industry when polygeneration is applied.
7.3.2 Meat and poultry processing industry

As described in section 6.2.1. & 6.2.2.meat and poultry industry output is higher than
that of the fish processing industry. The total polygeneration potential of this industry
sector per european-15 country is shown in figure 9
25
OPTIPOLYGEN

4000000
3500000
3000000
MWhel /year
2500000
cogeneration
trigeneration
2000000
biogas
1500000
1000000
500000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 9. Polygeneration potential in the European meat & poultry industry
In total European level results are shown in figure 10
Total European-15 polygeneration potential in MWhel
1,028,558
9,701,206
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
18,028,601
Figure 10. Total Polygeneration potential in the European meat & poultry processing industry split
by technology.

26
OPTIPOLYGEN
It should be noted that the calculation of the polygeneration potential concerning biogas
applications did not take into account the solids and by-products generation in the
slaughterhouses. This because it is not at the moment clear which use of these byproducts would be preferable based on the existing legislation. If total by products of
slaughterhouses would be anaerobically treated the total biogas potential would be
double.
Figures 11 & 12 show the potential CO2 savings if polygeneration potential shown in
figures 9 & 10 are to be installed in the European meat and poultry industry.
CO2 savings from polygeneration potential applications
1400000
1200000
tonnes CO2/year
1000000
800000
cogeneration
trigeneration
biogas
600000
400000
200000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 11. CO2 savings due to polygeneration application in meat processing industry.

27
OPTIPOLYGEN
Total European-15 CO2 savings potential from polygeneration
215,997
2,522,313
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
6,153,058
Figure12. Total CO2 savings potential in tones/year in the European meat processing industry
split by technology.

28
OPTIPOLYGEN
8 Conclusions
Polygeneration potential in the fish and meat processing industry has been calculated
for the Eur-15 countries.
Calculations were based on data for energy consumption, which exist in the open literature and collected via energy audits performed by the authors. The data from Eurostat
for fish and meat/poultry production all over Europe were also used together with estimations for the size of the processing plants located in every country.
Results show that polygeneration potential for all Eur-15 countries for this specific
industry sector reach the 25.000 GWh el /year resulting in CO2 emission savings of
over 11 million tones CO2 /year.
The higher potential about 19000 GWh/year- comes from cogeneration combined with
trigeneration using absorption freezing or chilling cycles followed by cogeneration and
biogas generation using anaerobic digestion of the solid residues of the processes.
The reason for this is that a significant amount of thermal energy consumed in the fish
and meat-processing industry concerns freezing and chilling loads at temperatures
down to 20C. These loads operate more smoothly over the day and the year creating
opportunities for base load efficient use of the heat co-generated by the CHP units.
Biogas generation potential is limited mainly because of the size of the food plants
there is a need of significant wastes for a biogas installation to be viable- and the limited
generation of by-products as most of them is used as lower value products for nonhuman consumption purposes in the animal by-products industry. Depending on the
legislation and the current industrial practice in this sector biogas potential generation
can be doubled in the future i.e. the electricity, which can come from biogas, may increase by 100%.
Acknoweledgments
I would like to thank all the colleagues of the Optipolygen consortium and especially
Jonas Dahl and Markku Hagstrom for useful discussions on the structure of this report.

29
OPTIPOLYGEN
9 References
[1]
United Nations Environment Programme -UNEP-Division of Technology,
Industry and Economics, Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Cleaner Production
Assessment in Fish Processing, COWI AS, Denmark.
[2]
Draft reference document on BAT in the Food, drink and Milk industries,
JRC, Seville, Spain, 2005.
[3]
Energy and Water audit in North Aegean Fish canneries, ESTIA consulting S.A. Internal report, 2003.
[4]
port, 2004.
Energy audit in AMASA Hellas S.A., ESTIA consulting S.A. Internal re-
[5]
Prefeasibility study on energy saving interventions for XIFIAS S.A., ESTIA
consulting internal report, 1999.
[6]
Reference document on BAT in the Slaughterhouses and animal byproducts industries, JRC, Sevilla, Spain, 2005.
[7]
EC 2004/8, 2004
[8]
ABP regulation, 1774/2002/ EC
[9]
ASHRAE handbook
[10]
www.colibri-bv.com
[11]
http://europa.eu.int/com/eurostat

30
OPTIPOLYGEN
APPENDIX

31
OPTIPOLYGEN
Fish product groups.
Table A.1 Fish products incorporated in this work

32
OPTIPOLYGEN
Meat product groups
Table A.2 Meat products incorporated in this work.

33
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table A.3 Fish industry data used for the calculations

34
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table A.4 Meat and poultry industry data used for the calculations
35
OPTIPOLYGEN
Polygeneration and RES potential in the
Cooked food and vegetables industry
WP2-report
Markku Hagstrm
Jari Hiltunen
Juha Vanhanen
CONTENTS:
1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................3
1.1 WHAT IS COOKED FOOD AND VEGETABLES?....................................................................3
1.2 INCOMPATIBLE STATISTICAL CLASSIFICATIONS .............................................................3
1.3 OVERLAPPING SECTORS IN OPTIPOLYGEN ......................................................................4
1.4 OTHER PROBLEMS IN THE ESTIMATION OF POLYGENERATION POTENTIAL ......................4
2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION ..............................................................................................5
3 ENERGY NEEDS AND PRESENT SOLUTIONS.........................................................7
4 ON-SITE ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE COOKED FOOD AND
VEGETABLES INDUSTRY ...............................................................................................9
5 PROCESS WASTE AND BY-PRODUCTS ..................................................................10
6 POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR ON-SITE ENERGY PRODUCTION IN
THE COOKED FOOD AND VEGETABLES INDUSTRY ...........................................12
6.1 CHP.............................................................................................................................12
6.2 BIOGAS FROM PROCESS WASTE & CHP .......................................................................13
6.3 CHP DRIVEN ABSORPTION COOLING ............................................................................14
7 COOKED FOOD AND VEGETABLES PRODUCTION IN EUROPE....................16
7.1 PRODUCTION STATISTICS .............................................................................................16
7.2 NUMBER OF ENTERPRISES ............................................................................................17
8 TECHNICAL POTENTIAL OF ON-SITE ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE
COOKED FOOD AND VEGETABLES INDUSTRY ....................................................21
8.1 ESTIMATION METHOD ..................................................................................................21
8.2 RESULTS ......................................................................................................................22
8.3 CONCLUSIONS ..............................................................................................................25
1 Introduction
1.1 What is Cooked food and vegetables?
Food industry sector Cooked food and vegetables is a very general, large and diverse group of food
manufacturing processes. It can be considered to include production of e.g. frozen vegetable
dishes, jams and marmalades, all kind of sausages, cooked and frozen potatoes and other
vegetables, potato chips and crisps, cooked pasta products stuffed with anything edible, frozen
pasta dishes and pizzas, dishes of couscous, food preparations for infants, prepared dishes and
salads of sea food, home meal replacements (HMR-products), etc. Due to this multitude of
different production lines, a more general description and analysis is aimed at in this report.
1.2 Incompatible statistical classifications

According to EUROSTAT statistics from the year 2004, the products related to Cooked food and
vegetables with the largest annual production volumes in Europe are:
sausages (not of liver): 4,5 million tons

frozen vegetables and mixtures of vegetables: 3,0 million tons
frozen potatoes: 2,5 million tons
prepared and preserved potatoes: 1,1 million tons
stuffed pasta: 1,0 million tons
dried, undried and frozen pasta and pasta products (including prepared dishes): 0,9
million tons
jams, marmalades, fruit jellies, fruit or nut purees and pastes: 0,8 million tons
In spite of missing data in many cases (countries and statistical food items), relatively
comprehensive overall picture of the large volume production lines could be formed. On the
other hand, many of the listed statistic items include both cooked and uncooked food. This
makes it very difficult to give well-grounded estimates on the polygeneration potential in the
Cooked food and vegetables industry as even the total production volumes in the sector are
unknown.
Another complication in the estimation of polygeneration potential is the seemingly total lack
of classification of food factories according to the size of the factory, and in particular, broken
down by the production volume size classes. This information is essential if one is to estimate
well the number of factories in which a particular technology would be feasible. However,
statistics on the number of enterprises in the whole food and drink industry broken down by
employment size classes do exist, as well as statistics on the number of enterprises in several
sub sectors. Unfortunately, sub sector Cooked food and vegetables does not exist - only sub sectors
that include appropriate products for Cooked food and vegetables, but also others.
1.3 Overlapping sectors in Optipolygen

In the context of Optipolygen, Cooked food and vegetables overlaps at least with the sectors Fish and
meat (fresh, frozen and cooked) and Beverages, juices, brewery, wine and spirits. This is because
production of cooked food often involves cooking of fish, meat and poultry in addition to
vegetables, and on the other hand, because jams, marmalades, jellies etc. are often produced in
the same facilities as juices and other beverages. A single food factory, for which optimal
energy solutions should be found, is often a mix of food production lines that belong to
different Optipolygen food industry sectors. Thus, processes and results from different sectors
are not exclusive.
1.4 Other problems in the estimation of polygeneration potential

One more obstacle to accurate estimation of polygeneration potential is the lack of detailed
data on energy needs in different process phases. As a rule, such measurements have not been
carried out in the food and drink industry; partly due to the lack of incentives energy costs
having only a minor role in the total production costs of food and beverages. At most,
electricity and heat consumption per production line may have been measured. On the other
hand, in food factories that consist of several production lines, the energy consumption per
production line and even more so per process phase is not really relevant: it is always the
whole factory that needs to be taken into account when onsite energy solutions are being
considered, not just the needs of a particular production line or process phases. In addition,
food industry in general seems to be very reluctant to reveal detailed information about their
processes, in order to avoid any risk of their competitors finding out their way of doing it.
Given this state of affairs, it must be clear that any method of estimation of polygeneration
potential in the food and drink industry, or sub sectors of it, will result in inaccurate and only
indicative values. Nevertheless, however incomplete the analyses may be, the aggregate results
are valuable e.g., in showing the likely size classes of the polygeneration potential and
differences between sub sectors.
The method applied in this WP2 sub sector analysis follows the ideas of the model method
presented by the project coordinator ESTIA using the sub sector Fish and meat as an example.
The deviations and modifications are explained under relevant headings.
Manufacturing Cooked food and vegetables involves so many different processes with different
energy needs, processing techniques and temperatures, and storage requirements that it is
virtually impossible to describe each of them in sufficient detail to allow polygeneration
potential to be estimated in the whole sector based on process details. Figure 2.1, however,
gives a simplified overall view of what happens in a food factory.
The raw materials may be received fresh, cooled, in freeze, or pre-processed and preserved. In
big food factories, producing (also) meat-containing products, animals may even be received
alive and butchered in onsite butchery. Most of the raw materials are stored for some time
before being fed into the process, each material at a suitable temperature.
Depending on the condition as-received, the raw materials need more or less pre-processing.
When in freeze, the first step is thawing which requires thermal energy to happen sufficiently
fast. Some raw materials are washed with hot water. Most other pre-processing operations cutting, slicing, grinding, mixing, etc. - are carried out with electricity driven machines. Major
portion of biodegradable wastes are produced in the pre-processing phases. According to
EUROSTAT statistics, Animal disposal unfit for human consumption, was 4,1 million tons in 2004
(18 countries of 30 giving non-zero inputs) and Vegetable by-products and waste for animal
consumption 0,8 million tons (6 countries of 30) in the whole Food and drink industry. Eleven
countries (of 30) gave zero as input to the latter category, which implies a potentially large
source of vegetable waste that could be converted into biogas and energy.
Thermal energy in the form of boiling water, steam, hot vegetable oil, radiation (heat &
microwave), etc. is used to cook the food, fully or partly food meaning here anything from
single vegetable ingredient, such as potatoes or peas, to ready-to-eat dishes, such as pizzas,
meat pies or casserole dishes.
After cooking, the products must be cooled down rapidly, to avoid microbial growth. Some
products are cooled down close to 0 C, others are frozen, mostly to 18 C. There are some
cooked food products that can be stored at room temperature after being cooked - meaning
heat processed, cooled and ready to eat - sometimes with added preservatives. These include
potato and maize crisps, jams and marmalades, canned soups, etc. Thus, the cooling and
storage needs depend heavily on the produced items. In addition, the ambient temperature
requirements at the production line depend on the materials being processed: meat-processing
takes place at about +5 C (minced meat at +2 C), while most vegetables can be processed at
about +15 C.
In addition to the actual food processing, and ambient conditions, there are several necessary
supporting processes and operations, directly coupled to the overall energy system of the food
factory, see Figure 2.1.
Simplified process chain: Cooked food and vegetables

Cultivation, Primary production
(Cooling, Freezing)
Transportation
Receiving, handling & storage (cold)
Biowaste
Packing waste
Materials pre-processing
Effluents
Mechanical: sorting, peeling, cutting, slicing, grinding, etc.

Thermal: thawing
Aquatic: washing (cold/warm)
Heating processes
- melting, blanching, boiling & cooking, frying, roasting,
tempering, evaporation, drying, etc.
Cooling Processes
- cooling, chilling & freezing
Products post-processing
-packing, filling, storage under gas, etc.
Other energy
consuming
operations:
-moving
materials
-cleaning
-vacuum
generation
-compressed
air generation
-space heating
& cooling
-lighting,
ventilation,etc.
Storage
Delivery
Transportation
- wholesale
- retail
- industry
Figure 2.1 Simplified process chain of a food factory manufacturing Cooked food and vegetables.
3 Energy needs and present solutions

Generally, materials pre-processing is the phase where most of the biodegradable waste is
produced, and heating and cooling processes where major part of the energy is consumed.
The most energy intensive operation is deep-freezing (-30 to 40 C), which takes 80 280
kWh electricity per product ton in the case of frozen vegetables.1 When higher temperatures
are applied, the energy consumption is naturally lower. Similarly, the higher the required
temperature in the heating processes, the higher the energy consumption per product ton. On
the other hand, the processed food item dictates how long time it must be held in the high
temperature and, thus effects upon the energy consumption per product ton.
Table 3.1, which is mostly based on BAT-report in the food, drink and milk industries2, gives a
rough general picture of the energy needs and present solutions process phase by phase in the
Cooked food and vegetables sector. The unit processes and numerical data come primarily from the
sector: Frozen vegetables, which represents, of course, only a fraction of the whole Cooked food
and vegetables sector. The main message of Table 3.1 is that the energy consumption per unit
process or a production line is anything but universal constant dozens of factors effect upon
the energy usage.
Table 3.1 Energy needs in some unit processes: Cooked food and vegetables.
Unit
Energy
Temperature
Typical present
Specific energy
process
need
range
solutions
consumption
[C]
[kWh/product ton]
Washing
Mechanical Tap water, or Electrical
washing 0 - 28 (el); depends
(and
warm
water machines vigorous on the washing
thermal, if (30 to 40) if spraying with water, technique, and the
applicable) applicable
immersion & brushes, food item
(depends on shaking, stirring, etc
food item)
Sorting
Mechanical Rotating or vibrating 0 20 (el); depends
screens, sieves; weight, on the food item
image, color sorting;
etc.; driven by electricity
Peeling
Mechanical Steam, knife, abrasion, Steam: 0 0,9 ton;
caustic, flame; thermal electricity: 2 3,5;
and/or
electrical/ both depend on the
mechanical/chemical
techniques and food
items
Blanching Thermal
Typically 80 to Hot water or steam 1 30 (el); depends
Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Food, Drink and Milk Industries, Final Draft
June 2005; http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm
2 Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Food, Drink and Milk Industries, Final Draft
1
100
Cooking,
boiling,
frying
Thermal
Cooling,
chilling
Thermal
Freezing
Thermal
Storage
Thermal
followed by air or water on the blancher

cooling
technique
and
cooling
medium;
and the food items
100 up to 300 Water bath, shower, High; depends on
steam,
hot
air, the technique and
microwave, hot oil the food items
(frying);
driven
by
electricity, natural gas or
oil burners, etc.
>From
a Groundwater, water re- Relatively
high;
previous
circulation
over
a depends on the
processing
cooling tower, ice-water technique,
temperature to systems; and the same temperature
the next, or to techniques
as
for difference and the
storage
freezing;
electricity- food items
temperature
driven
- 40 to 18
Blast, belt, fluidized bed, Deep-freezing (-40
cooled
surface, to 30 C): 80 280
immersion, cryogenic, (el)
etc.; electricity-driven
-40 to 30,
Electrical (compressor 20 65 kWhel/m3
-18 to + 8
cooling)
storage volume and
year,
plus
26
MWh/m2
storage
and year in the form
of hot water
Much more constant and illustrative figures can be found, when looking at the overall energy
and electricity consumption per product ton and per employee in large, multi-line food
factories. Based on data from the environmental reports of major Finnish food factories and
interviews with representatives of those factories specific consumption figures were found or
calculated, see Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Specific energy consumption and production volumes in Finnish food factories.
MWh/product ton
MWh/employee, year Tons/employee, year
Electricity
0,3 0,9
30 60
Total energy
0,6 1,5
70 - 100
Production
50 70
The higher end energy consumption values given in Table 3.2 may not be representative of
entire Europe: in southern countries the role of electricity is likely to be more dominant due to
less space heating loads and higher cooling loads in general. But the yearly production tons per
employee were remarkably constant in Finnish cases. This fact shall be utilized in the
estimation of polygeneration potential in Chapter 8.
4 On-site energy production in the cooked food and vegetables

industry
The operating environment of a food factory is a major factor as far as the energy solutions are
concerned. Where the natural gas (NG) network is not available, present choices are quite
limited: commonly heating needs are covered with onsite oil or solid fuel burners, and
electricity is bought from the electricity grid. District heat, where available, is also used,
especially in northern countries. At sites connected to the NG network, gas is used both
directly in food manufacturing processes (e.g. cooking in gas furnaces) and in general energy
demand be it merely heating purposes or combined heat and power (CHP) production.
CHP production onsite in the whole food industry is rare in Finland and other countries with
only partial or non-existent NG network, but it is used in central Europe (e.g. Netherlands and
Germany) where the NG network covers the industrial areas well. In this respect, there should
be no significant difference between food industry sub sectors. However, different electricity
and heat demands have an important role in the feasibility of CHP in different sub sectors.
The feasibility of absorption cooling or freezing depends most of all on the prices of electricity
and the cheapest fuel available. The other important factor is the temperature level needed
the colder the cold needed, the more feasible absorption cooling, compared to conventional
cooling. Thus, absorption cooling is quite attractive in countries where electricity is expensive
(such as Italy, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Romania), and in
freezing and deep-freezing applications, again regardless of food industry sub sector. In
Finland, on the other hand, food industry is not at all interested in absorption cooling or
freezing because electricity is relatively inexpensive and because the present solution
compressor cooling works fine.
Onsite energy production in general is not of great interest to food industry - that is the case at
least in Finland - because most of the food and drink manufacturing companies have sold their
energy production facilities to local energy companies and others whose core business is to
provide energy to their customers. Energy is rather inexpensive and constitutes only a very
minor part of the overall production costs. Also, emission trade concerns only the biggest
energy production units (more than 20 MW fuel power). Thus, there is no great incentive in
general to make a move. There are, however, some examples of pioneering activity in Europe.
One case is an electricity supplier that operates a biogas driven CHP plant at a food factory
processing and freezing potatoes.3
Optipolygen database: www.optipolygen.org
5 Process waste and by-products

Many sectors of food industry, including Cooked food and vegetables, produce significant amounts
of biodegradable wastes or by-products that could be used for energy production, but often
are not. The amount of biowaste per product ton depends on the raw material processed. Up
to 50 % of fruit and typically 10 30 % of raw vegetable materials are wasted during
processing.3 Part of the waste goes to the wastewater; the rest is solid biowaste. Table 5.1
below shows reported values of solid biowaste for some raw materials.
Table 5.1 Solid waste produced during fruit and vegetable processing.4
Raw material processed
Solid waste produced
kg/ton of product
Maize
40
Peas
40
Potatoes
40
Strawberries
60
Apples
90
All vegetables
130
Peaches
180
Broccoli
200
Carrots
200
Frozen peaches*
200
* product
For comparison, in 2004 a Finnish company that produces both vegetable and meat-containing
products, produced altogether 130 000 tons of marketable food and at the same time, 10 600
tons of biowaste that was composted, which makes about 80 kg per product ton on average. In
addition to composting, most of the slaughter waste (bones, etc.) was transported to another
location for further processing and utilization. Other waste fractions of potential use recyclable and non-recyclable paper, cardboard, plastic containers, pig hair - were relatively
insignificant compared to the composted and slaughter waste fractions. The amount of landfill
waste was 2100 tons that was the third biggest waste fraction. In this particular food factory,
it has been planned to convert the animal fat that is in every case being separated in the
manufacturing processes, into heat by burning it directly. Detailed feasibility studies were not
available.
In Finland, there are a few biogas plants onsite a food factory.5 Chips Oy Ab, producing
potato crisps and alike, has operated an anaerobic digester since 1987. The size of the reactor is
2000 m3. The gas produced during nighttime is stored and used in a gas boiler during
production hours (daytime). Detailed figures about the gas volumes or energy are not available.
The biogas plant at Lnnen Tehtaat Oyj produced 0,413 million Nm3 of biogas most of which
Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Food, Drink and Milk Industries, Final Draft
5 Ville Kuittinen, Markku J. Huttunen: Suomen Biokaasulaitosrekisteri VII, Tiedot vuodelta 2003 (Registry of
Finnish Biogas Plants, 2003).
4
10
was sold to another user. In most cases, however, the biowastes are composted or further
processed to cattle feed, etc. That is, converting biowastes into energy is not common in
Finland.
In Denmark, biowaste from food industry is in many cases transported to central biogas plants
digesting different biodegradable wastes in the same reactor.6
Teodorita Al Seadi: Danish Centralised Biogas Plants Plant Descriptions, Bioenergy Department, University of
Southern Denmark, 2000.
6
11
6 Potential technologies for on-site energy production in the

cooked food and vegetables industry
Industrial cooking of food irrespective of the nature of the ingredients - involves both
heating and cooling processes that require a lot of energy. As a matter of fact, both heating and
cooling are thermal energy needs by nature, but nowadays, due to the development of
equipment, a significant part, if not a major part, of the thermal energy need has been
converted into electricity need. Anyhow, energy consumption, be it in the form of thermal
energy or electricity, means, as a rule, depletion of non-renewable energy resources and
emission of greenhouse gases. Taking the goals of sustainable development into account, only
those technologies able to contribute to sustainable development of industrial energy use are
considered in this report.
There are basically two different approaches in trying to improve the energy sustainability of
an industrial plant. One is to take the process or factory as it is and try to find a better but still
suitable (energy) technology to replace the existing one. The other is to try and mould the
process or chain of processes in a way that enables more efficient use of energy and reduction
of energy consumption. In this report, food industry as a whole is considered such a delicate
sector of industry that the processes and methods of manufacture are not questioned; only
ways to incorporate existing energy technologies that may not always seem to suite the needs
of a food factory very well at first glance, are being discussed.
6.1 CHP
Combined heat and power (CHP) production is standard technology in central energy
production. During recent years, it has been applied more and more onsite and in smaller scale,
reducing electricity transmission losses and costs, and giving more reliability to the electricity
supply, both onsite and in the neighbourhood. Also, environmentally harmful fuels, such as oil,
have been replaced by less harmful ones, such as natural gas or still better, biogas. However, it
must be remembered that onsite CHP as such does not represent sustainable development,
unless overall energy consumption is reduced or CO2 emission reductions are achieved.
Feasibility of onsite CHP, for example in food factories, depends among other things - on
sufficient heat loads. Assuming that electricity can be bought from and sold into the grid with
reasonable contracts, the remaining question concerning CHP applicability is the durability of
heat loads. Many food factories, even big ones, operate only in one, or at most, in two shifts
which results in significant fluctuation of the loads. The same applies with batch processes,
both in heating and cooling ones, which are also common in the cooked food industry.
The strong daily fluctuation of loads does not necessarily have to be an obstacle to the
application of onsite CHP. Combining heat storage of suitable size with a CHP unit makes it
quite easy to cope with daily load fluctuations, even if the fluctuations are sharp and the
difference between minimum and maximum load high.
12
The same principle could be applied in the production of cold i.e., storage of cold in order to
deal with the daily variations in the need - but suitable case examples were not found. This is
the case probably because other, more convenient technologies rule the cooling technology
market.
There are several CHP technologies available for onsite energy production, some of which are
standard technology (gas engines, gas turbines, steam turbines), others more or less mature
(ORC7, Stirling engines, fuel cell technologies). In the case of cooked food industry, thermal
energy is often needed at more than 100 C. Because of this gas turbine technology is selected
as the representative of CHP technologies. Due to the development of small turbine units
(micro turbines), CHP technology has become available in smaller and smaller size class
applications, even with high temperature thermal loads. In this report, the smallest
commercially available micro turbine, 30 kWel 8, has been taken as the technical threshold.
Naturally, this threshold technology choice does not limit the technologies applied in bigger
industrial plants: standard gas and steam turbines can be applied, and even gas engines find
their application, where the high temperature thermal loads (above about 80 C) are smaller
than the lower temperature thermal loads (below 80 C). In addition, it should be emphasised
that the CHP potential estimated in this report is generally not technology dependent, except
for the vicinity of the lower limit technical threshold. Also, turbine technology has to be
assumed in cases where thermal loads require exclusively high temperatures and preheating
(with gas engines lower temperature output) cannot be applied.
Minimum peak-load hours of operation is taken to be 4000 h/year. In addition, 50 %
additional thermal load is required, due to the seasonal load variations. The ratio of thermal
energy output to the electrical energy output is approximately 2.5 for micro turbines. These
values result in the minimum onsite heat load requirement of 450 MWh/year, rounded up to
500 MWh/year in the calculations. The same heat to electricity ratio (2.5) is used regardless of
CHP technology or unit size.
6.2 Biogas from process waste & CHP

Anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste, both vegetable and slaughter waste, is one of the
most promising options of utilising food industry process wastes or low value by-products.
The resulting biogas, rich with methane, can be burned directly and utilised as hot water or
steam, as needed or, it can be used to run a gas engine or turbine, to produce both heat and
electricity. In the former case, there is no real threshold for biogas production and utilisation,
and it should always be considered when significant amounts of biowastes are created at a food
manufacturing plant. Mostly, the energy gained from the waste is only a fraction of the plants
overall energy consumption, but it is truly renewable and CO2 neutral, and thus a sustainable
step forward. In the latter case, the smallest available CHP unit sets the threshold for the
biowaste utilisation. Using the same limiting values as in the case of plain CHP (6.1), the
threshold can be stated as follows:
7
8
Organic Rankine Cycle

Capstone Turbine Corporation, www.capstoneturbine.com; December, 2005.
13
The biogas reactor must produce as much biogas (methane) as is needed to feed the CHP unit.
The biogas yield from different waste fractions varies quite a lot, and depends also on the
anaerobic digestion process details, such as temperature, pressure, pH management, etc.
Generally, slaughter waste as well as fish waste gives higher specific biogas yields than
vegetable waste. In the polygeneration potential calculations, however, only vegetable waste is
assumed, with the following characteristics:
Biogas reactor input
Vegetable waste/product ton
Share of input that is volatile solids (VS)
Biogas yield
Biogas energy content
Vegetable waste
25 %
30 %
400 Nm3/ton of VS
6 kWh/Nm3
The amount of (vegetable) waste per product ton depends on the raw materials processed and
the applied processes. So, the actual value is very much case dependent, but the value used (25
%) serves as an approximation of the average in the cooked food industry. Demanding that a
30 kWel micro turbine can be adequately fed with the biogas results in the threshold of 1200
tons of biowaste per year and 4800 product tons per year.
6.3 CHP driven absorption cooling

Cooling loads represent a significant fraction of the overall energy loads in a cooked food
factory, and even more so if the products, or some of them, are frozen. Typically, cooling
including freezing - is driven by electricity. Absorption cooling transforms this electricity load
back into the original, thermal form. Again, there is nothing sustainable in absorption cooling
as such the positive effects, if present, come from the fuels used to produce the thermal
driving force of the absorption cooler, and from the fuels saved due to the decreased electricity
consumption. Thus, whether replacing electricity driven compressor cooling with thermally
driven absorption cooling is sustainable development or not, is case and operating
environment dependent. But when the case is favourable, it is doubly so if the absorption
cooling is driven by the heat generated in a CHP unit. In that case, the CHP unit is in fact
replacing grid electricity with both its outputs: electricity and heat.
In the food industry, cooling loads are mostly base loads and therefore very suitable for the
combination of CHP and absorption cooling. The cooling load transformed into thermal one
provides the CHP unit with a constant load and generously enough of annual operating hours.
In order to achieve deep freezing temperatures (-30 - 40 C), turbine technology is used as
the CHP technology in the combination.
The smallest commercially available absorption cooler has presently 100 kW cooling capacity.9
It means about 125 kW thermal driving force in the deep freezing applications (COP 0.8)
and about 85 kW in the refrigeration applications (around +4 C; COP 1.2). These are both
higher than the thermal output of the smallest available micro turbine, which means that the
9
Colibri bv, www.colibri-bv.com, December 2005.
14
minimum capacity of the absorption cooler is the technical threshold in the combination of
CHP and absorption cooling. This can be used directly if the capacity of the cooling
equipment, or the overall cooling load, at a site is known. In the polygeneration potential
calculations it is assumed, however, that only the overall electricity load of a food factory is
known and the threshold load is calculated using the following assumptions:
compressor cooling COP
absorption cooling COP
electricity for conventional cooling/total electricity
+ 4 C
2.5
1.2
30 %
- 30 C
1.2
0.8
50 %
On average, assuming both refrigeration and freezing loads, the threshold electricity load of a
food factory turns out to be about 600 MWhel/year (conventional electricity load before
installation of absorption cooling).
15
7 Cooked food and vegetables production in Europe

7.1 Production statistics
EUROSTAT provides quite detailed categories of food items that are being produced
commercially in Europe.10 Table 7.1 below shows those that are related to Cooked food and
vegetables.
Table 7.1 EUROSTAT statistical food items related to Cooked food and vegetables.
EUROSTAT PRODCOM ANNUAL 2004
Statistical items related to Cooked food and vegetables
V/INCL
Frozen vegetables and mixtures of vegetables (including vegetable dishes;
excluding prepared /preserved by vinegar or acetic acid, cooked or not by
steaming or boiling in water)
INCL
Frozen vegetables and mixtures of vegetables; uncooked or cooked by
steaming or boiling in water (excluding potatoes)
V/INCL
Vegetables and mixtures of vegetables, not frozen, n.e.c.
V/INCL
Vegetables and mixtures of vegetables, n.e.c.
INCL
Frozen vegetable dishes
V/INCL
Frozen prepared vegetables, n.e.c.
INCL
Prepared vegetable dishes, not frozen
INCL
Frozen fruit and nuts uncooked or cooked by steaming or boiling in water
EXCL
Citrus fruit jams; marmalades; jellies; purees or pastes; being cooked
preparations (excluding homogenised preparations)
EXCL
Jams; marmalades; fruit jellies; fruit or nut purees and pastes; being cooked
preparations (excluding of citrus fruit, homogenised preparations)
INCL
Sausages and similar products of liver (including pates and pastes in sausage
casings or pressed into a sausage shape)
INCL
Sausages not of liver
INCL
Preparations of goose/duck liver including pates and pastes not in sausage
casings or form food preparations containing > 20 % of meat excluding
sausages homogenised preparations
INCL
Preparations of animal liver (including pates and pastes other than in sausage)
food preparations containing > 20 % of meat (excluding sausages /
homogenised preparations, of goose or duck)
INCL
Prepared fish dishes
INCL
Prepared dishes of crustaceans, molluscs, etc.
INCL
Frozen potatoes, uncooked or cooked by steaming or boiling in water
INCL
Frozen potatoes, prepared or preserved (including potatoes cooked or partly
cooked in oil and then frozen; excluding by vinegar or acetic acid)
INCL
Potatoes prepared or preserved (including crisps; excluding frozen, dried, by
vinegar or acetic acid, in the form of flour; meal or flakes)
INCL
Cooked or uncooked pasta stuffed with meat; fish; cheese or other substances
10
EUROSTAT: PRODCOM ANNUAL statistics database.
16
in any proportion
Dried; undried and frozen pasta and pasta products (including prepared
dishes) (excluding uncooked pasta, stuffed pasta)
INCL
Cooked or otherwise prepared couscous (including put up with meat;
vegetables and other ingredients as a complete dish of couscous)
V/EXCL
Homogenised vegetables (excluding frozen, preserved by vinegar or acetic
acid)
EXCL
Homogenised preparations of jams; fruit jellies; marmalades; fruit or nut puree
and fruit or nut pastes
INCL/EXCL Homogenised composite food preparations for infant food or dietetic
purposes p.r.s. in containers <= 250 g
INCL
Food preparations for infants; p.r.s. (excluding homogenised composite food
preparations)
INCL
Milk-based food preparations for infants
INCL
Flour-based food preparations for infants
INCL
V = vegetables, not cooked

INCL = includes cooked food and vegetables, but also uncooked or other food items
EXCL = includes only cooked food and vegetables
From Table 7.1 it becomes quite clear that it is not possible to determine the amount of Cooked
food and vegetables produced in Europe on the basis of EUROSTAT data. This fact necessitates a
new perspective in the estimation of polygeneration potential in the sector Cooked food and
vegetables.
7.2 Number of enterprises

As the amount of industrially manufactured Cooked food and vegetables is not known, the
polygeneration potential estimation in this sector is approached via the number of enterprises
that produce cooked food and vegetables, in some cases admittedly - among other things.
But because there are no statistical data exclusively on cooked food, the estimation had to be
confined into suitable statistically expressed areas, NACE codes in the EUROSTAT language.
In order to avoid overlapping with the Optipolygen sectors Fish and meat and Beverages, juices,
etc., only the following NACE codes were included in this report:
da1531
da1533
da1588
da1589
Processing and preserving of potatoes

Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables n.e.c.
Manufacture of homogenized food preparations and dietetic food
Manufacture of other food products n.e.c.
The total number of enterprises producing abovementioned items in European countries is

shown in Figure 7.1. Fifteen countries provided EUROSTAT with such detailed data in 2003.
17
Number of enterprises 2003

Potatoes
Fruit and vegetables
Homogenised and dietetic food
Other food products
2200
2000
1800
number of enterprises
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
be
cz
dk
de
ee
gr
es
fr
ie
it
cy
lv
lt
lu
hu
mt
nl
at
pl
pt
si
sk
fi
se
uk
bg
ro
no
ch
al
Figure 7.1. Total number of enterprises producing items under NACE codes da1531, da1533,
da1588 and da1589, country by country; EUROSTAT data.
Also EUROSTAT data on number of enterprises broken down by employment size classes
were used in the polygeneration potential calculations, in order to make use of the technical
thresholds in different polygeneration scenarios. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show the number of
enterprises in the applicable sub classes of da153 (=da1531+da1533) and da158
(=da1588+da1589), and in the size classes 20 employees and more. The size distribution of the
enterprises in the applicable sub classes (e.g. 1531 +1533) is assumed to be the same as that in
the mother class (153) for which statistical data exists.
18
Processing fruit and vegetables, incl. potatoes

20-49 employees
50-249 employees
250 or more
180
160
Number of enterprises
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
cz
dk
de
ee
es
fr
it
cy
lv
lt
nl
at
pt
sk
bg
ro
Figure 7.2. Estimated number of enterprises in given size classes; NACE codes da1531 and
da1533; EUROSTAT data 2003.
Manufacture of other food products, incl. homogenised & dietetic food
20-49 employees
50-249 employees
250 or more
80
70
Number of enterprises
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
cz
dk
de
ee
es
fr
it
cy
lv
lt
nl
at
pt
sk
bg
ro
Figure 7.3. Estimated number of enterprises in given size classes; NACE codes da1588 and
da1589; EUROSTAT data 2003.
Knowing the approximate amount of energy used per employee and product tons per
employee (Chapter 3), these estimated numbers of enterprises in the employment size classes
were then used in the polygeneration potential calculations (Chapter 8).
19
20
8 Technical potential of on-site energy production in the cooked

food and vegetables industry
The technical polygeneration potential estimated in the basic calculation includes the following
16 European countries for which detailed enough statistical data could be found:
cz
dk
de
ee
es
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Spain
fr
it
cy
lv
lt
France
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
nl Netherlands
at Austria
pt Portugal
sk Slovakia
bg Bulgaria
ro Romania
8.1 Estimation method

Due to the lack of statistical data concerning Cooked food and vegetables and other complications
explained in the Introduction and elsewhere in this report, the following method to estimate
polygeneration potential in the Cooked food and vegetables industry was applied:
1. EUROSTAT statistic categories that can be taken to belong to Cooked food and vegetables
industry were selected. In order to avoid overlapping with the Optipolygen sectors Fish and
meat and Beverages, juices, etc., only the following NACE codes were included in this report:
da1531
da1533
da1588
da1589
Processing and preserving of potatoes

Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables n.e.c.
Manufacture of homogenized food preparations and dietetic food
Manufacture of other food products n.e.c.
2. The number of enterprises in each European country producing these items was collected
using EUROSTAT Annual detailed enterprise statistics on manufacturing, subsections DADE and total manufacturing (NACE D)'. Data from some countries is missing and these
countries were simply excluded from the basic calculations. Given the data, they could be
easily included. Sixteen European countries (see Fig. 7.2) are thus included in the basic
estimation.
3. Typical amount of production per employee (tons/employee) and energy consumption per
employee (electricity and heat) (MWh/employee) in the cooked food factories were calculated,
using the home pages, environmental reports and representative interviews of as many
enterprises as reasonably available. The share of electricity used for cooling purposes (including
refrigeration and freezing) compared to the total electricity consumption was estimated on the
basis of similar data.
21
4. Threshold size (in number of employees) of a cooked food factory that allows a specific
technology to be applied was determined. The specific technologies, or polygeneration
scenarios, considered were:
-
case 1: CHP
case 2: biogas production through anaerobic digestion of biowastes + CHP
case 3: CHP driven absorption cooling
The specific indicators needed in each case and the values used were:
-
case 1: thermal energy consumption per employee: 30 MWh/employee,year

case 2: product tons per employee: 50 tons/employee,year
case 3: electricity consumption per employee: 30 MWh/employee,year
In addition to these key indicators, the other important assumptions have been explained and
their numerical values given in Chapter 6.
5. The polygeneration potential of each case (1-3) in installed capacity (MW) was calculated
using the EUROSTAT data 'Manufacturing subsections DA-DE and total manufacturing
(NACE D) broken down by employment size classes' (see Chapter 7) and the previously
mentioned indicator values and assumptions. The average size of each size class was taken as
the representative of the class, except for the biggest class (250 or more), for which the lower
limit (250) was taken, to be conservative. Three additional assumptions were made:
1) the enterprise size distribution within a size class is uniform
2) each enterprise has only one factory or production plant
3) natural gas is available or can be easily arranged at every food factory (i.e., oil is not
considered a fuel option for the CHP units)
The second assumption surely leads to underestimation of the polygeneration potential, but
just as surely, the third assumption leads to overestimation since the natural gas network does
not cover the entire Europe and there are food factories in Europe that are far away from the
gas network. Thus, in essence it is assumed that the distorting effect of assumptions 2 and 3
are opposite and equal in magnitude, and cancel each other.
The detailed calculations can be found in the attached excel-file, including comments on minor
assumptions and approximations.
8.2 Results
The estimated polygeneration potential in 16 European countries is shown in Figures 8.1, 8.2
and 8.3.
22
Polygeneration potential in 16 European countries

Cooked food and vegetables
800
706
Capacity (MW)
700
600
500
400
300
263
200
100
29
0
CHP (MWel)
Biogas+CHP (MWel) CHP+abs.cool. (MW

abs.cool.)
Figure 8.1. Estimated technical polygeneration potential in installed megawatts (MW); last
column presented in installed absorption cooling capacity (includes refrigeration & freezing).

300
282
263
Capacity (MW)
250
200
150
100
29
50
0
CHP (MWel)
Biogas+CHP (MWel)
CHP+abs.cool
(MWel inst. CHP)
Figure 8.2. Estimated technical polygeneration potential in installed megawatts (MW); last
column presented in installed CHP electrical capacity.
23

CHP (MWel)
biogas+CHP (MWel)
CHP+abs.cooling (MWel CHP)
80
70
60
Capacity (MW)
50
40
30
20
10
0
cz
dk
de
ee
es
fr
it
cy
lv
lt
nl
at
pt
sk
bg
ro
Figure 8.3. Estimated technical polygeneration potential in 16 European countries; all

columns expressed in installed CHP electrical capacity.
As mentioned before, data from several countries is missing and therefore, the results do not
reflect the total European potential. The countries that are not included in the analysis and
results above are:
Belgium
Croatia
Finland
Iceland
Ireland
Greece
Hungary
Luxembourg
Malta
Norway
Poland
Slovenia
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
These countries represent about 30 % of the total European GDP (EUROSTAT 2002-2004).
If we assume that the polygeneration potential is proportional to the GDP, a rough estimate of
the total European polygeneration potential in the cooked food and vegetables industry can be
obtained:
CHP
Biogas + CHP
CHP driven absorption cooling
370 MWel
40 MWel
400 MWel (inst. CHP)
24
8.3 Conclusions
With the assumptions and approximations made, the calculation results indicate that there is
significant technical potential in Europe both for CHP and CHP driven absorption cooling, as
far as the cooked food and vegetables industry is concerned. On the contrary, it seems that the
potential for biogas production from process waste is quite limited. It should also be noticed
that the CHP and the CHP driven absorption cooling potentials are not overlapping i.e., their
potentials can be summed up. The same applies with biogas production and CHP driven
absorption cooling. The only case in which overlapping occurs is CHP versus biogas
production & CHP.
From the results in Chapter 8.2 one might draw the conclusion that the potential for CHP and
CHP driven absorption cooling are about the same. It must be kept in mind, however, that the
estimation method includes several very general indicators, the values of which are based on
fairly few cases. Varying the key indicator values as for sensitivity analysis, showed that the
potentials change accordingly and it cannot be concluded at this point which of the two
polygeneration scenarios has higher potential. This calculation exercise should therefore be
repeated when wider database on the key indicators of food factories is available.
The size class of the overall technical polygeneration potential in the European cooked food
and vegetables industry is most probably hundreds of megawatts (CHP electrical), not tens or
thousands of megawatts. Although most approximations and simplifications made were
conservative, there are surely case dependent technical limitations that decrease the actual,
technically realizable potential.
25
OPTimum Integration of POLYGENeration in the Food Industry
Optimum Integration of Polygeneration in the Food Industry

(OPTIPOLYGEN)
Contract number: EIE/04/150/S07.39553
Work Package 2
POTENTIAL FOR POLYGENERATION IN THE OIL, FATS AND OLIVE OIL
INDUSTRIES
F. Barreiro, R. Ferreira, M. Cantista and M. Costa
Instituto Superior Tcnico

Mechanical Engineering Department
Avenida Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa
Portugal
February, 2006
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 3
2. Process Description ................................................................................................................ 4
2.1 Vegetable Oils .................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.1 Cleaning/Storage ....................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Hulling ....................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Crushing .................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Cooking ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.5 Pressing...................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.6 Solvent Extraction ..................................................................................................... 5
2.1.7 Degumming ............................................................................................................... 5
2.1.8 Neutralisation ............................................................................................................ 5
2.1.9 Bleaching ................................................................................................................... 6
2.1.10 Deodorization .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Fats ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Olive Oil ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Preparation and Extraction of Virgin Olive Oil ........................................................ 7
2.3.2 Solvent Extraction ..................................................................................................... 7
2.3.4 Refining of Crude Olive Oil ...................................................................................... 8
3. Utilities and Energy Use......................................................................................................... 9
4. CHP in Oil, Fats and Olive Oil Industry .............................................................................. 11
5. Rest Products ........................................................................................................................ 12
5.1 Solid Output.................................................................................................................... 12
5.2 Waste Water ................................................................................................................... 12
6. Potential New Technology for CHP Production in Oil, Fats and Olive Oil Industry ..........14
7. Oil Production in Europe...................................................................................................... 15
8. Potential Energy Savings by Polygeneration in Oil, Fats and Olive Oil Industry ............... 17
9. References ............................................................................................................................ 24
Pg. 2 of 24
1. Introduction
This report is part of the OPTIPOLYGEN Project whose main goal at this phase is to
calculate the electrical nominal power that can be efficiently produced by polygeneration
applications, using existing technologies in the European Food industry split by sectors.
IST is responsible for the analysis of the Food Industry sub-sector of Oils, Fats and Olive Oil
and in this report it is described the analysis made on the general industrial transforming
processes in the oils, fats and olive oil products industry estimated according to the wastes of
each seed used in each process.
Pg. 3 of 24
2. Process Description
Oil industry processes use different kinds of oleaginous seeds, beans, fruits and nuts for the
production of vegetable oils, mainly for human consumption but also for animal feeding.
Usually crushing plants have integrated refining facilities that produce fatty products, which
are intended for food, feed or technical usages.
The flow chart displayed in Figure 1 illustrates the various steps of the oilseeds processing for
the production of meals, crude, refined oils and olive oils.
Figure 1: General flow chart of oil industry.
2.1 Vegetable Oils

2.1.1 Cleaning/Storage
The first step consists in the cleaning process of seeds/beans, because there are other residues
like stones, sand, leaves and metals that have to be taken out by sieving and magnets and
disposed outside the feed chain [3].
2.1.2 Hulling
The preparation of the seeds before an extraction step depends on the kind of seed/bean and
the required quality of the meal. Some oilseeds, like soybeans and sunflower seed, may be
dehulled after the cleaning step. After dehulling the meal will have a lower crude fibre
content, and a higher protein content. The hulls can also be used for feeding purposes [3].
Pg. 4 of 24
2.1.3 Crushing
In the past, factories where crushing was done between millstones, were known as oil mills
and the process as oil milling later crushing became made by steel rolls and the process
known as oil crushing [3].
2.1.4 Cooking
Soybeans, with relatively low oil content, are thermally treated, mechanically crushed and
used as raw material/flakes for further extraction. Sometimes the raw material is pressed
without heating; such oils are known as cold-pressed oils. Since cold pressing does not extract
all the oil, it is applied only in the production of a few special edible oils, i.e., olive oil [3].
2.1.5 Pressing
Seeds with high oil content, like rapeseed and sunflower seeds, are usually pressed in
expellers after a preheating step in indirectly heated conditioners. The expeller cake (or
pressed cake) will then be further treated in the extractor since it might have still a content of
oil from 4 to 8 or even 10 per cent. In some cases, the expeller cake is not further extracted
but after deep expelling, sold as such for feed purposes [3].
2.1.6 Solvent Extraction

Solvent extraction is used to separate oil from seeds/beans; the principle is to employ a
volatile liquid in which the oil is freely soluble. The common solvent used by crushers is
hexane. The pre-processed seeds/beans are treated in a multistage counter-current process
with solvent until the remaining oil content is reduced to the lowest possible level.
The hexane-containing meal is treated in the desolventising toaster (not shown in the flow
chart) with the help of indirect heating and steam. The desolventising toasting process serves
three purposes. First, to win back the solvent from the meal, secondly, to increase the
nutritional value of the meal, e.g., by reducing the content of glucosinolates or trypsin
inhibitors, and, thirdly, to minimise the risk of biological contamination [3].
2.1.7 Degumming
The first step of refining is degumming. Its purpose is to remove seed particles, impurities,
and most of the phosphatides, carbohydrates, proteins and traces of metals. crude oil is treated
oodgrade processing aids and/or water at a temperature around 100 C, which leads to
hydration of most of the phosphatides, proteins, carbohydrates and traces of metals. The
hydrated material precipitates from the oil and is removed [3].
2.1.8 Neutralisation
Alkali neutralisation reduces the content of the following components: free fatty acids,
oxidation products of free fatty acids, residual proteins, phosphatides, carbohydrates, traces of
metals and a part of the pigments.
In this phase, the oil treated with an alkali solution (caustic soda) that reacts with the free fatty
acids present and converts them into soap stock. The mixture allows then to separate the oil
Pg. 5 of 24
phase freed from fatty acid that floats on top from a layer phase of soap, alkali solution and
other impurities, which are drawn off. The oil is then washed with water to remove the soap,
the alkali solution and other impurities, when it is ready for the decolorizing or deodorising
process.
The under layer of soap and other impurities, which is drawn from the oil, it is a solid material
mixed with some water. A large proportion of it is soap stock, which may be sold to soap
manufacturers or it may be treated with an acid treatment (sulphuric acid) to set free the fatty
acids contained in it. These are used for feed purposes and for soap or candle manufacturing
[3].
2.1.9 Bleaching
The purpose of bleaching (or decolorizing) is to reduce the levels of pigments such as
carotenoids and chlorophyll, and residues of phosphatides, traces of metals and oxidation
products. These compounds can have a deleterious effect on the course of further processing
and on the quality of the final product. These substances are removed by adsorption with
activated clay and silica. If also heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are present,
activated carbon shall be used for their removal. Dosage of these adsorption agents should be
adapted to ensure the removal of the specific substances. The bleaching clay containing all
these substances is separated by filtration. Those processes are partly done under vacuum and
at temperatures below 150 C [3].
2.1.10 Deodorization
The purpose of deodorization is to reduce the level of free fatty acids and to remove odours,
off-flavours and other volatile components such as pesticides and light polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons by a stripping media. Careful execution of this process will also improve the
stability and the colour of the oil, while preserving the nutritional value.
The deodorization process is carried out under vacuum (0.5 8 mbar) with temperatures
between 180 270 C, and using a stripping media.
Conditions should be adapted within these ranges as appropriate to ensure the removal of the
specific substances [3].
2.2 Fats
The main products manufactured from edible oils and fats are margarine, edible fats, edible
oils and mayonnaise. In view of its major outstanding importance, only margarine production
is described here.
Most installations carry out hydrogenation to produce fats with superior retention qualities
and higher melting points. Hydrogenation, or hardening of edible oils, is the process of
saturating mono or poly-unsaturated fatty acids by adding hydrogen gas for hydrogenation
and nickel as catalyst. Neutral or bleached oil is heated to a temperature of 150 to 205 C in
the presence of nickel catalyst, maximum 10 kg/ton of product. H2 is the added to the mixing
reactor to achieve the hardening, i.e., the transformation of oil to fat.
Pg. 6 of 24
Hydrogenation is an exothermic process. The equipment used for hardening consists of

mixing vessels, reaction tanks, autoclaves and filters.
In an example oil refinery, the steam generated is fed into the existing 3.5 bar main pipe of the
installation, thereby reducing the primary energy consumption of the installation as a whole.
The reported energy (steam) generation amounts to 25-125 kWh/ton of unrefined oil. In
addiction, by using the exothermic energy from hydrogenation a 5 to 10% reduction of the
selected site is achievable.
A more detailed description of the process may be found in references [1, 4, 8].
2.3 Olive Oil

2.3.1 Preparation and Extraction of Virgin Olive Oil
The olives are filled in charges into a soil funnel and transported by a belt conveyor into a
sucking device, where leaves, wood particles and other disturbing solids are removed.
Subsequently, they are cleaned in a washing plant. The washing water is usually recycled into
the process after sedimentation of the solids or filtration.
The olives are then ground up and mixed into a pulp. This is carried out in a stone-mill
consisting of a horizontally lying granite block with a granite millstone resting perpendicular
to it. Metal mills and hammer mills are also used for this purpose.
In order to obtain an efficient virgin oil extraction, the pulp resulting from the milling must
become more homogeneous. To get it, the pulp is introduced in doughs mixer where the helix
turns at a low speed to prevent emulsions. This process requires heat to improve the
separation process.
To obtain the virgin olive oil, a two-phase extraction system is used. It is a continuous system
which consists of a centrifugal decanter. At this step, the virgin olive oil is separated from the
pomace.
Extra virgin oils, virgin oils and ordinary virgin oils are edible; yet only extra virgin olive oils
and virgin olive oils can be commercialized and as they are for direct consumption. Ordinary
virgin oils are commonly used mixed with refined olive oils and refined husk oils. Acid oils
with an acidity higher than 3.3 degrees must be refined.
2.3.2 Solvent Extraction

Solvent extraction is used to separate the pomace crude olive oil from the miscella using the
principle of employing a volatile liquid in which the oil is freely soluble. The common solvent
used by crushers is hexane. The pomace is treated in a multistage counter-current process with
solvent until the remaining oil content is reduced to the lowest possible level.
The miscella is introduced in the desolventising toaster (not shown in the flow chart) with the
help of indirect heating and steam. The desolventising toasting process serves three purposes.
First, to win back the solvent from the olive cake; secondly, to increase the nutritional value
Pg. 7 of 24
of the olive cake, e.g., by reducing the content of glucosinolates or trypsin inhibitors; and,
thirdly, to minimise the risk of biological contamination.
2.3.4 Refining of Crude Olive Oil

Olive oil refining is similar to oilseed oil refining. Therefore, for the process description of
olive oil see sections 2.1.7 to 2.1.10.
Pg. 8 of 24
3. Utilities and Energy Use

The energy consumption during the production of crude vegetable oils depends on the type of
raw material, the equipment and the manufacturing process. Table 1 shows the amount of
hulls, oils and meal present in each type of seed. These values are very important to estimate
the energy consumption in each kind of oil produced.
Seed
Cotton-seed
Ground-nut
Rape-seed
Safflower
Sesame
Sunflower
Soya bean
Hull in the seed

(%)
38
Not decorticated
Not decorticated
50
Not decorticated
50
8
Oil in kernel
(%)
30
49
43
35
47
42
19
Meal in kernel
(%)
70
51
57
65
53
58
81
Table 1: Standard percentage of hull, oil and meal present in each seed [4].
For the olives, about 20% (mass basis) results in virgin olive oil and 80% in pomace. The
final products of this pomace are refined olive oil and olive cake. The balance is 55% and
45%, respectively.
The industry of oils & fats uses heat and electricity, although cold could be necessary if some
additional steps were made in the refining process, such as winterisation. These processes
where not considered in the present study.
Table 2 shows the electric and heat demands by process per ton, as well as the temperature of
the heat necessary and the type of product that they are referring too, for example, crude oil,
seed, olives or final product).
The first steps of the process (cleaning, hulling, breaking and pressing) are not shown because
there were no values for each separately they are included in the solvent extraction data.
These processes are the major consumers of energy, in the extraction and preparation
processes (refining not included) representing near 75% of the energy consumption.
For Groundnut, Sesame, Cottonseed and Safflower the data was obtained from [1, 4, 7], for
Soya bean, sunflower and Rape-seed the data was obtained from a Portuguese oil company
[2], and for olives the data was obtained from [1, 10].
Pg. 9 of 24
Seed
Ground-nut
Sesame
Cotton seed
Safflower
Olives
Soya bean
Sunflower
Rape-seed
Olive
Process
Solvent extraction
Solvent recovery
Deguming
Neutralisation
Bleaching
Deodorisation
Extraction
Refining
Extraction
Refining
Extraction
Refining
Preparation and
extraction of virgin
olive oil
Referred
too
Seed
Meal
Crude
Crude
Crude
Crude
Seed
Oil
Seed
Oil
Seed
Oil
Heat
(kWh/ton)
280
108.8
75
53
20
45
300
132
320
187
323,8
132
Electric
(kWh)
45
3.5
7.7
9
6
3.5
29,5
24
36.5
46
36.5
26
Max. Temp.
(C)
90
80
85
110
225
90
225
90
225
90
225
Olives
30
75
Table 2: Energy demands on vegetable oil processing.
Pg. 10 of 24
4. CHP in Oil, Fats and Olive Oil Industry

Although very few oil companies have applied CHP in their processes, the oils, fats and olive
oil industry is suitable for this technology since the process presents high needs of heat and
small needs of electricity when compared with other industries.
Table 3 lists the companies in Portugal, and the installed power for each plant.
Company Name
City
FEXOL FBRICA DE
Montemor
EXTRAO DE LEOS DE
Novo
MONTEMOR, LDA
CENTROLIVA INDUSTRIA E
Vila Velha
ENERGIA, SA
de Rdo
COMPANHIA TRMICA LUSOL,
Barreiro
ACE
COMPANHIA TRMICA TAGOL,
Almada
ACE
Inst. Power
[kVA]
Production
[kWh]
630
4 170
5 499 450
8 140
30 299 803
9 345
52 812 000
Table 3: Portuguese companies with CHP.

As seen in Table 3, Tagol is the higher energy producer as well asthe major company in the
oil & fats industry in Portugal with a production of about 67 000 tons of refined oil per year.
In other European countries it was found a plant in Netherlands that uses tri-generation in the
margarine process. This factory produces only fats and the cold produced by the CHP system
is used for refrigeration purposes.
Pg. 11 of 24
5. Rest Products
5.1 Solid Output
Depending on the type of oilseed, the raw materials for vegetable oil production can almost be
converted completely into products, e.g., vegetable oil, protein rich meal, fatty acids and
lecithin, or by-products, e.g., human food, animal feed and pharmaceutical products.
Solid wastes, e.g., leaves, wood and stones, are generated in the raw materials first step
(cleaning). In oilseeds, this fraction is less than 1%, in the decortications of the seed the
percentage of solid output depends on the percentage off hull in the whole seed (see Table 1).
The hull either can join the meal or be incinerated.
The solid wastes of olive oil production consist of two major parts, i.e., the stones and the
olive cake. The stones accumulate in installations and can be used for building materials or
for activated charcoal. The olive cake is often used as a fuel for heating, for animal feed
supplement or returned to the olive grove as mulch to the soil. In this case, all the olive cake is
used as fuel for heating (biomass). The olive cake represents around 45% of the pomace.
In the pressing and solvent extraction, the crude oil is produced among the meal the
percentage of oil and meal can be approximated to the values presented before (see Table 1).
Those values can obviously change due to weather conditions, origin of the seed, etc.
Meal is normally used for animal feed, but it is possible to be incinerated among with the
hulls to produce energy. This aspect was considered in this study.
In the case of neutralisation, there is production of soap. Usually, it is further processed in the
refinery by splitting the soaps and regaining the fatty acids (acid oil). In some countries, it is
possible to mix the soap stock from the chemical refining of vegetable oil with other
ingredients for the production of low quality soaps or for use in meal for animal feed.
In the bleaching operations, spent bleaching earth containing 20-40% fat is produced. This
makes the waste prone to spontaneous combustion. In production plants, which exclusively
refine and modify edible oil, the earth is utilised by third parties for energy production by cofermentation to produce biogas or to make bricks. In mixed production plants, that produce
and refine oils, the earth is mixed with the meal and both are used as animal feed.
5.2 Waste Water

Seed dressing and edible oil processing can generate as much as 10-25 m3 of waste water per
ton of product. The amount of waste water highly depends on the type of oil source and the
technology used [1]. The waste waters output and its characteristics are shown in Table 4.
Pg. 12 of 24
Process/unit operation
Crude oil production (seed
processing)
Neutralisation
Parameter
COD load
Waste water volume
COD load
Deodorisation
Waste water volume

COD load
Level
0.1-1.0 kg/ton seed
processed
1-1.5 m3/ton refined
product
5 kg/ton refined product
10-30 m3/ ton refined
product
7 kg/ton refined product
Table 4: Waste water characteristics in vegetable oil processing.

In the production of olive oils, the output of waste water occurs only in the refining process
and the values are also shown in Table 4.
Pg. 13 of 24
6. Potential New Technology for CHP Production in Oil,

Fats and Olive Oil Industry
In oilseed and olive oil processing about 0.7 to 0.8 ton of solid output per ton of raw material
are generated. The major part of it is of vegetable origin, e.g., meal/olive cake. This is further
treated to extract the residual oil content, used as animal feed, sent for heat recovery, or used
without or after composing as a soil conditioner.
The output presents high potential to produce biogas from the waste water and spent
bleaching earth. The hulls, meal and olive cake (biomass) may be burned to produce energy.
Cottonseed, safflower, sunflower and soya bean are the seeds that produces the higher
percentage of solid output per ton of seed. This happens because they are decorticated
(hulling). Soya bean has a small percentage of hull, but has also a low oil content and,
because of that, produces much more meal than the others.
A recent study made by the Portuguese energy direction [5], estimates that production of
biogas from the residues of Soya oil seed can generate approximately 684 Nm3/ton. As there
were no reports for other types of seeds the same figures were assumed to all. The same study
reports also a possible production of 0.35 m3 of biogas per kilogram of COD (chemical
oxygen demand). These values were used to estimate the potential of Polygeneration for the
oil and olive oil industry.
Pg. 14 of 24
7. Oil Production in Europe

In the oil, fats and olive oil industry, the same enterprise may produce different seeds,
depending on the time of the year, the location, etc.
In the Eurostat [6] there were estimations for the EU-15 production of each seed. Figure 2
summarizes the Euro-15 production of each type of the refined oils studied here.
cotton seed
0,22%
olive oil
8,24%
ground-nut
1,25%
rape-seed
33,25%
virgin olive oil

20,03%
soyabean
16,78%
sesame
0,02%
safflower and sunflower

20,20%
Figure 2: Euro-15 production of major types of oils.
Pg. 15 of 24
Figure 3 presents the Euro-15 production of oils.
3.000.000
2.500.000
Ton/year
2.000.000
1.500.000
1.000.000
500.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 3: Euro-15 production of oils.

There were no data available for the production of each plant, but the numbers of enterprises
in each country was available in Eurostat web page. Figure 4 presents the number of
enterprises in Euro-15 that produce refined and crude oil.
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 4 Number of enterprises in Eu-15 that produces refined and crude oil.
Pg. 16 of 24
8. Potential Energy Savings by Polygeneration in Oil, Fats

and Olive Oil Industry
With the numbers estimated in sections 6 and 7 of this report, IST made calculations for each
seed because as it was stated before there are huge differences from seed to seed.
Figure 5 shows the processes and waste products that can be used to produce biogas and
biomass from Soya bean. For the others the diagrams are similar although the quantities of
wastes and energy used are different.
Seed
Cleaning
Leaves
Stones
Hulling
Hulls
Breaking
Water
Solvent
Pressing
Waste water
Solvent-extraction
miscella
Crude oil
Water
Biomass
Cooking
Biogas
Solvent recovery
degumming
Waste water
neutralisation
Bleaching earth
Water
Bleaching
Deodorization
Spent earth
Waste water
Refined soya oil
Figure 5: Flow diagram considered for biogas and biomass production from oilseed.
Pg. 17 of 24
For the production of olive oil, the diagram is slightly different; Figure 6 shows this diagram.
Olive
Preparation
and
extraction of
olive oil
Virgin
olive oil
Pomace
Biomass
Solvent
Solvent-extraction
Pomace Crude olive oil
Water
miscella
Olive
cake
Solvent recovery
degumming
Waste water
neutralisation
Bleaching earth
Water
Bleaching
Deodorization
Biogas
Spent earth
Waste water
Refined olive oil
Figure 6: Flow diagram considered for biogas and biomass production for olive oil.
Note that in the diagrams the steps in red are the ones that are included in extraction, and the
ones in blue are included in the refining.
Figure 7 presents the total energy spent to produce a ton of refined oil for each seed.
Pg. 18 of 24
1600,0
energy consumption (kWh)
1400,0
electricity
heat
1200,0
1000,0
800,0
600,0
400,0
200,0
0,0
cotton seed ground-nut
rape-seed
safflower
sesame
sunflower
soyabean
virgin olive
oil and
refined oilve
oil
Figure 7: Energy demands for oil production.

By examination of the graphs, it is possible to see that the oils that have higher needs of
energy are the ones that have more needs of seeds. This is due to the energy spent in
extraction being bigger than in refining.
To evaluate the potential of cogeneration and polygeneration with biogas it was considered
the use of a gas turbine operating with the following characteristics:
Electric power
Heat/electricity ratio
Minimum yearly operating hours
Fuel/electricity ratio
100 kWe
2.5
5000 hours/year
3
For the unit producing biogas, the characteristics were:
The smallest available biogas production units known need

Biogas generated
5000-ton solids/year
450000 Nm3/year
For the polygeneration with biomass, it was considered a small steam turbine/engine CHP
systems with the following values:
Electric power
Heat/electricity ratio
Yearly operating hours
Fuel/electricity ratio
150 kWe
8
8700 hours
6
Pg. 19 of 24
In addition, it was also considered a boiler burning biomass and producing only heat, with the
following characteristics:
Thermal power
Efficiency
200 kWth
85%
By applying the units described above, the results included in Table 5 were obtained for the
minimum oil plant production per year that justifies the use of cogeneration or
polygeneration.
Seed
Cogeneration
(ton/year)
Cottonseed
Groundnut
Rape-seed
Safflower
Sesame
Sunflower
Soya bean
Olive oil
1700
3000
2500
2500
3000
2500
1100
2500
Polygeneration
with biogas
(ton/year)
17000
17000
17000
17000
17000
17000
17000
18000
Polygeneration
with Biomass
(ton/year)
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
Polygeneration
only Heat
(ton/year)
520
520
520
520
520
520
520
520
Table 5: Minimum production of the plants per year that are suitable for CHP.
From Table 5 it was obtained the data displayed in Figure 8.
900.000
800.000
700.000
cogeneration
polygeneration with biogas
polygeneration with Biomass
Mhe/year
600.000
500.000
400.000
300.000
200.000
100.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 8: Mean power installed MWe.
Pg. 20 of 24
As can be seen, the cogeneration has a bigger potential as compared with the polygeneration.
This is because the annual production needed to implement cogeneration is smaller when
compared with the others; other reason is linked with the fact that a gas turbine CHP system is
more efficient than a steam turbine system.
Figure 8 reveals that Germany and Spain are the countries with the biggest potential owing to
the larger number of facilities and the production of oils.
Figure 9 shows the mean power installed by seed.
250.000
mean power MWh
200.000
cogeneration
Polygeneration ( Biomass )
Polygeneration ( Biogas )
150.000
100.000
50.000
0
cotton seed
ground-nut
rape-seed
safflower and
sunflower
sesame
soyabean
virgin olive oil
Figure 9: Mean power installed MW by seed.

For the oils that have a small production, e.g., groundnut, cottonseed and sesame, the potential
of cogeneration and polygeneration is little which conduces to the conclusion that this
technologies should not be considered.
For other oils like olive oil, sunflower, rape-seed, safflower and Soya bean polygeneration
with biomass should be considered, instead of cogeneration and polygeneration with biogas
since the potential is largely bigger.
Pg. 21 of 24
Figure 10 shows the potential of producing heat.
25.000.000
Mhth/year
20.000.000
15.000.000
10.000.000
5.000.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 10: Mean power installed MWth for production of Heat.

As these process (only heat) needs smaller productions per year, it is possible to see that every
EU-15 member has a potential that should be considered. If these technology are to be
considered an enormous saving of fossil fuels could be achieved in the future.
Another important measure that should be considered is the savings in CO2 emissions.
Considering that the use of renewable sources produces no CO2 emissions, Figure 11 shows
the CO2 emission savings by country.
Pg. 22 of 24
5.000.000
4.500.000
4.000.000
cogeneration
Polygenaration (biogas)
Polygeneration (Biomass)
only heat
Tones CO2/year
3.500.000
3.000.000
2.500.000
2.000.000
1.500.000
1.000.000
500.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 11: CO2 emission savings by country.
Pg. 23 of 24
9. References
[1] European Commission (2005). Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques
in Food, Drink and Milk Industry. European Commission, Sevilha.
[2] Tagol, Companhia Oleagenosas do Tejo (2005). Personal Comunications.
[3] FEDIOL: www.fediol.be.
[4] Norris, F. A. (1982). Extraction of Fats and Oils in Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat
Products, Swern, D. (ed.). John Wiley, Nova Iorque.
[5] Santos, P (2000). Guia Tcnico do Biogs (in portuguese). Centro para a Conservao
de Energia, Direco Geral de Energia, Lisboa.
[6] Eurostat: http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int.
[7] UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization (1977). Guidelines for
the Establishment and Operation of Vegetable Oil Factories. ONU, Nova Iorque.
[8] www.naturalandtasty.co.uk/margarine_process.htm.
[9] Civantos, L. (1998). El Olivo, el Aceite, la Aceituna. COI, Madrid.
[10] www.ucm.es/info/improliv/allgem.htm.
Pg. 24 of 24
WP2-Drink and Beverages Industry
OPTIPOLYGEN
OPTIPOLYGEN
WP2
Drink and Beverages Industry
Austrian Energy Consumers Association
Author:
Christian Steinreiber
Peter Lucny
EKV Austrian Energy Consumers Association
OPTIPOLYGEN
Executive Summary
On-site power generation in conjunction with the processes involved in the food industry may
form an efficient alternative and a step towards sustainability. It is however important to estimate
the real potential of on-site power generation methods which are currently available in the European food industry sector. A part of this sector is the Drink and Beverage Industry and the technical polygeneration potential for its most promising sectors breweries, distilleries and juice
producers has been calculated for all EU15 countries.
Calculations were based on data for energy consumption, which exist in the open literature or
were collected via oral communication with companies of the Drink and Beverages Industry.
The data from Eurostat for the different Drink and Beverages sectors and EU15 countries were
used together with figures from sector associations (e.g. The Brewers of Europe) and/or own
estimations of the size of the plants located in every country.
Results show that the polygeneration potential for technical application (without explicit financial
aspects) in all EU15 countries reach 7,900 GWh el /year with trigeneration (only analyzed for
breweries), 11,200 GWh el/year with cogeneration and 2,600 GWh el with biogas application. If
this potential is realized, CO2 emission savings of 2.7 million tones with trigeneration, 3.3 million
tones with cogeneration and with biogas more than 0.5 million. tones CO2 /year are achieved.
The highest potential of a drink sector 7,900 GWh comes from using trigeneration (cogeneration with absorption chilling cycles) in breweries. This can be explained with the significant
amount of thermal energy consumed for heat and also for chilling loads at temperatures down
to 10C. In the other two analyzed sectors distilleries and juice producers no trigeneration
could be estimated because of the lack of detailed information on existing plants.
Biogas generation potential is limited mainly because of the size of the plants there is a need
for significant amount of biogenic wastes for a biogas installation to be viable and because of
the limited generation of by-products as most of them is sold as cattle food (e.g. spent grains
from breweries and distillers wash). Nevertheless, the technical biogas potential for energy use
has been analyzed.
For wine producers, trigeneration and biogas can be a good option. Because of the very different production processes for different wines in the different wine regions all over Europe, no estimation was done. An analysis of energy benchmarks in the biggest wine regions (e.g. in Spain,
Italy and France) would be the pre-condition for such a calculation of the polygeneration potential.
OPTIPOLYGEN
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. 2

1.1
GENERAL ...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Polygeneration ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.2.2 Drink and Beverages Industry ................................................................................................ 4
1.2.3 Geographical coverage........................................................................................................... 4
PROCESS DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................. 5

2.1
BREWERIES (NACE 15.96) ........................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Process flow chart in breweries .............................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Utilities energy use and by-products in breweries .................................................................. 6
2.2
THE JUICE INDUSTRY (NACE 15.32X)............................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 Process description in the juice industry. ............................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Utilities and energy use in the juice industry. ....................................................................... 11
2.3
DISTILLERIES (NACE 15.91X-92X) .............................................................................................. 12
2.3.1 The Distillation Process ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3.2 Utilities and energy use in the juice industry. ....................................................................... 13
2.4
SOFT DRINKS (NACE 15.98) ....................................................................................................... 14
2.5
WINE (NACE 15.93-95).............................................................................................................. 15
ON-SITE POWER GENERATION IN THE DRINK AND BEVERAGES INDUSTRY ....... 18
POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR ON-SITE POWER GENERATION AND

POLYGENERATION IN THE DRINK AND BEVERAGES INDUSTRY ........................... 18
4.1
4.2
4.3
CHP........................................................................................................................................... 18
TRIGENERATION .......................................................................................................................... 19
SOLID WASTES AND BY-PRODUCTS USE. ....................................................................................... 19
TECHNICAL POTENTIAL OF ON SITE POWER GENERATION & EMISSION SAVINGS

BY POLYGENERATION IN THE DRINK AND BEVERAGES INDUSTRY IN EU15....... 21
5.1
METHODOLOGY. .......................................................................................................................... 21
5.1.1 Assumptions ......................................................................................................................... 21
5.1.2 Calculations. ......................................................................................................................... 21
5.2
DRINK AND BEVERAGES INDUSTRY IN EU15 ................................................................................. 22
5.2.1 Beer production data ............................................................................................................ 23
5.2.2 Juice production data............................................................................................................ 24
5.2.3 Spirits production data .......................................................................................................... 26
5.3
RESULTS..................................................................................................................................... 28
5.3.1 Brewery................................................................................................................................. 28
5.3.2 Juice...................................................................................................................................... 30
5.3.3 Distilleries.............................................................................................................................. 31
CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................ 34
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 34
OPTIPOLYGEN
Introduction
1.1 General
The aim of this report is to describe the general processes in the Drink and Beverages Industry,
focusing on energy usage (thermal and electrical) and the type of processes using this energy,
with the goal to estimate the total polygeneration potential in this sector in EU15 and the corresponding CO2 emission savings, which may arise.

1.2.1
Polygeneration
Polygeneration is the use of multiple primary energy inputs to create multiple energy outputs.
The term primary energy includes conventional fossil fuels and renewable energy sources which
arise from the production process (e.g. solid biomass or biogas). External renewable energy
sources (e.g. wind or solar energy) are not taken into account.
Energy output means the different forms of energy which are useful in an activity. In the Drink
and Beverages Industry this can be electricity and heat in various temperature levels i.e. steam,
hot water, chilling mediums etc.
1.2.2
Drink and Beverages Industry
The Drink and Beverages Sector includes all drinks, excluding coffee and tea which are dealt by
the OPTIPOLYGEN partner Chalex (UK). More specifically the following NACE codes have
been taken into account.
NACE
15.32
15.91-92
15.93-95
15.96
15.98
Code description
Manufacture of fruit and vegetable juice
Distilled potable alcoholic drinks
Ethyl alcohol from fermented materials
Wines
Other fermented drinks, e.g. cider, perry and
mead, an mixed drinks containing alcohol
Vermouth and other flavoured wine of fresh
grapes
Beer made from malt
Mineral waters and soft drinks
Table 1. NACE codes of the Drink Industry Sectors dealt in this report.
1.2.3
Geographical coverage.
This report covers the Drink and Beverages Industry in the European Union of the 15 countries
forming the European Union until May 2004. The methodology however is easy to be used in
the 10 new EU member countries.
OPTIPOLYGEN
2.1 Breweries (NACE 15.96)
2.1.1
Process flow chart in breweries
The raw materials for beer generally include barley malt, adjuncts, hops, water and yeast. The
main processes are:
Wort production
Fermentation / Beer processing
Packaging
Wort production
Malt is delivered to the brewery, weighed, conveyed, cleaned, stored and made available for
wort production. After milling of the malt and preliminary treatment of the adjuncts to facilitate
the extraction, the malt and adjuncts are mixed with brewing water to form a mash. Adjuncts are
a supplementary carbohydrate supply added either to the mash kettle as starch (e.g. maize grits
or rice) or alternatively to the wort kettle as sucrose or glucose / maltose syrup. The mash is
heated following a pre-set time - temperature programme, in order to convert and dissolve substances from the malt and the adjuncts in the brewing water. Extraction is accomplished through
a combination of simple dissolution and the influence of the natural enzymes formed during the
malting. The substances dissolved in the water are collectively called the extract. The solution
of extract and water is called the wort.
When the mashing is completed the insoluble solids, called the brewers grains, are separated
from the wort by straining. The brewers grains can be used as cattle feed. The wort is boiled
with hops and hop extracts releasing bitter substances and oils, which are dissolved in the wort.
During boiling a precipitate consisting mainly of proteins is obtained (the trub) and the bitter
substances are isomerised which increases their solubility. After separation of the trub, the finished wort is cooled to approx. 8-20C depending on the yeast strain in question and the fermentation process chosen. The cooled wort is hereafter transferred to the fermentation area.
Fermentation / Beer Processing Area
The cold wort is aerated and pitched, i.e. yeast is added. Oxygen is necessary to support development of the yeast to a state and amount capable of fermenting wort efficiently. Fermentation is an anaerobic process; the yeast metabolises the fermentable carbohydrates in the wort
forming alcohol and carbon dioxide. A large number of different compounds, such as higher alcohols, esters, aldehydes, etc., influencing the aroma and taste of the beer, are also produced.
When the main fermentation is completed and the yeast has been harvested, the green beer
matures at lower temperatures. At this stage, the yeast decomposes certain undesirable constituents of the green beer, the beer is enriched with carbon dioxide, the residual extract is fermented and yeast and other precipitates settle.
The fine clarity is achieved by filtering the beer, mostly with Kieselguhr as filtration aid. During
filtering, the rest of yeast cells are removed as well as other substances causing turbidity and
any bacteria that might cause the beer to spoil,. The filtered beer is pumped to the so-called
bright beer tanks.
OPTIPOLYGEN
Packaging
From the bright beer tanks the beer is pumped to the packaging area where it is bottled, canned
or kegged. During this final operation it is important that the beer is prevented from getting into
contact with oxygen and that no CO2 is lost.
Packaging lines may be equipped quite differently, not only with respect to packaging material
but also with respect to the level of automation and inspection. Returnable bottles require thorough cleaning. The bottle washer consumes large quantities of energy, water and caustic. Furthermore, substantial quantities of wastewater are discharged. The use of non-returnable packaging material reduces the consumption of energy, water and caustic, therefore reducing
wastewater generation.
In packaging lines using non-returnable bottles and cans, the bottles / cans are only flushed
with water before filling. Alternatively, compressed air is used to blow out any dust particles. If
kegs are used, they are cleaned and sterilised with steam before filling.
For a general ovierview of all these processes and flows in a brewery see Figure 1.
Figure 1. Flow sheet of a brewery, Source: Brewers of Europe (2002)
Further details on the processes involved in breweries can be found in BREF (2006) and Brewers of Europe (2002).
2.1.2
Utilities energy use and by-products in breweries
Energy is usually supplied to breweries in the form of oil, gas, coal, steam, high temperature hot
water and electricity. To run a brewery following energy utility installations are the most important:
Boiler Plant: The processes are supplied with heat from a boiler plant. The heat is available to the various consumers as steam or high temperature hot water. Oil, natural gas,
biogas or coal may be used as fuel for the boilers.
Cooling Plant: Process cooling is supplied from a cooling plant using reciprocating,
screw or centrifugal compressors. The cooling at the consumers may take place directly
by expansion of a primary refrigerant mostly ammonia or indirectly by use a secondary coolant such as propylene glycol.
Electricity Supply: Most breweries are supplied with electricity from the public grid. Some
have their own co-generation plant producing both electricity and heat / steam. For the
OPTIPOLYGEN
USA it is reported that 22% of total beer production is produced in breweries with CHP.
For Europe it is estimated that this figure is lower.
A brewery utilises energy both in the form of heat and electricity. A brewery without a sophisticated heat recovery system consumes about 27.78-55.55 kWh/hl beer. Ranges of heat consumption for some departments is given in Table 2.
Department/
process
Brewhouse
Bottling installation
Kegging installation
Process water
Service water
Miscellaneous
Total
Min
24.17
16.11
2.22
0.83
43.33
Mean
Max
Figure
kWh/hl beer
25.56
33.61
23.89
26.11
3.06
3.61
1.11
2.22
53.62
65.55
Literature
Measured
Range
kWh/hl beer
23.33-31.39
13.89-22.22
6.94-12.78
10.56-16.11
2.22-3.61
1.11-2.22
2.22-4.72
9.17-12.78
26.39
44.99-67.50
24-64.72
Table 2 Ranges of heat demand in different processes in a brewery, Source: BREF (2006)
The actual heat consumption for a brewery depends on process and production characteristics
such as packaging method, pasteurising technique, type of equipment, and by-product treatment. The main heat consuming processes in a brewery are:
Mashing
Wort boiling
Generation of hot liquor
CIP / Sterilising
Bottle washing
Keg washing
Pasteurising
Room heating (in cold climate)
The largest single heat consumer will normally be the wort kettle in the Brewhouse.
Analyzing data from literature and via oral communication with Austrian breweries the ratio between heat and electricity consumption is estimated to be 75% (heat) to 25% (electricity). Depending on process and production characteristics an efficient brewery consumes between 8
and 12 kWh/hl beer, but some breweries still have an electricity consumption 2 times higher.
The main single consumers of electricity with its share of total electricity consumption in a brewery in parenthesis are:
Cooling plant (40%)
Packaging area (18%)
Brewhouse (13%)
Air conditioning (6%)
Wastewater treatment plant and others (23%)
There are also many small consumers of electricity counting for a large part of the electricity
consumption, e.g. pumps, ventilators, drives and electric lighting.
The following activities can also take place at a brewery:
Malt production. Malt is the most important raw material for the production of beer.
Nowadays it is usually produced by external malthouses. Thus it is excluded in the following analysis.
Production of non-alcoholic beverages / soft drinks in addition to beer. This production
process is dealt in chapter 2.4.
OPTIPOLYGEN
Processing of biogenic co- and by-products, e.g. spent grains

Wastewater treatment with possible biogas production.
Solid Biomass by-products in breweries consist mainly from spent grains in the brewing process
(23 kg per hl beer), most of which are sold as cattle feed. A downturn in the sales of animal
feed, new regulations for the disposal of organic waste and continuously rising transport and
energy costs are forcing the industry to search for alternative ways of sensibly utilising organic
waste. Along with the utilisation of water pressed from the spent grains and accumulated ashes,
the spent grains themselves are also directly used to produce heat (two plants are reported in
Austria and Nigeria). This promising technology with a potential of 45 kWhtherm per hl beer
produced is mentioned, but does not enter in our polygeneration definition where multiple usage
of output energy is required. So this technology is not integrated in the following polygeneration
potential.
Spent grains can also be used via anaerobic digestion for biogas production. Additionally, biogas can also be gained from an anaerobic Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTP). Values in
the table below were calculated by EKV, using data from Austrian breweries with biogas from
WWTP. In every case where an application is sought there is a need for analysis of the solid
residues. The mentioned values can however be used for the planning purposes of this work.
The energy consumed in each process varies considerably between plants depending on the
equipment and the details of the process used, on the specific nature of the product and on
several other parameters. It is not the purpose of this report to describe the details of the various specific processes, which can be met in the brewery industry. For every process however
there is some energy demand. The following table shows the figures which where used for the
calculation of the polygeneration potential
Process description
Electricity
kWhel/hl
beer
Brewhouse
Bottling
Kegging
installation
Process water
Service water
air-conditioning
elelctrical
thermal
cooling
electrical
thermal
other
TOTAL conventional cooling
with absorption
cooling
1,74
2,41
heat
kWhtherm/h
l beer
oC
25,56
23,89
3,06
147
125
128
1,11
80
60
10
biomass from spent

biogas from grains or wastewater
grains
kWh/hl beer Nm3/hl from kWhbiogas/ Nm3/hl beer kWhbiogas/hl
grains
grains
hl of beer
of beer from
kgs/hl of
from
from grains wastewater wastewater
beer
23
44,85
2,76
16,56
0,3
2,4
0,80
1,68
-1 to 8
5,36
10,72
3,08
13,41
53,62
7,24
66,02
Table 3. Energy demand and by-product ranges in breweries
The estimated energy benchmark of 67 kWh/hl beer is proved as very realistic in the second
worldwide Energy Efficiency Benchnmark study 2003 for breweries with more than 0.5 million hl
beer/year, initiated by the Dutch Brewery Association. With the responsing breweries 26% of total worldwide beer production was covered, the European responses covered even 43% of totla
European beer production. The calculated average energy benchmark in this study was 66
kWh/hl beer. No detailed energy demand for the different production processes was published,
so this report only proved the size of the energy figures estimated in Table 3.
OPTIPOLYGEN
Further details on the processes involved in breweries can be found in BREF (2006), Brewers of
Europe (2002) Austrian Chamber of Commerce (2000), Wouda and Pennartz (2002) and
Wouda (2004).
2.2 The Juice industry (NACE 15.32x)

2.2.1
Process description in the juice industry.
Fruit juices are produced throughout temperate and tropical areas of the world. Orange juice
predominates in temperate climates and pineapple juice in tropical climates. The bulk of the
world fruit juice production is from citrus fruits, mostly oranges, pomes; from apple and pear
type fruits and from vine fruits. Some stone fruit juices are manufactured but in much smaller
quantities.
The steps of the manufacturing process of these juices can be very different. A simplified process flow chart for the juice production is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Simplified process chart for the juice production, Source: BREF 2006
Citrus juice process

In a typical citrus juice process, the fruit is sorted, graded and washed to remove extraneous
matter such as sticks and leaves, adhering dirt and insects. The fruit is then passed through oil
extraction equipment where it is subjected to hundreds of small cuts of the skin to rupture the oil
sacs and release the citrus oil, which is removed by washing. Oil extraction may be carried out
after juice extraction. The fruit juice is mechanically extracted and screened to remove excess
pulp, pieces of skin and seeds. The screened juice is preserved by a number of methods such
as canning, aseptic processing, chemical inhibition, freezing, and membrane separation. It may
be concentrated before packaging to reduce transport costs. The juice may be clarified before
or after preservation.
OPTIPOLYGEN
Thanks to its low pH (about 4), orange juice has some natural protection from bacteria, yeast,
and mold growth. However, pasteurization is still required to further retard spoilage. Flash pasteurization minimizes flavor changes from heat treatment and is recommended for premium
quality products. Several pasteurization methods are commercially used. One common method
passes juice through a tube next to a plate heat exchanger, so the juice is heated without direct
contact with the heating surface. Another method uses hot, pasteurized juice to preheat incoming unpasteurized juice (reported in an Austrian juice company). The preheated juice is further
heated with steam or hot water to the pasteurization temperature. Typically, reaching a
temperature of 85-94C for about 30 seconds is adequate and prepare the juice for filling. Batch
wise pasteurisation uses a temperature of 62 to 65C for up to 30 minutes. High temperature
short time (HTST) pasteurisation uses a temperature of 72 to 75C for 15 to 240 seconds. High
heat short time pasteurisation (HHST) applies a temperature of 85 to 90 C for 1 to 25 seconds.
Batch wise pasteurisation is carried out in agitated vessels. Sometimes the product, i.e. fruit
juices, is pasteurised after bottling or canning. Here the products in their containers are immersed in hot water or fed through a steam tunnel. For continuous pasteurisation, flowthrough
heat-exchangers, e.g. tubular, plate and frame, are applied. These have heating, holding and
cooling sections.
To ensure sterility, the pasteurized juice should be filled while still hot. Where possible, metal or
glass bottles and cans can be preheated. Packaging which can not withstand high temperatures
(e.g., aseptic, multilayer plastic juice boxes which don't require refrigeration) must be filled in a
sterile environment. Instead of heat, hydrogen peroxide or another approved sterilizing agent
may be used prior to filling.
Juice made into bulk frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) is sent to an evaporator where
vacuum and heat are used to remove excess water in order to obtain a base concentrate of 65
brix, which is a seven-to-one strength ratio to normal juice. Steam, vapour, or exhaust gases
from other drying operations, are usually used as the heating medium. The latent heat of condensation is transferred to the liquid food to raise its temperature to boiling point, to evaporate
the water. The vapour is then removed from the surface of the boiling liquid. For low temperatures the boiling of the liquid is partly under vacuum. Evaporation normally occurs in the range
of 50 to 100C. In its simplest form, evaporation is carried out by boiling off water to the air, using immersed electric heaters. However, in practice the most commonly used equipment is multistage shell and tube evaporators, or plate evaporators. Shell and tube evaporators may be
natural or forced circulation, climbing or falling film types. Concentrated juice is discharged to a
vacuum flash cooler, which reduces the product temperature to about 13C. A newer concentration process requires minimal heat treatment and is used commercially in Japan. The pulp is
separated from the juice by ultra-filtration and pasteurized. The clarified juice containing the volatile flavorings is concentrated at 10C by reverse osmosis and the concentrate and the pulp
are recombined to produce the appropriate juice concentration.
Many juice producers just buy the juice concentration. When the juice processor is ready to prepare a commercial package for retail sale, concentrate is pulled from several storage batches
and blended with water to achieve the desired sugar to acid ratio, color, and flavor. Proper
blending of juice concentrate and other flavor fractions is necessary to ensure the final juice
product achieves a high quality flavor.
Other juices
A typical pome juice process includes similar processes but without an oil extraction step. The
fresh fruits are washed, sorted and then crushed after eventual coring or pitting, e.g. for
peaches and apricots. The white fruits are heated to avoid enzymatic browning. The crushed
fruits are then strained and refined to extract the juice. For apple juice, the juice is sometimes
clarified with an enzymatic treatment and filtration.
More about the juice production can be found in BREF (2006) and Heiss (1996).
10
OPTIPOLYGEN
2.2.2
Utilities and energy use in the juice industry.
Energy is usually supplied to juice producers in the form of oil, gas, coal, steam, high temperature hot water and electricity. To run a juice production following energy utility installations are
the most important:
Boiler Plant: The processes are supplied with heat from a boiler plant. The heat is available
to the various consumers as steam or high temperature hot water. Oil, natural gas, biogas or
coal may be used as fuel for the boilers.
Cooling: After the pasteurisation the liquid has to be cooled from 80 down down to 10oC, for
end-products a cooling down to 30oC is reported in an Austrian juice company. This cooling
is often done by cooling towers and no compressors are used. If the juice or concentrate is
stored, temperatures down to 18oC are reported.
Electricity Supply: Most juice producers are supplied with electricity from the public grid.
There are very few which have their own co-generation plant producing both electricity and
heat / steam.
The main heat consuming process step is the heating and pasteurisation step with process
temperatures commonly range from 60 to 95C. The highest electricity consumption is reported
for the cooling/storage (down to 18C, if it is not pasteurized and bottled/packed immediately
after the juice production) and the final packing and bottling.
By-products from juice production come from the rind and pulp that is created as waste. The
weight of the waste ranges from 20 to 60% of the raw material. Products made with this waste
include dehydrated feed for livestock, pectin (e.g. from apple), citric acid, essential oils, molasses, and candied peel. Some fractions of orange oil are sold for use in industrial cleaners. The
organic waste and wastewater can also be used for biogas via anaerobic digestion.
In comparison to breweries, very few data on energy consumption in the juice industry is available. So the base for our calculations were drawn from oral communication with two Austrian
juice companies. The energy consumed in each process can vary considerably between plants
depending on equipment and the details of the process used, on the specific nature of the product (see chapter 2.2.1 about the different processes for different fruits) and on several other parameters. It is not the purpose of this report to describe the details of the various specific processes, which can be met in the juice industry. For every process however there is some energy
demand. The following table shows the figures which where used for the calculation of the polygeneration potential
Process description
Electricity
kWhel/hl
juice
Sorting/Washing
Extraction/Pressing
Heating
Leaning
Clarification/Enzymatic treatment
De-aeration
Filtration
Concentration
Cooling/Storage
Pasteurising
Cooling
Concentration
Packaging
TOTAL
heat
kWhtherm/
hl juice
3,00
16,00
4,29
20,43
7,29
36,43
biogas
Nm3/hl kWhbiogas/h
juice
l juice
1,125
6,75
Table 4. Typical ranges of energy demand and wastes in the juice industry
11
OPTIPOLYGEN
2.3 Distilleries (NACE 15.91x-92x)

2.3.1
The Distillation Process

All spirits from Scotch, Cognac to pure alcohol
production go through at least two procedures
fermentation and distillation. Fermentation is where
all alcohol is created. In order for fermentation to
occur a raw material (in liquid form) that contains
sugar and yeast is needed.
Distilling is essentially the process whereby a liquid
made of two or more parts is separated into smaller
parts of desired purity by the addition and subtraction
of heat from the mixture. The vapours/liquids distilled
will be richer in content than any of their ingredients
that have lower boiling points. Distilled spirits are
produced from agricultural raw materials such as
grapes, other fruit, sugar-cane, molasses, potatoes,
cereals etc. Distillation can be used to separate
flavours or essential oils, but is mainly used either for
the production of potable alcohol or spirits, or for the
industrial production of alcohol which can then be
used in alcoholic drinks or liquors.
Figure 3. Distillation process
There are many subtleties involved in the creation of different spirits drinks. Here the main steps
for cereal-based spirits are mentioned.
Step 1: Milling. The raw material is ground into a coarse meal. The process breaks down the
protective hull covering the raw material and frees starch.
Step 2: Mashing. The starch is converted to sugar, which is mixed with pure water and cooked.
This produces a mash.
Step 3: Fermentation. The sugar is converted to alcohol and CO2 by the addition of yeast.
Step 4: Distillation. The alcohol, grain particles, water and congeners are heated. The alcohol
vaporises first, leaving the water, the grain particles and some of the congeners in the boiling
vessel. The vaporised alcohol is then cooled or condensed, to form clear drops of distilled
spirits.
Two additional steps are often taken in making some distilled spirits:
Step 5: Ageing. Certain distilled spirits (e.g. rum, brandy, whisk(e)y) are matured in wooden
casks where they gradually develop a distinctive taste, aroma and colour.
Step 6: Blending. Some spirits go through a blending process whereby two or more spirits of
the same category are combined. This process is distinctive from mixing since the blended spirit
remains of the same specific category as its components.
Many spirits producers buy the distilled alcohol from specialized distilleries and produce their final product by mixing it with other ingredients. A simplified process flow chart can be found in
Figure 4. The main steps are the mixing of the ingredients, filtration and the filling process.
12
OPTIPOLYGEN
Figure 4. Flow chart for a spirits producer, Source: BREF (2006)
More about the spirits production can be found in BREF (2006), Heiss (1996) and European
Spirits.
2.3.2
Utilities and energy use in the spirits industry.
Energy is usually supplied to distilleries and spirit producers in the form of oil, gas, coal, steam,
high temperature hot water and electricity. To run a distillery following energy utility installations
are the most important:
Boiler Plant: The processes are supplied with heat from a boiler plant. The heat is available to the various consumers as steam or high temperature hot water. Oil, natural gas,
biogas or coal may be used as fuel for the boilers.
Cooling: After the different distillation steps the liquid has to be cooled down to condensate.
Electricity Supply: Most distilleries are supplied with electricity from the public grid. There
are very few (e.g. one reported in the UK) which have their own co-generation plant producing both electricity and heat / steam.
The main heat consuming process step is the distillation process. The main electricity consumers are he bottling process and the pumping devices. In comparison to breweries, very few data
on energy consumption is available. So the base for our calculations were drawn from Heiss
(2006), BREF (2006) and additionally from oral communication with an Austrian distillery.
The biogenic waste, called distillers wash or vinasse, which is a dark brown syrup containing all
the inorganic substances from the wort and slops, is mainly used as a high nutritive animal feed.
In an Austrian distillery a protein share of 35% is achieved via vacuum dehydration. The salts
are used as a potassium fertiliser. This waste can also be used via anaerobic digestion for biogas production.
The energy consumed in each process varies considerably between plants depending on
equipment and the details of the process used, on the specific nature of the product (see chapter 2.3.1 about the different processes for different spirits) and on several other parameters. The
13
OPTIPOLYGEN
following ranges in the table resulted from oral communication with an Austrian distillery and
were also taken from the above mentioned literature.
Distillation
Mixing and
Bottling*
Electricity
kWhel/l pure
alcohol
0.02
heat
kWhtherm/l
pure alcohol
1 to 4
0.017
biogas
Nm3/l pure
kWhbiogas/l
alcohol
pure alcohol
0.18 to 0.46
1.1 to 2.8
* This figure is originally given for a spirits installation in kWh/0.7 l standard bottle of final product. For our calculation a share of 40% for pure alcohol is used.
Sources: BREF (2006), Heiss (1996)
Table 5. Ranges of heat demand in the two main processes of a spirits production
It is not the purpose of this report to describe the details of the various specific processes which
can be met in the juice industry. For every process however there is some energy demand. In
every case there is a need for analysis of the solid residues, if an application is sought. The following values were used for the calculation of the polygeneration potential.
Process description
Distillation
Mixing and Bottling
installation*
TOTAL
Electricity
kWhel/l pure
alcohol
heat
biogas
kWhtherm/l Nm3/l pure kWhbiogas/l
pure alcohol
alcohol
pure alcohol
3
0,28
1,67
0,02
0,017
0,02
3,02
Table 6. Energy demand and wastes in distilleries and spirits producers used for the potential calculation
2.4 Soft drinks (NACE 15.98)

Soft drinks can be categorised into two main types, i.e. carbonated and still. Soft drinks include
spring waters, fruit and juice based drinks such as cordials, squashes and barley waters; flavoured drinks such as ginger beer; tonic waters and lemonades. Tea and coffee are excluded
here, because they are covered by the report of the OPTIPOLYGEN project partner Chalex
(UK).
Ingredients typically found in most soft drinks include water, sweetener, acid and flavourings.
Optional ingredients include fruit, carbon dioxide, preservatives and colour. Water is the main
ingredient of all soft drinks. Most soft drinks are sweetened with natural sweeteners such as
sugar and sugar syrups, and/or intense sweeteners such as saccharin and aspartame. Flavourings used in manufacture are often derived from highly concentrated liquid mixtures of plant extracts such as fruit, flowers, seeds, leaves, bark and root. Alternatively, they may be synthetic.
All sparkling soft drinks require the addition of CO2. This may be sources as a co-product from
the petroleum, beer and whisky industries, or produced in site. The preservation of soft drinks
can be achieved by a number of techniques including heating, chemical preservation and filtra-
14
OPTIPOLYGEN
tion. These methods, in combination with low pH, prevent microbiological spoilage. The basic
processes for the manufacture of soft drinks involve the mixing of ingredients in the syrup room,
followed by the addition of water that has been subjected to various water treatments. The mixture may be heat processed or chemically preserved at this stage. The product is carbonated if
required. Alternatively, after the syrup and water are combined, the product may be filled into
packaging and in-pack heat processed. Syrup may require filtration or homogenisation and may
be pasteurised. Most packaging is cleaned prior to filling, either by rinsing water, possibly containing rinsing aids, or by air blasting.
The energy demand in the soft and mineral water production is similar to the mixing and bottling
installation described in chapter 2.3. With a heat and electricity demand of each 2 kWh/hl final
product and almost no cooling demand it has a much smaller CHP and trigeneration potential
than e.g. breweries (40 times more heat needed/hl beer). For the soft drink production mostly
pre-prepared juices or chemical additives are mixed together with water. Thus no high biogenic
waste is expected which causes almost no biogas potential. Therefore, no further calculation of
the polygeneration potential was made.
More information about the production of soft drinks can be found in BREF (2006).
2.5 Wine (NACE 15.93-95)

There are numerous variations in the way the grapes are processed. The variations are driven
by the type of grapes (varietals) processed and wine produced, the sugar content of the grapes,
product characteristics as specified by the winemaker, the lay-out of the winery, as well as conditions during the harvesting period. Figure 2 shows a simple schematic of the processes of
making wine which are afterwards described more in detail.
Figure 5. Simplified flow-chart of wine production, Source: PIER (2005)
15
OPTIPOLYGEN
Step 1: Harvesting and reception

When grapes are received at the winery, they are sorted by variety, quality and quantity. Containers are emptied directly into either crushing or transport equipment. Emptied containers are
cleaned. The cleaning water is drained.
Step 2: Grape crushing and destemming
Grape crushing or mashing takes place in grape mills. If maceration is intended, the mash can
be stored in mash containers. To prevent the mash from oxidation H2SO3 is added. The decision as to whether destemming of the white grapes is necessary before the grape mash is made
depends on the variety and ripeness of the grapes as well as on the further processing of the
mash.
Step 3: Pressing
For white wine, the mash is transported to the wine press. The resulting unfermented grape
juice is referred to as must. Sulphur dioxide is often added at this stage at the rate of 100-150
mg/l to suppress undesirable micro-organisms as well as the yeasts used in the process. The
solid residues, e.g. pomace and marc, are then separated.
For red wine, when the fermentation process is finished, i.e. when the sugar levels are below
0.1%, the wine is taken from the bottom of the tank and the marcs are transferred to the wine
press to extract the remaining wine.
Step 4: Fermentation
Alcoholic fermentation takes place in large stainless steel fermentation reactors or vats with or
without the addition of pre-cultivated yeast and under rigorous temperature control. White wine
is fermented after marc separation, while red wine is fermented together with grape marcs. Red
wine, and sometimes white wine as well, goes through a second malolactic fermentation. This is
a bacterial fermentation that converts the malic acids into lactic acids.
Step 5: Clarification
The fining agents in winemaking are gelatine, casein, isinglass, chitin, albumin or egg white;
natural mineral adsorbents, e.g. bentonite, diatomaceous earth or silica; and synthetic polymers. It is reported that sediments from clarification are separated by centrifugation or filtration.
This removes unwanted particles left in suspension.
Step 6: Ageing
After fermentation, wine is cooled to 4-5oC and transferred to barrels or wooden vats made of
oak for ageing. This allows the wine to stabilise and to develop softer tannins and flavours.
Wine should be aged under cool conditions, generally 11 to 13C or cooler and not more than
16C. White wines are stored in tanks at 4 to 7C on average. White wines are typically made
without wood aging and are consumed when they are relatively young. Red wines generally
gain quality and complexity by aging in oak barrels. Red wines are generally stored between 7
and 21C. Lees are separated from the wine every 3 to 4 months, The barrels are the washed
and refilled.
Step 7: Cold stabilisation
Cold stabilisation involves rapid cooling of the wine to precipitate tartrate crystals which are undesirable in the bottled wine. The process allows the wine to warm up to room temperature and
then chills it down to about -4 to 0C. Tartrate precipitates in the tanks and is removed with an
alkaline cleaning solution of 10% caustic soda.
Step 8: Bottling
Before bottling, wine is passed through a filtration system to remove remaining solid and insoluble turbid compounds. Bottling involves the microbial stabilisation of the wine and preserves
from important changes in taste and chemical composition.
16
OPTIPOLYGEN
Energy demand
Wine producers have a high electricity demand which is mainly used for refrigeration in the
processes fermentation, cold stabilization and cold storage. The rest goes into compressed air,
in the pumping and bottling line motors and other installations (e.g. lighting). Hot water is
needed for cleaning barrels and equipment and for heating red wine ferments and yeast
generator tanks. Specific energy use varies highly for each winery, as will the distribution of
energy use, depending on the region (hot-temperate climate), the type of product made,
process choices and efficiency of the operation. Therefore, typical energy demand ranges were
not found in the literature and also not given by winery experts.
Meanwhile the low heat demand limits cogeneration applications, trigeneration can be a option.
Also biogas via digestion of the biogenic waste in the grape presses can be a energy source.
Because of the very different production processes for different wines in the different wine regions all over Europe, no estimation was done. An analysis of energy benchmarks in the biggest wine regions (e.g. in Spain, Italy and France) would be the pre-condition for such a calculation of the polygeneration potential.
More information on the wine production can be found in: BREF (2006), EEBP (2003) and PIER
(2005)
17
OPTIPOLYGEN
3 On-site power generation in the Drink and Beverages industry

Several parameters of the on-site power plants are of importance when application of such
technology is under consideration. For the purposes of this work and to make comparisons between the sectors the technological parameters for a on-site power generation were taken from
the WP2 report on the fish and meat industry written by the OPTIPOLYGEN project leader ESTIA (see chapter 4 of the ESTIA report).
4 Potential technologies for on-site power generation and

polygeneration in the Drink and Beverages Industry
By investigating the utilities and the by-products and effluents involved in the Drink and Beverages Industry the following technologies have been identified as potential participants for polygeneration:
1) Cogeneration of Heat and Power (CHP)
2) Trigeneration Use part or all of the heat co-generated to meet chilling/freezing needs
via absorption cycles.
3) Use of the by-products for energy production. This can be done by incineration or by anaerobic treatment to produce biogas.
Each technology is associated with thresholds and economical values affecting applicability with
respect to the size and other important characteristics of the plant.
4.1 CHP
Within Work Package 1 of OPTIPOLYGEN some CHP plants in breweries and distilleries were
identified. See Figure 6 for a flow chart of a CHP in a brewery.
The applicability of CHP depends among other parameters on the capability to use efficiently
the heat cogenerated with the power. This is not a straightforward task especially in cases
where various temperature levels of heat are needed by the process. The optimum CHP fits to
the process needs becomes more difficult when batch operation is used (e.g. in breweries). For
the purposes of this report the following parameters shown in Table 7 have been considered to
be valid for CHP to be viable in a plant.
In several steps of the analyzed drink sectors breweries, juice producers and distilleries significant amount of heat is needed. Heat is normally needed at temperatures ranging from 40oC
up to 150oC. For simplicity CHP units generating heat at high temperatures have been considered for potential capacity calculations. These are turbine based CHP sets.
Other important parameter affecting the applicability of CHP is the total yearly operating hours.
Usually these should exceed 4000 hours/year for a CHP plant to be viable.
It has been already mentioned that efficient use of the heat cogenerated in a CHP unit defines
the applicability of CHP. If micro CHP is used then the total plant requirements should exceed
1.5 GWh /year based on the minimum yearly operating hours of the CHP unit and the minimum
size of unit available in the market.
18
OPTIPOLYGEN
Figure 6. CHP plant in a brewery, Source: BREF (2006)
4.2 Trigeneration
Trigeneration is based on the use of absorption cycles to produce low temperatures. The set-up
of an absorption cycle depends on the temperatures where this cycle is operating. Absorption
cycles are usually based on LiBr /water or on ammonia/water binary mixtures. The minimum
size of this equipment is about 100 kW. The important fact when trigeneration is applied efficiently is that electricity consumption virtually ceases as far as freezing or chilling concerns.
Moreover additional electricity is efficiently cogenerated by the CHP unit. Because of this a
double positive effect exists. Not only grid electricity consumption produced with low efficiency
(40-50%) stops, but also electricity generated with efficiencies up to 85% is produced. In contrast with a typical CHP only efficient electricity is generated and sent to the grid.
4.3 Solid wastes and by-products use.

Solid wastes and by-products can be used to generate thermal energy and power. Burning of
solid waste generate heat which can be used to generate steam which can be used in the
plants and/or for power generation. High water content of the solid wastes e.g. 80% in breweries require a press or a significant amount of heat for drying before combustion. Emissions
from combustion and their dioxin and heavy metal content is also under consideration. The size
of viable combustion units is also an important factor limiting applications in large size plants.
High pressure steam boilers need supervision, this being a cost parameter which makes small
applications unviable.
Anaerobic digestion of the solid by-products seems to be a promising way of treating these
wastes. Water content of the wastes is needed for this process. Based on the above characteristics the energy use of the by-products in terms of their capacity to produce biogas will be examined. Biogas essentially contains methane, but also some CO2 and miscellaneous impurities.
Its LCV is rather variable depending on the raw material, but generally ranges between 6 and 8
kWh/Nm3. Biogas generated can be used for driving CHP units or generating steam and hot water. The resulting waste output of the process can be land filled as its organic content has been
reduced and has been sterilised.
19
OPTIPOLYGEN
Table 7. CHP parameters used in the present report for calculation
20
OPTIPOLYGEN
5 Technical Potential of on site power generation & emission savings by polygeneration in the Drink and Beverages Industry in EU15
5.1 Methodology.
The goal of this report is to determine within accuracy needed for strategic planning the technical potential of polygeneration CHP, trigeneration, RES in the Drink and Beverages Industry
(NACE 15.32 and the NACE family 15.9x except 15.97 malt production) in the EU15 countries.
Studies for the other food sectors are undertaken by the other partners of the OPTIPOLYGEN
project.
The results of the calculations are the total electrical energy per year, which can be generated if
fully use of the existing methodologies for cogeneration, trigeneration and polygeneration takes
place in the EU15 food industry split by country. On top of the total potential for electricity generation, the environmental impact of polygeneration potential will be quantified in terms of annual CO2 savings.
The model created by the OPTIPOLYGEN leader ESTIA for the estimation of the polygeneration potential in the fish and meat industry was modified and used for the calculation in the Drink
and Beverages Industry (see chapter 7.1 of the ESTIA report).
The same assumptions and calculations were used:
5.1.1
Assumptions
1. Electricity generation potential in the case of cogeneration or trigeneration application

depends on the amount of useful heat, which can be absorbed in the process served by
the CHP unit. This means that dumping or spoiling the heat cogenerated is not accepted
and electricity can be cogenerated only as a by-product when useful heat is demanded.
2. It has been assumed that as far as the total yearly operating hours of the CHP or trigeneration unit exceed 4000 hours per year application of these methodologies is possible
and financially attractive.
3. Financial factors have not been examined. It is known that applicability of cogeneration
or trigeneration or polygeneration depends strongly on the costs of fuels, electricity and
equipment, etc.
4. It has been assumed that as far as equipment of suitable size exist in the market and
yearly operating hours exceed 4000 hours /year application of polygeneration is feasible.
5.1.2
Calculations.
The calculations performed are:

Potel = Heat need*(Pel/Ptherm) [ kWhel]
(1)

Heat need = Benchmark base Unit (litre, hectolitre or employee) * specific heat need of the production process [kWhtherm]
When trigeneration is examined the calculation of the heat needed for a potential absorption cycle Heat abs- was calculated as
21
OPTIPOLYGEN
Heatabs = [electricity need for chilling/ COPel ]/COPabs
(2)
PotelBG = biogas * Pel [kWhel]
(3)
The biogas values were taken from experts in the different drink sectors and/or calculated via
the Volatile Solid Share of the biogenic waste multiplied by Nm3 biogas/kg of that solid waste
and the kWh per Nm3 biogas [kWh]
(4)
The data used in the calculations are summarised in the following table.
GENERAL DATA
COP of conventional freezing cycle 10oC.
COP of freezing for ammonia absorption cycle -10oC.
COP of conventional chilling cycle +4oC.
COP of chilling for ammonia absorption cycle +4oC.
heat /electricity ratio for CHP units
fuel/electricity ratio for biogas CHP units
mean CHP total cycle efficiency
mean Grid efficiency+ trans losses
CO2 savings /kWh el. cogenerated
CO2 savings /kWh el. trigenerated
CO2 savings /kWh of biogas produced
2
1
2,5
1,2
2,5
3
80
40
0,26
0,436
0,21
%
%
kgCO2/kWhel
kgCO2/kWhel
kgCO2/kWhbiogas
Table 8. General technical data for the calculations
Data in the above table show a significant improvement of the CO2 emission savings when
electricity is trigenerated. This comes out from the fact that when electricity is trigenerated a
double benefit comes out. Electricity spend for compressors ceases i.e. there is reduction of the
electricity demand from the grid and additional efficient electricity is trigenerated and send to the
grid i.e. additional grid electricity from the grid is replaced. By using the values shown in the table for grid transmission losses and for CHP total cycle efficiencies etc, the values of CO2 savings were calculated by ESTIA.
The specific energy demand and solid waste generation of the different drinks sectors which
have been used for the calculations are shown in the tables in chapter 2.
5.2 Drink and Beverages Industry in EU15

The production of a plant is needed to make a decision on the applicability and potential of polygeneration on the specific plant based on the threshold parameters set up in the assumptions
total heat demand of the plant, yearly operating hours, solid waste yearly production. If application of polygeneration is possible then calculation of the potential energy polygenerated per
year can be done based on chapter 5.1.2.
Total polygeneration potential can be calculated if
1. The plant sizes in each drink and beverage sector in EU15 is known and
2. The percentage of the production, which comes from plants, which meet the thresholds
impossed by the assumptions developed above, is known.
The Drink and Beverages Industry is a highly developed food sector within Europe and is
spread all over Europe and takes place in plants ranging from very small to very big complexes.
The polygeneration potential of the NACE codes 15.32 (juices), 15.91-92 (distilleries and spirit
22
OPTIPOLYGEN
products) and 15.96 (breweries) were estimated. The needed sector data came mainly from the
Eurostat database for the year 2004 or if not available for 2003. Additionally other information has been collected from different sources mentioned in the following chapters.
5.2.1
Beer production data
Figure 7 shows the total beer production in hectolitres (hl) for all EU15 countries in 2004 (NACE
code 15.96).
100.000
1.000 hl beer/year
90.000
80.000
70.000
60.000
50.000
40.000
30.000
20.000
10.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie*
it
lu*
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk*
* Data 2003
Figure 7. Total beer production in the EU15 countries in 2004, Sources: EUROSTAT, Brewers of
Europe
One parameter which affects the polygeneration potential is the part of each countrys production that comes from plants whose capacity is above the determined thresholds shown in the
next table.
PRODUCTION CAPACITY THRESHOLDS FOR
POLYGENERATION TECHNOLOGIES
trigeneration
22.721 hl beer/year
cogeneration
27.975 hl beer/year
biogas
217.391 hl beer/year
Table 9. Plant capacity threshold for polygeneration applications in breweries
In this way the plant size and the applicability of polygeneration technologies in the specific
plant are taken into account. Data for an estimation of the production size of the breweries in
each country were taken from the Brewers of Europe online database (number of breweries for
different production ranges available for 8 of analyzed 15 EU countries). The production size for
the breweries in the other 7 countries were estimated using this data and EUROSTAT data
about the total national beer production. In Figure 8 you find the share of this total national beer
production which is produced in breweries which fulfil the technology threshold for each technology.
23
OPTIPOLYGEN
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
be
dk
ger
gr
es
trigeneration
fr
ie
it
lu
cogeneration
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
biogas
Figure 8. Estimated share of national beer production beer which is produced in breweries which
fulfil the technology threshold
5.2.2
Juice production data
The following Figure 9 shows the total juice production data for the EU15 countries (NACE code
15.32x). Table 10 shows the production of the different sub-categories of NACE code 15.32.
Juice Production 2003 in EU15
(EUROSTAT, NACE 15.32x)
25.000.000
hl juice/year
20.000.000
15.000.000
10.000.000
5.000.000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 9. Total juice production, split by EU15 countries, Source: EUROSTAT

juice
production
2003
15321013 Frozen
unconcentrated
orange juice (Kg)
15321015 Unconcen 15321021 Unco

trated orange juice
ncentrated
(excl. frozen) (liters) grapefruit juice
(liters)
15321022 Unconcentrated
juice of any single citrus
fruit (excl. orange and
grapefruit) (liters)
15321023 Unco 15321024 Tom 15321025 Unconce 15321026 Uncon

ncentrated
ato juice
ntrated grape juice centrated apple
pineapple juice
(liters)
(incl. grape must)
juice (liters)
(liters)
(liters)
TOTAL per
country
96.043.368
2.107.960
18.382.458
dk Denmark
537
47.712.258
545.154
3.373
927.107
1.223.622
56.766
34.093.003
de Germany
27.479.000
1.045.922.382
47.448.872
36.341.797
24.702.449
43.213.337
114.168.775
1.080.997.189
79.646.994
6.389.102
6.914.373
4.887.448
1.485.469
2.881.068
1.748.463
371.273.040
8.318.131
20.343.361
79.851.611
10.914.679
319.046.171
36.574.250
fr France
396.466.348
60.681.975
2.972.850
37.342.737
8.975.227
29.702.617
65.557.585
ie Ireland
18.676.671
68.573.000
38.340.556
7.404.870
109.738.399
27.394.148
24.527.625
201.169.337
24.147.304
116.533.786
84.561.283
2.392.794.801
102.204.454
846.321.243
601.699.339
18.676.671
432.722.239
0
4.652.000
167.598.944
17.713.597
127.596.971
0
be Belgium
gr Greece
es Spain
it Italy
lu Luxembourg
nl Netherlands
at Austria
4.652.000
60.730.284
6.325.148
1.082.865
17.921.078
81.539.569
pt Portugal
17.713.597
fi Finland
77.695.399
1.431.978
43.800
5.053.908
674.124
819.893
41.877.869
se Sweden
42.503.010
17.512.263
uk United
Kingdom
eu15
554.211.361
35.163.091
97.801.000
2.804.432.258
173.708.321
177.440.818
240.583.496 115.286.306
:
161.416.666
810.806.391
664.963.559 1.547.466.961 5.723.881.719
Table 10. Production of different juices in the EU15 countries, Source: EUROSTAT
* The NACE category frozen unconcentrate orange juice is given in kg, but was transferred for the total juice production into litre (1 kg=1l).
24
OPTIPOLYGEN
No differentiation between the different juices was made, as the main energy demanding processes (e.g. pasteurisation) forms part of every juice production. As there was no data available
about the production size of the companies, EUROSTAT data on number of enterprises broken
down by employment size classes was used for the polygeneration potential calculation. In order to make use of the technical thresholds in different polygeneration scenarios the technical
thresholds were calculated in minimum number of employees. Therefore, the average juice production per employee (7,000 hl/employee) was estimated via oral communication with Austrian
juice companies. For the analyzed technologies the following thresholds exist:
cogeneration
2 employees
biogas
57 employees
Table 11. Plant capacity threshold for polygeneration applications at juice producers
The statistical data on number of enterprises broken down by employment size classes only exists for the NACE family class 15.3x which also includes 15.31 (Processing and preserving of
potatoes) and 15.33 (Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables). The share of the juice
companies (NACE 15.32) of the total number of NACE 15.3x family companies in the different
size categories has been estimated in the following way:
1) The total number of juice companies in many EU15 countries is known as well as the total
number of companies of the NACE 15.3x family. So the national share of juice companies within
the NACE 15.3x family has been calculated (see Figure 10).
2) Over the available nine countries the average production per company (in litre) was calculated. For the missing countries total production per year is known, but no number of companies. So the total production of these countries was divided by the calculated average production per company to estimate the number of companies in these six countries.
3) For the nine countries, where this data is available, this share has been multiplied with the
number of NACE 15.3x family companies in the different size categories. So the size distribution
of the juice companies is assumed to be the same as the NACE 15.3x family.
4) The estimation of the number of companies in each size category in the remaining six EU15
countries were made via the average share of the known 9 countries.
The final estimated number of companies in the different size categories in all EU15 countries
can be found in Figure 11.
25
OPTIPOLYGEN
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
uk
se*
fi*
pt
at
nl
lu*
it
ie*
fr
es
gr*
de
dk
be*
average
0%
* no data available
Figure 10. Ratio between number of juice companies and total NACE 15.3x family companies,
Source: EUROSTAT
Juice producers in EU15: size categories in emplyees/company

(own calculation, Eurostat 2003)
140
120
100
80
1_9
10_19
60
20_49
50_249
40
ge_250
20
uk
se
fi
pt
at
nl
lu
it
ie
fr
es
gr
de
dk
be
Figure 11. Estimated number of enterprises in given size classes; NACE codes 15.32, Source:
EUROSTAT
With this methodology the plant size and the applicability of polygeneration technologies in the
5.2.3
Spirits production data
The following Figure 12 shows the total spirits and alcohol production for the EU15 countries
(NACE code 15.91x-92x). Table 12 shows the production of the different sub-categories of
these NACE codes (in l pure alcohol).
26
OPTIPOLYGEN
Spirits Production 2004/03 in EU15

(EUROSTAT, NACE 15.91x-92x)
10.000.000
9.000.000
hl pure alc./year
8.000.000
7.000.000
6.000.000
5.000.000
4.000.000
3.000.000
2.000.000
1.000.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Figure 12. Total spirits and alcohol production (in hl pure alcohol), split by EU15 countries,
Source: EUROSTAT
NACE 15.91x
litre pure alcohol

2003/2004
15911020 Spirit
obtained from
distilled grape
wine or grape
marc
15911040 R
um and tafia
15911030
Whisky
NACE 15.92x
15911063
15921100
15921200
15921203 Ethyl
15921205 Ethyl
15911080
Vodka of an 15911065 S
Spirits, liqueurs Undenatured ethyl Denatured ethyl alcohol and other
alcohol and
alcoholic
pirits
15911070 Pu
and other
alcohol of an
alcohol and other denatured spirits: other denatured
strength by
distilled
re alcohols
spirituous
alcoholic strength denatured spirits; agric. production
spirits:
volume of <=
from fruit
beverages
by volume >= 80% of any strength
(fermented mat.)
synthetic
45.4%
15911050
Gin and
Geneva
Sum country
be Belgium
221.877
2.177.207
307.820
2.741.523
5.448.427
dk Denmark
1.930
3.854
5.415
1.731.006
17.207
4.184.117
3.912.409
14.184.878
24.040.816
181.952.404
de Germany
165.762.366
16.190.038
gr Greece
2.192.253
41.610
286.560
16.764.451
12.519.898
3.381.310
35.186.082
es Spain
79.475.800
9.003.800
6.018.700
9.578.100
1.771.800
1.144.500
11.815.300
44.608.500
161.739.400
231.814.300
556.970.200
fr France
42.244.200
1.349.538
44.622.087
1.564.728
6.840.079
3.605.780
916.115
76.612.006
651.839.189
133.200.995
962.794.717
24.047.905
350.182
2.237.666
1.419.300
7.721.077
964.341
6.269.344
89.221.594
115.892.239
25.761.761
273.885.409
lu Luxembourg
nl Netherlands
290.000
1.098.000
828.000
9.900.000
7.795.000
99.000
10.653.000
30.663.000
at Austria
101.146
41.196
555.660
23.139
531.095
339.503
3.868.526
5.460.265
43.008
138.314
34.027.116
ie Ireland
it Italy
151.148
27.536
1.208.041
3.629.902
5.645.960
fi Finland
3.441.468
9.616.893
14.609.405
se Sweden
986.600
30491500
31.478.100
uk United Kingdom
510.785.000
3.685.366 38.460.775
11.925.392
564.856.533
171.534.511
523.838.123
58.102.481 63.197.810
69.444.337
6.308.645
20.208.800
255.725.087
1.126.928.354
439.142.687
2.734.430.835
pt Portugal
eu15
23.183.207
27.667.766
Table 12. Production of different spirits and alcohols (in l pure alcohol) in the EU15 countries,
Source: EUROSTAT
One parameter which affects the polygeneration potential is the part of each countrys production that comes from plants whose capacity is above the determined thresholds shown in the
next table.
cogeneration
4.972 hl pure alcohol/year
biogas
71.429 hl pure alcohol/year
Table 13. Plant capacity threshold for polygeneration applications in breweries
In this way the plant size and the applicability of polygeneration technologies in the specific
plant are taken into account. Data for an estimation of the production size of distilleries were not
found in the literature. A similar approach as used for the juice industry using EUROSTAT data
broken down by employment size was also not possible. Meanwhile juice being one of in total
only three sub-categories the NACE code family 15.3x, the NACE code damily 15.9x (drinks ad
beverages) with 8 diferent sub-categories is too big to draw conclusions from the employment
size distribution of the whole 15.9x family to the spirits sub-categories. Via oral communication
with the Austrian Association of spirits producers and distilleries the following estimation was
made:
Over all EU15 countries a share of 95% of their national spirits production (in l pure alcohol) was estimated to fulfil the above mentioned technology threshold for cogeneration
application,
meanwhile the share for biogas applications was calculated with 70%.
27
OPTIPOLYGEN
5.3 Results
5.3.1
Brewery.
The following figure shows the polygeneration potential in breweries in EU15 split by country.
Model set-up and calculations have been described in chapter 4.
Polygeneration potential in breweries in EU15
2.500
GWh el/year
2.000
1.500
1.000
500
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie*
cogeneration
it
lu*
trigeneration
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk*
biogas
Figure 13. Polygeneration potential in the breweries
As expected polygeneration potential is proportional to the capacity of each countrys production. The highest potential comes for trigeneration applications (EU15: 7,900 GWhel/year) devoted to cover chilling and freezing loads. Their potential for energy savings are far higher than
CHP (6,300 GWhel) or biogas (1,500 GWhel). The exact figures can be taken from the following
table.
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
eu15
Trigeneration
439.953
220.654
2.258.752
103.222
827.197
460.381
218.583
359.945
7.894
622.959
223.329
203.524
127.700
99.266
1.682.638
7.855.996
MWhel
CHP
355.401
178.248
1.773.935
83.747
671.126
373.699
177.342
292.032
6.244
505.422
180.499
165.170
103.158
80.189
1.365.167
6.311.380
Biogas
94.014
47.152
213.409
23.561
188.814
107.624
50.646
82.160
967
144.339
45.396
46.864
28.147
21.880
389.866
1.484.838
Table 14. Total EU15 potential for polygeneration in breweries, in MWh el/year
28
OPTIPOLYGEN
Polygeneration potential is also very important if the EU Kyoto target of CO2 reduction is examined. Results are shown in Figure 14 and Table 15.
900.000
800.000
tones CO2/year
700.000
600.000
500.000
400.000
300.000
200.000
100.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
cogeneration
ie*
it
lu*
nl
at
trigeneration
pt
fi
se
uk*
biogas
Figure 14. CO2 savings potential from polygeneration applications in breweries in EU15
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
eu15
Tones CO2/year
Trigeneration
CHP
151.252
114.388
75.859
57.370
798.655
587.275
35.329
26.838
283.118
215.071
157.492
119.699
74.813
56.832
123.195
93.586
2.772
2.052
213.215
161.969
76.739
58.065
69.639
52.916
43.902
33.202
34.127
25.809
575.903
437.486
2.716.011
2.042.559
Biogas
19.743
9.902
44.816
4.948
39.651
22.601
10.636
17.254
203
30.311
9.533
9.842
5.911
4.595
81.872
311.816
Table 15. Total CO2 savings potential in breweries in EU15 when polygeneration is applied.
29
OPTIPOLYGEN
5.3.2
Juice
The polygeneration potential in the juice industry is the lowest of the three analyzed drink sectors, but it is still quite high with 1,740 Gwhel/year with cogeneration and 41 Gwhel/year with
biogas. As mentioned in chapter 2 no trigeneration potential could be estimated, mainly because of lack of information.
The total polygeneration potential of this industry sector in each EU15 country is shown in
Figure 15. The total numbers are shown in Table 16.
1.000
900
GWh el./year
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
be dk
de
gr
es
fr
CHP
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se uk
Biogas
Figure 15. Polygeneration potential in the EU15 Juice Industry, in Gwhel/year
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
eu15
Mwhel
CHP
Biogas
24.181
574
18.562
516
956.496
23.558
21.207
503
159.195
3.708
174.182
3.879
3.875
92
141.665
2.474
0
0
39.315
1.057
95.808
2.411
37.394
827
26.476
628
0
0
44.205
1.049
1.742.562
41.277
Table 16. Total EU15 potential for polygeneration in the Juice Industry, in MWh el/year
Figure 16 and Table 17 show the potential CO2 savings if polygeneration potential would be installed at all EU15 juice companies which produce more than the technology threshold calculated in chapter 4.
30
OPTIPOLYGEN
t CO2 savings/year
250.000
200.000
150.000
100.000
50.000
0
be dk de
gr es
fr
ie
it
CHP
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se uk
Biogas
Figure 16. CO2 savings due to polygeneration application in the EU15 Juice Industry, in Tones
CO2/year
Tones CO2/year
CHP
Biogas
be
6.287
120
dk
4.826
108
de
248.689
4.947
gr
5.514
106
es
41.391
779
fr
45.287
815
ie
1.008
19
it
36.833
520
lu
0
0
nl
10.222
222
at
24.910
506
pt
9.722
174
fi
6.884
132
se
0
0
uk
11.493
220
eu15
453.066
8.668
Table 17. Total CO2 saving potential in the EU15 Juice Industry split by technology, in Tones
CO2/year.
5.3.3
Distilleries
The polygeneration potential in distilleries is less than for breweries, but still very high with 3,130
Gwhel/year with cogeneration and 1,060 Gwhel/year with biogas. As mentioned in chapter 2 no
trigeneration potential could be estimated, mainly because of lack of information.
The polygeneration potential from cogeneration and biogas in distilleries are shown in Figure 17
(for all EU15 countries) and in Table 18 the total numbers can be found. Figure 18 and Table 19
show the potential CO2 savings if this polygeneration potential is to be installed in the EU15 distilleries.
31
OPTIPOLYGEN
1.200
GWh el/year
1.000
800
600
400
200
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
cogeneration
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
biogas
Figure 17. Polygeneration potential in distilleries in the EU15 countries, in GWh/year

MWhel
CHP
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
eu15
6.246
27.559
208.580
40.335
638.481
1.103.696
0
313.967
0
35.150
6.259
39.007
31.717
36.085
647.521
3.134.604
Biogas
2.121
9.357
70.816
13.694
216.773
374.720
0
106.596
0
11.934
2.125
13.243
10.768
12.251
219.842
1.064.240
Table 18. Total EU15 potential for polygeneration in distilleries and in the spirits industry, in MWh
el/year
350.000
300.000
tones CO2/year
250.000
200.000
150.000
100.000
50.000
0
be
dk
ger
gr
es
fr
ie
cogeneration
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
biogas
Figure 18. CO2 savings due to polygeneration application in distilleries in the EU15 countries
32
OPTIPOLYGEN
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
eu15
Tones CO2/year
CHP
Biogas
1.624
445
7.165
1.965
54.231
14.871
10.487
2.876
166.005
45.522
286.961
78.691
0
0
81.632
22.385
0
0
9.139
2.506
1.627
446
10.142
2.781
8.246
2.261
9.382
2.573
168.355
46.167
814.997
223.491
Table 19. Total CO2 savings potential in tones/year in the EU15 distilleries split by technology
33
OPTIPOLYGEN
6 Conclusions
Polygeneration potential for the most promising drink industries breweries, distilleries and
juice producers - has been calculated for the EU15 countries. Calculations were based on data
for energy consumption, which exist in the open literature or were collected via oral communication with companies of the Drink and Beverages Industry. The relevant data from EUROSTAT
for this industry sector were also used together with figures from sector associations (e.g. The
Brewers of Europe) and/or own estimations of the size of the plants located in every country.
Results show that the polygeneration potential for technical application (without explicit financial
aspects) in all EU15 countries reach 7,900 GWh el /year with trigeneration (only analyzed for
breweries), 11,200 GWh el/year with cogeneration and 2,600 GWh el with biogas application. If
this potential is realized, CO2 emission savings of 2.7 million tones with trigeneration, 3.3 million
tones with cogeneration and with biogas more than 0.5 million. tones CO2 /year are achieved.
The highest potential of a drink sector 7,900 GWh comes from using trigeneration (cogeneration with absorption chilling cycles) in breweries. This can be explained with the significant
amount of thermal energy consumed for heat and also for chilling loads at temperatures down
to 10C. In the other two analyzed sectors distilleries and juice producers no trigeneration
could be estimated because of the lack of detailed information on existing plants.
Biogas generation potential is limited mainly because of the size of the plants there is a need
for significant amount of biogenic wastes for a biogas installation to be viable and because of
the limited generation of by-products as most of them is sold as cattle food (e.g. spent grains
from breweries and distillers wash). Nevertheless, the technical biogas potential for energy use
has been analyzed.
7 References
Austrian Chamber of Commerce (2000), Branchenenergiekonzept fr Brauereien
BREF (2006), Reference document on BAT in the Food, Drink and Milk Industries, JRC, Seville,
Spain, January 2006
Brewers of Europe (2002), Guidance Note for establishing BAT in the brewing industry, 2002
Brewers of Europe, http://stats.brewersofeurope.org/stats_pages/plants_by_prod.asp.
EEBP (2003) Energy Efficiency Best Practice Program, A guide to energy efficiency innovation
in Australian wineries, Australian Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources,
http://www.isr.gov.au/assets/documents/itrinternet/WineGuide20040206170704.pdf
European Spirits, http://www.europeanspirits.org/OurIndustry/TheDistillationProcess.asp
EUROSTAT, http://europa.eu.int/com/eurostat
Heiss (Ed.), Lebensmitteltechnologie, 5th Edition, Springer, 1996
PIER (2005), Best Winery Guidebook: Benchmarking and Energy and Water Savings Tool for
the Wine Industry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, California, November 2005
Wouda and Pennartz (2002), Worldwide benchmark for energy efficiency in the brewing industry, Brauwelt International 2002/II, pages 106-110
Wouda (2004), Benchmarking Energy Efficiency World-wide in the Beer Industry 2003, Feedback report to the participating breweries, KWA Business Consultants
34
OPTIPOLYGEN
WP2
Potential for Polygeneration in the Cereals,

Corn, Bakery, Tea and Coffee Industries
Author: Robert Frost, MChem
Contents
Contents .........................................................................................................................2
Abreviations...................................................................................................................4
1 Introduction.................................................................................................................5
1.1
Terms and Definitions....................................................................................5
1.1.1
Polygeneration .......................................................................................5
1.1.2
Cereals Industry .....................................................................................5
1.1.3
Corn Industry .........................................................................................5
1.1.4
Bakery Industry......................................................................................5
1.1.5
Tea Industry ...........................................................................................6
1.1.6
Coffee Industry ......................................................................................6
1.1.7
Geographical Coverage..........................................................................6
2 Process Descriptions ...................................................................................................7
2.1 Baking Industry....................................................................................................7
2.2 Cereals Industry ...................................................................................................9
2.2.1 Milling of Wheat to Produce Flour.............................................................11
2.3 Corn Industry .....................................................................................................15
2.4 Coffee Industry ..................................................................................................17
2.5 Tea Industry .......................................................................................................19
3 Energy Needs and Present Solutions ........................................................................21
3.1 Baking Industry..................................................................................................21
3.1.1 Proofing Process .........................................................................................21
3.1.2 Baking Process............................................................................................21
3.2 Cereals Industry .................................................................................................21
3.3 Corn Industry .....................................................................................................22
3.4 Coffee Industry ..................................................................................................22
3.4.1 Roasting ......................................................................................................22
3.5 Tea Industry .......................................................................................................22
4 Current On-Site Energy Production in the Industry Sectors.....................................24
4.1 Baking Industry..................................................................................................24
4.3 Corn Industry .....................................................................................................24
4.4 Coffee Industry ..................................................................................................24
4.5 Tea Industry .......................................................................................................24
5 Process Waste and By-Products ...............................................................................26
5.1 Baking Industry..................................................................................................26
5.3 Corn Industry .....................................................................................................28
5.4 Coffee Industry ..................................................................................................29
5.5 Tea Industry .......................................................................................................29
6 Potential New Technologies for On-Site Energy Production...................................30
6.1 Baking Industry..................................................................................................30
6.3 Corn Industry .....................................................................................................30
6.4 Coffee Industry ..................................................................................................30
6.5 Tea Industry .......................................................................................................31
7 Technical Potential of on Site Power Generation and Emission Savings by
Polygeneration in Europe.............................................................................................32
7.1 Methodology ......................................................................................................32
7.1.1 General........................................................................................................32
7.1.2 Assumptions................................................................................................32
7.1.3 Calculations.................................................................................................32
7.2 Baking Industry..................................................................................................34
7.2.1 Baking Industry Production Data................................................................34
7.2.2 Results.........................................................................................................36
7.3.1 Cereal Industry Production Data.................................................................39
7.3.2 Results.........................................................................................................40
7.4 Corn Industry .....................................................................................................42
7.4.1 Corn Industry Production Data ...................................................................42
7.4.2 Results.........................................................................................................44
7.5 Coffee Industry ..................................................................................................46
7.5.1 Coffee Industry Production Data ................................................................46
7.5.2 Results.........................................................................................................47
9 Conclusions...............................................................................................................50
10 Appendix.................................................................................................................51
11 References...............................................................................................................53
Abreviations
BTU
CHP
CIP
COD
CTC
HHV
LHV
MC
MW
TBTU
VOC
British Thermal Unit (= 1054.4 J)

Combined Heat And Power
Cleaning in Place
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Cut-Tear-Curl
Higher Heat Value
Latent Heat Value
Moisture Content
Megawatt
Terra British Thermal Unit (1012 BTU)
Volatile Organic Compounds
1 Introduction
This report is concerned with describing the general processes involved in the Baking,
Cereals, Corn, Coffee and Tea industry. It will specifically focus on the energy
requirements (thermal and electrical) for these industries, allowing an estimate of the
total European energy usage for the various industries to be made and the potential for
polygeneration to be assessed.
Due to the diverse spread of areas within this report each industry sector will be
tackled separately.

1.1.1
Polygeneration
outputs. The term primary energy includes fossil fuels, biofuels, renewable energy
sources etc. Energy output means the different forms of energy, which are useful in
an activity. In the case of the Food industry this could mean electricity, and heat at
various temerpeture levels i.e. steam, hot water, chilling mediums etc. Other useful
products, which might come out from a polygeneration process e.g. compost, will be
treated as secondary by-products of polygeneration.
This work aims to calculate the potential of polygeneration application in European
Cereals, Corn, Bakery, Tea and Coffee Industries and the corresponding emission
savings, which may arise.
1.1.2
Cereals Industry
The cereal industry includes all processes whose production incorporate, as a main
component wheat, rice, maize/corn (although this is also treated separately), millets,
sorghums, rye, oats, barley or other cereal products. Specifically this refers to
products identified by the NACE code 15.61.
1.1.3 Corn Industry
The corn industry refers specifically to industry whose production incorporates
corn/maize as a main component. Specifically this refers to products identified by the
NACE codes 15.60 and 15.62.
1.1.4
Bakery Industry
The bakery industry includes all processes whose products include bread, pastry
goods, cakes and biscuits. Specifically this refers to products identified by the NACE
codes 15.81 and 15.82.
1.1.5
Tea Industry
The tea industry includes all processes whose production incorporate tea as a main
component. Specifically this refers to products identified by the NACE code 15.86.
1.1.6
Coffee Industry
The coffee industry includes all processes whose production incorporate coffee as a
main component. Specifically this refers to products identified by the NACE code
15.86.
1.1.7
Geographical Coverage
This report covers the food processing industries outlined above in the EU-15 until
2004. However, the methodology could easily be extended to the other 10 countries
which joined in 2004.
2 Process Descriptions
2.1 Baking Industry
Bakeries vary widely in terms of scale and product range. Typically, they cover three
categories of products - bread and bread roll products, pastry products (pies, pasties
etc.) and specialty products (cake, biscuits, donuts and specialty breads etc.). The
baking industry uses a wide range of raw materials including prepared and partially
prepared products.1 For example:
Milk/Cream/Ice cream
Flour
Sugar
Fats/Emulsified bread fats, specialised bun fats
Oils
Stabilisers
Enzymes
Flavours
Yeasts
Improvers
Meat/Savoury fillings
Fruit/Dried and prepared fruit fillings
These are delivered and stored appropriately at the bakeries pending their use. This
may require refrigeration depending on the products. The flow-chart below outlines
the processes involved in the production of a typical product (i.e. bread) of the bakery
industry (Scheme 2.1).
All ingredients are pumped from large storage bins or silos into the dough
mixers automatically. The equipment is controlled by computer. The dough is
mixed intensely for about three minutes in a high-speed mixer in batches of
around 300 Kg. The temperature of the dough has to be carefully controlled at
28 C so that the yeast can grow and the dough become elastic.
When mixing is complete the large mass of dough is tipped into a divider. It is
then separated into individual pieces and shaped into a ball. The weight of
each piece of dough is very important to ensure that the finished product
complies with Weights and Measures Regulations.
The dough pieces are allowed to `recover` for about eight minutes in a
conveyor prover. Each piece of dough is then shaped and moulded and placed
in a tin, four pieces to a tin for a loaf of bread. The texture and size of the
dough piece is automatically controlled. The dough then travels through the
final prover, which allows the dough to rise gently for about one hour in
strictly controlled temperature and humidity conditions. This is typically 40
C with a relative humidity of 70-80%. The heat for this part of the process is
usually generated by steam generated from gas fired boilers.2 It is then ready
for baking.
The bread is baked for about 20 minutes at between 200 C and 400 C . The
loaves then go into a cooler. Cooling is usually done under carefully
controlled conditions to ensure correct temperature, humidity and time. This is
very important for quality. The cooling stage lasts for about two hours, which
enables the loaves to be sliced easily. The bread is then wrapped and ready for
despatch. 3
Scheme 2.1 Production Flowchart for Baked Products4
2.2 Cereals Industry

Cereals undergo a range of processes, the most common being milling. Cereal grains
have four main components: the germ, the starchy interior, an outer bran layer and a
protective fibrous husk. The purpose of milling is to separate these various
components to produce a range of products with the particular qualities that are
required during further processing. For example, when milling wheat to produce flour
for bakeries, the customer (the baker) may require a finely milled white flour that
contains mostly the starchy material with little or none of the bran, germ or husk.
Similarly, in maize milling to make flours for foods such as tortilla, kenkey or nsima,
the aim is to separate the starchy material from other components. In rice milling the
aim is to remove only the outer husk from the grain and for 'polished' rice, to also
remove the bran layer.
All cereals may pass through a long chain of unit operations from harvest to final
consumption and sometimes this chain may be very complex and involve a large
number of people. There are three main parts to the chain; harvesting and storage,
primary processing, after which the grain is still not edible and secondary processing
to convert the grain to an edible form.5
Scheme 2.2 Basic Technologies in Cereal Production
After havesting grains are transported to a separate area for further drying and
storage. Depending on the climate and the level of investment, drying may be
carried out in dryers or in the sun on a large flat surface such as a concrete or
hardened earth slab, on mats or plastic sheets or on roofs. It is important that
the grain is dried quickly to prevent mould growth, germination,
discolouration and insect infestation, but not too quickly as this can result in
cracking or case hardening. There are considerable quality advantages in
using one of the many designs of forced air dryer in which the temperature,
humidity and airflow are controlled. The grain is dried quickly and uniformly.
The grain is also stored in different types of silo dryers and therefore requires
less handling.
Storage, 27 C at a relative humidity of 70%
Depending on the outcome of the raw material inspection and the level of
contamination that is found, it may be necessary to clean the grain before it is
milled. This is necessary for two reasons: to prevent contamination of the
finished product and to protect the mill or dehuller from excessive wear or
damage by sand or stones. The cleaning method to be used depends to some
extent on the contaminants that are present, but it is usually sufficient to sieve
the grain to remove dust, sand, insects, small stones, weed seeds, etc. through
a fine mesh and retain chaff, leaves and larger stones on a coarse mesh.
Conditioning of grain before milling is important to ensure the proper

separation of the component parts of the grain and give a good yield of flour
(or in the case of rice, a good separation of the hulls). A quality control check
on moisture content should be made. Grain that is too moist is redried. If it is
too dry a small amount of water is mixed in and the grain is stored for 1224
hours and tested again for moisture content. Parboiling of rice and subsequent
drying has beneficial effects on both the efficiency of dehulling and the quality
of rice after storage.
The grain supplied to rural millers is in most cases, milled to a single flour
which is then sold. However, if millers are supplying bakers or other
secondary processors, there may be a demand for flours that have specific
properties or for composite flours. It is then necessary to blend different
grains before milling.
The most appropriate types of mill for different cereal products depend on a
number of factors, including the type of cereal being milled, the degree of
10
milling (or fineness) of flour required, power consumption, required

throughput, the capital that is available for investment, the availability of spare
parts and maintenance/repair facilities. Similar considerations apply when
selecting a dehuller. However mills that are commonly used by small scale
millers for all types of cereals include plate mills, stone mills and hammer
mills. Roller mills for wheat are usually too expensive for small scale
processors and are confined to large scale centralised mills. Rubber roller
dehullers are commonly used for rice hulling.
In rural areas it is common for whole-meal flours to be sold by millers and in

this case there is no separation of the components of the grain after milling.
Typically maize, sorghum, millet and whole-meal wheat flours are produced
by dehulling the grain, milling to a flour and then using the flour directly to
make the finished products. In other cases there is a demand for a whiter flour
in which the majority of the bran and germ is removed to leave predominantly
starchy material (for example maize, wheat and rice flours). This separation is
achieved by sieving the freshly milled flour through mesh screens, often fitted
with brushes to increase the throughput of the screens.
Jute or hessian sacks are commonly used to package flour or dehulled grain
but multi-layer paper and woven polypropylene sacks are increasingly being
used.
Sacks of flour or dehulled cereals are stored on pallets to keep them off the
floor of the store-room. The store-room is kept cool and dark with a good
ventilation to maintain a flow of air.
2.2.1 Milling of Wheat to Produce Flour
The flow diagram shown in Scheme 2.2 outlines the processes involved in the milling
of wheat to make flour.
11
Scheme 2.2 Simplified Flow Diagram of a Typical Mill6
Wheat arrives at the mill by truck, ship, barge, or train. Before the wheat is
unloaded, samples are taken to ensure it passes inspection. X-rays may be used
to detect any signs of insect infestation. Meanwhile, product control chemists
begin their tests to classify the grain by milling and baking a small amount to
determine end-use qualities. The results from these tests determine how the
wheat will be handled and stored. Millers may blend different wheats to
achieve the desired end product. The wheat will then be stored at the mill in
large bins.
The first milling steps involve equipment that separates wheat from seeds and
other grains, eliminates foreign materials such as metal, sticks, stones and
straw; and scours each kernel of wheat. It can take as many as six steps.
o Magnetic Separator. Removes iron and steel particles.
12
o Separator. Vibrating screens remove bits of wood and straw and

almost anything too big and too small to be wheat.
o Aspirator. Air currents act as a kind of vacuum to remove dust and
lighter impurities.
o De-Stoner. Using gravity, the machine separates the heavy material
from the light to remove stones that may be the same size as wheat
kernels.
o Disc Separator. The wheat passes through a separator that identifies
the size of the kernels even more closely. It rejects anything longer,
shorter, more round, more angular or in any way a different shape.
o Scourer. The scourer removes outer husks, dirt and any smaller
impurities with an intense scouring action. Currents of air pull all the
loosened material away.
Now the wheat is ready to be conditioned for milling. This is called

tempering. Moisture is added in precise amounts to toughen the bran and
mellow the inner endosperm. This makes the parts of the kernel separate more
easily and cleanly. Tempered wheat is stored in bins from eight to 24 hours,
depending on the type of wheat - soft, medium or hard. Blending of wheats
may be done at this time to achieve the best flour for a specific end-use.
An impact scourer uses centrifugal force to break apart any unsound kernels
and rejects them from the mill flow. From the entoleter, the wheat flows to
grinding bins, large hoppers that will measure or feed wheat to the actual
milling process.
The wheat kernels, or berries, are now in far better condition than when they
arrived at the mill and are ready to be milled into flour. Wheat kernels are
measured or fed from the bins to the "rolls," or corrugated rollers made from
chilled cast iron.
From the rolls, the grist is sent way upstairs to drop through sifters. The grist
is moved via pneumatic systems that mix air with the particles so they flow,
almost like water, through tubes.
The broken particles of wheat are introduced into huge, rotating, box-like
sifters where they are shaken through a series of bolting cloths or screens to
separate the larger from the smaller particles. Inside the sifter, there may be as
many as 27 frames, each covered with either a nylon or stainless steel screen,
with square openings that get smaller and smaller the farther down they go.
The "scaled" fractions are sent to other roll passages and particles of
endosperm are graded by size and carried to separate purifiers.
In a purifier, a controlled flow of air lifts off bran particles while at the same
time a bolting cloth separates and grades coarser fractions by size and quality.
Four or five additional "break" rolls, each with successively finer corrugations
and each followed by a sifter, are usually used to rework the coarse stocks
from the sifters and reduce the wheat particles to granular "middlings" that are
as free from bran as possible. Germ particles will be flattened by later passage
13
through the smooth reduction rolls and can be easily separated. The reduction
rolls reduce the purified, granular middlings, or farina, to flour. The process is
repeated over and over again, sifters to purifiers to reducing rolls, until the
maximum amount of flour is separated, consisting of close to 75 percent of the
wheat.
Toward the end of the line in the millstream, if the flour is to be "bleached,"
the finished flour flows through a device, which releases a bleaching-maturing
agent in measured amounts.
The flour stream passes through a device that measures out specified
quantities of enrichment. The enrichment of flour with four B vitamins
(thiamin, niacin and riboflavin) and iron, begun in the 1930s. In 1998 folate,
or folic acid, was added to the mix of vitamin B. If the flour is self-rising, a
leavening agent, salt and calcium are also added in exact amounts.
Finally, the flour millstream flows through pneumatic tubes to the packing
room or into hoppers for bulk storage.7
14
2.3 Corn Industry

Corn refining is an excellent example of a process where by-products are converted
into high value-added products. The most important refined corn products are
sweeteners (corn syrups, dextrose and fructose), produced by the conversion of starch.
The second major product is ethanol, which is now seeing acceptance as a cleaner
burning motor fuel. The mainstay of corn refining is corn starch, while other products
include corn oil, animal feed and amino acids.
Scheme 2.3 The Corn Refining Process8
The corn shipments arrive and are inspected and cleaned twice to remove cob,
dust, chaff and foreign materials before steeping, the first processing step,
begins.
The corn is placed in stainless steel steep tanks, which hold about 3,000
bushels of corn for 30 to 40 hours of soaking in 50 degree water. During
steeping, the kernels absorb water, increasing their moisture levels from 15
percent to 45 percent and more than doubling in size. The addition of 0.1
percent sulfur dioxide to the water prevents excessive bacterial growth in the
warm environment. As the corn swells and softens, the mild acidity of the
steepwater begins to loosen the gluten bonds within the corn and release the
starch. After steeping, the corn is coarsely ground to break the germ loose
from other components. Steepwater is condensed to capture nutrients in the
water for use in animal feeds and for a nutrient for later fermentation
processes. The ground corn, in a water slurry, flows to the germ separators.
15
Cyclone separators spin the low density corn germ out of the slurry. The
germs, containing about 85% of corn's oil, are pumped onto screens and
washed repeatedly to remove any starch left in the mixture. A combination of
mechanical and solvent processes extracts the oil from the germ. The oil is
then refined and filtered into finished corn oil. The germ residue is saved as
another useful component of animal feeds.
The corn and water slurry leaves the germ separator for a second, more
thorough, grinding in an impact or attrition-impact mill to release the starch
and gluten from the fibre in the kernel. The suspension of starch, gluten and
fibre flows over fixed concave screens, which catch fibre but allow starch and
gluten to pass through. The fibre is collected, converted to slurry and screened
again to reclaim any residual starch or protein, then piped to the feed house as
a major ingredient of animal feeds. The starch-gluten suspension, called mill
starch, is piped to the starch separators.
Gluten has a low density compared to starch. By passing mill starch through a
centrifuge, the gluten is readily spun out for use in animal feeds. The starch,
with just one or two percent protein remaining, is diluted, washed 8 to 14
times, re-diluted and washed again in hydroclones to remove the last trace of
protein and produce high quality starch, typically more than 99.5% pure.
Some of the starch is dried and marketed as unmodified cornstarch, some is
modified into specialty starches, but most is converted into corn syrups and
dextrose.
Starch, suspended in water, is liquefied in the presence of acid and/or

enzymes, which convert the starch to a low-dextrose solution. Treatment with
another enzyme continues the conversion process. Throughout the process,
refiners can halt acid or enzyme actions at key points to produce the right
mixture of sugars like dextrose and maltose for syrups to meet different needs.
In some syrup, the conversion of starch to sugars is halted at an early stage to
produce low-to-medium sweetness syrups. In others, the conversion is
allowed to proceed until the syrup is nearly all dextrose. The syrup is refined
in filters, centrifuges and ion-exchange columns, and excess water is
evaporated. Syrups are sold directly, crystallised into pure dextrose, or
processed further to create high fructose corn syrup.
Dextrose is one of the most fermentable of all of the sugars. Following

conversion of starch to dextrose, many corn refiners pipe dextrose to
fermentation facilities where the dextrose is converted to alcohol by traditional
yeast fermentation or to amino acids and other bioproducts through either
yeast or bacterial fermentation. After fermentation, the resulting broth is
distilled to recover alcohol or concentrated through membrane separation to
produce other bioproducts. Carbon dioxide from fermentation is recaptured
for sale and nutrients remaining after fermentation are used as components of
animal feed ingredients.
16
2.4 Coffee Industry
Scheme 2.4 Coffee Green Bean Processing and Packing

Coffee cherries are processed at the location in which they are grown to produce
green beans. These are then exported for roasting and further processing. Scheme
2.4 gives an overview of the roasting process.
17
After screening to remove dirt and other debris, green coffee beans are
transferred to feed hoppers, which charge beans to the roaster, which may
operate on a batch or continuous basis. Roasting temperature typically ranges
from 370 oC to 540 oC with roasting times ranging from 5 to 20 minutes
depending on the desired coffee bean colour and flavour.
When the beans reach the desired colour, they are immediately quenched with
a water spray to halt the roasting process. Due to the elevated temperature of
the roaster, the water applied is emitted as steam.
The beans are then transferred to an enclosed cooler, where ambient air is
blown over and/or through the beans as they are stirred or agitated to facilitate
the cooling process. In the case of small, batch type roasters, this step is
carried out in an open bin (referred to as a cooler car) equipped with a rotating
stirring arm and blower to facilitate the cooling process.
The cooled beans are then transferred to a destoner, which is essentially an air
classifier which separates the beans from heavier material such as stones,
metal fragments, and other waste materials that were not removed during the
initial cleaning process. In the case of small, batch-type roasting operations,
operators typically rely on the initial cleaning process and do not mechanically
destone the beans after roasting.
Roasted beans may then be pnuematically conveyed to hoppers that feed

multi-stage grinders for grinding
Ground coffee and whole coffee beans are packaged into various sizes for consumer
and commercial distribution.
18
2.5 Tea Industry

There are two major methods of tea manufacture: (i) Orthodox method and (ii) CTC
(Cut-Tear-Curl) method. Orthodox is a traditional method in which the green leaves
are first withered, twisted gradually by the slow rolling process, then fermented and
dried. CTC method is a high volume process. Some factories manufacture tea by
Dual process - both orthodox and CTC methods. 9
Scheme 2.5 Flow Diagram of the Tea Processing Industry, CTC Method10
Lorries bring tea from the garden to the factory. The process of making the
dried tea leaf starts with the fresh leaves being emptied into troughs where
they are allowed to go flaccid and dry a little before being moved on by
human labour. This starts the process of breaking down the cells after which
there is a 6-14 hour withering period using a rolling table or rotor wain.
Oxidisation occurs when the cells are disturbed so the process is to literally
break down the leaf.
The rollers used are based on those used in flour mills and consist of a series
of cutting edges that have to be kept sharp. Cutting and tearing gives a higher
concentration of tea by volume. Both orthodox (rolled tea) and Darjeeling
have less processing as the leaf is not cut so much and makes a weaker tea.
The CTC process takes 25-40 minutes and after that the marl, as it is now
called, is allowed to cool so that the oxidisation process can continue.
Temperature is crucial here for if it exceeds 35 C then the marl will be spoilt.
So cold air is blown onto the marl while it moves along a conveyer belt. Marl
used to be left on the floor to oxidise but it was difficult to check the speed of
oxidization when in heaps. There is no machine that can tell when
19
fermentation has finished. It is left to the skill and experience of the manager
and his staff to halt the process at the right time before drying.
This can take 45 minutes to 2.5 hours. The dryers are used to arrest the
oxidisation process. In the dryers, hot air blows through the marl and the chaff
is separated from it by suction. Then it is run through rollers that are covered
in plastic that creates static electricity to attract finer dust particles.
The cleaned dried tea is sifted by size into different containers. 11
20
3 Energy Needs and Present Solutions

3.1 Baking Industry
As illustrated above (Section 2.1), energy use in the baking sector is dominated by
gas to run the baking ovens and electricity for conveying.12
3.1.1 Proofing Process
As stated above the proofing process uses an oven at 40 C with a relative humidity of
70-80%. The heat for this is typically generated using steam from gas fired boilers.
This is a high energy consuming process and the energy used by a small proofing
oven for one day is typically around 5GJ.
3.1.2 Baking Process
The baking oven requires a temperature of 300 to 400 C. Excessive exhaust gasses
are typically released to the atmosphere. However, in 2001 RMIT University along
with GF Baking Australia have shown that it is possible to use heat recovery
technology to take the energy from the exhaust gasses and use this to heat the
proofing oven.2

Energy use in milling is dominated by electricity. Of the electricity used, typically
44% is consumed in the milling operation itself, 41% in conveying and 7% in
compressed air. In the UK the industry is concentrated in large mills, which provide
over 90% of the total flour milled in the country. 12
Table 3.1 Breakdown of Energy Usage in the Milling Process
21
Table 3.1 above shows a breakdown of energy usage for each process involved in the
milling of wheat.
3.3 Corn Industry

Electrical energy in the corn milling industry is required for conveying, sifting and
separation processes to extract the required products from the corn. While heat
energy is used mainly for drying the isolated products.
3.4 Coffee Industry

3.4.1 Roasting
The large scale coffee roasters, producers of coffee substitutes, J. Honig, have 358
employees and their annual production of coffee is 1,500 tons. Table 3.10 below
shows their annual energy usage.
Table 3.10 J. Honig General Production Data 199413

For roasting 1 Kg of coffee-beans, the energy use theoretically amounts to 700 kJ.
Since the efficiency of roasting installations vary from 25% to 75%, the energy use
vary from 1 to 3 GJ per ton coffee-beans (excluding afterburning of exhaust gases).14
3.5 Tea Industry

Energy is a critical input for tea manufacture. Thermal energy is required to remove
the moisture from the green leaf as well as fermented tea, whereas electrical energy is
required at almost all stages of unit operations. The process of tea manufacturing
consists of different energy intensive unit operations i.e. withering, processing
(rolling/CTC cuts), fermentation, drying, sifting and packing. These make use of 3
different forms of energy i.e. electrical, thermal and human. More than 80% of the
energy required is thermal energy to remove moisture from tea during withering and
22
drying. Every Kg of made tea requires 3.5-6 kWh of thermal energy, 0.21 - 0.5 kWh
of electrical energy and 0.11 kWh of manpower.15
However, within Europe the tea industry is confined to blending and packaging of tea
imported from outside of Europe. These processes require electrical energy but little
heat or cooling energy.
23
4 Current On-Site Energy Production in the Industry Sectors

4.1 Baking Industry
Cogeneration can be employed in the baking industry to recover heat from the exhaust
gases of the baking ovens and use this to heat the proofing ovens.2
One example of on-site energy production using biogas in the cereal industry is
outlined below.
The Cargill Company of Bergen op Zoom (the Netherlands), a corn and wheat
processing company, uses biogas in its afterburners. The biogas is produced by their
on-site wastewater treatment unit through anaerobic digestion of organic material in
the water. Afterburners are used to remove odorous vapors produced during the
drying of semi-finished products. Previously, the vapors were removed by a natural
gas-fired afterburner. The new system uses biogas produced by anaerobic digestion
of organic material in the water at an on-site wastewater treatment unit. Preheating
the biogas and reducing relative humidity to below 60% in the afterburner, a point
where acid formation is no longer a problem, avoids the formation of sulfuric acid.
The project saves 1,000,000 Nm3 of natural gas annually (equivalent to 33 TBtu/year),
with a payback period of 1.7 years. Krner-Strke, an organic wheat processing plant,
also uses the methane from its wastewater treatment plant in its production process,
saving primary energy.16
4.3 Corn Industry
Cogeneration can be employed effectively within the wet corn milling sector as well
as the use of wastewater from the refining process to produce methane, which is then
employed as a secondary fuel source. One example of a plant using these processes is
the Casco Inc. Plant in Ontario.17
4.4 Coffee Industry
Currently the use of onsite energy production within the coffee industry is limited.
However, work is beginning looking at the utilisation of waste coffee shells (broza) as
a substitute for wood as additional firing material for use during the drying process.
4.5 Tea Industry
Waste heat can be recovered within the tea production process. This is mainly
available from (i) flue gas and (ii) exhaust of tea dryer. Generally, sensible heat
losses in the flue gases leaving the chimney is 35-55% of the heat input to the furnace.
The heat in the flue gases can be recovered by either preheating combustion air or
charge preheating (N.B. Preheating combustion air effects fuel savings). Heating
devices used for this purpose are recuperator and regenerator. Also if the air is
enriched with oxygen, combustion of the fuel is faster and more complete.18
24
However, this has no impact on the European tea processing industry as this is
confined to blending and packaging of pre-processed teas.
25
5 Process Waste and By-Products

5.1 Baking Industry
The main source of waste from the baking industry comes from contaminated waste
water. Wastewater is primarily generated from cleaning operations including
cleaning-in-place (CIP) processes, plant and equipment washdowns and cratewashing.
Significant organic loads come from ingredients (predominantly flour, sugar, yeast,
and shortening) that are lost and flow into floor drains during processing and cleaning.
The wastewater may also contain cleaning agents, lubricants (oil and grease), and
solids washed from equipment and floors. Wastes are generated from a range of
sources including:
Process
Ingredient
storage
Waste Source
receival
and
damage,
spills.
deterioration,
Ingredient make-up
errors, incorrect weights

missing ingredients.
Mixing
ingredient errors, spills,

breakdowns, cleaning.
Fermentation
CIP cleaning, batch errors.
Forming
incorrect weights, divider

breakdowns, cleaning
Release agents
overspray, washdowns.
Baking and proving
misforming, contamination /
staining.
Cutting and packaging
cutting errors, package

damage, line breakdowns.
Dispatch and transport
overproduction, damage in
transport
Washing
equipment
plant
and
wastewater,
organic
material, oil and grease.
Table 5.1 Waste Products from the Baking Industry

Water consumption and wastewater generation is the most obvious waste issue
encountered by bakeries and an area where significant Cleaner Production gains can
be made. About 50% of water used in a bakery is incorporated into product. The
26
remaining 50% is used for cleaning and other ancillary activities and is ultimately
discharged as wastewater. Water consumption and wastewater generation rates
fluctuate considerably throughout a production day dependent on when cleaning
activities occur.
More than 90% of the waste load contained in bakery wastewaters comes from
ingredients that are lost and flow into floor drains during processing and cleaning.
Flour, sugar, yeast, shortening and oil are the major components. A waste assessment
undertaken for an Australian bakery found that over one tonne of ingredients can be
lost to wastewater over a week of production. Measurements of wastewater generated
from this plant indicated that for every tonne of dough produced, 0.5 kL of
wastewater, 1.9 Kg COD and 1.0 Kg suspended solids were generated.
By comparison, pastry, cake and specialty bread lines are often characterised as
generating large volumes of wastewater with relatively low concentrations of COD,
due to smaller scales of production and generally less efficient manual cleaning
practices. Cleaner Production strategies in these areas therefore should focus on
reducing the volumes of water used for cleaning. However, the production of sweet
goods such as doughnuts, cream buns, fruit pies can also generate high loads of COD
due to the high grease, sugar and fruit content of ingredients used. Bakery
wastewaters are also characterised as having high loads of oil and grease. Food grade
oils are used to grease baking trays prior to each baking and are usually applied using
automatic spray systems. The oil content in bakery wastewaters can generally be
attributed to over-spray from these systems. Other sources of oil and grease originate
from lubricants used on conveyor systems.
Solid wastes generated from bakeries are principally waste dough and out-ofspecification products. These wastes can represent a substantial cost to the company,
since costs include not only the cost of ingredients, but also the production, cleaning
and maintenance costs for producing the waste materials. Some benefit can be
recovered from these wastes by cooking waste dough to produce breadcrumbs and by
passing cooked product onto pig farmers for fodder.

The main waste product from the cereal industry is known as millfeed. This consists
of bran, germ and endosperm, which contains a significant amount of starch not
recovered by the milling process. Millfeed is not a single homogeneous stream but a
collection of several streams from the process of making flour. In addition, millfeed
composition varies depending on the variety of wheat being processed into flour.
Millfeed production varies slightly depending on mill operation and variety of wheat
processed. Flour extraction ranges from 73 to 77% resulting in an average millfeed
production of about 25% by weight of the wheat introduced to the mill. Considering
that the wheat kernel contains 83% endosperm (the starchy source of white flour), it
is apparent that the millfeed contains, in addition to the bran, a significant portion of
the starchy endosperm. A rough calculation suggests that millfeed is composed of up
to 35% starch that originated from the endosperm.19
27
5.3 Corn Industry

The term bioproducts designates a wide variety of corn refining products made from
natural, renewable raw materials, which replace products, made from non-renewable
resources or which are produced by chemical synthesis. The most widely known
bioproduct is ethanol - a motor fuel additive fermented from corn. Ethanol has been
made from grain for thousands of years, but it is only in the last 20 years that it has
achieved widespread use as a motor fuel ingredient.
Fermentation of corn-derived dextrose has created an entirely a new group of
bioproducts: organic acids, amino acids, vitamins and food gums.
Citric and lactic acid from corn can be found in hundreds of food and industrial
products. They provide tartness to foods and confections, help control pH and are
themselves feedstocks for further products.
Amino acids from corn provide a vital link in animal nutrition systems. Most grain
feeds don't have the amount of lysine required by swine and poultry for optimal
nutrition. Economical corn based lysine is now available worldwide to help
supplement animal feeds. Threonine and tryptophan for feed supplements also come
from corn.
Vitamin C and Vitamin E - vital human nutritional supplements - are now derived
from corn, supplanting old production systems, which relied on chemical synthesis.
Even well-known food additives such as monosodium glutamate and xanthan gum are
now produced by fermenting a dextrose feedstock.
28
5.4 Coffee Industry

1000Kg of fresh berry gives about 400Kg of wet waste pulp and only 160Kg of
exportable green bean.20 Coffee pulp is mainly composed of water and sugar. The
sugar can be fermented by bacteria and acidified, resulting in a bad smell. The water
leaking from the pulp can be highly acidic. Hence, treating waste pulp is as important
as treating the wastewater.
However, minimal waste is produced during the roasting, grinding and packaging
processes.
5.5 Tea Industry

The major wastes generated from the tea industry are air pollutants and solid waste.
Air pollution is emitted from the combustion of fuel to generate hot air. In the
withering process, rejected green leaves are the major wastes when the leaves are
spread/loaded on the troughs. Small quantities of leftovers and litter are also
generated in the rolling and CTC processes. On average, the tea industry generates
about 100 Kg of waste green leaves or litter per ton of made tea produced. During
drying, tea leaves and fibers could be blown from the dryer. The average blownout is
about 24% of made tea. In heaters, the use of firewood, coal and briquettes generate
ashes and clinkers. Coal or firewood-fired heaters produce about 100 Kg of ash per
ton of made tea on the average. During sifting, fibers (stake) are produced. In some
factories, these fibers are pulverized and recycled in process as the re-conditioner (RC
powder). Otherwise, these fibers and blownouts are denatured, in which every 25 Kg
of fibrous waste is mixed with 1 Kg of lime and buried in pits. Some portions of the
denatured wastes are used as fertilizer for tea plantations.21
However, minimal waste products are produced from the blending, packaging of
processed tea within the EU.
29
6 Potential New Technologies for On-Site Energy Production

6.1 Baking Industry
By investigating the utilities and the by-products from the bakery industry the
following polygeneration technologies have been identified as suitable for use within
the baking industry sector:
Cogeneration of heat and power

Use of byproducts for energy production (i.e. incineration or anaerobic
treatment to produce biogas)
Trigeneration to produce refrigeration

From the analysis of the energy requirements of the cereal processing industry it is
clear that it is largely electrical energy which is required, with heat energy only being
used to dry the cereals after harvesting. This is typically done remotely from the
factory and also represents a seasonal energy requirement therefore limiting the
applicability of CHP for this purpose.
6.3 Corn Industry
For industries like corn wet milling that have process heat, steam and electricity
requirements, the use of combined heat and power systems may be able to save
energy and reduce pollution. Many corn wet milling plants have already installed
CHP systems. About 21% of the electricity used at corn wet milling plants in the US
is cogenerated onsite.
In the corn wet milling industry, hot water and thermal energy are used throughout the
process beginning at the steeping stage all the way through until the starch is dried,
while electricity is used for pumping, grinding, separating and drying the corn. The
following technologies have been identified as suitable for application within the corn
industry:

Use of byproducts for energy production (i.e. incineration or anaerobic
treatment to produce biogas)
The lack of any chilling or freezing requirements means that the trigeneration
potential within this industry is limited.
6.4 Coffee Industry
The following processes could be employed for polygeneration within the coffee
industry:
30
6.5 Tea Industry

As the tea plant is only grown in Portugal within Europe the European tea industry is
confined to the blending and packing of processed tea imported from countries like
India and China. The energy requirements of this process are largely electrical22, i.e.
conveying, rotation for blending, mechanised packing with no requirements for
heating or cooling. Waste products from this process are also very limited as the tea
is essentially a finished product when it is brought into Europe.
31
7 Technical Potential of on Site Power Generation and Emission

Savings by Polygeneration in Europe
7.1 Methodology
7.1.1 General
The goal of this report is to determine within the accuracy needed for strategic
planning, the technical potential of polygeneration, -CHP, trigeneration and RES in
the various industries described in Section 1.1 within the wider frame of the European
food industry.
The results of the calculations will be the total electrical energy per year, which can
be generated if full use of the existing methodologies for cogeneration, trigeneration
and polygeneration are applied in the European food industry.
The calculations are focused on the 15 member states of the EU as defined until the
summer of 2004. the environmental impact of the polygeneration potential will also
be quantified in temrs of annual CO2 savings.
7.1.2 Assumptions
In order to estimate the polygeneration potential within the European food industry it
is necessary to make several assumptions. The following assumptions have been used
in the developmentof the model:
1. Electricity generation potential in the case of cogeneration or trigeneration
application depends on the amount of useful heat which can be absorbed in the
process served by the CHP unit. This means that dumping or spoiling the heat
co-generated is not accepted and electricity can only be co-generated as a byproduct when useful heat is demanded.
2. It has been assumed that the total yearly operating hours of the CHP or
trigeneration unit exceed 4000 hours per year in order to make the
methodologies financially attractive.
3. Financial factor have not been examined. It is known that applicability of
cogeneration, trigeneration or polygeneration depends strongly on the cost of
fuels, electricity and equipment, etc.
4. It has been assumed that equipment of suitable size exists in the market and
that operating hours of greater than 4000 per year is feasible.
7.1.3 Calculations
The calculations performed are as follows:
Potel = Heat needed x (Pel/Ptherm)
[kWhel]

Heat need = Tones of product x specific heat need of process
32
(1)
When trigeneration is examined the calculation of the heat needed for potential
absorpton cycle, Heatabs, was calculated as:
Heatabs = [electricity need for chilling/COPel]/COPabs
(2)
PotelBG = biogas x Pel
[kWh]
(3)
Biogas = Msolids x %DS%VS x 580 x 6
[kWh]
(4)
Msolids = Total tonnes of product x specific solid waste generated by the process
(5)
The data used in the calculations are summarised in the following table:
COP of conventional freezing cycle
COP of freezing for ammonia absorption cycle
total dry solids content of the solid wastes
Part of the TDS which is VS -volatile solidsBiogas generated by 1 ton of VS
LCV of biogas
heat /electricity ratio for turbine based CHP units
mean Grid efficiency+trans losses
CO2 savings /kwh of el. Cogenerated
CO2 savings /kwh of el. Trigenerated
CO2 savings /kwh of biogas produced
Biogas generated by 1 kg of COD
1.2
0.8
2.5
1.2
30 %
50 %
580 Nm3
6 kWh/Nm3
2.5
80 %
40 %
0.26 kgCO2/kWhel
0.436 kgCO2/kWhel
0.21 kgCO2/kWhbiogas
0.35 Nm3/kg COD
Table 7.1 General Technical Data Used for Calculations
33
7.2 Baking Industry

Electricity
need
heat need
Process
code
Mass balance relationship

expressed in 1tonne
temperature of total solid

heat
wastes
kWhel/ton kWhtherm/ton
bread
bread
oC
14.46
0
1 Dough Mixing
2 Proving
3 Baking
4 Cooling
Total
21.37
148 200 - 400
125
260.42
139.46
429.79
kgs COD
or
solids/ton
bread
28 COD
1.9
40
Solids
1
26
Table 7.2 Energy Demand by Process in the Bread Making Industry

Table 7.2 shows the values for process energy requirements which will be used for
the assessment of the polygeneration potential in the baking industry. The actual
values will vary significantly from plant to plant depending on a number of variables,
i.e. size, type of products produced, age, etc. The purpose of this report is to give a
general idea of the energy requirements within each industry sector rather than a
specific analysis of all possible processing requirements. The values in the table were
arrived at from a number of different sources 4, 23
As discussed in Section 5.1 the main sources of waste from the baking industry are
contaminated wastewater generated by cleaning operations. The organic loads in this
wastewater are mainly from waste ingredients.
The values in this table will be used to estimate the potential for polygeneration in the
European baking industry.
7.2.1 Baking Industry Production Data
The general trend in EU countries follows the pattern of development of small and
family bakeries. Their production is often so small, that they can only supply goods to
one or two shops. In spite of their large number more than 60% of the bakery
productions is made in industrial-type bakeries built near large cities. Such bakeries
are often equipped with advanced and efficient conveyors and their production
process is very efficient.
The western European bread industry produces 25 million tonnes of bread per annum,
of which the industrial or plant sector's share is 8 million tonnes. Germany and the
UK are the main operators with 60% of plant sector production France, the
Netherlands
and
Spain
produce
another
20
%
between
them.
Despite the dominance of industrial bakers in some European markets, such as in
Britain and Ireland where they represent over 80% of the market, craft bakers
continue to represent the bulk of bread production in Europe, accounting for an
estimated 48% of the total volume in 1997, compared with 36% for industrial bakers
34
Potential
Biogas
produced kWhbioga
Nm3/ton s/ton
bread
bread
0.67
0.087
0.5
and 16% for semi-industrial bread, including frozen part-baked products and in-store
bakery production. Even now, in France, Italy and Germany craft bakers have by far
the largest market share although the situation is changing rapidly. Throughout
Western Europe the plant sector is taking market share away from the master bakers.
In Germany there are 18, 000 craft bakers but the number is expected to half in the
next five years. In the UK and Denmark, plant bakeries currently hold between 75
80% of the market.
7,000,000
6,000,000
tonnes/year
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
Graph 7.1 Estimated Bread Production in EU-15 Countries for 2002

Graph 7.1 shows the estimated bread production for the EU-15 countries in 2002. As
bread production statistics were only available for 7 EU countries a comparison
between the bread production in these countries and the amount of bread exported
was made. This showed that from 1 9% of the bread produced was exported. A
mean value of 4% was then used to estimate the bread production in the remaining
countries based on the bread export statistics which were readily available. Using this
estimation the total bread production for 2002 was estimated at 22,552,687 tonnes
compared with the EU data which puts the total bread production for the EU-15 at
25,000,000. This represents a discrepancy of less than 10% which indicates that the
estimation method gives a reasonable indication of the actual statistics.24
A threshold level of production above which polygeneration becomes viable was
calculated and is shown in Table 7.4. This data was used to take into account plant
size in each of the EU-15 countries. The data used for each country was estimated
based on the relative size of each countries total production and are shown in the
appendix.
35
uk
process heat requirements

for
trigeneration(CHP+ammon
ia absorption chillers)
biogas production
tonnes/year
process heat
requirements/ton bread
kWh/ton -for cogeneration
In Bread making processes 1+2+3+4
169.37
429.79
577778
Table 7.3 Plant Capacity Threshold for Polygeneration Applications for the Baking
Industry
7.2.2 Results
Graph 7.2 show the polygeneration potential in the European bakery industry split by
country as calculated based on the model described in Section 7.1.1.
350000
300000
MWhel /year
250000
cogeneration
trigeneration
200000
biogas
150000
100000
50000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
Graph 7.2 Polygeneration Potential in the Baking Industry

The total European results are shown in Graph 7.3 below.
36
se
uk
726,795
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
1,844,288
Graph 7.3 Total European Baking Industry Polygeneration Potential

As with the findings from the Fish and Meat industry assessment it is apparent that
higher potential is observed for trigeneration to cover the requirements for chilling
and cooling within the baking industry.
Biogas shows no potential within this industry due to the relatively small amounts of
solid waste produced and the high biogas requirements for reliable energy generation.
Graph 7.4 shows the results when the potential CO2 saving is examined for each
country and Graph 7.5 shows the total European saving.
37

140000
120000
tonnes CO2/year
100000
cogeneration
80000
trigeneration
60000
biogas
40000
20000
0
be
dk de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Graph 7.4 CO2 Savings Potential from Polygeneration Applications in the European
Bakery Industry
0
188,967
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
676,193
Graph 7.5 Total Co2 Savings Potential in the European Bakery Industry When
Polygeneration is Applied
38

The most common process for cereals to undergo is milling. Table 7.4 shows the
specific energy requirements and solid generations of the processes involved in the
milling of cereal products.
Electri
city
Need Heat Need
Process code
Farming to produce raw
materials
Potential
Total solid Biogas
Wastes
produced
Temperature of Heat
Mass balance
relationship
expressed in
1tonne of cereal kWhel/to kWhtherm/ton
produced
n cereal cereal
oC
not included in
this study
Cleaning
2.1
0 RT
Milling
57.2
0 RT
kgs COD or
solids/ton
cereal
kWhbio
gas/ton
cereal
Nm3/ton
cereal
250
21.8
130.5
Solid
Sifting and Purification
0.75
3.2
0 RT
Millfeed
Conveying
N/A
2.7
0 RT
Pneumatics and Air Clean N/A
28.1
0 RT
Table 7.4 Specfic Process Energy Need and Solid Generation Used in the
Calculations on the Cereal Industry
As can be seen the main energy requirements in cereal milling industry are electrical
with no requirement for eating or cooling. This means that the potential for
cogeneration or trigeneration of energy is very limited. However, significant amounts
of solid waste products are produced during the process and this presents an
opportunity for biogas production.
7.3.1 Cereal Industry Production Data
Cereal Production in EU-15 2002
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
Graph 7.6 Cereal Production in the EU-15 Countries in 2002

Graph 7.6 shows the total cereal production for the EU-15 countries in 2002.
39
fi
se
uk
7.3.2 Results
Graph 7.7 shows the estimated polygeneration potential in the European cereal
industry. It can be clearly seen that the lack of heat or cooling requirements within
the milling process means that there is no real cogneration or trigeneration potential.
There is however the potential for the production of biogas.
Polygeneration Potential in EU-15 Cereal Industry
3500000
3000000
2500000
Cogeneration
2000000
Trigeneration
1500000
Biogas
1000000
500000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Graph 7.7 Polygeneration Potential in the European Cereal Industry

Graph 7.8 below shows the total European polygeneration potential.
TOTAL EUROPEAN POLYGENERATION POTENTIAL in MWh el.
0
0
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
9,206,301
Graph 7.8 Total European Cereal Industry Potential for Polygeneration
40
The potential emissions saving from the use of the biogas generated by the European
cereal industry is shown in Graph 7.9 below.
Emission Savings Potential by Polygeneration in EU-15 Cereal Industry

700000
600000
500000
Cogeneration
400000
Trigeneration
300000
Biogas
200000
100000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Cereal Industry
Graph 7.10 shows the total potential emission savings for the whole of Europe.
Total EU-15 CO2 Savings Potential from Polygeneration
0
0
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
1,933,323
Graph 7.10 Total CO2 Savings Potential in the European Cereal Industry
41
7.4 Corn Industry

Electricity
need
temperatu
heat need re of heat total solid wastes
Mass balance
relationship
kWhtherm
expressed in
kWhel/tonne /tonne
bushels of corn corn
corn
oC
not included in
this study
Process
code
Crop Growing
1 Steeping + Steep water eveporation
8.6
2 Germ recovery, dewatering and drying
17.3
3 Fibre recovery + dewatering
29.3
225.2
Potential
Biogas
produced
Nm3/ton kWhbioga
corn
s/ton corn
kgs COD or solids/ton corn
50
78.2 100-427
0 N/A
4 Protein recovery, thickening and drying
17.4
41 100-427
5 Starch washing, dewatering and drying
36.3
311.5 100-427
6 Gluten feed dryer
11.2
258.7 100-427
2.61
0.91
5.48
1.75
0.61
3.68
Waste water recycled within the system

Total
Table 7.5 Specific Process Energy requirements and Solid Generation Used in
Calcualtions
Table 7.5 shows the energy requirements in a typical wet mill. Again the exact
values of these will vary from mill to mill depending on size, age, type of equipment
etc. These values were taken from a number of different sources25, 26
7.4.1 Corn Industry Production Data

70,000
2500000
60,000
tonnes/year
tonnes/year
50,000
2000000
40,000
1500000
30,000
1000000
20,000
10,000
500000
0
0
be
be
dk
dk
de
de
gr
gr
es
es
fr
fr
ie
ie
it
it
lu
lu
nl
nl
at
at
pt
pt
fi
fi
Graph 7.11 Corn Oil Production in the EU-15 2002

Graph 7.11 shows the production statistics for corn oil in the EU-15 in 2002. As
statistics detailing the amount of corn processed were unavailable this was used to
estimate the total amount of corn produced by each country based on the assumption
that 27 Kg of corn oil is produced on average from each tonne of corn processed.27
The results are shown in Graph 7.12.
42
se
se
uk
uk
2500000
tonnes/year
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
tonnes/year
biogas production
Corn Processing 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6
process heat
requirements/ton corn
kWh/ton -for
cogeneration
Graph 7.12 Estimated Amount of Corn Processed in EU-15 2002
1640.06
283843
Table 7.6 Plant Capacity Threshold for Polygeneration Applications for the Corn
Milling Industry
Table 7.6 shows the production threshold in order for polygeneration to be applicable
in the corn industry. This data was used to take into account plant size in each of the
EU-15 countries. The data used for each country was estimated based on the relative
size of each countries total production and are shown in the appendix.
43
uk
7.4.2 Results
Graph 7.13 below shows the estimated polygeneration potential in the European corn
milling industry as produced by the model described earlier.
900000
800000
700000
MWhel /year
600000
cogeneration
500000
trigeneration
400000
biogas
300000
200000
100000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Graph 7.13 Polgeneration Potential in the European Corn Industry
There is no significant trigeneration potential within the corn milling industry as there
is no requirement for cooling/freezing within the production process. However, there
is the possibility of biogas production.
680,666
Cogeneration
Biogas production
2,899,738
Graph 7.14 Total European Polygeneration Potential in the Corn Industry
44
There is a large potential for cogeneration within this food industry sector and this is
already being exploited. There is also a significant potential for the use of biogas
generated from solid waste from the industry.
The true impact of polygeneration potential is seen much more clearly when CO2
reduction is examined. Graphs 7.15 and 7.16 show the results of this analysis.
250000
tonnes CO2/year
200000
150000
cogeneration
trigeneration
biogas
100000
50000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Corn Industry
Total European-15 CO2 s avings potential from polygeneration
296,771
Cogeneration
Biogas production
753,932
Graph 7.16 Total CO2 Savings Potential in the European Corn Industry When
Polygeneration is Applied.
45
7.5 Coffee Industry

There is no significant coffee production industry in Europe. However a significant
amount of green coffee is imported which is then roasted in European countries.
Electricity
temperatur total solid
need
heat need e of heat
wastes
Mass balance
relationship
expressed in
kWhel/ton kWhtherm
1tonne of coffee coffee
/ton coffee oC
399 370 - 540
Process
code
1 Roasting
kgs COD
or
solids/ton
coffee
0
2 Cooling
3 Destoning
0
0
4 Grinding
225
5 Freeze drying
648
1350
6 Packaging, conveying etc
-40
155
873
Potential
Biogas
produced kWhbioga
Nm3/ton s/ton
coffee
coffee
0
0
1904
Table 7.7 Specific Energy Requirements in the Green Coffee Processing Industry
Table 7.7 shows the energy requirements in a typical green coffee processing factory.
Again the exact values of these will vary depending on size, age, type of equipment
etc. The values used were taken from a number of different sources. 28,29
7.5.1 Coffee Industry Production Data

Coffee Production in Europe 2002
450,000
400,000
tonnes/year
350,000
300,000
250,000
Roasted Coffee
Instant Coffee
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
be dk de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
Graph 7.17 Coffee Production in the EU-15
46
fi
se uk
process heat requirements for

trigeneration(CHP+ammonia absorption
chillers)
biogas production
Specific heat demand

and solids output in the
ground coffee production
process I.e. processes
1 1+2+3+4+6
Specific heat demand
and solids output in the
freeze dried coffee
production process I.e.
processes
2 1+2+3+4+5+6
process heat requirements/ton carcasse

kWh/ton -for cogeneration
Graph 7.17 shows the production statistics for roasted and instant coffee in the EU15 in 2002. Table 7.8 shows the production threshold in order for polygeneration to
be applicable in the coffee industry. This data was used to take into account plant size
in each of the EU-15 countries. As the threshold values are so low it was assumed
that all of the coffee plants would have significant output to make polygeneration
viable (N.B. typical plant output aprox. 34 794 ton/year)
2708
2708
2708
788
Table 7.8 Plant Capacity Threshold for Polygeneration Applications for the Green
Coffee Processing Industry
7.5.2 Results
Graph 7.18 below shows the estimated polygeneration potential in the European
green coffee processing industry as produced by the model described earlier.
As can be seen there is a good potential for cogeneration and trigeneration. In
countries where significant amounts of freeze dried coffee are produced (i.e. de, es, nl,
uk) the potential for trigeneration is increased with respect to the cogeneration
potential due to the significant requirements for low temperatures in the freeze drying
process.
There is no potential for the generation of biogas as most of the wastes from the
coffee industry are generated in the early stages of processing which occur directly
after harvesting of the coffee cherries. These processes occur before the green coffee
beans are transferred to the roasting and blending factories. The wastes from the later
processing stages are minimal and therefore not suitable for use in biogas generation.
47

180000
160000
140000
MWhel /year
120000
cogeneration
100000
trigeneration
80000
biogas
60000
40000
20000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Graph 7.18 Polygeneration Potential in EU-15

376,239
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
471,083
Graph 7.19 Total European Polygeneration Potential in the Green Coffee Processing
Industry
Graph 7.19 shows the total polygeneration potential for the EU-15 countries within
the green coffee processing industry.
48
60000
tonnes CO2/year
50000
40000
cogeneration
30000
trigeneration
biogas
20000
10000
0
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
Coffee Industry
97,822
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
139,174
Graph 7.21 Total CO2 Savings Potential from Polygeneration Applications in the
European Coffee Industry
Graphs 7.20 and 7.21 show the results of translating the potential energy savings into
CO2 emissions savings. As can be seen the use of polygeneration in the coffee
processing industry would provide significant CO2 emissions reductions.
49
9 Conclusions
Based on the methodology outlined in Section 7.1 significant potential for
polygeneration has been identified in a number of food industry sectors within the
EU-15. These can be summarised as follows:
The baking industry shows a good potential for the use of cogeneration
and trigeneration.
Due to predominantly electrical energy needs the cereal processing

industry only exhibits the potential for biogas production.
The corn industry shows promise for the use of cogeneration and also
biogas production.
The European coffee industry shows significant potential for the use of
cogeneration and polygeneration but no potential for biogas production.
As the European tea processing industry is confined to blending and

packaging of pre-processed tea. The energy requirements are limited to
only electrical with no requirement for heating or cooling. Waste
production is also small from this process as the tea is essentially a
finished product upon import. The polgeneration potential will therefore
be negligible in this industry sub-sector.
50
10 Appendix
Bakery Industry
Total bread production -2002 data- in tonnes/year
eu15
be
dk
European Union (15 counBelgium

22,552,687
Bread exports 2002
25,000,000 per year
My estimate =
22,552,687 per year
gr
es
Germany (incGreece
fr
Spain
ie
France
it
Ireland
lu
Italy
nl
at
Luxembourg Netherlands
pt
Austria
fi
se
Portugal Finland
uk
Sweden
United Kingdo
365,000
6,400,000
326,425
2,362,000
3,394,450
399,625
3,960,000
48,175
960,000
44,325
73,375
235,312
769,975
1,812,000
56,081
34,408
112,430
13,057
19,496
135,778
15,985
30,993
1,927
37,307
1,773
2,935
10,301
30,799
86,486
% of production exported
EU Bread production =
de
Denmark
1,402,025
% Plants meeting threshold values

Cogeneration
% of production coming ou
48
85
30
48
48
48
80
48
48
61
48
48
85
48
80
Trigeneration
48
85
30
48
48
48
80
48
48
61
48
48
85
48
80
Biogas production
Potential for electricity generation in Mwhel

Cogeneration
726795
45593
21019
130076
10615
76810
110384
21659
128775
1567
39673
1441
2386
13551
25039
98208
Trigeneration
1844288
115694
53337
330076
26936
194910
280107
54961
326775
3975
100673
3658
6055
34386
63538
249208
Biogas production

Cogeneration
726,795
45593
21019
130076
10615
76810
110384
21659
128775
1567
39673
1441
2386
13551
25039
98208
Trigeneration
1,844,288
115694
53337
330076
26936
194910
280107
54961
326775
3975
100673
3658
6055
34386
63538
249208
Biogas production
TOTAL EUROPEAN CO2 SAVINGS FROM POLYGENERATION POTENTIAL in tones CO2/year.

Cogeneration
188,967
11854
5465
33820
2760
19971
28700
5631
33482
407
10315
375
620
3523
6510
25534
Trigeneration
676,193
42418
19555
121020
9876
71462
102699
20151
119810
1458
36911
1341
2220
12607
23296
91370
Biogas production
Table A.1 Bakery Industry Data
Corn Industry Data

Total Corn Germ Oil Production in the EU 2002 (Mt)
eu25
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
Spain
France
Ireland Italy
LuxemboNetherlands Austria
European Unio Belgium Denmark Germany Greece
267,719
40,000 17,100
3,000 16,500
39,900 60,800 7,000 Total Corn Processed Based
9916311.76
1481600 -
633384
% Production Coming out of Plants where CHP can be applied

Cogeneration
% of prod
100
100
Biogas production % of prod
75
75
100
75
1477896 -
2E+06 -
100
75
100
75
100
75
231717
54392
40652 223587
9542 52483
540673
126914
823883
193393

Cogeneration
2,899,738
542029
0 231717
Biogas production
680,666
127232
0
54392
40652 223587
9542 52483
540673
126914
0 823883
0 193393

Cogeneration
753,932
140927
0
60246
10570 58133
140575
Biogas production
296,771
55473
0
23715
4160 22883
55335
0 214210
0 84319

Cogeneration
3627783
542029
Biogas production
851563
127232
100
75
111120 611160
Table A.2 Corn Industry Data
51
pt
fi
se
uk
Portugal Finland SwedenUnited Kingdo
2,900 19,400
259280 273,782 107416 -
100
75
718576
100
75
100
75
100
75
94855 100160
22266
23511
39297
9224
262884
61708
0
0
94855 100160
22266
23511
39297
9224
0
0
0
0
262884
61708
0
0
24662
9708
10217
4022
0
0
0
0
68350
26905
26042
10251
Cereal Industry Data

Total cereal production 2002data- in thousand tonnes
eu 15
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu
nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
France Ireland
Italy
LuxemboNetherla Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom
European UnBelgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain
287,329
2,639
8,804
43,391
4,075
20,864
69,556
1,966 19,877
169
1,824
4,757
1,351
3,939
5,462
22,965
Cereal Industry
Cogeneration
% of production
Trigeneration
% of production
Biogas productio % of production
0
0
100
0
0
100

Cogeneration
0
0
0
Trigeneration
0
0
0
Biogas production
9206301 114810
382961
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
100
0
0
0
0
1887522 177258
0
0
0
0
907575 3025673
0
0
0
0
85504 864664
0
0
7342
0
0
79337
0
0
206943
0
0
58761
0
0
0
0
171364 237593
0
0
998994

Cogeneration
0
0
0
0
0
Trigeneration
0
0
0
0
0
Biogas production
9,206,301 114810
382961
1887522 177258
0
0
0
0
907575 3025673
0
0
0
0
85504 864664
0
0
7342
0
0
79337
0
0
206943
0
0
58761
0
0
0
0
171364 237593
0
0
998994

Cogeneration
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Trigeneration
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Biogas production
1,933,323
24110
80422
396380 37224
190591 635391
17956 181579
0
0
1542
0
0
16661
0
0
43458
0
0
12340
0
0
35986
0
0
49894
0
0
209789
Table A.3 Cereal Industry Data

C offee In d ustry
T otal coffee production -2002 data - in to nnes/year
eu15
be
dk
de
gr
es
fr
ie
it
lu nl
at
pt
fi
se
uk
E uro pean U nioB elgium
D enm ark G erm any (inG reece S pain
France
Irelan Italy
Lux N etherlands A ustria
P ortuga l
F inland
S w eden
U nited K ingdom
R oasted C
1,522,19 1
71,954
27,580
408,778
9,627
105,857
214,63 0
0
391,9 39 0
90,018
27,097
33,270
53,347
71,89 8
16 ,196
F reeze D r
175,6 38
0
103
87,998
787
26,482
0
0
2 63 0
12,237
0
0
16
13
47 ,739
R oasted C
F reeze D r
1,522,191,185
71,954,270
27,579,732
408,778,355
9,627,041
105,857,000
214,629,572
391,939,000
90,018,000
27,096,602
33,269,973
53,347,440
71,898,200
175,637,886
102,830
87,998,094
786,935
26,482,000
263,000
12,237,000
16,027
13,000
16,196 ,000
47,739 ,000
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
10 0
10 0
0
1 00
1 00
0
1 00 ##
1 00 ##
0 0
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
10 0
10 0
0
100
100
0
P o ten tial for electricity g en eratio n in M w hel

C ogener a
3373 18
1 5945
6112
T r igenera t
3373 18
1 5945
6112
B i ogas pr o
0
0
0
9 0585
9 0585
0
2133
2133
0
23458
23458
0
4756 2
4756 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19948
19948
0
6005
6005
0
7373
7373
0
11822
11822
0
1593 3
1593 3
0
3589
3589
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
10 0
10 0
0
1 00
1 00
0
1 00 ##
1 00 ##
0 0
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
100
100
0
10 0
10 0
0
100
100
0
P o ten tial for electricity g en eratio n in M w el

C ogenera
389 21
0
23
T rigenerat
1337 66
0
78
0
0
0
B iogas pro
1 9500
6 7019
0
174
599
0
5868
20169
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
58
2 00
0
0
0
0
2712
9320
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
12
0
3
10
0
10579
36358
0
T O TA L E U R O P E A N P O L Y G E N E R A T IO N P O T E N T IA L in M W h el.
C ogenera
376,2 39
1 5945
6134
11 0086
2308
T rigenerat
471,0 83
1 5945
6190
15 7605
2733
B iogas pro
0
0
0
0
0
29326
43627
0
4756 2
4756 2
0
0
0
0
869 12
870 54
0
0
0
0
22660
29268
0
6005
6005
0
7373
7373
0
11825
11834
0
1593 6
1594 3
0
14168
39947
0
225 97
226 59
0
0
0
0
5892
8773
0
1561
1561
0
1917
1917
0
3075
3078
0
414 3
414 6
0
3684
14923
0
C A S E 1 -R o asted C o ffee P ro du ction

C ogene % of production c
100
T rigene % of production c
100
B iogas % of production c
0
C A S E 2-In stan t C offee P ro du ction

C ogene % of production c
100
T rigene % of production c
100
B iogas % of production c
0
T O TA L E U R O P E A N C O 2 S A V IN G S F R O M P O L Y G E N E R A T IO N P O T E N T IA L in ton es C O 2/year.
C ogenera
97,82 2
4 146
1595
2 8622
600
7625
1236 6
0
T rigenerat
139,1 74
4 146
1619
4 9341
785
13860
1236 6
0
B iogas pro
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Table A.4 Coffee Industry Data
52
868 54
868 54
0
11 References
1
Australian Government, DAFF, The Australian Baking Industry A Profile, 2003.

http://www.agrifoodskills.net.au/files/baking_industry_profile_2003.pdf
2
Australian Government, DEH, GF Baking Australia Cleaner Production, May 2001.
http://www.deh.gov.au/settlements/industry/corporate/eecp/case-studies/goodmanfield.html
3
The Federation of Bakers Factsheet No. 7: How Bread is Made, 2001.
http://www.bakersfederation.org.uk/publications/Fs7%20-%20How%20bread%20is%20made.pdf
4
UNEP Working Group for Cleaner Production in the Food Industry, Fact Sheet 6: Food
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5
P. Fellows, B. Axtell, M. Dillon, Quality assurance for small-scale rural food industries, Food and
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Australian Government, DITR, Energy Efficiency Opportunities in the Milling Industry Sector, July
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7
North American Millers Association. http://www.namamillers.org/prd_w_mill.html
8
Corn Refiners Association, http://www.corn.org/web/processc.htm
9
R. Rudramoorthy, C. P. Sunil Kmar, R. Velavan, S. Sivasubramaniam, Innovative Measures for
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10
SMIs in Asia: Energy, Environment and Climate Interrelations.
http://www.serd.ait.ac.th/smi2/smi/roadmap/slideshow_tea_main.html
11
Modern Methods of Tea Growing and Processing, A. Macfarlane, I. Macfarlane, 2002.
http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/tea/Tea_manufacture.pdf
12
The Carbon Trust, An Introduction to the Food and Drink Sector.
http://www.actionenergy.org.uk/energywizard/sector_information.asp?sectionId=SI&code
13
Case Study: Cleaner Production at a Coffee Producing Industry, Austria, 1994.
http://www.redpml.cu/Biblioteca%20virtual/Industria%20alimenticia/P+L%20en%20la%20producci%
F3n%20de%20caf%E9.pdf
14
http://www.nestle.com/NR/rdonlyres/EBE8996B-602E-4D86-B78161B550B78F8E/0/2000_EnvironmentProgressReport_English.pdf
15
C.Palaniappan, S.Kumar, T.M.Haridasan, Energy Perspectives in Plantation Industry.
16
C. Galitsky, E. Worrell, M. Ruth, Energy Efficiency Opportunities in the Corn Wet Milling Industry,
2003.
17
http://www.oceta.on.ca/documents/casco_fnl.pdf
18
Petroleum Conservation Research Association, New Delhi, Data Sheets for Energy Control.
19
Douglas C. Elliott, Rick J. Orth, Johnway Gao, Todd A. Werpy, David E. Eakin, Andrew J.
Schmidt, Gary G. Neuenschwander, Anthony J. Flagg, Jim Murry, Lyle Lahman, C.J. Lin,
Donald L. Mennel, Ron Landucci, Biorefinery concept development based on wheat flour milling.
20
Jan von Enden - An Introduction to Good Manufacturing Practices for Post Harvest Processing of
Arabica Coffee in Vietnam
21
School of Environment Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Small and
Medium Scale Industries in Asia: Energy and Environment, The Tea Sector, 2002.
http://www.serd.ait.ac.th/smi2/smi/roadmap/Reports/TeaReport.pdf
22
http://www.tea.co.uk/
23
Prab Mistry, Future Energy Solutions, Energy Improvement Enhancement Toolkit for Industrial
bakeries. Carbon Trust.
24
AIBI, Country Reports, 2003.
25
S. Ovez, G. Eremektar, F. Germirli Babuna, D. Orhon, Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 10, 6,
2001, 539 544.
26
C. Galitsky, E. Worrell, M. Ruth, Energy Efficiency Impovement and Cost Saving Opportunities for
the Corn Wet Milling Industry. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2003.
27
International Starch Institute. http://www.starch.dk/isi/stat/usastat.html
53
28
Energy Best Practice Guide for Dong Suh Food Industry at Bupyang
http://www.seav.sustainability.vic.gov.au/ftp/advice/business/case_studies/DongSuhFoodCase0_a.pdf
29
Paulig Corporate Social Responsibility Report 2004

http://www.paulig.fi//files/51GZCMaPo/LEFT.attachment.51FghslYa.dataurl/Paulig_YKV_WEB_EN
G_1.pdf
54
WP2-Sugar, Chocolate & Confectionary Industry
OPTIPOLYGEN - APPENDIX VI
OPTIPOLYGEN
OPTimum Integration of POLYgeneration
in the sugar, chocolate & confectionary industry
WP2
Sugar, Chocolate & Confectionary Industries
Mark Whiteley
Energy for Sustainable Development (ESD)
Ltd Overmoor, Neston, Corsham Wiltshire,
SN13 9TZ, UK
Table of Contents
1
2
Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 General....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Terms and definitions ................................................................................................................. 4
2.2.1
Polygeneration ................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2
Sugar, chocolate and confectionary industry..................................................................... 4
2.2.3
Geographical coverage...................................................................................................... 5
3 Process Description ......................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 The Sugar Industry ..................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.1
Process flow chart in the sugar industry............................................................................ 6
3.1.2
Utilities energy use and by-products in the sugar industry................................................ 8
3.2 The Chocolate and Confectionary Industry ................................................................................ 9
3.2.1
Utilities energy use and by-products in the chocolate industry ....................................... 11
4 On-site power generation in the sugar and chocolate industries ................................................... 13
5 Process waste and by-products in the sugar and chocolate industries ......................................... 14
5.1 The sugar industry.................................................................................................................... 14
5.2 The chocolate industry ............................................................................................................. 14
6 Potential Technologies for on-site power generation and polygeneration in the sugar and
chocolate industries............................................................................................................................... 15
6.1 CHP .......................................................................................................................................... 15
6.2 Trigeneration ............................................................................................................................ 15
6.3 Solid wastes and by-products use............................................................................................ 16
7 Technical potential of on site power generation & emission savings by polygeneration in the sugar
and chocolate industry in Europe .......................................................................................................... 17
7.1 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 17
7.1.1
General ............................................................................................................................ 17
7.1.2
Assumptions .................................................................................................................... 17
7.1.3
Calculations ..................................................................................................................... 17
7.2 Sugar, chocolate and confectionary production in Europe....................................................... 19
7.2.1
Sugar production data ..................................................................................................... 19
7.2.2
Chocolate and confectionery production data ................................................................. 20
7.3 Results...................................................................................................................................... 22
7.3.1
Sugar industry.................................................................................................................. 22
7.3.2
Chocolate industry ........................................................................................................... 25
8 Conclusions.................................................................................................................................... 28
9 References ..................................................................................................................................... 29
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
On-site power generation in conjunction with the processes involved in the food industry may form an
efficient alternative to and a step towards sustainability. It is, however, important to estimate the real
potential of on-site power generation methods which are currently available in the European food
industry.
This document focuses on the section of the food industry covered by the sugar, chocolate and
confectionary industries. The polygeneration potential in this sector is significant, as is demonstrated
in the following sections. The calculations were based upon available data for energy consumption,
which has proven to be difficult to obtain. The levels of detail required for the analysis of the project
are not available in the public domain and it has proven difficult to source information for these
industries. Where possible, data from Eurostat has also been used for sugar and chocolate
production across the EU, coupled with estimations for the size of the processing plants located in
every country.
Results show that the polygeneration potential for all EU15 countries for these specific industrial
sectors reaches 5,936 GWhe/year in the sugar industry and 243 GWhe/year in the chocolate industry.
These result in CO2 emissions savings of over 1,420 and 57 thousand tonnes of CO2/year for each
industry respectively.
Typically, cogeneration is best suited to the sugar manufacturing industry, while trigeneration is best
suited for chocolate. This is because sugar manufacturing has intensive electricity and heat
requirements, while chocolate also has a significant cooling requirement (but not freezing). Both
industries has the potential for biogas production from the raw product (sugar beet/molasses or cocoa
husks respectively), but this potential is currently hardly used. For the sugar industry, the by-products
are also used for other purposes (animal feeds, fertiliser, soil improving agent, bio-ethanol), so there is
limited scope for these products being rerouted for biogas applications in the short term. However, the
potential does exist. For the chocolate industry, the biogas potential is limited and only exists if the
relevant plant performs the whole chocolate process, starting with the cocoa beans themselves.
INTRODUCTION
2.1 GENERAL
The aim of this document is to describe the general processes in the sugar, chocolate andn
confectionary industries, focusing on energy usage (thermal and electrical) and the type of processes
using this energy, with the goal to estimate the total polygeneration potential in this sector in Europe.
2.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

2.2.1 Polygeneration
Polygeneration is the use of multiple energy inputs to create multiple energy outputs.
The term primary energy includes fossil fuels, biofuels, renewable energy sources, etc.
Energy output means the different forms of energy which are useful in an activity. In the case of the
food industry, this could mean electricity, and heat in various temperature levels (e.g. steam, hot
water, warm water, cooling, etc). For the purpose of this document, other useful products which may
be produced by the polygeneration process (e.g. compost) will be treated as secondary by-products of
polygeneration.
This document aims to estimate the potential arising from polygeneration application in the European
sugar, chocolate and confectionary industry and the corresponding emission savings that could
potentially be achieved through the implementation of polygeneration projects.
2.2.2 Sugar, chocolate and confectionary industry

The sugar, chocolate and confectionary industry includes all processes whose products incorporate
the production of the final products that reaches the consumer, or as intermediary products that are
used to produce final consumer products (e.g. sugar for food products, chocolate and confectionary
for baking).
Sugar, chocolate and confectionary products are ranked under the NACE codes 15.83 (manufacture
of sugar) and 15.84 (manufacture of cocoa, chocolate and sugar confectionary).
Of particular note is the development of the sugar industry during the last few decades. As shown in
Table 2.1, since the early 1990s, the European sugar industry has shown significant consolidation,
where the large efficient factories have been those that have been retained. This is owing to a
competitive global market, where only the most efficient producers can survive. At the same time,
significant consolidation has also occurred with the number of sugar refining companies, with the
number of companies dropping by almost 50% between 1992 and 2004.
Table 2.1 - Number of sugar industry companies & factories (2003/2004)

Member State
Sugar & refinery

Sugar factories
companies
1992/1993
2003/2004
1992/1993
2003/2004
Belgium
9
2
9
8
Denmark
1
1
4
3
Germany
14
7
52
27
Greece
1
1
5
1
Spain
5
3
22
11
France
30
16
48
32
Ireland
1
1
2
2
Italy
12
5
25
19
Luxembourg
0
0
0
0
Netherlands
2
2
6
5
Austria
1
1
3
3
Portugal
2
1
1
Finland
1
2
3
2
Sweden
1
1
5
2
United Kingdom
2
2
10
6
Total
82
45
194
126
Source: CEFS (in The European Sugar Sector Its importance & future, European Commission)
2.2.3 Geographical coverage

This report covers sugar, chocolate and confectionary production in the 15 countries of the European
Union, as comprised the European Union until 2004. The methodology could easily be expanded to
include the 10 new Member States that joined the EU in 2004.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
3.1 THE SUGAR INDUSTRY

3.1.1 Process flow chart in the sugar industry
There are two main natural products that are refined into sugar, namely sugar beet and sugar cane.
Typically sugar beet is grown in temperate climates, while sugar cane in warmer and more tropical
climates. The majority of sugar cane that is refined into sugar is processed in the country of origin,
before being transported to Europe. On this basis, as sugar refining in Europe is based upon sugar
beet refining, only this production process has been considered for this report.
The sugar production process can be broken down into three distinct phases growing, processing
and refining. This document focuses on the latter two of these. Sugar industry processes can be
generally represented in the process chart below.
The sugar beet is first prepared for processing, where it is sampled and analysed, and any soil,
stones, etc, are removed before it is washed and cut into thin slices or cossettes. Cossettes are
shaped similar to a French fry, and are cut with a V-shaped cross section in order to increase the
sugar yield. Sugar is extracted from the cossettes in large diffusion vessels containing water heated
to 70C. The resulting pulp is separated from the dark coloured 'raw juice' and is then processed
separately into pellets for livestock feed and other products.
The raw juice is mingled with milk of lime and carbon dioxide gas in carbonation tanks to remove the
majority of the impurities. The carbon dioxide bubbles through the mixture forming calcium carbonate.
The non-sugar particles attach themselves to the calcium carbonate and settle to the bottom of the
tanks. The resulting pale yellow or 'thin' juice is taken from the bottom of the tanks and separated
from the lime which is conditioned and then sold as a soil improving agent. The sugar juice is then
filtered, leaving a golden light brown clarified thin juice (about 16% solids).
The thin juice is boiled under vacuum in a series of evaporation tanks, where much of the water is
evaporated (to about 65% solids), forming a thicker juice similar to pancake syrup. The efficiency of
the evaporation process is maximised by using the waste heat in each evaporator in the following one.
With a higher vacuum level in each evaporator, it is possible to allow the ambient temperature to fall
and still achieve the required levels of evaporation (see Table 3.1). A second filtration is performed to
extract any final impurities.
Table 3.1 Typical temperatures at each stage of evaporation process
Evaporator
Temperature (C)
Pre-first
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Source: Earle with Earle
85
73
60
51
Liquor
concentration (%)
65%
82%
84%
86%
89%
Crystallisation of the sugar takes place in vacuum pans which boil the juice at reduced temperatures.
At a pre-determined concentration the juice is seeded with small sugar crystals which act as nuclei for
6
larger crystal growth. When the crystals reach the correct size the resulting sugar crystal and syrup
mix (massecuite) is put into a centrifuge for separation. By spinning rapidly in a perforated cylindrical
basket, the syrup is thrown off through the screen holes. This syrup is boiled again in another series
of vacuum pans to produce raw sugar, and then a third time to generate final product sugar and
molasses. The raw and final product sugar is returned to the main process at the second filtration
stage in order to recover as much of the sugar as possible. The molasses is either mixed with the
diffusion pulp to form the animal feed pellets, or can be sent for fermentation and conversion to the
fuel bio-ethanol.
The damp crystallised sugar produced by the separation process is washed in hot water, and dried
with filtered air in a rotating drum granulator. The dried sugar passes over screens which separate the
various sizes of sugar crystals producing pure white sugar crystals.
sales
Sugar beet
top shoots
(fertiliser/
animal feed)
Cleaning &
preparation
pellets
(animal feed,
etc - 6%)
Diffusion
alcohol
Fermentation
final product
sugar
raw sugar
molasses (3%)
Vacuum
boiling
Vacuum
boiling
Purification
(carbonation)
hot water (70C)
lime & CO2
conditioned
lime
Filtration
Evaporation
(vacuum
boiling)
steam
Filtration
Crystallisation
(vacuum boiling)
'seed' crystals
Separation
(centrifugal
spinning)
Washing
hot water
Drying (14%)
hot filtered air
retail packs
Grading &
packing
bags
bulk
soil improving
agent (5%)
Figure 3.1 Process chart of the sugar beet industry
3.1.2 Utilities energy use and by-products in the sugar industry

Utilities in the sugar processing industry include heat, electricity and water. This section focuses on
these energy needs, as they are important for calculating the polygeneration potential. Energy in the
sugar industry is used mainly for:
Heating hot water & steam
Drivers and other electrical consumption
Electricity is used in all the processes, while heat is used as both steam and hot water. The most
energy intensive part of the system is at the evaporation stage, owing to the high latent heat
requirements of boiling the water off the thin juice.
The type of energy consumed in each plant does not vary very considerably, as the processes
required to refine the sugar are relatively standardised. Owing to high competition from sugar cane
imports and within the industry, the number of sugar beet factories having reduced by 35% between
1992/1993 and 2003/2004. This rationalisation across the EU means that only the larger scale and
efficient plants are the ones that are still in existence, which has increased the level of standardisation
across the industry. Typically, the energy ratio between the individual production processes is shown
in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Typical energy consumption breakdown in the sugar industry
Technology
Pumps
Fans
Stirring and mixing
Evaporation and distillation
Drying
Industrial buildings
Compressed air
Boilers & steam distribution
Refrigeration
Industrial cooling systems
Total
Source: Dalkia
Typical energy use (%

of total consumption)
3%
3%
1%
61%
11%
2%
3%
11%
0%
5%
100%
Table 3.3 By-product ranges in the sugar industry

Process
1
2
3
Cleaning & preparation

Diffusion
Carbonation
Mass balance relationship

expressed in 1 kg of beet input
0.95
0.27
0.21
8
4
5
6
7
Evaporation
Crystallisation
Separation
Washing & drying
0.19
0.17
0.16
0.11
There are a number of by-products from the sugar industry that could be use for biogas applications.
Anaerobic digestion is already used at some sugar factories across the EU, as part of the factories
water treatment circuits. In these cases, the resultant methane is used in the plants boilers to further
reduce fossil fuel consumption. At the current time, the beet tops, diffusion waste and molasses are
already used for other applications. However, all of these could be used for the production of biogas
and are considered for this report.
Table 3.4 Specific process energy need & solid generation used sugar industry
Sub process
name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Cleaning &
preparation
Diffusion
Carbonation
Evaporation
Crystalisation
(vacuum boiling)
Separation
Washing &
drying
Mass balance
relationship
expressed in 1kg
of sugar beet
Electricity
need
Heat need
Enter
Exit
kWhe/tonne
sugar beet
kWhthh/tonne
sugar beet
0.95
0.95
0.27
0.21
0.19
0.27
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.17
0.16
0.16
0.11
Peak
process
temperature
o
Total solid wastes
kg/tonne
sugar
beet
Nm of
Biogas/kg
solid wastes
50
0,05-0,07
1
4
35
8
25
10
400
30
70
85
85
80
680
60
0,05-0,08
4
8
0
90
0
93
90
10
0,05-0,08
0,05-0,07
3.2 THE CHOCOLATE AND CONFECTIONARY INDUSTRY

There are many different chocolate and confectionary products produced in Europe. These all use a
similar generic process for their production, with many variations, depending upon the final product.
Generic chocolate industry processes can be generally represented in the following simple process
chart. The description of the process is as follows (Vernost Kachestvu Confectionery Ltd):
Cocoa beans are carefully cleaned and sorted at the factory, and then roasted in special equipment at
a temperature of 130150. Waste moisture and acid compounds evaporate during the roasting
process, and the beans become a uniform shade of deep-brown. Cocoa roasting is a very important
stage of the whole manufacturing process, and the future quality of the chocolate, and its smell and
9
taste depend on how the roasting goes ahead. After roasting, the shells are removed and the cocoa
beans are crushed into cocoa nibs.
Roasted and cleaned cocoa-nibs are carefully ground and refined. The finer the cocoa-nibs are
ground at this stage, the fuller and finer the taste of the chocolate. The size of the cocoa particles
passed through the grinding machinery, should not exceed 75 microns such cocoa is called coca
liquor.
The cocoa liquor contains 54% cocoa butter, the very valuable substance essential for the production
of real chocolate. Cocoa liquor is heated up to 95105C and is then pressed. As a result, cocoa
butter is separated from the solids, which are subsequently used for the production of cocoa powder.
The cocoa liquor, sugar and part of the cocoa butter are mixed in specified proportions. After mixing,
the mass is ground - the finer the crushing, the more delicate the taste. After mixing and grinding the
chocolate mass is subjected to conching: intensive mixing at high temperature. Conching is a very
long process (up to 24 hours) and as a result, the superfluous moisture and the residual tannins are
evaporated from the chocolate mass, and the cocoa solids are rounded off. After processing the
chocolate mass, the rest of the components are added according to the recipe: cocoa butter and
lecithin (for mass attenuation and optimized moulding); natural flavouring agent (vanilla - for a subtler
and more delicate aroma).
The next stage of the production process is to solidify the liquid chocolate. To do this, it is essential
that the fat in the chocolate sets in the correct crystal form, otherwise the chocolate will be damaged.
Tempering, which is a long and complex process, performs this task. In tempering, the hot chocolate
is firstly cooled down to 28 for crystal formation, and then reheated to 32 in order to melt out any
unstable crystals. Once the tempering is completed, the chocolate is now ready to be formed into its
final shape.
The final stage of the chocolate production process is the forming into its final shape. This can take
the form of enrobing, moulding or panning. Depending upon the process and the required product, the
chocolate undergoes cooling and/or drying until the final product is produced.
Following production, chocolate should be transported and stored within the range of 15 to 21,
with a relative humidity of less than 75%. If these conditions are not observed, the chocolate can
bloom and lose its marketable appearance.
The chocolate manufacturing process can be divided into three distinct stages, as is highlighted in
Figure 3.2. Some chocolate manufacturers only focus on one stage, while the ones that have multiple
stages keep them totally separate. This is because different quality standards are required at each
stage of the process, with different inputs and outputs. For example, the treatment of the cocoa beans
is a relatively dirty process, with significant (relative) waste involved. The other two parts of the
process are clean, with minimal wastage and higher quality levels required. For the purpose of this
analysis, the main energy impact occurs at the production of the cocoa butter, up until the stage where
it is ready to be formed into the final consumer product. This is the middle of the three stages.
10
Cocoa beans
Cleaning, shelling,
winnowing, alkalising,
roasting
Waste water,
cocoa shells
Heat (120-140C)
Liquor grinding
& refining
Pressing
Cocoa powder
Cocoa butter
Sugar, fat, etc
Enrobing
Dairy,
confectionary &
baking
Heat (95-105C)
Mixing &
grinding
Heating (to 45C)

Cooling (to 35C)
Conching
(stirring)
Heat (to 82C)
Tempering
Cooling (to 28C)

Heating (to 32C)
Moulding
Panning
Cooling &
drying
Consumer
markets
Figure 3.2 Process chart of the chocolate industry
3.2.1 Utilities energy use and by-products in the chocolate industry

Utilities in the chocolate processing industry include heat, electricity, cooling and water. This section
focuses on these energy needs, as they are important for calculating the polygeneration potential.
Energy in the chocolate industry is used mainly for:
Heating
Cooling
Drivers and other electrical consumption
The type of energy consumed in each plant can vary, depending upon the final product being
produced, as it is the final product that determines which of the final processes is used, as in enrobing,
moulding or panning. However, the main energy consumption occurs in boilers and steam
distribution, as shown in Table 3.5. Cooling is also a significant user of energy at the chocolate
factory, which is an ideal opportunity for trigeneration.
11
Table 3.5 Typical energy consumption breakdown in the confectionery industry

Technology
Pumps
Fans
Stirring and mixing
Evaporation and distillation
Drying
Industrial buildings
Compressed air
Boilers & steam distribution
Refrigeration
Industrial cooling systems
Total
Source: Dalkia
Typical energy use (%

of total consumption)
3%
6%
2%
3%
0%
7%
5%
60%
10%
4%
100%
The only by-product from the chocolate industry is the waste water and cocoa shells at the very
beginning of the process, so this is the only potential biogas application. However, as many chocolate
factories buy-in the processed cocoa butter, the factories have no wastes that can be practically used
for energy purposes. Therefore, for the OptiPolygen project, only the energy consumption aspects of
polygeneration have been considered.
Table 3.6 Specific process energy need & solid generation used chocolate industry
Sub
process
name
1
2
3
4
5
6
Cleaning,
winnowing,
roasting
Grinding,
refining &
pressing
Mixing &
grinding
Conching
Tempering
Enrobing,
moulding,
panning
Mass balance
relationship
expressed in
1kg of cocoa
beans
enter
exit
Electricity
need
Heat
need
kWhe/tonne
cocoa beans
kWhth
/tonne
cocoa
beans
Peak
process
temp.
o
Cooling
need
kWhth
/tonne
cocoa
beans
Cooling
temp.
Total solid
wastes
Kg
/tonne
cocoa
beans
Nm of
Biogas/kg
of solids
or COD
0.85
10
70
140
50
17.5
0.85
0.45
15
30
105
0.45
0.45
80
45
35
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
44
3
32
6
1
10
82
32
32
20
0
10
28
5
12
ON-SITE POWER GENERATION

CHOCOLATE INDUSTRIES
IN
THE
SUGAR
AND
There is significant potential in the sugar and chocolate industries for on-site power generation, as
both industries have significant heating requirements. Table 4.1 provides an overview of the power,
heating and cooling requirements of the industrial sectors covered in this part of the study and
Table 4.1 Overview of on-site power generation opportunities

Electricity requirement
High grade heat requirement
Low grade heat requirement
Cooling requirement
Freezing requirement
CHP opportunity
Trigeneration opportunity
Biogas opportunity
Sugar
Chocolate
Confectionery
33
333
3
2
2
333
2
3
3
2
33
33
2
3
33
3
3
2
33
3
2
3
3
2
Based upon these conclusions, there are definite opportunities for polygeneration applications in these
industries, both of which are technically viable. In the sugar industry, there is already significant use of
CHP, but polygeneration technologies are underutilised in the chocolate industry.
A lot of attention, in recent years, has focused on small scale mini and micro CHP systems. These are
units with a nominal electricity generating capacity of less than 1 MW. With the on-going consolidation
in the sugar industry, the requirement for CHP units is increasing, with small generation units being of
the order of 5-10 MW, so mini and micro units are not suitable for the sugar industry. Chocolate plant
are smaller than in sugar processing factories, so there is some opportunity for mini CHP units, but not
for very small micro units.
13
PROCESS WASTE AND BY-PRODUCTS IN THE SUGAR AND

5.1 THE SUGAR INDUSTRY

There are four types of waste occurring from this industry, as follows:
Top shoots (5% of the mass balance of the sugar beet)
Diffusion waste and waste water (68%)
Carbonation wastes (6%)
Molasses (3%)
The largest of these is the wastes produced by the diffusion process (68%), which is currently dried,
pelleted and used for animal feed. However, some sugar plant in the EU does also use this waste for
biogas production, using anaerobic digestion.
The waste from the carbonation process are extracted from the lime and used as a soil improving
agent. The calorific value of this waste is not high and is not suitable for biogas production.
The top shoots from the initial treatment of the sugar beet consists of approximately 5% of the total
mass balance of the sugar beet. Currently, they are used in the animal feed industry, but there is the
potential to use them for energy purposes instead.
Molasses has relatively high calorific value and has the potential to be used for energy purposes.
However, this also is already used as a by-product. This can be in the animal feed industry or
fermented to create bio-ethanol. Both these processes make good use of the molasses and are
established technologies. However, the molasses will be considered for polygeneration applications.
5.2 THE CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY

With the exception of the waste water and cocoa shells produced at the production of the cocoa butter
and cocoa powder, there are no waste products in this industry, with the exception of faulty products
and contaminated goods. As the majority of chocolate producers in the EU buy-in their cocoa
products, it has been assumed that cocoa shells are not available as a by-product in the chocolate
industry. Therefore, the potential for energy inputs arising from by-products is assumed to be zero.
14
POTENTIAL
TECHNOLOGIES
FOR
ON-SITE
POWER
GENERATION AND POLYGENERATION IN THE SUGAR AND
By investigating the utilities and the by-products and effluents involved in the sugar and chocolate
industries, the following technologies have been identified as potential participants for polygeneration:
Cogeneration of heat and power (CHP)
Trigeneration Use part of the heat generated in a CHP unit to meet cooling requirements via
absorption cycles
Use of by-products for energy consumption using anaerobic digestion to produce biogas
Each technology is associated with thresholds and economical values affecting applicability with
respect to the size and other important characteristics of the plant.
6.1 CHP
As already mentioned, the potential for CHP in both the sugar and chocolate industries is very high, as
both industries have high electricity and heat demand profiles.
For the sugar industry, CHP is already extensively used as a power source owing to the high energy
intensity of the sugar production process. Despite typically running on a single batch process, lasting
on average 21-22 weeks in the UK (British Sugar), the intensity of round the clock production during
this period makes the use of CHP economic, despite the relatively low overall load factor (38%-42% or
approximately 3,500 hours/year). Typically, sugar refining plant in the EU already has CHP plant
installed and operational.
In the chocolate and confectionary industries, there is the potential to install CHP plant, but as there is
also a significant cooling requirement in the manufacture of these products, it is better suited for
trigeneration plant (see below).
6.2 TRIGENERATION
Trigeneration is based upon the use of absorption cycles to produce cooling. The set-up of an
absorption cycle depends upon the temperatures where this cycle is operating, and is covered
elsewhere in this report.
As trigeneration also involves the need for cooling requirements in the production process, it is not
suitable for the sugar industry. However, it is ideal for the chocolate and confectionary industries, as
all three types of energy are used: electricity, heating and cooling. For these industries, each plant
should be configured to take into account the ratio and intensity of each of the three energy types. On
this basis, it is possible to determine the optimal configuration for trigeneration plant in these
industries.
15
6.3 SOLID WASTES AND BY-PRODUCTS USE

Solid wastes and by-products can be used to generate thermal energy and power. This can be
achieved through three alternative processes, involving the following:
Direct combustion
Anaerobic digestion
Gasification
Direct combustion of the by-products generates heat, which can be used to generate steam, which
can be used in the plants for heating purposes and/or for power generation. High water content of the
by-products (up to 70%) requires a significant amount of energy for drying before combustion, so the
energy needed to prepare the by-products for combustion limits the suitability of this option.
Anaerobic digestion occurs by digesting the by-products in insufficient oxygen, to produce biogas
(methane and other combustible gases). This is a promising way of treating by-products and is not
restricted by the water content of the waste material. The biogas produced can be used for driving
CHP units or generating steam and hot water. The post-digestion waste can be land filled, as its
organic content has been reduced and has been sterilised.
Gasification is a technology that is much less mature for industrial applications.
Very few
installations exist and because of this, gasification in the sugar and chocolate industries has not been
considered in the OptiPolygen project.
In both the sugar and chocolate industries, the by-products that are produced are already used in
other industries, leading to minimal wastage and use of landfill. At the current time, these by-products
are used in the most economic manner, with the recycling for energy purposes having already been
considered and discounted. However, for the purpose of the OptiPolygen project and despite the
situation, the by-products, where relevant, have been considered for energy purposes.
16
TECHNICAL POTENTIAL OF ON SITE POWER GENERATION &

EMISSION SAVINGS BY POLYGENERATION IN THE SUGAR
AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE
7.1 METHODOLOGY
7.1.1 General
The goal of this report is to determine the technical potential of polygeneration (CHP, trigeneration, byproduct use) in the sugar, chocolate and confectionary industries within the wider frame of the
European food manufacturing industry.
The results of the calculations will be the total electricity per year which can be generated with the full
use of polygeneration technologies. This part of the work is focused on the sugar, chocolate and
confectionary food products sectors, (i.e. the industrial plants whose products fall within NACE the
15.83 and 15.84 codes.
The countries covered by the analysis include the 15 Member States of the EU.
In addition to the electricity production calculations, the environmental impact of the polygeneration
potential has been estimated in terms of annual CO2 savings.
7.1.2 Assumptions
The assumptions that have been made for this calculation are as follows:
A CHP or trigeneration plant produces electricity, heat and cooling (trigeneration only) at all
times. Optimal use fuel has is assumed to take place during energy generation, so dumping or
excess heat is not considered as an option. Only electricity can be dumped, through exports
to the electricity grid.
For the chocolate and confectionary industries, it has been assumed that a minimum operating
profile of 4,000 hours (equivalent to a 46% load factor) is necessary for a CHP or trigeneration
unit to be economically attractive
The sugar industry contradicts the assumption that 4,000 operating hours per year are
necessary for economic attractiveness. Therefore, this factor has been reduced to 3,000 hours
for the sugar industry.
As this report is a technical analysis of the potential for polygeneration applications. financial
factors have not been taken into account.
7.1.3 Calculations
The calculations used for assessing the polygeneration potential in the sugar, and chocolate industries
are the standard ones for the OptiPolygen project. Details of the methodology are provided in the
section for the fish and meat industries. The specific energy demand and solid waste generation of
the processes in the sugar and chocolate processing industries are shown in the following tables.
17
Table 7.1 Specific process energy need & solid generation used sugar industry
Sub process
name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mass balance
relationship
expressed in 1kg
of sugar beet
Cleaning &
preparation
Diffusion
Carbonation
Evaporation
Crystalisation
(vacuum boiling)
Separation
Washing &
drying
Electricity
need
Heat need
Enter
Exit
kWhe/tonne
sugar beet
kWhthh/tonne
sugar beet
0.95
0.95
0.27
0.21
0.19
0.27
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.17
0.16
0.16
0.11
Peak
process
temperature
o
Total solid wastes
kg/tonne
sugar
beet
Nm of
Biogas/kg
solid wastes
50
0,05-0,07
1
4
35
8
25
10
400
30
70
85
85
80
680
60
0,05-0,08
4
8
0
90
0
93
90
10
0,05-0,08
0,05-0,07
Table 7.2 Specific process energy need & solid generation used chocolate industry
Sub
process
name
1
2
3
4
5
6
Cleaning,
winnowing,
roasting
Grinding,
refining &
pressing
Mixing &
grinding
Conching
Tempering
Enrobing,
moulding,
panning
Mass balance
relationship
expressed in
1kg of cocoa
beans
enter
exit
Electricity
need
Heat
need
kWhe/tonne
cocoa beans
kWhth
/tonne
cocoa
beans
Peak
process
temp.
o
Cooling
need
kWhth
/tonne
cocoa
beans
Cooling
temp.
Total solid
wastes
Kg
/tonne
cocoa
beans
Nm of
Biogas/kg
of solids
or COD
0.85
10
70
140
50
17.5
0.85
0.45
15
30
105
0.45
0.45
80
45
35
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
44
3
32
6
1
10
82
32
32
20
0
10
28
5
18
7.2 SUGAR, CHOCOLATE AND CONFECTIONARY PRODUCTION IN EUROPE

Sugar production is spread all over Europe and typically takes place in large efficient plant with
significant economies of scale. During the last ten years, there has been significant consolidation in
the market with the number of plant reducing by 35% (between 1992 and 2004). For the chocolate
industry, there is a greater variation of plant sizes. The chocolate market is typically divided into two
sectors, covering the mass produced generic chocolate and small specialised producers that
manufacture high quality small scale chocolates. Therefore, the majority of the market is dominated
by a relatively small number of large plant, but there are also many small manufacturers with small
turnovers.
7.2.1 Sugar production data

The following figure shows the total sugar production in the EU15 countries in 2003 (2002 for Greece
and Netherlands), totalling 17.3 million tonnes of sugar.
Sugar usable production in Europe
6,000,000
tonnes/year -2003-
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
BE
DK
DE
GR
Es
FR
IE
IT
LU
NL
AT
PT
FI
SE
UK
Figure 7.1: Sugar production in the EU15 in 2003 (Eurostat)

As the production of sugar from sugar beet is a standardised process, it has not been necessary to
divide the manufacturing process into different sub-sectors. Consequently, it has been a relatively
straightforward process to estimate the proportion of each countrys production that comes from plants
whose capacity is above the determined thresholds, as shown in the following table.
Table 7.3 Plant capacity threshold for polygeneration applications for the sugar industry
Sugar production from beet

(tonnes/year)
Process heat
requirements
for cogeneration
400000
19
Process heat
requirements for
trigeneration
not appl.
Biogas
production
6410
The plant size and the applicability of polygeneration technologies in the specific plant are taken into
account. The data used for each country has been estimated based upon the relative size of each
countrys total production.
7.2.2 Chocolate and confectionery production data

The chocolate and confectionery industries are a lot more complex than for sugar, as they are not
standardised products. One only needs to see that huge variety of products available to the consumer
to begin to imagine the variability and complexity arising from the manufacture of these products. For
example, Table 7.4 shows the wide number of categories included in the Eurostat database.
Therefore, for this part of the OptiPolygen analysis, it has been necessary to focus on particular parts
of the industry to ensure a consistent analysis. For this purpose, and owing to the difficulties in
obtaining suitable data, the main concentration of the analysis has been on the chocolate industry.
Table 7.4 Chocolate and confectionary sub-sectors (Eurostat)

Filled chocolate blocks; slabs or bars consisting of a centre (incl. of cream, liqueur or fruit paste; excl.
chocolate biscuits)
Chocolate blocks; slabs or bars with added cereal; fruit or nuts (excl. filled, chocolate biscuits)
Chocolate blocks; slabs or bars (excl. filled, with added cereal; fruit or nuts, chocolate biscuits)
Chocolates containing alcohol (excl. in blocks; slabs or bars)
Chocolates (excl. those containing alcohol, in blocks; slabs or bars)
Filled chocolate confectionery (excl. in blocks; slabs or bars, chocolate biscuits, chocolates)
Chocolate confectionery (excl. filled, in blocks; slabs or bars, chocolate biscuits, chocolates)
White chocolate
Sugar confectionery and substitutes therefore made from sugar substitution products; containing
cocoa (incl. chocolate nougat) (excl. white chocolate)
Liquorice cakes; blocks; sticks and pastilles containing > 10% by weight of sucrose; but not
containing any other substances
Sugar confectionery pastes in immediate packing of a net content >= 1 kg (incl. marzipan, fondant;
nougat and almond pastes)
Sugar coated (panned) goods (incl. sugar almonds)
Gums; fruit jellies and fruit pastes in the form of sugar confectionery (excl. chewing gum)
Boiled sweets
Toffees; caramels and similar sweets
Compressed tablets of sugar confectionery (incl. cachous)
Sugar confectionary n.e.c.
The following figure shows the total chocolate and confectionary production in the EU15. Unlike
sugar, Eurostat information is not provided for all Member States for all types of chocolate and
confectionary produced, so the numbers are likely to be understated. The chocolate and
confectionary sector is also divided into many different sub-sectors, as shown in
20
Chocolate & Confectionary production in Europe 2003

1,400,000
1,200,000
Confectionary
Chocolate
tonnes/year
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
BE DK DE GR ES FR
IE
IT
LU
NL
AT
PT
FI
SE UK
Figure 7.2: Chocolate and confectionary production in the EU15 in 2003 (Eurostat)
As already stated, the focus of the research for OptiPolygen has been on the chocolate industry.
Within this industry, total chocolate production has been divided into three main categories in
conjunction with the processes presented in Figure 3.2. These categories involve:
Cocoa bean processing (sub-processes 1 & 2)
Chocolate production (sub-processes 3, 4 & 5)
Chocolate forming (sub-process 6)
As these three parts of the production process occur in series, all of them use 100% of the product
available for them, rather than sharing a particular raw material.
One more parameter which would affect the polygeneration potential is the part of each countrys
production that comes from plants whose capacity is above the determined thresholds, as shown in
the following table.
Table 7.5 Plant capacity threshold for polygeneration applications for the chocolate industry
Tonnes/year
Case 1 - Cocoa bean processing

Case 2 - Chocolate production
Case 3 - Chocolate forming
Process heat
requirements for
cogeneration
Process heat
requirements for
trigeneration
5760
82286
57600
5760
18581
28800
21
Biogas
production
12381
0
0
The plant size and the applicability of polygeneration technologies in the specific plant are taken into
account. The data used for each country has been estimated based upon the relative size of each
countrys total production.
7.3 RESULTS
Sugar industryFigure 7.3The following Figure 7.3 shows the polygeneration potential in the sugar
industry in Europe, split by Member State.
Polygeneration potential in EU15

1200000
1000000
MWh el/year
Cogeneration
800000
Trigeneration
Biogas
600000
400000
200000
0
BE DK DE GR ES FR IE
IT LU NL AT PT FI SE UK
Figure 7.3 Polygeneration potential in the sugar industry
In total, the EU15 results for the polygeneration potential are shown in Figure 7.4
22
Polygeneration potential in the sugar industry in EU15

(MWhel/year)
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
2,472,787
3,462,734
Figure 7.4 Total EU15 sugar processing industry potential for polygeneration
The outcome of the above figures is that the higher potential comes from cogeneration applications,
as there is no trigeneration potential in the industry.
The polygeneration potential is also very important in terms of achieving CO2 reductions. The results
are shown in the following two figures.
23
Emission savings potential by Polygeneration in Europe-15

300000
tonnes CO2/year
250000
200000
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
150000
Biogas
100000
50000
0
BE DK DE GR ES FR
IE
IT
LU NL AT PT
FI SE UK
Figure 7.5 CO2 savings potential from polygeneration application in the EU15 sugar industry
Emission savings from Polygeneration in the sugar

industry in EU15 (tonnes CO2/year)
519,285
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
900,311
0
Figure 7.6 Total CO2 savings potential from polygeneration in the EU15 sugar industry
24
7.3.1 Chocolate industry

The following Figure 7.7 shows the polygeneration potential in the sugar industry in Europe, split by
Member State.
40000
35000
30000
MWhel /year
25000
cogeneration
trigeneration
20000
biogas
15000
10000
5000
0
BE
DK
DE
GR
ES
FR
IE
IT
LU
NL
AT
PT
FI
SE
UK
Figure 7.7 Polygeneration potential in the chocolate industry
In total, the EU15 results for the polygeneration potential are shown in Figure 7.8
25
Total EU15 polygeneration potential in MWhel
36,473
Cogeneration
115,425
Trigeneration
Biogas production
91,182
Figure 7.8 Total EU15 chocolate processing industry potential for polygeneration
The outcome of the above figures is that the higher potential comes from cogeneration applications,
plus there are significant opportunities from trigeneration. Biogas production is limited to the
production of cocoa butter, where the shells are created as a by-product.
The polygeneration potential is also very important in terms of achieving CO2 reductions. The results
are shown in the following two figures.
12000
10000
Tonnes CO2/year
8000
cogeneration
6000
trigeneration
biogas
4000
2000
0
BE
DK
DE
GR
ES
FR
IE
IT
LU
NL
AT
26
PT
FI
SE
UK
Figure 7.9 CO2 savings potential from polygeneration in the EU15 chocolate industry
Total EU15 CO2 savings potential from polygeneration
7,659
Cogeneration
30,011
Trigeneration
Biogas production
19,441
Figure 7.10 Total CO2 savings potential from polygeneration in the EU15 chocolate industry
27
CONCLUSIONS
The polygeneration potential in the sugar and chocolate industries has been calculated for the EU15
countries. The calculations were based upon available data for energy consumption, which has
proven to be difficult to obtain. The levels of detail required for the analysis of the project are not
available in the public domain and it has proven difficult to source information for these industries.
Where possible, data from Eurostat has also been used for sugar and chocolate production across the
EU, coupled with estimations for the size of the processing plants located in every country.
Typically, cogeneration is best suited to the sugar manufacturing industry, while trigeneration is best
suited for chocolate. This is because sugar manufacturing has intensive electricity and heat
requirements, while chocolate also has a significant cooling requirement (but not freezing). Both
industries has the potential for biogas production from the raw product (sugar beet/molasses or cocoa
husks respectively), but this potential is currently hardly used. For the sugar industry, the by-products
are also used for other purposes (animal feeds, fertiliser, soil improving agent, bio-ethanol), so there is
limited scope for these products being rerouted for biogas applications in the short term. However, the
potential does exist. For the chocolate industry, the biogas potential is limited and only exists if the
relevant plant performs the whole chocolate process, starting with the cocoa beans themselves.
28
REFERENCES
British Sugar web site (http://www.britishsugar.co.uk)

Dalkia, Where do you consume your energy leaflet.
Earle R.L. with Earle M.D., Unit Operations in Food Processing, Web Edition, 2004, Publisher: The
New Zealand Institute of Food Science & Technology (Inc.)
Vernost Kachestvu Confectionery Ltd, Russia.
29
OPTIPOLYGEN
WP2
Dairy Industry
Author:
Jonas Dahl, PhD, M.Sc. Chemical Engineer
FORCE technology, Denmark
Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................2
1
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................3
PROCESS DESCRIPTION .....................................................................................3

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
CONSUMER MILK ........................................................................................................................................ 5

CHEESE ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
BUTTER ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
EVAPORATED/DRIED PRODUCTS (MILK POWDER) ....................................................................................... 6
ICE-CREAM ................................................................................................................................................. 6
CULTURED PRODUCTS ................................................................................................................................ 6
UTILITIES AND ENERGY USE ..............................................................................7
ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY............................................9
BY-PRODUCTS AND WASTE .............................................................................10
POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR CHP PRODUCTION IN THE DAIRY

INDUSTRY............................................................................................................11
TECHNICAL POTENTIAL OF ON SITE POWER GENERATION & EMISSION

SAVINGS BY POLYGENERATION IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY IN EUROPE.....11
7.1
METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................ 12
POTENTIAL FOR POLYGENERATION IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY...................16
CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................19
1 Introduction
The aim of this report is to describe the general processes in the dairy industry, focusing
on energy usage (thermal and electrical) and the type of processes using this energy.
Thereby the total use of energy in the dairy industry in Europe and the potential for polygeneraton will be estimated.
The raw material for the dairy industry is raw milk which is transported in cooled tanks
from the farmers to the dairies for further processing. On arrival, the milk is tested for
appearance, smell and temperatures, and a sample is taken for analysis. Depending on
the regulations in the country a whole series of tests are carried out on this sample. The
reception of the cold milk includes preheating by so called thermisation in order to extend refrigeration time of the raw milk.
Thermisation requires temperatures of 57-68 C for 15 seconds. Afterwards the raw
milk is cooled down to <6 C again and stored in cooled silos waiting for the test results.
When the milk is approved, the milk is separated into cream and skim milk. These two
streams are pasteurised prior to the subsequent processing into dairy products (see
Figure 1) .
.
Pasteurization heating milk or cream to destroy microorganisms and enzymes requires heating the milk to at least 71.7 C for 15 seconds, followed by an immediate
cooling to <6 C again.
Depending on the type of consumer milk product aimed at, cream fat is again added to
the skim milk in order to reach a wanted fat content (standardization).
After the standardization some milk products are further heat treated in order to extend
storage. This types of thermal treatment could be sterilization or ultra heat treatment:
Sterilization filled milk bottles are sterilized after packaging bottles conveyed through
a steam chamber at 110-130 C for 10-30 minutes
Ultra heat treatment quick sterilization process that does not destroy milk chemistry
steam heats milk to 140 C for a period of 1-2 seconds
The type of treatment used depends on what dairy product will be produced from the
milk. Pasteurization of the milk is, however, minimum requirement and is performed in
all dairies prior to storage or further processing of the milk. The pasteurization is in modern dairies done in a continuous process in a stainless steal heat exchanger with hot
water as heat medium, but can in some older dairies still be performed in batch processes. The batch method requires however that the milk is heated to 62.8 65.6 C for
at least 30 min and subsequently immediately cooled to 6 C again. The batch method
is both less energy efficient and more time consuming than the continuous process and
therefore rarely used today.
Based upon the dairy product wanted, the further processing of the raw milk can be divided in two main categories:
3
1) Fluid milk processing involves processing of liquid milk for direct consumption,
as well as creams, chocolate and other flavoured milks and buttermilk
2) Industrial milk processing involves the processing of milk into value-added products. These include cheese, butter, ice cream and other frozen products, condensed and evaporated milk, dried milk powder, yogurt and other cultured milk
products..
Due to the complexity of industrial milk processing the category of industrial milk processing is further subdivided into 5 categories making a total of 6 categories which can
be used to describe the basic processes used in the dairy industry (see figure 1) .
These categories are:
Fluid milk consumer milk products

Cultured products yoghurt, buttermilk, etc
Butter
Frozen products ice cream, etc .
Cheese hard and soft cheese
Evaporated/dried products milk powder
i
Figure 1: Simplified flow diagram of dairy processing sequences
Guide to energy efficiency opportunities in the diary processing industry, National Dairy Council of Canada; June, 1997
4
2.1 Consumer milk

The production of consumer milk or fluid milk in Figure 1 is generally described by the
processes:
1) filtering,
2) separation, (separation of milk and cream in centrifugal separators)
3) standardization, (mixing of skim milk and cream fat to consumer milk with correct
fat content)
4) homogenization (diminishing fat bubbles in the milk so that they do not separate
from the skimmilk at storage)
5) heat treatment (eg. Pasteurasation)
6) packing and cooled storage.
2.2
Cheese
Virtually all cheese is made by coagulating milk protein (casein) in a manner that traps
milk solids and milk fat into a curd matrix. This curd matrix is then consolidated to express the liquid fraction, cheese whey. Cheese whey contains those milk solids which
are not held in the curd mass, in particular most of the milk sugar (lactose) and a number of soluble proteins.
The processing of cheese:
1) If the milk has not been pasteurized before the milk is first homogenized and pasteurized to destroy bacteria and harmful microorganisms.
2) The milk is then coagulated in a process catalyzed by bacterial cultures or enzymes.
3) The resulting curd is cut into small pieces to aid in the expulsion of whey, which is
then drained from the curd by heat or mechanical means.
4) The next step, known as knitting, chemically changes the curd using lactic acid
and concludes in the salting and pressing of the cheese. The knitting process differs slightly for different varieties of cheese.
5) The cheese is ripened for an amount of time under specific temperature (32 80C) and humidity conditions. These variable conditions give cheese varieties a
unique aroma, appearance, texture, and taste.
6) Finally, cheese is packaged and stored in cooled storage.
2.3
Butter
The butter-making process, whether by batch or continuous methods,

consists of the following steps:
1) preparation of the cream (e.g pasteurization)
2) destabilization and breakdown of the fat and water emulsion (whippening)
3) aggregation and concentration of the fat particles (churning)
4) formation of a stable emulsion
5) packaging and cooled storage
Milk destined for butter making must not be homogenised, because the cream must remain in a separate phase. After separation, cream to be used for butter making is heat
treated and cooled under conditions that facilitate good whipping and churning. It may
then be ripened with a culture that increases the content of diacetyl, the compound responsible for the flavour of butter. Alternatively, culture inoculation may take place during churning.
Butter which is flavour enhanced using this process is termed lactic, ripened or cultured
butter. This process is very common in continental European countries. Although the
product is claimed to have a superior flavour, the storage life is limited. Butter made
without the addition of a culture is called sweet cream butter.
2.4
Evaporated/Dried products (milk powder)
Milk powder is produced by drying or evaporating milk.

After the milk has been thickened from 11 % to 50 60 % dry matter in an evaporator,
the condensed milk may further be dried to 95 97 % dry matter content. Spray driers
or roller driers are used in milk powder processing. Although roller driers may be found
in the dairy sector and are sometimes useful for specialised products, spray driers with
downstream or integrated fluidized bed have become more common. This is due to their
lower energy usage, the primarily dust-free product, and due to their reduced thermal
stress.
A spray drying process using a downstream fluidized bed is also called two-stage drying. When using two-stage drying, lower residual product moisture with less harm to
product quality as well as more efficient energy utilisation can be achieved. The solids
leave the spray drier with 3 5 % residual moisture. The final drying step takes place
under mild conditions with low energy usage.
2.5
Ice-cream
Ice-cream is a dairy based product which typically contains 6 to 12 % fat, 7.5 to 11.5 %
non-fat milk solids, and 13 to 18 % sugars. Stabilisers, emulsifiers, colours and flavours
are also added. Sugar is usually added as sucrose, and the non-fat milk solids are usually from skimmed milk solids. The fat source may be milk, cream, butter or butter oil.
Most ice-cream contains vegetable fat. The ingredients are blended, heated to around
70 to 75 C and homogenised. The mixture is then pasteurised by heating to 80 85 C
for 2 to 15 seconds before cooling and ageing by holding at chilled temperatures for 4 to
24 hours.
Colours and flavours are added at the ageing stage. Continuous freezers are used to
rapidly freeze the ice-cream down to around -6 C, with compressed air being introduced into the icecream during the freezing process. The increase in volume due to the
addition of air is known as over-run. The ice-cream is filled into containers and frozen
further in tunnel freezers operating at -30 to -40 C.
2.6
Cultured products
Yoghurt is a fermented milk product which differs from cheese in that rennet is not
added and thickening occurs as a result of acidification by lactic acid bacteria. The main
ingredients of yoghurt include milk; milk powders or concentrated milk or ultra-filtered
milk, and stabilisers, such as modified starches. Most of the yoghurt produced is manufactured in bulk before the addition of fruit and/or flavourings. The main steps in the
manufacture of yoghurt are as follows. The fat and non-fat solids content of the milk is
first increased by the addition of milk powders. Stabilisers may be added at this stage.
The milk is then homogenised at a temperature of around 55 C and heat treated at 80
to 90 C for 30 minutes in a batch process, or 90 to 95 C for 5 minutes in a continuous
process. The heat treated milk is then cooled to around 40 to 43 C and seeded with
two starter organisms Streptococcus salivarius subspecies thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbruecki subspecies bulgaricus. Fermentation takes around 4hours. At the
end of the process, the product is cooled to 15 20 C, using either tank cooling coils
or, more commonly, tubular or plate heat-exchangers. Fruit and flavours are blended
into the yoghurt which is then cooled to less than 5 C and filled into pots ready for storage and distribution.
3 Utilities and energy use

Three main utility parameters relevant to energy-use in the operation of dairy plants are:
1. Electrical energy, used for operation of refrigeration systems and various
other drives and motors, as well as light.
2. Thermal energy, supplied as fuel primarily in the form of natural gas, fuel oil or
propane, used for product, water, steam and space heating.
3.
Water, approximately 60% of which is used for energy-related functions (e.g.

for cooling water or for steam generation).
In Table 1 an overview of the utility processes involved in a dairy as well as to which of

the 6 category described in section 2 (specific process in Table 1) they are used in.
Table 1: Typical utility processes and service requirements at a dairy
The energy utilization in a dairy varies extensively depending on the spectra of products
produced at the specific dairy plant, but also on the technologies applied. E.g. most
European dairies have today continues processing in contrast to old dairies with batch
processing. In dairies using continuous processing indirect heat exchanging between
cold and hot flows are frequently used and depending on how effective each installation
is performed and controlled, energy savings of up to 80% can be achieved.
Although seldom temperatures above 90 C are required, heating is mainly done by
steam from a steam boiler, as smaller and thereby cheaper installations of pipes are required as for hot water. The use of steam as the heating medium on the other hand
gives less opportunity for reusing some of the lower temperature waste heat from the
process. Given these facts the average energy utilization on a dairy can only roughly be
estimated as it is multidimensional dependant and varies widely from plant to plant.
As shown in Figure 1 the processing of milk to dairy products comprises several complex stages depending on the product. It is not the aim of this project to describe the
energy consumption of all these stages in detail, and thus general energy consumption
values for each product taken from the literature will be used for the estimations.
As previously shown the total energy consumed at a dairy depends on the range of
products being produced at this typical dairy. Processes which involve the concentration
and drying of milk (production of milk powder) are very energy intensive while the production of market milk is on the other extreme and only involves some heat treatment
and packaging (see Table 2)
Table 2: Example of specific energy consumption for various dairy products ii
Product
Electricity consumption
Fuel consumption
(GJ/ton product)
(GJ/ton product)
Market milk
0.20
0.46
Cheese
0.76
4.34
Milk powder
1.43
20.60
Butter
0.71
3.53
Moreover, the energy consumption is also depending on the age of the plants and modern plants have significantly lower energy consumption compared to older plants (see
Table 3)
Table 3: Example of energy consumption for a selection of milk plants
Type of plant
Total energy consumption
(GJ/ ton milk processed)
0.34
Modern plant with high-efficiency
regenerative pasteurizer and
modern boiler
Modern plant using hot water for
0.50
processing
Old, steam based plant
2.00
Range for most plants
0.5 -1.2
However, in order to be able to estimate the potential use of energy in dairies in Europe
today average energy consumption from the literature were extracted per kg produced
dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter, milk powder, cultivated products and ice
cream. Some of these values are available in the literature while others had to be estimated (see section 7 and 8).
On an average European dairy, 80 % of the energy consumption is heat and 20% is
electric energy used in motors (stirring and pumps), refrigeration and light. This does
however depend on the product spectra produced at the specific plant. More detailed
data and estimations are
4 Energy production in the Dairy industry

Although very few dairies have applied CHP in their processes, the dairy industry is in
some ways an ideal fit for CHP. It has a high electricity requirement and also a significant demand for steam for the heating and cooling processes that go into the high-value
dairy products.
Moreover, other significant drivers for implying CHP to the dairy would be
ii
www.agrifood-forum.net/publications/guide/
9
Power Reliability power failure and subsequent loss of refrigeration systems results in spoiled milk products and a loss of revenue
Food Safety a constant supply of steam and hot water ensures that milk products are being properly disinfected and processing equipment is being sanitized
Cost of Energy milk processing is an energy intensive industry.
Current CHP installations are typically installed in large dairies producing milk powder.
These dairies are also the plants with the highest energy demand. In Denmark five large
dairies have installed CHP and all these are based upon gas turbines in the size range
of about 4-5 MWe using natural gas for fuel.
In Sweden two dairies using renewable energy have been identified so far. The first is
the large milk powder production plant in Vimmerby, which is has installed a 38 MWth
biomass boiler for CHP productioniii . Another, example is the BIOTRANSiv dairy plant in
UME, Sweden. This dairy both produces and uses biogas from anaerobe digestion of
rest products in an integrated CHP process. BIOTRANS is also an EU-demonstration
project and will be included as a bets practice case in this project as well.
In Ireland the Ballyragget facility which is currently Europes largest multi-product dairy
facility is another example of a dairy plant using CHP v. The facility incorporates 11 factories which can handle 900 million litres of milk and 785 million litres of whey annually.
The heat to power ratio (HPR) for such a complex modern dairy producing several dairy
products is around 3.3:1
Electric demand of 11,5 MW and 85 tonnes of steam per hour. Electricity was previously
bought and heat for drying and evaporation was produced from heavy fuel oil in a 30
year old boiler. After extensive analysis two 5 MW gas turbines CHP units were selected and installed. The hot flue gas from the gasturbines are used in steam waste
boiler which also has the opportunity to burn more gas without affecting the electricity
production.
5 By-products and waste

The most significant rest or by-product from the dairy processing industry is whey, generated from the cheese-making process. Whey is the liquid remaining after the recovery
of the curds formed by the action of enzymes on the milk. It comprises 80-90 % of the
total volume of milk used in the cheese making process and contains more than half the
solid from the original whole milk. It has a very high organic content with a chemical
oxygen demand (COD) of approximately 60 000 mg/L.
In the past, the management of whey was a problem for the industry due to the high
costs of treatment and disposal. Untreated whey has a very high concentration of organic matter, which can lead to pollution of rivers and streams and also creates bad
iii
http://www.arlafoodsingredients.com/C1256E6E00365BBD/O/5E53A8831765D385C1256EA9003CD75C
www.biotrans.se
v
M. Tynan, Case study of the benefits of combined heat & power, part of the news letter 401-2005 Energy use in Dairy Processing
iv
10
odours. Nowadays, a number of opportunities exist for the recovery or utilization of the
lactose and protein content of whey. However, it has only been in recent years that they
have become technically and economically viable, by e.g. ultra filtration
Furthermore, another very large waste product is effluent water with contents of rest
milk and other products from the cleaning of pipes and other equipment at the dairy.
The organic load of these effluent streams varies depending on cleaning practices and
whether batch or continuous processes are used. Batch processes require a greater
frequency of cleaning and thereby higher amounts of effluents has to be disposed of.
New stringent requirements for waste streams from dairy plants have significantly reduced the amount of COD in todays dairy waste streams.
6 Potential technologies for CHP production in the Dairy industry

By investigating the utilities involved in a dairy, following processes have been identified
as potential for polygeneration:
1) Steam production could theoretically give a potential for producing electricity in
steam turbines, however the required size (energy demand) of such equipment is
not feasible.
2) Heat and electricity could be produced in reciprocating engines or micro-gas turbines.
3) The cleaning of effluent water and rest products such as whey could be used to
produce biogas which in turn could be used in gas engine or turbines.
4) Waste heat from either the dairy process or the CHP described under point two
could be used in adsorption/absorption coolers. By changing traditional compressor based cooling and freezing equipment to adsorption/absorption coolers,
electric energy could be saved and instead excess produced electricity could be
sold to the grid.
According to the investigations performed within this project the heat to power ratio in
dairies is typically around 3:1.
Due to this gas turbines are the most technically viable compared to reciprocating engines for CHP applications and was thus used for the calculations of the technical polygeneration potential.
The smallest turbines so called micro turbines are currently known to be commercially
available at 100 kWel.
Dairies have high demands for cooling and in case of high electricity process the application of absorption coolers could be feasible, and are thus investigated in combination
with CHP.
7 Technical Potential of on site power generation & emission savings by polygeneration in the dairy industry in
Europe
11
7.1 Methodology
7.1.1 Model development
In order to estimate the current energy usage and the potential polygeneration in the
dairy industry statistic data fro the production of milk, cheese and milk powder in the different European countries was collected. Based upon these data assumptions on the
total energy need (electrical and thermal) was estimated.
Moreover, from these values also the amounts of waste/rest products were calculated
and thereby the also potential for biogas production.
7.1.2 Used basic data for energy calculations
A general estimation of the potential polygeneration is very difficult to perform accurately as the energy solutions and use of energy are specific for each site and thus only
average assumptions can be made. In the following the estimations are done by generalising data from literature values from dairies in Canada, Denmark, Australia and Germany [ ?? ?? ?? ]. Table 4 show the average data chosen which are subsequently
used for the calculations of the polygeneration potential in this report. The data is subdivided for each of the main dairy products in order to be able to use available data for
the production of dairy products in Europe (see Table 5). Some specific energy data
was not found in the literature but was necessary for the calculation of the potentials.
This data was thus estimated by best possible assumptions ad are indicated in italics in
Table 4.
Table 4: Averaged specific data used for the calculations of polygeneration potential
Electric
kWh/tonne
product
% of el for
Heat
cooling resp
freezing
kWh/tonne
product
1 Pasteurised
55
40%
milk
2 Cheese
211
30%
3 Butter
197
25%
4 Milk powder
350
15%
5 IceCream
450
45%
6 Cultivated
55
40%
products
Explanations: figures in italics are estimated values
COD
Potential
Biogas production
kg/tonne
prod
Nm3 /
kg product
128
0.002
0.001
1 205
980
4 000
900
130
38
5
7
5
0.010
13.30
1.75
2.42
1.75
0.002
12
Table 5: Production of dairy products in EU-15 countries (2004)

Country
Germany
France
UK
Netherlands
Italy
Spanien
Ireland
Denmark
Sweden
Belgium
Austria
Finland
Portugal
Greece
Luxembourg
Consumer
milk 1
5.017
3.865
6.557
1.461
3.109
3.837
540
488
1.274
600
704
710
899
415
14
Butter 1
Cheese
(cows milk) 1
444
411
123
102
127
46
137
47
52
39
32
59
26
1
3
Conserved
milk products 1
*1000 tones /year

1.863
1.689
367
671
1.032
135
104
335
117
61
140
98
57
10
3
382
458
167
164
0
13
97
104
48
237
7
23
18
0
0
IceCream2
555
400
0
64
471
309
27
27
124
151
2
51
20
29
0
Yoghurt2
1.747
1.548
402
165
198
0
25
45
28
0
183
115
80
24
0
Source: 1.Danish dairy associationvi, 2.EUROSTATvii,
7.1.3 Calculation of polygeneration potential

In order to calculate the polygeneration three potential technical solutions were extracted and used for the calculations:
1) Cogeneration of Heat and Power CHP2) Trigeneration Use part or all of the heat co-generated to meet chilling/freezing
needs via absorption cycles-.
3) Use of the by-products for energy production. This can be done by incineration
or by anaerobic treatment to produce biogas. Other routes include gasification.
Each technology is associated with thresholds and economical values affecting applicability with respect to the size and other important characteristics of the plant.
Thus in order to calculate the technical potential for polygeneration the technical threshold values viable for the above technologies applied in the dairy industry were calculated. The data used for these calculations are shown in Table 6 and the resulting
threshold values for each technology and dairy product are summarised in Table 7
vi
vii
www.mejeri.dk
www.eu.int/comm/eurostat
13
Table 6: Basic technical data used for the evaluation of threshold values
As a significant part of the heat needed is used for steam production the case of micro turbine is used as base scenario.
Minimum CHP driver nominal electric power
Heat /electricity ratio of the CHP driver (2.5 for turbine, 1.2 for
ICE)
Minimum yearly operating hours for viable operation
Minimum heat produced by this set is 1.250.000kWh /year. To
secure efficient use of heat
cogeneration can be applied in plants where minimum yearly heat
needs are more than
to secure applicability of CHP due to yearly variations and various proceessing conditions increased heat demand is needed by
As such minimum heat needs for the application of CHP are
100 kW
Useful
heat
2.5 /electricity ratio
4000 hours /year
1 000 000 kWhther/year

50 %
1 500 000 kWhtherm/year
Table 7: Calculated threshold values for the dairy industry

Dairy product
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
tonnes /year
tonnes /year
1 Pasteurised milk
Biogas production
tonnes /year
11 719
32 727
619 047 619
2 Cheese
1 250
6 000
32 581
3 Butter
1 531
14 619
247 619
429
10 286
179 434
1 667
2 963
247 619
11 538
32 727
216 666 667
4 Milk powder
5 IceCream
6 Cultivated products
In order to use the threshold values on the production capacities the distribution of the
production of these dairy products is needed. i.e. how much of the products is produced
in what size of factories. In Table 8 the production distribution among dairies in Denmark listed.
Table 8: Production distribution among dairies in Denmark
Milk
powder
% of
% of prod
% of prod prod
77,2
87,9
100
Cheese
tonnes/y
over 6.000
2.000 - 5.999
1.000 - 1.999
800 999
400 799
Consumer
milk
Butter
17,9
3,3
0,3
1
5,7
2,1
1,7
0
under 400
0,3
Source: Danish dairy associationviii
2,7
tonnes/y
over 40.000
10.000 39.999
5.000 - 9.999
1.000 - 4.999
under 1.000
% of prod
87,5
9,4
2,8
0,2
0,2
By comparing the production distribution in Denmark, Table 8, with the threshold values
listed in Table 7 the percentage of the production complying with the threshold values
can be estimated. Due to lack of data from rest of Europe, these percentages are used
viii
www.mejeri.dk
14
as a fist assumption for all other EU-15 countries (see Table 9). In case of future available data these values can easily be adjusted.
Table 9: Assumptions part of EU-15 productions which is produced in plants

keeping the threshold values calculated in Table 7
Dairy product
1
2
3
4
5
6
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
% of EU-15 production
Consumer milk
Cheese
Butter
Milk powder
Ice-Cream
Cultivated products
95
95
95
100
70
90
Biogas production
90
40
40
100
50
50
0
5
0
0
0
0
After applying the percentage of the total production of dairy products Table 9 with the
production values in Table 8, the specific electric and thermal energy requirements in
Table 4 and the technical data in Table 10 the potential polygeneration energy in EU-15
countries was calculated according to equation 1-5 below.
Potel = Heat needed x (Pel/Ptherm)
[kWhel]
(1)

Heat need = tones of product (Table 5) x specific heat need of process (Table 4)
X % applying to threshold
When trigeneration is examined the calculation of the heat needed for potential absorption cycle, Heatabs, was calculated as:
Heatabs = [electricity need for chilling/COPel]/COPabs
(Table 10)
(2)
When potential biogas production is examined the heat needed for the energy produced
was calculated as:
PotelBG = Biogas x Pel
(3)
Biogas = CODtot x 70% x 0.35 [Nm3 gas/COD] x 6 [kWh /Nm3 gas]
(4)
COD = Total tonnes of product x specific COD generated by the process
(5)
15
Table 10: Technical data for calculation of polygeneration potentials and CO2 emission savings
GENERAL DATA
COP of conventional freezing cycle
COP of freezing for ammonia absorption cycle -30oC.
COP of conventional chilling cycle +4oC.
COP of chilling for ammonia absorption cycle +4oC.
1,2
0,8
2,5
1,2
Part of the COD which will be to biogas

Biogas generated by 1 kg of COD
LCV of biogas
70% %
0,35 Nm3/kg COD
6 kWh/Nm3
heat /electricity ratio for CHP units

mean Grid efficiency+trans losses
CO2 savings /kwh of el. Cogenerated
CO2 savings /kwh of el. Trigenerated
CO2 savings /kwh of biogas produced
2,5
80
40
0,26
0,436
0,21
%
%
kgCO2/kWhel
kgCO2/kWhel
kgCO2/kWhbiogas
8 Potential for polygeneration in the dairy industry

By utilising the calculation method developed and described in section 7 the potentials
for polygeneration in terms of electric energy that can be produced as well as replaced
by polygeneration is calculated and shown in Table 11 and Figure 2.
In Table 11 the results are shown divided by dairy product while in Figure 2 the same
results are shown divided by EU-15 country.
By assuming that instead of purchasing electricity from the net produced by fossil fuels,
electricity is produced at the dairy plant by polygeneration which is without net losses
and also a better utilisation of the rest heat. Thereby, emissions of CO2 are saved and
can be calculated (see Table 10). The results of these calculations are revealed in
Figure 3 and Figure 4 showing a total technical potential CO2 savings by polygeneration of 3 million tonnes CO2 /year.
16
Table 11: Calculated potentials for polygeneration for EU-15 in the dairy industry
divided by product
1
2
3
4
5
6
sum
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
MWhel /year
MWhel /year
Pasteurised milk
Cheese
Butter
Milk powder
IceCream
Cultivated products
1 434 394
3 046 992
614 088
2 405 200
611 216
229 751
8 341 640
Biogas production
MWhel /year
513 618
643 790
64 294
100 217
477 512
81 002
1 872 432
0
10 664
0
0
0
0
10 664
Figure 2: Calculated potentials for polygeneration for EU-15 in the dairy industry
divided by country
2.500.000
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
1.500.000
1.000.000
500.000
17
Luxembourg
Greece
Portugal
Finland
Austria
Belgium
Sweden
Denmark
Ireland
Spane
Italy
Netherlands
UK
France
0
Germany
MWh el/year
2.000.000
Figure 3: Calculated potentials CO2-savings (tonnes/year) for polygeneration for

EU-15 in the dairy industry
2.240
815.945
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
2.168.826
Figure 4: Calculated potentials CO2-savings for polygeneration for EU-15 the

dairy industry divided by country
600.000
Cogeneration
Trigeneration
Biogas production
400.000
300.000
200.000
100.000
18
Luxembourg
Greece
Portugal
Finland
Austria
Belgium
Sweden
Denmark
Ireland
Spane
Italy
Netherlands
UK
France
Germany
tonnes CO2/year
500.000
9 Conclusions
Polygeneration potential in the dairy processing industry has been calculated for the
Eur-15 countries.
Calculations were based on data for energy consumption, which exist in the open literature and collected via energy audits performed by the author. The data from Eurostat for
dairy production in Europe was also used combined with estimations of size distribution
of the dairy plants located in every country. This distribution was mainly done based on
data from the Danish dairy industry
The results show that the total technical polygeneration potential for all EU-15 countries
for dairy industry sector is estimated to 10,2 TWhel /year resulting in CO2 emission savings of 3 million tonnes CO2 /year.
The dominating part 82% of the technical potential is from co-generation and the rest is
tri-generation by absorption cooling or freezing. The potential for biogas production is
only valid for cheese production and the anaerobic digestion of waste whey. The total
amount of this is in comparison to the technical potentials for co- and tri-generation very
small.
19
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OPTIPOLYGEN

Process Descriptions ............................................................................................. 5

Specific energy requirements................................................................................ 6

Process Waste and By-Products............................................................................ 8

Potential Technologies for On-Site Energy Production........................................ 9

Energy use in the food industry .......................................................................... 11

Technical potential for polygeneration in the food processing industry............. 13

Main results and conclusions .............................................................................. 27

Fish and meat (fresh, frozen, cooked)

Combined Heat and Power

Chemical Oxygen Demand

Volatile Solid Substances

Organic Rankine Cycle

Definition of food sectors

Fish and meat (fresh, frozen, cooked)

370 to 540C (coffee)

Specific energy requirements

Thermal energy /tonne

MWh/ tonne food processed

Cooked food &

1depends on which case is considered see APENDIX I, 2estimated

Current on-site energy production in the food and drink industry

Process waste and by-products

Many sectors of the food industry produce significant amounts of biodegradable

Main waste products from the process

Residues from fish and animal carcase

1-250 kg/ ton

Rest products from cereal production

Diffusion waste from the sugar

Potential and feasible polygeneration technologies for on-site

Tri-generation - CHP combined with absorption cooling

Polygeneration -CHP using biogas from process waste as fuel

ASHRAE handbook, absorption cooling, www.ashrae.org,

Energy use in the food industry

Figure 1: Energy consumption in food drink and tobacco compared to

12,70 19,57 10,64 1,69

While the OPTIPOLYGEN calculations of electricity consumption are close and

technical polygeneration potential in this report is more likely to be an underestimate

Technical potential for polygeneration in the food processing

Methodologies used for the estimations of the technical potential for

Threshold estimation for co-generation:

Capstone Turbine Corporation, www.capstoneturbine.com; December, 2005.

Compressor cooling COP

Absorption cooling COP

Threshold estimation for biogas production (polygeneration)

Cooked food &

Results of estimated technical polygeneration potentials

Figure 5: Technical polygeneration potential by EU-15 country

Bel Neth Lux

Fra Spa Por Gre

Figure 6: Technical potential coverage of electricity demand by polygeneration in

3,1 2,2 11,6 15,7 11,3 1,5

8,2 14,7 9,4

Figure 7: Detailed distribution of the technical cogeneration potential among the

Milk powder &

Bel Neth Lux

Figure 8: Detailed distribution of additional tecnical tri-generation potential by

Total pure trigeneration potential: 15.3 TWhel

Bel Neth Lux

Figure 9: Distribution of technical biogas production potential of the different food

Bel Neth Lux

Implemented CHP capacity compared to the technical potential of cogeneration

Result of estimated CO2 saving potential