STUDY AND PROTOTYPE MODELLING

OF
THERMAL POWER PLANT
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
ARJUN RATHORE
OM KUMAR VERMA
YOGENDRA MEHAR
YOGESH BAGHEL

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MATS UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & IT
ARANG, RAIPUR (C.G.)
MAY 2012
1

STUDY AND PROTOTYPE MODELLING

OF
THERMAL POWER PLANT
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
ARJUN RATHORE {Reg. No. MU08BEME027}
OM KUMAR VERMA {Reg. No. MU08BEME003}
YOGENDRA MEHAR {Reg. No. MU08BEME028}
YOGESH BAGHEL {Reg. No. MU08BEME017}
Under the Guidance of
Prof. BRIJESH PATEL
PROJECT WORK
PHASE II
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MATS UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & IT
ARANG, RAIPUR (C.G.)
2

MATS UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & IT
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report,
STUDY AND PROTOTYPE MODELLING
OF
THERMAL POWER PLANT
is a bonafide work of;
ARJUN RATHORE {Reg. No. MU08BEME027}
OM KUMAR VERMA {Reg. No. MU08BEME003}
YOGENDRA MEHAR {Reg. No. MU08BEME028}
YOGESH BAGHEL {Reg. No. MU08BEME017}
who carried out the project under my guidance and supervision during the
academic year 2011-2012.

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
Prof. BRIJESH PATEL
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
School of Engineering & IT
MATS UNIVERSITY, Raipur (C.G.)

MATS UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & IT
BONAFIED CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report titled STUDY AND PROTOTYPE MODELLING
OF THERMAL POWER PLANT is submitted by;

ARJUN RATHORE {Reg. No. MU08BEME027}

OM KUMAR VERMA {Reg. No. MU08BEME003}
YOGENDRA MEHAR {Reg. No. MU08BEME028}
YOGESH BAGHEL {Reg. No. MU08BEME017}
to the department of mechanical engineering, School of Engineering & IT, Arang Raipur (C.G.)
in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Mechanical Engineering. This bonafied work carried out by the above candidates under the
guidance and supervision of undersigned during the academic year 2011-2012. The project
hasn't been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted for award of other
degree.

SIGNATURE OF HOD

SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL

Prof. BRIJESH PATEL

Prof .A.M.BISEN

Assistant Professor

Principal

Dept. of Mechanical engineering

Dept. of Mechanical engineering

School of Engineering & IT

School of Engineering & IT

4

CERTIFICATE OF EXTERNAL EXAMINATION

I certify that I have read this Project and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in
scope and quality as a project for the degree of bachelor of Engineering in
Mechanical Engineering.

SIGNATURE OF EXTERNAL EXAMINER

NAME:

I certify that I have read this Project and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in
scope and quality as a project for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Mechanical Engineering.

SIGNATURE OF INTERNAL EXAMINER

NAME:

DECLARATION
We do here by declare that the Project entitled STUDY AND PROTOTYPE MODELLING
OF THERMAL POWER PLANT submitted towards partial fulfillment for the award of

degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering of SCHOOL OF

ENGGINEERING & IT, MATS University is based on the results of studies carried out
by us under the guidance and supervision of Prof. BRIJESH PATEL, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & IT, MATS University,
Raipur. This Project or no part of this has been submitted elsewhere for the award of any
degree.

Place: Raipur

ARJUN RATHORE

Date:

OM KUMAR VERMA
YOGENDRA MEHAR
YOGESH BAGHEL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our grateful to LORD ALMIGHTY as for the blessing
given that we can finish my project.
In preparing this report, we have engaged with many people who helped me in
this project. First, we wish to express sincere appreciation to our project guide Prof.
Brijesh Patel, for encouragement, guidance, advices and motivation. Without his
continued support and interest, this thesis would not have been the same as presented
here.
We also express compliance to our Principal Prof. A.M. Bisen, for providing us
their suggestions and encouragement during the course of our work. We would like to
express sincere thanks to our Head of the Department Prof. Revendra Verma, for his
suggestions and guidance during the course of our work.
We would like to express our gratitude especially to all Mechanical Department
staff who handled various subjects and for their help and advices. We appreciate very
much to them because of the idea and information given.
We acknowledge our sincere indebtedness and gratitude to our family for their
love, dream and sacrifice throughout our life. We cannot find the appropriate words that
could properly describe our appreciation for their devotion, support and faith in our
ability to attain our goals. We would like to acknowledge their comments and
suggestions, which was crucial for the successful completion of this study.
ARJUN RATHORE
OM KUMAR VERMA
YOGENDRA MEHAR
YOGESH BAGHEL
7

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

INDEX

10

ABSTRACT
A steam electric power plant is a means for converting the potential chemical energy of
fuel into electrical energy. In its simplest form it consists of a boiler supplying steam to a turbine,
and the turbine driving an electric generator.
Since thermal power is mostly adopted technique of producing electricity & therefore
studying the Components of existing Thermal Power Plants and implementation of newly
introduced techniques for their Up gradation in order to increase the efficiency of the Plant and
also performing the Prototype Modeling of Thermal Power Plant using Coal as its fuel and Steam
as its working fluid.

11

CHAPTER I

12

INTRODUCTION
Thermal power plant or steam power plant is a unit which is used to convert the heat
energy of steam into useful mechanical work done by the turbine that generates electric
power.
Steam being as a working fluid has the advantage that can be raised from water which is
available in adequate quantity.
Steam power station is most suitable where abundance of coal is available.

TOTAL WORLD ELECTIRICITY GENERATION BY FUELS:-

Fig. 1

13

COMPONENTS OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:Boiler.

Turbine.
Electric Generator
Condenser.
Cooling Tower.
Pump.
Chimney.

14

Fig. - 2

CHAPTER II

15

LITERATURE REVIEW

Everett B. Woodruff; Herbert B. Lammers; Thomas F. Lammers: Steam Plant Operation, Boiler
Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment.

The Babcock & Wilcox Company, SteamIts Generation and Use. Combustion Engineering,
CombustionFossil Power Systems., The ASME Handbook on Water Technology in Thermal
Power Systems, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Gunn, Industrial Boilers,
Longman Scientific. Clapp, Modern Power Station Practice: Boilers and Ancillary Plant,
Pergamon Press. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Performance Test Code for Fired Steam
Generators, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Also, Proc. ASME and the Joint Power
Generation Conference.

H. Wayne Beaty, Donald: STEAM-TURBINE PERFORMANCE

Philip Kiameh: Selection, Applications, Operation, and Maintenance. TURBINE PROTECTIVE

DEVICES.

Ernette, D. Steam Turbine Technology: The Way Forward, Power Engineering International.

Wichtmann, A., et al.: Advanced Large Steam Turbines for Saturated Steam Conditions.

Hermeler, J., F. Truckenmueller, et al.: New Generation of Titanium and Steel LP Turbine Blade
Path.

Cotton, K.C. Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine Performance.

Vitalis, B.P., et al.: Constant and Sliding Pressure Options for New Supercritical Plants.

Kern, T. Material R&D Challenges for Fossil Fired Power Plants.

Books:

Engineering Thermodynamics
Power Plant Engineering
Thermal Engineering
Turbo Machinery
Thermal Science & Engineering

By, P.K. Nag

By, R.K. Rajput
By, R.S. Khurmi
By, R. Yadav
By, D.S. Kumar
16

17

CHAPTER III

18

BOILER
A boiler (or steam generator, as it is commonly called) is a closed vessel in which water, under
pressure, is transformed into steam by the application of heat. Open vessels and those generating steam
at atmospheric pressure are not considered to be boilers. In the furnace, the chemical energy in the fuel
is converted into heat, and it is the function of the boiler to transfer this heat to the water in the most
efficient manner. Thus the primary function of a boiler is to generate steam at pressures above
atmospheric by the absorption of heat that is produced in the combustion of fuel.
The ideal boiler includes:
1. Simplicity in construction, excellent workmanship, materials conducive to low maintenance cost,
high efficiency and high availability
2. Design and construction to accommodate expansion and contraction properties of materials
3. Adequate steam and water space, delivery of clean steam, and good water circulation
4. A furnace setting conducive to efficient combustion and maximum rate of heat transfer
6. Accessibility for cleaning and repair
7. A factor of safety that meets code requirement.
In general, the boiler must be conservatively designed to ensure reliable performance over the life of the
plant, which easily could exceed 50 years. This conservative design is required because of all the
variables that occur over the life of the plant, such as the use of different fuels, degradation of
performance over time, and the occurrence of upset conditions. The term boiler setting was applied
originally to the brick walls enclosing the furnace and heating surface of the boiler. As the demand grew
for larger-capacity steam generating units, the brick walls gave way to air-cooled refractory walls and
then to water-cooled tube walls. The term boiler setting is used here to indicate all the walls that form
the boiler and furnace enclosure and includes the insulation and lagging of these walls. A boiler should
be designed to absorb the maximum amount of heat released in the process of combustion. This heat is
transmitted to the boiler by radiation, conduction, and convection, the percentage of each depending on

19

the boiler design.

Radiant heat is heat radiated from a hot to a cold body and depends on the temperature difference and
the color of the body that receives the heat. Absorption of radiant heat increases with the furnace
temperature and depends on many factors but primarily on the area of the tubes exposed to the heat.
Conduction heat is heat that passes from the gas to the tube by physical contact. The heat passes from
molecule of metal to molecule of metal with no displacement of the molecules. The amount of
absorption depends on the conductivity or heat-absorption qualities of the material through which the
heat must pass.
Convection heat is heat transmitted from a hot to a cold body by movement of the conveying substance.
In this case, the hot body is the boiler flue gas; the cold body is the boiler tube containing water or the
super heater tube containing steam.
In designing a boiler, each form of heat transmission is given special consideration. In the operation of a
boiler unit, all three forms of heat transmission occur simultaneously and cannot readily be
distinguished from each other.
Considerable progress has been made in boiler design from the standpoint of safety, efficiency of the
fuel-burning equipment, and efficiency of the heat transferred. More and more emphasis is being placed
on efficiency, flexibility, and boiler availability. Boilers are designed not only for the traditional utility
and industrial applications but also for plants designed for the cogeneration of electricity and process
steam. Boilers are also designed to burn low-grade coal, such as lignite, liquid and gaseous fuels, or to
burn municipal solid waste (MSW) in the form of mass burning or refuse-derived fuel (RDF). The
newer boilers are designed to be fully automated; their design also must take into account the
environmental control equipment that is mandatory under regulations.
Boilers are built in a variety of sizes, shapes, and forms to fit conditions peculiar to the individual plant
and to meet varying requirements. With increasing fuel cost, greater attention is being given to
improvement of the combustion efficiency. Many boilers are designed to burn multiple fuels in order to
take advantage of the fuel most economically available.

20

FUNDAMENTAL OF STEAM GENERATION:1. Boiling

The process of boiling water to make steam is a phenomenon that is familiar to all of us. After the
boiling temperature is reached (e.g., 212F at an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia), instead of the water
temperature increasing, the heat energy from the fuel results in a change of phase from a liquid to a
gaseous state, i.e., from water to steam. A steam-generating system, called a boiler, provides a
continuous process for this conversion.
2. Circulation
For most boiler or steam generator designs, water and steam flow through tubes where they absorb heat,
which results from the combustion of a fuel. In order for a boiler to generate steam continuously, water
must circulate through the tubes. Two methods are commonly used:
(1) natural or thermal circulation
(2) Forced or pumped circulation.

Natural circulation The total circulation rate depends on four major factors:
1. Height of boiler. Taller boilers result in a larger total pressure difference between the heated and
unheated legs and therefore can produce larger total flow rates.
2. Operating pressure. Higher operating pressures provide higher-density steam and higher-density
steam-water mixtures. This reduces the total weight difference between the heated and unheated
segments and tends to reduce flow rate.
3. Heat input. A higher heat input increases the amount of steam in the heated segments and
reduces the average density of the steam-water mixture, thus increasing total flow rate.
4. Free-flow area. An increase in the cross-sectional or free-flow area (i.e., larger tubes and down
comers) for the water or steam-water mixture may increase the circulation rate.

21

Forced circulation For a forced circulation system, a pump is added to the flow loop, and the
pressure difference created by the pump controls the water flow rate. These circulation systems
generally are used where the boilers are designed to operate near or above the critical pressure of 3206
psia, where there is little density difference between water and steam. There are also designs in the
subcritical pressure range where forced circulation is advantageous, and some boiler designs are based
on this technology. Small-diameter tubes are used in forced circulation boilers, where pumps provide
adequate head for circulation and for required velocities.

Fig. 3

3. Steam-water separation
The steam-water mixture is separated in the steam drum. In small, low-pressure boilers, this separation
can be accomplished easily with a large drum that is approximately half full of water and having natural
gravity steam-water separation. In todays high-capacity, high-pressure units, mechanical steam-water
separators are needed to economically provide moisture-free steam from the steam drum.
Steam generators are designed to operate at these critical pressures, but because of their
expense, generally they are designed for large-capacity utility power plant systems. These boilers
operate on the once-through principle, and steam drums and steam-water separation are not required.
22

BOILER COMPONENTS:1. Furnaces

A furnace is an enclosure provided for the combustion of fuel. The enclosure confines the
products of combustion and is capable of withstanding the high temperatures developed and the
pressures involved with operation. Its dimension and geometry are adapted to the rate of heat release,
the type of fuel, and the method of firing so as to promote complete burning of combustible and
provide suitable disposal of the ash.
Water-cooled furnaces are used with most boiler units and for all types of fuel and methods of firing.
Water cooling of the furnace walls reduces the transfer of heat to the structural members and,
consequently, their temperature can be limited to that which will meet the requirements of strength.
Water-cooled tube construction facilitates large furnace dimensions and optimum arrangements of
roofs, hoppers, arches, and burners; and the use of tubular screens, platens, or division walls to increase
the amount of heat-absorbing surface in the combustion zone. The use of water-cooled furnaces also
reduces the external heat losses.
Heat-absorbing surfaces in the furnace receive heat from the products of combustion and contribute
directly to steam generation while lowering the furnace exit gas temperature (FEGT). In the boiler
furnace, all the principal heat-transfer mechanisms take place simultaneously. These include inter-solid
radiation between suspended solid particles, tubes, and refractory materials; non luminous gas radiation
from the products of combustion; convection heat transfer from the gases to the furnace walls; and heat
conduction through deposits and tube metals. The absorption effectiveness of the furnace surfaces is
influenced by the deposits of ash or slag.
Stokers All stokers are designed to feed solid fuel onto a grate where the fuel burns as primary air is
passed up through it and over-fire air is also introduced to enhance combustion. The stoker is located in
the furnace, and it is also designed to remove the residue of ash that remains after combustion.

23

Stoker firing consists of various systems having the following major features:
1. A fuel feed system
2. A grate assembly, either stationary or moving, that supports the burning fuel and admits the majority
of combustion air to the fuel
3. An over-fire air system for the completion of combustion and reduction of emissions such as NO x
4. An ash discharge system
Stokers can handle a vast variety of solid fuels. They handle all forms of coal, wood, bark,
bagasse, rice hulls, peach pits, vineyard trimmings, coffee grounds, and municipal solid wastes (MSW).
There are two general types of stoker systems:
1. Underfeed stokers: Both fuel and air supply are from under the grate
2. Overfeed stokers: The fuel is supplied from above the grate and air is supplied from below the grate.

2. Super heaters and Reheaters

The addition of heat to steam after evaporation increases the temperature and the enthalpy of the
fluid. The heat is added to the steam in boiler components called superheaters and reheaters, which are
comprised of tubular elements exposed to the high-temperature gaseous products of combustion.
The advantages of superheat and reheat in power generation result from thermodynamic gain in the
Rankine cycle and from the reduction of heat losses due to moisture in the low-pressure stages of the
turbine. With high steam pressures and temperatures, more useful energy is available, but the advances
to high steam temperature often are restricted by the strength and the oxidation resistance of the steel
and the metallic alloys currently available and economically practical for use in boiler pressure-part and
turbine-blade construction.
The term superheating is applied to the higher-pressure steam and the term reheating to the lowerpressure steam which has given up some of its energy during expansion in the high-pressure turbine.
With high initial steam pressure, one or more stages of reheating may be employed to improve the cycle
thermal efficiency.
Separately fired superheaters have been used, but superheaters usually are installed as an integral part
of the steam-generating unit and broadly classified as radiant or convection types, depending upon the
predominant method of heat transfer to the heat-absorbing surfaces. The quantity of heat absorbed and
24

the amount of superheat attained are dependent upon the size, location, and arrangement of the heatabsorbing surfaces; the temperature differentials between the gas, the tube metal, and the steam; and the
heat-transfer coefficients. Steam-temperature characteristics of radiant- and convection-type super
heater, as well as the effect of using a combination of these types to produce a more uniform steam
temperature over a wide operating range.

Fig. 4
Comparative radiant and convection superheater characteristics.

Super heaters of the predominantly radiant type usually are arranged for direct exposure to the very
high-temperature furnace gases and, in some designs, form a part of the furnace enclosure. In other
designs, the surface is arranged in the form of tubular loops or platens, on wide lateral spacing,
extending into the furnace. Such surface is exposed to high-temperature furnace gases traveling at
relatively low velocities, and the transfer of heat is principally by thermal radiation.
Convection-type superheaters are installed beyond the furnace exit where the gas temperatures are
lower than those in the zones where radiant-type superheaters are used. The tubes are usually arranged
in the form of parallel elements on close lateral spacing and in tube banks extending partially or
completely across the width of the gas stream, with the gas flowing through the relatively narrow
spaces between the tubes. High gas flow rates and, thus, high convection heat-transfer rates are
obtained at the expense of gas-pressure drop through the tube bank.
25

Superheaters, shielded from the furnace combustion zone by arches or wide-spaced screens of steamgenerating tubes, which receive heat by thermal radiation from the high-temperature gases in cavities or
intertube spaces and also by convection due to the relatively high velocity gas flow through the tube
banks, have both radiant and convection characteristics.
Superheaters may utilize tubes arranged in the form of hairpin loops connected in parallel to inlet and
outlet headers; or they may be of the continuous-tube type, where each element consists of a number of
tube loops in series between the inlet and outlet headers. The latter arrangement permits the use of large
tube banks, thus increasing the amount of heat-absorbing surface that can be installed and providing
economy of space and reduction of cost. For economic reasons, it is customary to use low-carbon steel
in the steam inlet sections of the superheater and, progressively, more costly alloys as the metal
temperatures increase. The rate of steam flow through superheater tubes must be sufficiently high to
keep the metal temperatures within a safe operating range and to ensure good distribution of flow
through all the elements connected in parallel circuits. This can be accomplished by arrangements
which provide for multiple passes of the steam flow through the superheater tube banks. Excessive
steam-flow rates, while providing lower tube-metal temperatures, should be avoided, since they result
in high pressure drop with consequent loss of thermodynamic cycle efficiency.
3. Economizers
Economizers remove heat from the moderately low-temperature combustion gases after the
gases leave the steam-generating and superheating/reheating sections of the boiler. Economizers are, in
effect, feedwater heaters which receive water from the boiler feed pumps and deliver it at a higher
temperature to the steam generator. Economizers are used instead of additional steam-generating
surface, since the feed-water and, consequently, the heat-receiving surface are at temperatures below
the saturated-steam temperature. Thus, the gases can be cooled to lower temperature levels for greater
heat recovery and economy. Economizers are forced-flow, once-through, convection heat-transfer
devices, usually consisting of steel tubes, to which feedwater is supplied at a pressure above that in the
steam-generating section and at a rate corresponding to the steam output of the boiler unit plus any
blow-down to remove boiler water contaminants. They are classed as horizontal- or vertical-tube types,
according to geometrical arrangement; as longitudinal or crossflow, depending upon the direction of
gas flow with respect to the tubes; as parallel or counterflow, with respect to the relative direction of
gas and water flow; as steaming or nonsteaming, depending on the thermal performance; and as baretube or extended-surface, according to the type of heat-absorbing surface. Staggered or in-line tube
26

arrangements may be used. The arrangement of tubes affects the gas flow through the tube bank, the
draft loss, the heat-transfer characteristics, and the ease of cleaning.
The size of an economizer is governed by economic considerations involving the cost of fuel, the
comparative cost and thermal performance of alternate steam-generating or air-heater surface, the
feedwater temperature, and the desired exit gas temperature. In many cases, it is more economical to
use both an economizer and an air heater.
4. Air Heaters
Air heaters, like economizers, remove heat from the relatively low-temperature combustion
gases. The temperature of the inlet air is less than that of the water to the economizer, and thus it is
possible to reduce the temperature of the gaseous products of combustion further before they are
discharged to the stack.
The heat recovered from the combustion gases is recycled to the furnace with the combustion air and,
when added to the thermal energy released from the fuel, is available for absorption by the steamgenerating unit, with a resultant gain in overall thermal efficiency. The use of pre-heated combustion air
accelerates ignition and promotes rapid and complete burning of the fuel.
5. Steam Temperature, Adjustment, and Control
The control of steam temperatures is vital to the life of high-temperature equipment and to the
economy of power generation. Actual, or operating, steam temperatures below the design temperature
reduce the thermodynamic efficiency and increase fuel cost, and temperatures above the design
temperature reduce the margins of reserve in the strength of tubes, headers, piping, valves, and turbine
elements. Further, sudden or extreme temperature variations may cause destructive stresses, particularly
in rotating equipment.
It is sometimes necessary, because of the complexities involved in the design evaluation of heat-transfer
rates and variability of fuel characteristics, to modify installed equipment to obtain the required steam
temperatures. Such changes might involve the installation of baffles for the distribution of gas through
the superheater and the removal, or addition, of tubular elements in the superheater or in those
components preceding the superheater which affect the temperature of the gas to the superheater. For
routine operation, it is essential to provide a suitable means of controlling steam temperature to
compensate for the likely variations in fuel, heat transfer, and surface cleanliness conditions. These may
27

include (1) damper control of the gases to the superheater and/or reheater; (2) recirculation of the lowtemperature gaseous products of combustion to the furnace to change the relative amounts of heat
absorbed in the furnace, in the superheater, and/or in the reheater; (3) selective use of burners at
different elevations in the furnace or the use of tilting burners to change the location of the combustion
zone with respect to the furnace heat-absorbing surface; (4) attemperation or controlled cooling of the
steam at superheater inlet, at superheater outlet, or between the primary and secondary stages of the
superheater; (5) control of the firing rate in divided furnaces; and (6) control of the firing rate relative to
the pumping rate of water in forced-flow once-through boilers.
FUEL FOR BOILER:The three most common types of fuel used in steam boilers, are coal, oil, and gas. However, industrial
or commercial waste is also used in certain boilers, along with electricity for electrode boilers.
COAL
Coal is the generic term given to a family of solid fuels with a high carbon content. There are several
types of coal within this family, each relating to the stages of coal formation and the amount of carbon
content. These stages are:

Peat.

Lignite or brown coals.

Bituminous.

Semi bituminous.

Anthracite.

The

bituminous

and

anthracite

types

tend

to

be

used

as

boiler

fuel.

In the UK, the use of lump coal to fire shell boilers is in decline. There are a number of reasons for this
including:

Availability and cost - With many coal seams becoming exhausted, smaller quantities of coal
are produced in the UK than formerly, and its decline must be expected to continue.

Speed of response to changing loads - With lump coal, there is a substantial time lag between:
28

Demand for heat occurring.

Stoking of coal into the boiler.

Ignition of the coal.

Steam being generated to satisfy the demand.

To overcome this delay, boiler designed for coal firing need to contain more water at saturation temp. to
provide the reserve of energy to this time lag. This, in turn, means that the boilers are bigger & hence
more expensive in purchase cost, & occupy more valuable product manufacturing space.
Ash It is produced when coal burned. The ash may be awkward to remove, usually involving manual
intervention & reduction in the amount of steam available whilst de-ashing takes place. The ash must
then be disposed of, which in itself may be costly.
Stoking equipment A number of different arrangement exist including steeper stokers, sprinklers &
chain-gate stokers. The common theme is that they all need substantial maintenance.
Emission Coal contain an average of 1.5% sulphur by weight, but this level may be as high as 3%
depending upon where the coal was mined.
During the combustion process:

Sulphur will combine with oxygen (O2) from the air to form SO2 or SO3.

Hydrogen (H) from the fuel will combine with oxygen (O2) from the air to form water (H2O).

After the combustion process is completed, the SO3 will combine with the water (H2O) to produce
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), which can condense in the flue causing corrosion if the correct flue
temperatures are not maintained. Alternatively, it is carried over into the atmosphere with the flue
gases. This sulphuric acid is brought back to earth with rain, causing:

Damage to the fabric of buildings.

Distress and damage to plants and vegetation.

The ash produced by coal is light, and a proportion will inevitably be carried over with the exhaust
gases, into the stack and expelled as particulate matter to the environment.

29

\Coal, however, is still used to fire many of the very large water-tube boilers found in power stations.
Because of the large scale of these operations, it becomes economic to develop solutions to the
problems mentioned above, and there may also be governmental pressure to use domestically produced
fuels,

for

national

security

of

electrical

supply.

The coal used in power stations is milled to a very fine powder, generally referred to as 'pulverized
fuel', and usually abbreviated to pf.

The small particle size of pf means that its surface area-to-volume ratio is greatly increased,
making combustion very rapid, and overcoming the rate of response problem encountered when
using lump coal.

The small particle size also means that pf flows very easily, almost like a liquid, and is
introduced into the boiler furnace through burners, eliminating the stokers used with lump coal.

To further enhance the flexibility and turndown of the boiler, there may be 30+ pf burners
around the walls and roof of the boiler, each of which may be controlled independently to
increase or decrease the heat in a particular area of the furnace. For example, to control the
temperature of the steam leaving the superheater.

With regard to the quality of the gases released into the atmosphere:

The boiler gases will be directed through an electrostatic precipitator where electrically charged
plates attract ash and other particles, removing them from the gas stream.

The sulphurous material will be removed in a gas scrubber.

The final emission to the environment is of a high quality.

Approximately 8 kg of steam can be produced from burning 1 kg of coal.

30

ANALYSIS OF WOOD, PEAT & COAL:(SOURCE: Adapted from E. S. Moore, Coal, Wiley, New York)

Table - 1
OIL
Oil for boiler fuel is created from the residue produced from crude petroleum after it has been
distilled to produce lighter oils like gasoline, paraffin, kerosene, diesel or gas oil.
Various grades are available, each being suitable for different boiler ratings; the grades are as follows:

Class D - Diesel or gas oil.

Class E - Light fuel oil.

Class F - Medium fuel oil.

Class G - Heavy fuel oil.

Oil began to challenge coal as the preferred boiler fuel in the UK during the 1950s. This came about in
part from the then Ministry of Fuel and Power's sponsorship of research into improving boiler plant.

The advantages of oil over coal include:

31

A shorter response time between demand and the required amount of steam being generated.

This meant that less energy had to be stored in the boiler water. The boiler could therefore be
smaller, radiating less heat to the environment, with a consequent improvement in efficiency.

The smaller size also meant that the boiler occupied less production space.

Mechanical stokers were eliminated, reducing maintenance workload.

Oil contains only traces of ash, virtually eliminating the problem of ash handling and disposal.

The difficulties encountered with receiving, storing and handling coal were eliminated.

Approximately 15 kg of steam can be produced from 1 kg of oil, or 14 kg of steam from 1 litre of oil.

GAS
Gas is a form of boiler fuel that is easy to burn, with very little excess air. Fuel gases are available in
two different forms:

Natural gas - This is gas that has been produced (naturally) underground. It is used in its
natural state, (except for the removal of impurities), and contains a high proportion of methane.

Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) - These are gases that are produced from petroleum refining
and are then stored under pressure in a liquid state until used. The most common forms of LPG
are propane and butane.

In the late 1960s the availability of natural gas (such as from the North Sea) led to further developments
in boiler.
The advantages of gas firing over oil firing include:

Storage of fuel is not an issue; gas is piped right into the boiler house.

Only a trace of sulphur is present in natural gas, meaning that the amount of sulphuric acid in
the flue gas is virtually zero.

Approximately 42 kg of steam can be produced from 1 Therm of gas (equivalent to 105.5 MJ) for a 10
bar g boiler, with an overall operating efficiency of 80%.

32

 WASTE AS THE PRIMARY FUEL

There are two aspects to this:

Waste material - Here, waste is burned to produce heat, which is used to generate steam. The
motives may include the safe and proper disposal of hazardous material. A hospital would be a
good example:
o

In these circumstances, it may be that proper and complete combustion of the waste
material is difficult, requiring sophisticated burners, control of air ratios and monitoring
of emissions, especially particulate matter. The cost of this disposal may be high, and
only some of the cost is recovered by using the heat generated to produce steam.
However, the overall economics of the scheme, taking into consideration the cost of
disposing of the waste by other means, may be attractive.

Using waste as a fuel may involve the economic utilization of the combustible waste
from a process. Examples include the bark stripped from wood in paper plants, stalks
(bagasse) in sugar cane plants and sometimes even litter from a chicken farm.

The combustion process will again be fairly sophisticated, but the overall economics of the cost of
waste disposal and generation of steam for other applications on site, can make such schemes
attractive.

Waste heat - Here, hot gases from a process, such as a smelting furnace, may be directed
through a boiler with the objective of improving plant efficiency. Systems of this type vary in
their level of sophistication depending upon the demand for steam within the plant. If there is no
process demand for steam, the steam may be superheated and then used for electrical
generation.
This type of technology is becoming popular in Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants:
o

A gas turbine drives an alternator to produce electricity.

The hot (typically 500C) turbine exhaust gases are directed to a boiler, which produces
saturated steam for use on the plant. Very high efficiencies are available with this type of
plant. Other benefits may include either security of electrical supply on site, or the
ability to sell the electricity at a premium to the national electricity supplier.

33

TYPES OF BOILERS:

Fire tube boiler

Water tube boiler

Fire tube boiler In fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler feed water in the shell
side is converted into steam. Fire tube boilers are generally used for relatively small steam capacities
and low to medium steam pressures. As a guideline, fire tube boilers are competitive for steam rates up
to 12,000 kg/hour and pressures up to 18 kg/cm2. Fire tube boilers are available for operation with oil,
gas or solid fuels. For economic reasons, most fire tube boilers are nowadays of packaged
construction (i.e. manufacturers shop erected) for all fuels.
Water tube boiler In water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows through the tubes and enters the boiler
drum. The circulated water is heated by the combustion gases and converted into steam at the vapour
space in the drum. These boilers are selected when the steam demand as well as steam pressure
requirements are high as in the case of process cum power boiler / power boilers.
Most modern water boiler tube designs are within the capacity range 4,500 120,000 kg/hour of steam,
at very high pressures. Many water tube boilers nowadays are of packaged construction if oil and /or
gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube designs are available but packaged designs are less
common. The features of water tube boilers are:

Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency.

Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant.

Fig. - 5

34

BOILER TECHNOLOGIES:Existing and Emerging trends:

Boiler technology in the world has evolved vastly over the years. From the conventional
pulverized coal boilers to fluidized bed combustion technology boilers, the industry has indeed come a
long way.
Current Technologies:
1) Pulverized fuel Boiler.
2) Fluidized bed combustion Boiler.
3) Waste Heat Boiler.
4) Thermic Fluid Heater.

1) Pulverized Fuel Boiler is the most commonly used method in thermal power plants in India, and
is based on many decades of experience. Units operate at close to atmospheric pressure, simplifying
the passage of materials through the plant.

Most coal-fired power station boilers use pulverized coal, and many of the larger industrial
water tube boilers also use this fuel.

The coal is ground (pulverized) to a fine powder so that less than 2 per cent is +300 micro meter
(m) and 70-75% is below 75 microns, for bituminous coal.

The pulverized coal is blown with part of the combustion air into the boiler plant through a
series of burner nozzles. Secondary and tertiary air may also be added. Combustion takes place
at temperatures from 1,300 to 1,700 oC, depending largely on coal grade. Particle residence time
in the boiler is typically two to five seconds, and the particles must be small enough for
complete combustion to have taken place during this time. This system has many advantages
such as:

The ability to fire varying qualities of coal.

Quick responses to changes in load.

35

Use of high preheats air temperatures, etc.

Pulverized coal boilers have been built to match steam turbines, which have outputs of between 50
and 1,300 Mwe. In order to take advantage of the economies of scale, most new units are rated at over
300 Mwe, but there are relatively few really large ones with outputs from a single boiler-turbine
combination of over 700 Mwe.

2)

Fluidized bed combustion boiler The major portion of the coal available in
India is of low quality, high ash content and low calorific value. The traditional grate fuel firing
systems have got limitations and economically unviable to meet the challenges of future.
Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant advantages
over the conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits.
When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid

particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity. As air
velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are suspended in the
air stream the bed is called fluidized.
Some of the benefits are:

Compact boiler design.

Fuel flexibility.

Higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SO x

and NOx.

The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, rice husk, other agricultural waste,

Fluidised bed boilers have a wide capacity range from 0.5 T per hour to over 100 T per
hour.

MECHANISM OF FBC:
When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid
particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity. As air
velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are suspended in the
air stream the bed is called fluidized. With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble
36

formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed
of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid
bubbling fluidized bed.
Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and the air velocity. If sand particles in a fluidized
state are heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected continuously into the bed,
the coal will burn rapidly and bed attains a uniform temperature. The fluidized bed combustion
(FBC) takes place at about 840C to950C. Since this temperature is much below the ash fusion
temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided.
The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat transfer due to
rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed. Improved mixing
generates evenly distributed heat at lower temperature. Residence time is many times greater than
conventional grate firing. Thus an FBC system releases heat more efficiently at lower temperatures.
Since limestone is used as particle bed, control of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions in
the combustion chamber is achieved without any additional control equipment. This is one of the
major advantages over conventional boilers.
TYPES OF FBC:

Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion system (AFBC).

Circulating fluidized bed combustion system (CFBC).
Pressurized fluid bed combustion system (PFBC).

1. AFBC/ Bubbling bed:

In AFBC, coal is crushed to a size of 1-10 mm depending on the rank of coal, and type of fuel
fed into the combustion chamber. The atmospheric air, which acts as both the fluidization air and
combustion air, is delivered at a pressure and flows through the bed after being preheated by the
exhaust flue gases. The velocity of fluidizing air is in the range of 1.2 to 3.7 m per second. The rate
at which air is blown through the bed determines the amount of fuel that can be reached.
Almost all AFBC/ bubbling bed boilers use in-bed evaporator tubes in the bed of limestone, sand
and fuel for extracting the heat from the bed to maintain the bed temperature. The bed depth is
usually 0.9 m to 1.5 m and the pressure drop averages about 1 inch of water per inch of bed depth.

37

Very little material leaves the bubbling bed-only about 2 to 4 kg of solids is recycled per kg of fuel
burnt.
The combustion gases pass over the superheater sections of the boiler, flow past the economizer, the
dust collectors and the air preheaters before being exhausted to the atmosphere.
The main feature of atmospheric fluidized bed combustion is the constraint imposed by the
relatively narrow temperature range within which the bed must be operated. With coal, there is a
risk of clinker formation in the bed if the temperature exceeds 950 oC and loss of combustion
efficiency if the temperature falls below 800 oC. For efficient sulphur retention, the temperature
should be in the range of 800 850 oC.
Fluidized bed boilers can operate at near-atmospheric or elevated pressure and have these essential
features:
Distribution plate through which air is blown for fluidizing,
Immersed steam-raising or water heating tubes which extract heat directly from the bed,
Tubes above the bed, which extract heat from hot combustion gas before it enters the flue
duct.
2. Circulating fluidized bed combustion:
CFBC technology has evolved from conventional bubbling bed combustion as a means to
overcome some of the drawbacks associated with conventional bubbling bed combustion.
CFBC technology utilizes the fluidized bed principle in which crushed (6-12 mm size) fuel and
limestone is injected into the furnace or combustor. The particles are suspended in a stream of
upwardly flowing air (60-70 per cent of the total air), which enters the bottom of the furnace
through air distribution nozzles. The fluidizing velocity in circulating beds ranges from 3.7 to 9 m
per second. The balance of the combustion air is admitted above the bottom of the furnace as
secondary air. The combustion takes place at 840-900 oC, and the fine particles (<450 microns) are
elutriated out of the furnace with flue gas velocity of 4-6 m per second.
The particles are then collected by the solid separators and circulated back into the furnace. Solid
recycle is about 50 to 100 kg per kg of fuel burnt. There are no steam generation tubes immersed in
the bed. The circulating bed is designed to move a lot more solids out of the furnace area and to
achieve most of the heat transfer outside the combustion zone convection section, water walls,
38

and at the exit of the riser. Some circulating bed units even have external heat exchanges. The
particle circulation provides efficient heat transfer to the furnace walls and longer residence time for
carbon and limestone utilization. Similar to pulverized coal (PC) firing, the controlling parameters
in the CFBC process are temperature, residence time and turbulence.
For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boilers offer better space sorbent
residence time for efficient combustion and SO2 capture, and easier application of staged
combustion techniques for NOx control than AFBC generators.

39

Fig. - 6
3. Pressurized Fluid Bed Combustion:
Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) is a variation of fluid bed technology that is
meant for large-scale coal burning applications. In PFBC, the bed vessel is operated at pressure up to 16
ata (16 kg/cm2).
The off-gas from the fluidized bed combustor drives the gas turbine. The steam turbine is driven
by steam raised in tubes immersed in the fluidized bed. The condensate from the steam turbine is preheated using waste heat from gas turbine exhaust and is then taken as feed water for steam generation.
The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration or combined cycle power generation. By combining
the gas and steam turbines in this way, electricity is generated more efficiently than in conventional
system. The overall conversion efficiency is higher by 5% to 8%.

Fig. - 7
40

ADVANTAGES OF FBC BOILERS:1. High Efficiency

FBC boilers can burn fuel with a combustion efficiency of over 95% irrespective of ash content.
FBC boilers can operate with overall efficiency of 84% (plus or minus 2%).
2. Reduction in Boiler Size
High heat transfer rate over a small heat transfer area immersed in the bed result in overall size
reduction of the boiler.
3. Fuel Flexibility
FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with a variety of fuels. Even fuels like flotation slimes,
washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt efficiently. These can be fed either independently or in
combination with coal into the same furnace.
4. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel
FBC boilers would give the rated output even with inferior quality fuel. The boilers can fire coals
with ash content as high as 62% and having calorific value as low as 2,500 kcal/kg. Even carbon
content of only 1% by weight can sustain the fluidised bed combustion.
5. Ability to Burn Fines
Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC boiler, which is very difficult to
achieve in conventional firing system.
6. Pollution Control
SO2 formation can be greatly minimised by addition of limestone or dolomite for high sulphur coals.
3% limestone is required for every 1% sulphur in the coal feed. Low combustion temperature
eliminates NOx formation.
7. Low Corrosion and Erosion
The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower combustion temperature, softness of ash and
low particle velocity (of the order of 1 m/sec).
8. Easier Ash Removal No Clinker Formation
Since the temperature of the furnace is in the range of 750 900o C in FBC boilers, even coal of low
ash fusion temperature can be burnt without clinker formation. Ash removal is easier as the ash
flows like liquid from the combustion chamber. Hence less manpower is required for ash handling.

41

9. Less Excess Air Higher CO2 in Flue Gas

The CO2 in the flue gases will be of the order of 14 15% at full load. Hence, the FBC boiler can
operate at low excess air - only 20 25%.
10. Simple Operation, Quick Start-Up
High turbulence of the bed facilitates quick start up and shut down. Full automation of start up and
operation using reliable equipment is possible.
11. Fast Response to Load Fluctuations
Inherent high thermal storage characteristics can easily absorb fluctuation in fuel feed rates.
Response to changing load is comparable to that of oil fired boilers.
12. No Slagging in the Furnace-No Soot Blowing
In FBC boilers, volatilisation of alkali components in ash does not take place and the ash is non
sticky. This means that there is no slagging or soot blowing.
13. Provisions of Automatic Coal and Ash Handling System
Automatic systems for coal and ash handling can be incorporated, making the plant easy to operate
comparable to oil or gas fired installation.
14. Provision of Automatic Ignition System
Control systems using micro-processors and automatic ignition equipment give excellent control
with minimum manual supervision.
15. High Reliability
The absence of moving parts in the combustion zone results in a high degree of reliability and low
maintenance costs.
16. Reduced Maintenance
Routine overhauls are infrequent and high efficiency is maintained for long periods.
17. Quick Responses to Changing Demand
A fluidized bed combustor can respond to changing heat demands more easily than stoker fired
systems. This makes it very suitable for applications such as thermal fluid heaters, which require
rapid responses.
18. High Efficiency of Power Generation
By operating the fluidized bed at elevated pressure, it can be used to generate hot pressurized gases
to power a gas turbine. This can be combined with a conventional steam turbine to improve the
efficiency of electricity generation and give a potential fuel savings of at least 4%.

42

3)

Waste Heat Boiler Wherever the waste heat is available at medium or high
temperatures, a waste heat boiler can be installed economically. Wherever the steam demand is
more than the steam generated during waste heat, auxiliary fuel burners are also used. If there is
no direct use of steam, the steam may be let down in a steam turbine-generator set and power
produced from it. It is widely used in the heat recovery from exhaust gases from gas turbines
and diesel engines.

4) Thermic Fluid Heater In recent times, thermic fluid heaters have found wide application for
indirect process heating. Employing petroleum - based fluids as the heat transfer medium, these
heaters provide constantly maintainable temperatures for the user equipment. The combustion
system comprises of a fixed grate with mechanical draft arrangements.
The modern oil fired thermic fluid heater consists of a double coil, three pass construction and fitted
with modulated pressure jet system. The thermic fluid, which acts as a heat carrier, is heated up in the
heater and circulated through the user equipment. There it transfers heat for the process through a heat
exchanger and the fluid is then returned to the heater. The flow of thermic fluid at the user end is
controlled by a pneumatically operated control valve, based on the operating temperature. The heater
operates on low or high fire depending on the return oil temperature, which varies with the system load
The advantages of these heaters are:

Closed cycle operation with minimum losses as compared to steam boilers.

Non-Pressurized system operation even for temperatures around 250 0c as against 40 kg/cm2
steam pressure requirement in a similar steam system.

Automatic control settings, which offer operational flexibility.

Good thermal efficiencies as losses due to blow down, condensate drain and flash steam do not
exist in a thermic fluid heater system.

The overall economics of the thermic fluid heater will depend upon the specific application and
reference basis. Coal fired thermic fluid heaters with a thermal efficiency range of 55-65% may
compare favorably with most boilers. Incorporation of heat recovery devices in the flue gas path
enhances the thermal efficiency levels further.

43

TURBINE
A heat engine is one that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The steam turbine is
classified as a heat engine, as are the steam engine, the internal combustion engine, and the gas turbine.
Steam turbines are used in industry for several critical purposes: to generate electricity by driving an
electric generator and to drive equipment such as compressors, fans, and pumps. The particular process
dictates the steam conditions at which the turbine operates.
The turbine makes use of the fact that steam, when passing through a small opening, attains a high
velocity. The velocity attained during expansion depends on the initial and final heat content of the
steam. This difference in heat content represents the heat energy converted into kinetic energy (energy
due to velocity) during the process.
The fact that any moving substance possesses energy, or the ability to do work, is shown by many
everyday examples. A stream of water discharged from a fire hose may break a window glass if
directed against it. When the speed of an automobile is reduced by the use of brakes, an appreciable
amount of heat is generated. In like manner, the steam turbine permits the steam to expand and attain
high velocity. It then converts this velocity energy into mechanical energy. There are two general
principles by which this can be accomplished. In the case of the fire hose, as the stream of water issued
from the nozzle, its velocity was increased, and because of this impulse, it struck the window glass with
considerable force. A turbine that makes use of the impulsive force of high-velocity steam is known as
an impulse turbine.
While the water issuing from the nozzle of the fire hose is increased in velocity, a reactionary force is
exerted on the nozzle. This reactionary force is opposite in direction to the flow of the water. A turbine
that makes use of the reaction force produced by the flow of steam through a nozzle is a reaction
turbine. In practically all commercial turbines, a combination of impulse and reactive forces is utilized.
Both impulse and reaction blading on the same shaft utilize the steam more efficiently than does one
alone.

44

Fig. - 8
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION, TURBINE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION:An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in
which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the
turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging
from 20%-90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets
of blades, or buckets as they are more commonly referred to. One set of stationary blades is
connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with
certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the
expansion of steam at each stage.
A simple turbine consists of a shaft on which is mounted one or more disks. On the circumference of
the disks are located blades or buckets to receive the steam and convert it into useful work. The rims of
the disks have dovetail channels for receiving the blades. The ends of the blades are made to fit these
dovetail channels. A turbine requires bearings for support, a suitable housing or casing to enclose the
rotor, a system of lubrication, and a device known as a governor to maintain control over the speed.
The efficiency and reliable performance of the turbine depend to a great extent on the design and
construction of the blading. The blades therefore must be made to withstand the action of the steam and
45

the centrifugal force caused by the high speed at which the turbine must operate. In designing turbine
blading, a compromise must be made between strength and economy.
The stationary and moving elements have very little clearance, and any vibration of the moving element
will cause them to rub. For this reason, extreme care must be exercised to design the rotors so that they
will not vibrate. The length and size of the blades must be increased as the steam pressure drops and the
steam increases in volume as it flows through the turbine. Large condensing turbines have large rotors
and long buckets in their last stages. This reduces the velocity of the steam leaving the turbine and as a
result improves the efficiency of the turbine.
Turbine blades are forgings made of steel or alloys, depending on the conditions under which they are
to operate. The use of superheated steam requires blades that are specially designed to prevent warping
and deterioration. Steam in the last stages of a turbine becomes very wet (approximately 10 to 15
percent moisture), and this moisture erodes the turbine blades. Special materials are used to lengthen
their life.
CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINE: Steam turbines may be classified in the following ways:A) With respect to form of steam passage between the blades:
a) Impulse
(1) Simple, or single-stage
(2) Velocity-stage, Curtis
(3) Pressure stage, Rateau
(4) Combination pressure- and velocity-stage
b) Reaction, Parsons
c) Combination impulse and reaction
B) With respect to general arrangement of flow:
a) Single-flow
b) Double-flow
c) Compound, two-or-three cylinder, cross- or tandem-connected
d) Divided-flow

46

C) With respect to direction of steam flow relative to plane of rotation:

a) Axial-flow
b) Radial-flow
c) Tangential-flow
D) With respect to repetition of steam flow through blades:
a) Single-pass
b) Reentry or repeated flow
E) With respect to rotational speed:
a) For 60-sysle generators
b) For 50-cycle generators
c) For 25-cycle generators
d) For geared units and for direct-connected or electric drive marine units, no
special speed requirements
F) With respect to relative motion of rotor or rotors:
a) Single-motion
b) Double-motion
G) With respect to steam and exhaust conditions:
a) High-pressure condensing
b) High-pressure non-condensing
c) Back-pressure
d) Superposed or topping
e) Mixed-pressure
f) Regenerative
g) Extraction, single
h) Extraction, double
i) Reheating or resuperheating
j) Low-pressure
A. High pressure turbine: The high pressure (HP) turbine is the first main engine turbine to
receive steam from the main steam system. It is designed to efficiently extract work out of high
pressure steam. The HP turbine is a pressure-velocity compounded, single axial flow, noncondensing impulse turbine.
47

1. Type of compounding: Pressure-velocity describes the type of compounding. This

refers to the use of blading which causes a series of pressure drops and a series of
velocity drops.
2. Type and division of steam flow: Single axial flow simply means the steam flows in
only one direction parallel to the axis of the turbine rotor. Steam enters the forward end
of the turbine and exhausts through the after end of the turbine. On a dual flow turbine
the steam enters in the center of the turbine rotor and flows both forward and aft
simultaneously.
3. Exhausting condition: The HP turbine exhausts into the crossover pipe which directs
the steam into the low pressure turbine. This exhausting condition causes the HP turbine
to be a non-condensing turbine.
4. Type of blading: The type of blading used on the HP turbine is impulse blading because
it extracts more work from the high pressure steam than reaction blading. Impulse
blading is in the shape of a half moon. As steam impacts the moving blade, it pushes the
blade forward. This impact causes the steam to lose velocity without losing pressure. In
order to efficiently extract the maximum amount of work out of the steam, two different
types of impulse stages are used. The Curtis stage is the first stage of the HP turbine. The
Curtis stage is designed to initially extract a large amount of work out of the steam as it
enters the turbine. The remaining stages of the HP turbine are Rateau stages.
B. Low pressure (LP) turbine: The LP turbine is located next to the HP turbine. The LP turbine is
a pressure compounded, either single or dual axial flow, condensing reaction turbine.
1. Division of steam flow: On ships where space is a consideration, the LP turbine is
designed to be a dual flow turbine. Steam enters the center of the turbine from the
crossover pipe and flows across the reaction blading in two opposite directions. This
configuration reduces axial thrust on the turbine and allows for a smaller turbine
installation. On ships where space is not a concern, a single flow turbine is used.
2. Direction of steam flow: Just like on the HP turbine, steam flows parallel to the
turbine rotor.
3. Exhausting condition: Unlike the HP turbine, the LP turbine exhausts into the main
condenser. Because the LP turbine exhausts into its own dedicated condenser, it is
considered a condensing turbine.

48

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets
contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft
rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades,
with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure
falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser
vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a
very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum velocity
of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly
called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving loss".
While, in the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent
nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through
the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It
leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction
and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator
and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net
change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

Fig. 9
49

COMPONENTS OF SINGLE STAGE STEAM TURBINE:-

Fig. - 10
Blades For starters, a simple turbine works just like a windmill. Only, in the steam turbines of today,
rather than striking the blades directly, the blades are designed in such a way as to produce maximum
rotational energy by directing the flow of the steam along its surface. So the primary component that
goes into a steam turbine is its blades. The blades of a steam turbine are designed to behave like
nozzles, thus effectively tapping both the impulse and reaction force of the steam for higher efficiency.
Nozzle design itself is a complex process, and the nozzle shaped blade of the turbine is probably one of
the most important parts in its construction. The blades are made at specific angles in order to
incorporate the net flow of steam over it in its favor. The blades may be of stationary and moving types.
Shafts The shaft is a power transmitting device and is used to transmit the rotational movement of the
blades connected to it at one end via the rotor to the coupling, speed reducer or gear at the other end.

50

Outer Casing The steam turbine is surrounded by housing or an outer casing which contains the
turbine and protects the device components from external influence and damage. It may also support
the bearings on which the shafts rest to provide rigidity to the shaft. Usually split at the center
horizontally, the casing parts are often bolted together for easy opening, checking and steam turbine
maintenance, and are extremely sturdy and strong.
Governor The governor is a device used to regulate and control or govern the output of the steam
turbine. This is done by means of control valves which control the steam flow into the turbine in the
first place.
Oil System A steam turbine has thousands of moving parts and all these parts not only have to move
in high velocities, but also need to be protected from wear and tear over the years. This is done by
effective lubrication by the oil system, which governs the pressure, flow and temperature of the turbine
oil, the bearing oil and lubrication of other moving parts.
Pipes The pipe is an all important steam turbine component that brings the steam from the boiler to
the turbine. This has to be done without an appreciable loss in pressure, and at the same time, must be
able to withstand all these pressures safely. The pipes should be easy to clean and are prone to deposits
on their inner surfaces. Deposits on the inner surface of the steam pipe reduce the net steam flow area,
throwing forth a negative effect on the efficiency.
Advanced Turbine blade design
to optimize flow distribution
through turbine.
(Siemens Westinghouse Power
Corp.)

Fig. - 11
51

Higher, Faster, Stronger Recent trends in Steam Turbines:

Ever since their invention and successful use as power generators in power plants, there has
been a tremendous effort by many engineers, scientists, companies and research institutes in the field of
steam turbines. Steam turbines did not work as efficiently as they do now, when they were invented.
From the parsons turbine to the impulse reaction turbine, the advancements have been propelled by
thorough research and a hawks eye for inefficient performance. Steam turbine research has remained a
hot area of research mainly because of the results that even a slight increase in efficiency could deliver.
More than 80 % of the worlds energy sources are derived from the use of steam turbines in nuclear and
thermal power plants. The importance of steam turbines and research in improving their efficiency and
improvising on their design aspects need not be stressed any further.
The
the

idea

came

advantage
most
can

invention

any

As

engine

prime

as

expands

that

internal

of

energy
result,

mechanical

The

transformation

kinetic
steam
provide

the

is

into

steam

in

with

the

the

is

decreased.
in

the

that

occurs

parts

of

steam.

that

the

turbine
has

on

expand,

its

This

reduction

in

form

of

provides
all

steam

one
To

steam

great

be

turbine

plants

the
and

the

is

large

amount

turbines

drops.
energy

of

the

of

consist

By

higher

also

used

propulsion.

temperature

acceleration

made

reciprocating

thermodynamic

internal

the

can.

achieve

jet

based

an

velocity.

could

of
to

eventually,

has

supplanted

electricity-generating
is

that

Steam

tremendous

velocity

turbine

turbine

allowed

successful

a very high speed. No wheel

flow,

large

so

from

run at

steam

steam

energy

essential

through

must

of

mover

vapor

energy

The

volume

means

action

when

in

was

power

approaching

a
The

turbine

extracting

speed

kinetic

efficiency.
as

water

a steam turbine

at

the

for

water-it

effective,

utilizing

the

about

over

revolve

of

In
is

turn,

its

transformed

particles

available
of

principle

of

vapor.

work

nozzles

energy.
or

jets

h which the steam can flow and expand. Thus, the temperature drops, and
energy
is

is

exerted.
power.

gained.

In

Stationary

Also,

turbines

addition,
blades
are

there

shift

the

equipped

are

blades,

steam
with

onto
wheels

on

which
rotating
or

high

pressure

blades,

drums

where

which
the

blades are mounted. A shaft for these wheels or drums is also a basic component,
52

as

well

as

an

outer

order

to

casing

that

number

of stages. In each of these stages, a small

once,

the

kinetic

rotative

Steam

moving

their

operation.

lubrication
leaking

Journal

or

inherently
of

one

Steam

air,

stage

support
A

This

in.

is

heavy

done

through

today,

too

is
oil

the
the

one

necessary
system

for

provides

steam

multistage

steam

ability

at

excessive.
only

prevents

of

have
place

have

an

modern

turbine

to

took

way

that

system

because

use

energy

equipment

seal

the

of thermal energy is

be

and

of

necessary

of

would

shaft,

efficiency,

downstream.
in

the

area

amount

auxiliary

leaking

is

machines,

special

from

still

simple

However,

expansion

are

wheel

the

it

conversion

turbine

rotor.

to

contraption,

entire

quite

bearings.
in

turbines

the

bearings

outside

high

the

really

the

these

If

of

are

part,

to

out,

losses

speed

turbines

major

is

energy.

this

steam

In
to

use

the

proper.
converted

efficiently

confines

from
turbine

to

recover

process

of

reheating.

power

to

ships

providing

as

well as many other things. They are used in the generation of nuclear power and
they

can

operate

industrial

units

with

are

fuel-fired

used

boilers

for

power

to

power

machines,

the

steam

turbine

is

is

allowed

generation.

In

factories,

compressors,

electrical

thermodynamic

principle

pumps,

generators.
The
that

action

when

internal
into

of

vapor

energy

is

mechanical

decreased.

energy

in

the

to

based

expand,

its

This

reduction

in

form

of

an

on

the

temperature
internal

acceleration

drops.
energy

of

the

In

turn,

is

its

transformed

particles

of

vapor.

The transformation that occurs, provides a large amount of available work energy.
The

essential

parts

of

all

steam

through

which

the

steam

can

flow

kinetic

energy

is

gained.

In

addition,

steam

is

provide

exerted.
power.

Stationary

Also,

and

blades

turbines

turbines

expand.
there

shift

are

Thus,

are

the

equipped

consist
the

blades,

steam
with

of

temperature

on

onto

nozzles

which
or

jets

drops,

and

high

rotating

wheels

or

pressure

blades,

drums

which

where

the

blades are mounted. A shaft for these wheels or drums is also a basic component,
as

well

as

an

outer

order

to

casing

that

number

of stages. In each of these stages, a small

kinetic

energy.

If

the

this

steam

In
to

use

the

proper.
converted

efficiently

confines

contraption,

entire
53

to
it

the
is

amount

conversion

of

area

of

necessary

the
to

turbine
have

of thermal energy is
energy

took

place

at

once,

the

Steam
major

rotative

speed

turbines

moving

are

part,

leaking
is

to

the

out,

these
or

inherently

losses

of

Steam

one

stage

turbines

simple

However,

bearings

support
A

from

expansion
still

in

special

This

seal

heavy

use

and

an

modern

because

done

that

system

too

is
oil

the

providing

only

one

necessary
system

prevents
the

excessive.

have

steam

ability

to

for

provides

steam

multistage

of

through

today,

way

equipment

shaft,

in.

is

be

machines,

the

leaking

would

auxiliary

efficiency,

downstream.

are

wheel

rotor.

air,

in

turbine

quite

bearings.

outside

high

the

really

their operation. Journal

lubrication

of

from
turbine
recover

process

of

reheating.

power

to

ships

as

well as many other things. They are used in the generation of nuclear power and
they

can

industrial

operate
units

with
are

fuel-fired

used

to

boilers
power

for

power

machines,

generation.

pumps,

In

compressors,

factories,
electrical

generators.

How Can A Steam Turbine Be Improved?

A steam turbine has thousands of miniature components. From the gigantic blades that
drive the rotor, to the bearings and nuts that keep the machine in place, the steam turbine has
tremendous scope for improvement and effective design of every part plays a significant role in
improving the turbines overall efficiency. Some of the areas where a lot of research goes into are those
such as nozzle design, aerodynamic blade design, lubrication engineering, heat transfer mechanisms,
part cooling, fabrication and part machining, pipe flow mechanisms, metallurgy etc.
Blade design with Computational Fluid Dynamics or CFD focuses on reducing the local
profile oriented loss on a Quasi 3 Dimensional (Q3D) basis. The design of proper inlet ducts from the
turbines based on their operating time, economic considerations, size of the network and size of the
turbine is also equally important. In this case, since the flow is highly unsteady and complex, the effects
and degree of non uniformity in the flow has to be controlled to a large extent or predicted and taken
care of suitably. Choosing proper materials for the different steam turbine components and parts is also
an important aspect of design. The use of different lightweight yet strong and thermally resistant alloys
to make steam turbine blades and moving parts is of very high importance. This also brings about the
issue that the material should be as free from erosion as possible and should not succumb to rust and

54

other chemical changes while under operation. Technologies such as anti erosion blade shields bear
testimony to this.
The high thermal efficiency of the SC and USC steam power plants cannot be achieved
without the use of new alloys with higher creep strength and improved oxidation resistance. More than
20 units are in operation worldwide with main steam temperatures of 1,0801,112 F (582600 C) and
pressures of 3,4004,200 psi (234290 bar). Operation above 1,000 F was possible due to the
continuous development effort to improve the 912 percent ferritic steels (T91/P91, T92/P92,
T112/P122), as well as some advanced austenitic alloys (TP347, HFG, Super 304). While the most
severe requirements to withstand SC and USC operating conditions apply to boilers, significant
constraints are also relevant to STs and interconnecting hardware such as main steam pipes, valves, and
so on. It should be noted that the high temperature strength of ferritic steels (P92, P122,E91) is equal to
that of the low-end austenitic alloys, but their resistance to oxidation is lower. A major problem
associated with the use of P91/P92 materials is the need for quality control at the manufacturing
facilities. In project execution, the quality of the welding and post-welding treatments, particularly in
the field, continues to be a concern, requiring that the treatments be monitored closely.
Attaining USC main steam conditions of about 1,300 F and 5,000 psia (345 bar) is
possible only by using nickel and chrome-nickel super alloys (e.g., Inconel 740), which exhibit the
mechanical properties needed for these high temperatures and pressures.
In the ongoing struggle to balance cost and performance, equipment designers must also consider more
affordable materials such as austenitic stainless steel. A typical example of this new generation of
materials is a cast steel called CF8C-Plus. Developed using both a unique engineered microstructure
method that mitigates aging-induced embrittlement and stable nano-scale dispersions of NbC within the
grains, this new steel has high creep-rapture ductility as well as outstanding mechanical and thermal
fatigue resistance. These properties are achieved without using any additional heat treatment
procedures, making it an excellent candidate for turbine casing applications, where large castings are
necessary. Some of the worlds largest turbines manufacturing companies that are seeing the rewards of
research and steam turbine advances are coming together to develop highly efficient turbines. The
collaboration of Mitsubishi Heavy Machinery and General Electric Energy (GE Energy) for the
conceptualization and design of a highly efficient next- generation steam turbine for its inception in
combined cycle gas turbine power plants recently has further proved that there is still a lot to be
achieved in steam turbine related research and development, and that the scope for improvement can be
much higher.
55

ELECTRIC GENERATOR
An electric generator works by electromagnetic induction in that it uses magnetism to make
electricity. The power source is the steam turbine, a gas turbine, or in the case of a hydroelectric plant, a
water-driven turbine. It spins a coil, which is contained in the rotor of the generator, between the poles
of a magnet or an electromagnet produced by the stator of the generator. As the coil of the rotor passes
through the lines of force, an electric current flows through the coil to the main transformer and
eventually to the transmission lines.
The electric generator is a major piece of equipment in a power plant because it converts
mechanical energy from the turbine to which it is connected into electric energy. Fig. - 12 shows an
assembled generator as it is being installed in a power plant and eventually connected to the turbine.
This hydrogen-cooled generator produces approximately 200 MW. Each generator incorporates the
following major components:

Frame

Stator core and winding

Rotor and winding

Bearings

Cooling system
Installation of 200MW hydrogencooled electric
generator.
(Siemens
Westinghouse Power
Corp.)

56

Fig. - 12

57

A cross section of a modern hydrogen-cooled generator is shown in above fig. The major parts
of the generator are identified. Of these major parts, the stator and rotor are particularly important
components. Hydrogen gas is used to cool the windings in electric generators. More efficient operation
results in the generator as compared with other methods because hydrogen provides high thermal
conductivity. However, losses of hydrogen do occur through the generators rotor seals, and this
requires makeup hydrogen. Most plants have hydrogen storage tanks that are replenished by truck
deliveries, and some larger facilities have on-site production of hydrogen for increased convenience.
The stator has a slotted and laminated silicon-steel-iron core. The winding of the stator is placed
in the slots and consists of a copper strand configuration. Most frequently the stator is hydrogen cooled;
however, small units may be air cooled and very large units can even be water cooled. shows an aircooled generator stator during final assembly, and this unit can produce approximately 120 MW.
The rotor is solid steel and has slots milled along the axis, as shown in Fig below. A copper rotor
winding is placed in the slots and is also cooled by hydrogen for this particular design. Cooling of the
rotor is improved by subslots and axial cooling passages. The rotor winding is restrained by wedges
that are inserted into the slots.

Stator for 120-MW

air-cooled electric
generator. (Siemens
Westinghouse Power
Corp.)

Fig. 13
58

CONDENSER
It is a major component of the power plant system. It receives exhaust steam from the last stage
of a turbine and condenses it to water for reuse as feed water in the boiler system. For large utility
turbines that have a design incorporating high-, intermediate-, and low-pressure sections, the exhaust
steam comes from the low-pressure section of the turbine.
There are two general types of condensers:
1. A direct contact type of condenser, where the cooling water is sprayed directly into the exhaust steam
from the turbine, and the mixture of the water with the steam condenses the steam
2. A surface condenser, in which the cooling water and exhaust steam remain separate. The vast
majority of power plants use the water-cooled surface condenser, and this book will describe its
operation and not the direct-contact condenser because it has limited application.
There are situations where air-cooled steam condensers are used instead of surface condensers,
and these generally are necessary when cooling water is not readily available, such as in an arid region,
or if a cooling tower is required, a plume from a tower is not acceptable.
In the condensing of steam, a vacuum is created. The vacuum reduces the backpressure on the
turbine, and this reduction in back-pressure increases the efficiency of the turbine. The cooling water
absorbs the heat contained in the steam, and the volume of steam is greatly reduced when it is
condensed into water. When a space filled with steam is cooled until the steam condenses, the resulting
water occupies only a small portion of the volume, and a vacuum is created. By continually condensing
the exhaust steam, the pressure is reduced below that of atmospheric pressure.
1. Surface condensers
The surface condenser is a closed vessel filled with many tubes of small diameter. Cooling water from a
lake, river, or other natural water source or from a cooling tower flows through the tubes, with steam
from the turbine on the outside of the tube. The water flowing through the condenser may be oncethrough, or single-pass, or it may be made to reverse one or more times before being discharged.

59

The surface condenser offers the following features:

1. It provides a low backpressure at the turbine exhaust, which maximizes the plant thermal efficiency
and reduces the heat rate, and therefore the plants operating costs are reduced.
2. It allows the reuse of high-purity water in the boiler and turbine system, which also minimizes water
treatment costs.
3. It deaerates the condensate, which minimizes the potential for corrosion.
4. It serves as a collection point for all condensate drains.
In order to achieve the preceding features, condensers should be as leaktight as possible. The
design should not allow leakage of air or cooling water into the condensing steam space. In order to
absorb heat released by the condensing steam, large volumes of cooling water are required, and this
quantity can be 50 to 80 times the steam flow depending on cooling water temperatures. Condensers
operate at a vacuum, i.e., pressures below the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia or 29.9 in Hg. These
backpressures generally range from 1.0 to 4.5 in Hg, with higher pressures (actually higher vacuums)
resulting when there are high cooling water temperatures or when an air-cooled steam condenser is
used. Lower backpressure results in higher turbine efficiency and therefore higher electric output from
the generator.
Surface condensers are basically shell and tube heat exchangers. The turbine exhaust steam
condenses on the shell side, and the cooling water flows through the tubes in one or more passes
depending on the condenser design. A series of baffles and plates supports the tubes and distributes the
flow of the exhaust steam, directs the noncondensable gas such as O

and CO

to the outlet, and

minimizes flow-induced vibrations, which could result from high steam velocities. Water boxes are
located on each end of the tube bundle and distribute the cooling water through the tubes. Most
condensers receive steam from the top as the steam leaves the exhaust (or low-pressure) end of the
turbine.
The condensate collects in the bottom of the condenser in what is called the hot well. From the
hot well, the condensate feed pump supplies the water to the feedwater heaters. The condensate pump
removes the condensed water and pumps it through the low-pressure feedwater heaters. At this point
the main boiler feed pump (BFP) increases the now-called feedwater and pumps it through the highpressure feedwater heaters and finally to the boiler, usually through an economizer.

60

The condenser tube bundle is arranged so that the steam flow moves the O 2, CO 2, and other
noncondensable gases to a removal area, where they are removed by an ejector system that is at the end
of the condenser. If these gases are not removed effectively, the gases will collect in an area and block
the condenser tube surfaces, which results in lower heat transfer and thus lower efficiency.
Expansion occurs between the turbine and condenser as a result of the temperature difference
between the two components. This expansion is accommodated by an expansion joint located between
them. Condenser performance is very important to having an efficient and reliable power plant.
Leakage of air and cooling water can result in accelerated boiler corrosion and deposits. In addition,
poor condenser performance results in high backpressure, which in turn results in lower electric output,
lower efficiency, and therefore high operating costs.
The surface condenser shown in below fig. is a typical arrangement for industrial or utility
power plants. It has exhaust steam from the turbine entering at the top of the condenser and passing
down and around and between the tubes in the tube bank. Cold cooling water flows through the tubes in
sufficient quantity to condense the steam. Depending on the design, the cooling water makes one or
more passes through the tubes before being discharged to a natural water source, such as a lake or river,
or to a cooling tower. In condensing a large volume of steam into a small volume of water, a vacuum is
created, reducing the backpressure for the turbine. The condensate (condensed steam) passes to a hot
well, where the condensate is recovered and pumped back to the boiler as feed water. Noncondensable
gases and air finding their way into the
condenser are removed by ejectors or other
suitable air-removal devices. The removal of
air and the oxygen not only reduces the
backpressure but prevents the air and oxygen
from reentering the system, thus reducing the
possibility of corrosion in the piping and
boiler.

Fig. - 14

61

CONDENSER MATERIAL & CONSTRUCTION:To accommodate large turbine generators, very large condensers are required, and at times, twin units
are used. Shell flanges are made of quality steel plate, and all seams are welded. Shells are flanged or
butt-welded for air takeoffs, condensate pump suction, return vents, drains, etc. Tube heads are made of
Muntz metal, aluminum bronze, silicon bronze, copper nickel, or steel. Sheets are machined and drilled
to receive the tubes. If the tubes are welded to the tube sheets, the tube sheets are made of silicon
bronze to facilitate welding.

Fig. - 15
Condenser tubes are made of Admiralty Metal, titanium, and various stainless-steel
compositions. For freshwater, Admiralty metal is the typical tube material used, whereas for salt or
brackish water, titanium and stainless steel tubes are the choice. Although more expensive, titanium and
corrosive-resistant stainless steel are used more often because of their high corrosion resistance and
reduced risk of tube leaks. Copper alloys present problems in high-pressure boiler systems because of
62

the potential for copper transport into the boiler, where deposition can occur, and this results in a
degradation of heat transfer. Condensers require large quantities of circulating water to dissipate the
heat released when the steam is condensed. Therefore, power plants must be located where a large
quantity of water is available as a natural source, or they must use cooling towers or air-cooled
condensers as a means for condensing the exhaust steam.
The cooling water temperature significantly affects the turbine backpressure. The higher the
temperature, the higher is the back-pressure and therefore the lower is the thermal efficiency. For
example, an inlet cooling water temperature of 55F will provide a condenser backpressure of
approximately 1.5 in Hg. A 95F inlet temperature results in a backpressure of approximately 3.5 in Hg.
The lower the backpressure, the higher is the turbine output and, when coupled to an electric generator,
the higher is the electric output.
In instances where the natural water supply is of limited volume, the temperature of a portion or
all of the water will be increased, giving rise to heat or thermal pollution. This condition may adversely
affect aquatic and marine life, and environmental legislation has established limits on the use of natural
waters to receive the rejected heat from power plants. It has been shown that in some locations, the
warmer water has enhanced marine life, and thus a careful environmental study must be conducted in
all situations. Therefore, it becomes necessary in certain locations to increase plant investment by
installing cooling towers, which reject this heat to the atmosphere instead of to natural water sources.
CONDENSER AUXILIARY (PUMP):
Various auxiliaries are required for the proper operation of a condenser. Circulating pumps must
provide cooling water to condense the steam and produce a satisfactory backpressure or vacuum at the
turbine outlet. Condensate pumps must remove the steam that has been condensed. A vacuum pump or
ejector must remove the air and noncondensable gases, and to avoid pressure in the condenser, an
atmospheric pressure-relief valve is required.
Circulating pumps used for surface condensers are of three types: (1) The impeller type is used where
high suction lift or pumping head is specified. This type of pump is usually double suction and
horizontally mounted. (2) The propeller type is suitable where a moderately large quantity of water is
required at a relatively low head. This pump is mounted vertically and operates with the pump
submerged; no priming is required. (3) The axial type is used where moderate pumping head and
suction lift are required. This pump too is set submerged and does not require priming.
63

Since the impeller pump is not much different, these are vertical pumps built to meet specific
requirements. Both operate with submerged suction and hence are self-priming. They are made
adaptable to float-controlled start-and-stop operation. The axial-flow pump is a single-stage, low-head,
and large-capacity unit and is made in sizes up to 50,000 gpm at 25 ft. Axial-flow pumps with
multistage are available for heads up to 460 ft and capacities of 60,000 gpm. If variable head and
capacity

conditions are encountered, an adjustable-vane impeller can be furnished. The mixed-flow pump
combines axial- and centrifugal-flow characteristics. It is made in sizes up to 700,000 gpm
(gallons/min) at 180 ft. Pumps of this type can be designed for higher heads if desired.

64

Fig. - 16
The shaft of the vertical pump is held in alignment by column bearings spaced at approximately
9 ft or less. If water lubrication is provided, rubber bearings are used. If oil lubrication is used, bearing
linings are either bronze or iron. Shaft sections are coupled with heavy threaded sleeves, self-locking
even when flow through the pump is reversed.
The impeller is located in its most efficient position with respect to the casing by means of an
adjusting nut in the top of the motor housing. The impeller is keyed and locked on the shaft to prevent
movement relative to the shaft.
The vertical pump, as normally installed, can be pulled out for inspection after the pipe has been
disconnected. This must be done when the water level is such as to permit removal. Complete removal
facilitates inspection and repairs.
Condensate pumps remove the water from the hot well and maintain a continuous water supply
through the feedwater heaters to the boiler feed pumps. The head against which the pump is required to
operate depends on the type of installation. As a result, some condensate pumps are single stage while
other condensate pumps are two, three, or four stage.
High vacuum requires the removal of the noncondensable gases. Sometimes the pump that
removes the condensate also removes the air. More often the condensers are provided with separate
vacuum pumps. Vacuum pumps may be of the reciprocating type or of the hydraulic-vacuum type. In
the former we have a positive-displacement unit exhausting the air from the condenser at a point close
to the water line in the hot well. In the hydraulic-vacuum unit, water is recirculated from a water tank
through a revolving jet wheel, causing air entrainment. Both water and air are discharged through the
jet to the tank, where the air is liberated.
CONSIDERATION FOR PUMP SELECTION:65

In determining selection of the proper pump for a particular application, the following are major
areas that must be considered:
1. Type of liquid. Information must be known about the type of liquid, which includes
a. Fresh or salt water, acid or alkali, oil, or slurry
b. Temperature
c. Specific gravity
d. Viscosity
e. Suspended material in liquid
f. Chemical analysis, pH value, and corrosive properties
2. Capacity
3. Suction and discharge conditions
4. Total head requirements
5. Pump arrangementhorizontal or vertical
6. Drivemotor or turbine
7. Space limitations
8. Installation locationelevation, indoor/outdoor, ambient temperature

COOLING TOWER
The amount of heat rejected from modern thermal power plants is significant in that it represents over
60 percent of the total heat input. Of this amount, 10 to 15 percent is rejected out the stack with the flue
gas. Most of the balance (approximately 45 percent) results from the condensing of the exhaust steam
from the turbine. Eventually, all this rejected heat is absorbed by the atmosphere, although the heat may
first be rejected to a body of water such as a lake, river, or ocean.
Heat-rejection systems are generally classified as once-through or closed:
1. Once-through systems. Water is withdrawn from a lake, river, or ocean and then pumped through the
condenser, where its temperature is increased by 15 to 20F. The warmer water is then discharged back
to its source. Evaporation from the natural water source to the atmosphere eventually cools this water.
2. Closed-loop systems. Heat is rejected to the atmosphere through the use of either a cooling tower or
some form of outdoor body of water such as a spray pond or cooling lake.
In many areas, the once-through cooling system is unacceptable for a new power plant. Either
the site is already developed and the natural source of water cannot support another plant, or
environmental restrictions prevent the use of this system. Therefore, nearly all new power plants use the
closed-loop system for heat rejection and incorporate a cooling tower. Cooling ponds and lakes are
found primarily at existing sites.
66

The cooling pond, which is often called a spray pond, is the simplest type of closed-loop
system. The circulating water is pumped into a pond or basin, where it provides water storage in
addition to the cooling.
The cooling pond is converted to a spray pond by locating a series of sprays above the water
surface. The cooling water flows through piping and then vertically from the spray to form the shape of
an inverted cone. This method of spraying provides uniform water distribution, which increases the
area of exposure and improves the efficiency of the cooling as the spray droplets come into contact with
the air and thereby are cooled.
The problem with the spray pond is that the water is sprayed into the air; water particles in
varying amounts are carried away by the wind, which results in the loss of water and can create a
nuisance in a congested area. This problem has been reduced by the installation of a louvered fence
around the pond. However, although spray ponds are still operational, they are limited due to location
and to environmental issues because of the airborne spray. Modern facilities predominantly use either
natural or mechanical draft cooling towers.
In wet cooling tower systems, cooling water is circulated through the condenser and absorbs
heat from the exhaust steam from the turbine. The heated cooling water is then circulated through a
cooling tower, where the absorbed heat is rejected to the atmosphere by the evaporation of some of the
circulating water. The cooled water is then returned to the condenser by a circulating water pump.
The cooling tower therefore performs the following major functions:
1. Removes the heat that the cooling water absorbed in the condenser
2. Minimizes the use of cooling water
3. Provides cooling water to the condenser to obtain high plant thermal efficiency
TYPES OF COOLING TOWER:
Cooling towers are special direct-contact heat exchangers where the warm cooling water from the
condenser is brought into direct contact with the relatively dry air. The heat-transfer rate depends on
maximizing the contact area between the water and air and the length of time for this contact.
All cooling tower designs have the following common features:
1. An air circulation system
67

2. A water distribution or spray system

3. Packing or fill to maximize the contact between the water and air
4. A cooling water collection and discharge basin
5. Mist eliminators that minimize droplet carry-over and water loss
Cooling towers are generally configured with the air and water in a counterflow or cross-flow
arrangement. In counterflow units, water falls down through the fill while the air moves upward. In
cross-flow units, water cascades downward while the air moves horizontally,
which is perpendicular to the water flow. These cooling towers are generally classified by the method
used to move the air. These are commonly known as (1) mechanical-draft units and (2) natural-draft or
hyperbolic units.
Mechanical-draft cooling towers. Mechanical-draft cooling towers use either single or multiple fans
to provide a known volume of air through the cooling tower. Therefore, their thermal performance is
generally more stable and is affected by fewer air variables than with natural-draft cooling towers.
Mechanical-draft cooling towers are either forced draft or induced draft:
1. Forced draft. The fan is located in the ambient air stream entering the cooling tower, and the air is
blown through the unit.
2. Induced draft. The fan is located at the exit of the airflow and draws air through the tower.
Forced-draft mechanical-draft towers are characterized by high air entrance velocities and low exit
velocities. Therefore, they are extremely susceptible to recirculation and are considered to have less
performance stability than the induced-draft tower. In addition, when plant sites are located in cold
weather climates, since the fans are located in the cold ambient air stream (see Fig. 9.45), the fans can
become subject to severe icing with resulting imbalance. As a result, these fans are often located in a
specially designed enclosure to prevent this.
Fans on mechanical induced-draft towers are not subject to recirculation and therefore are more stable.
Their location within the warm air stream also provides protection against the formation of ice. These
advantages lead to the widespread use of mechanical induced-draft towers.

68

Fig. -17
Natural-draft
hyperbolic
cooling
towers. The
natural-draft
hyperbolic cooling tower utilizes airflow that is produced by the density differential that exists between
the heated air inside the tower, which is less dense, and the relatively cool ambient air outside the

tower, which is more dense. This density differential is such that no fans are required because natural
draft results. These types of cooling towers tend to be quite large, since they often handle large
quantities of cooling water, 250,000 gpm and greater. Because of the relatively small temperature and
density differences of the inside and outside air, these cooling towers are generally very tall, in the
range of 300 to 500 ft high.
Fig. 18
69

The shape of the tower shell is hyperbolic, thus the name of this type of cooling tower. This
shape has little effect on the natural-draft capabilities, but it offers superior strength and resists wind
loads and therefore requires less material than other designs, thus being more cost-effective.
Natural-draft cooling towers operate most effectively in areas that have a higher humidity as
compared with plants located in an arid region or one located at a high altitude. Such plant sites would
most probably use mechanical-draft cooling towers or possibly an air-cooled condenser system.

Hyperbolic cooling towers are more expensive than mechanical-draft cooling towers, and they
are used extensively in large utility power plants. However, because of their lower operating cost as a
result of no fan power requirements, the overall costs over the plant life are lower, which justifies the
higher initial capital cost. For any plant design, a careful evaluation of the initial capital costs and the
operating and maintenance costs must be made of the various designs when the plant size is such that
natural-draft towers are known to be a possibility.
An illustration of a hyperbolic natural-draft cooling tower is shown in above fig. This unit is
part of a 265-MW power plant and handles 120,000 gpm of cooling water from 110 to 87F. It has a
diameter of approximately 130 ft at the top and 245 ft at the bottom and is 320 ft high.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION:
Wood is the predominant structural material used in cooling towers because of its availability,
durability, and relative low cost. Douglas fir is the wood most often used today, having replaced the
previously preferred redwood. No matter what the wood selection, all woods must be treated with a
reliable preservative in order to prevent decay.
Steel is used for many components of the cooling tower where high strength is required and
plastics are now used in increasing amounts to take advantage of their resistance to microbiologic
attack, corrosion, and erosion; of their high strength; and of their relatively low cost.
The use of concrete is predominant in hyperbolic cooling towers, and its use is being expanded
to large mechanical-draft towers. The higher first cost of concrete is often justified by a lower fire risk
and, for large structures, higher load-carrying capacity.
70

CHAPTER IV

71

PROTOTYPE MODEL
COMPONENTS OF OUR PROTOTYPE THERMAL POWER PLANT:
Furnace Heat Generator
For prototype Coal Furnace is used as Heat generator.

Fig. - 19
Boiler Steam Generator
For Prototype boiler a traditional Cooker has been used with capacity of 1.5 liter and instead of
cooker whistle a copper tube has been used to convey the steam to the turbine.

Fig. - 20

72

 Steam Turbine (Prime Mover) :

For Prototype of Turbine, a mild steel plate has been fabricated in order to extract the energy
from steam and is converted to electrical energy by mean of a dynamo.
Specification:
Diameter 6 cm
Material MS (Galvanized Coated)
Blade Angle 90
Dynamo :
For Prototype, a dynamo of max. 12V is used that generates electric current to glow an LED of
3V.

Fig. - 20
73

POWER GENERATION AT A GLANCE:

Thermal power (Coal-based) is the largest source of power in India.
About 75% of electricity consumed in India are generated by Thermal power plants.
As on July 31, 2010, and as per the Central Electricity Authority the total installed capacity of
Coal or Lignite based power plants in India are 87000 MW.
With a current generating capacity of 35000 MW, NTPC has embarked on plans to become a
75,000 MW company by 2017.
The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in the country.

MAJOR THERMAL POWER STATIONS IN INDIA:

Table - 2

74

CHAPTER - V

75

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

The primary-air pollutant emissions controlled on utility and most industrial boilers are
particulate, nitrogen oxides (NO x), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2). The strategies for control are formulated
by considering the range of specific fuels to be burned and their sources, specific kind and extent of
emission levels mandated, and economic factors such as the specific boiler design, location, new or
existing equipment, plant age, and remaining life. In most cases, overall control of individual pollutants
for a specific fuel involves some combination of precombustion, combustion, and post combustion
technologies. This section provides a brief overview of the major post combustion technologies. The
control of NOx emissions by combustion modifications is covered under Burners and Combustion
Systems and Stokers. The control of SO 2 during combustion is covered under Fluidized-Bed
Combustion.
1. Control of Particulate
Particulate emissions from boilers arise from noncombustible, ash-forming mineral matter in the fuel
that is released during the combustion process and carried with the products of combustion. Three
general types of equipment are used to reduce particulate emissions.
Mechanical collectors are generally cyclone collectors and have been widely used on small boilers
with less stringent emission limits. They are low-cost, simple, compact, and rugged, but conventional
cyclones are limited in collection efficiencies of about 90 percent and are poor at collecting the finest
particulate.
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) electrically charge the ash particles in the products of combustion
to collect and remove them. An ESP normally consists of a series of parallel, vertical metallic plates
(collecting electrodes) forming lanes through which the products of combustion flow. Centered between
the plates are discharge electrodes which provide the particle charging and electric field. ESPs are
available for most utility and industrial applications, and collection efficiencies can be expected to
exceed 99.9 percent of the inlet ash loading. ESPs are considered to be less sensitive to plant upsets,
and they have low pressure drop. ESP performance is sensitive to fly ash loading, ash resistivity (ability

76

to acquire and retain a charge), and coal sulfur content. Lower-sulfur coals result in lower ESP
performance or large ESP sizes.
Fabric filters (or bag houses) collect the ash particles as the products of combustion pass through a
filter material. A large utility fabric filter is comprised of a series of individual compartments, with each
compartment containing up to several thousand long, vertically supported, small-diameter fabric bags.
The ash cake which builds up on the filter bag surface is dislodged and removed by one of three
techniques: reversing the gas flow temporarily, shaking the bags, or using a pulse jet of air down the
bag. Collection efficiencies can be expected to exceed 99.9 percent of the inlet ash loading. When
combined with dry SO 2 scrubbing, they can enhance SO 2 removal as the gas passes through the filter
cake on the bag surface. Fabric filters are more sensitive to plant temperature excursions and upsets
because of the filter material, and they are a higher pressure-drop device by nature. Fabric filters are
more capable of collecting the finest fraction of the ash and are not sensitive to fuel sulfur content.
2. Control of NO x
Oxides of nitrogen (NO x) are formed during the combustion process, as discussed under Burners and
Combustion Systems, and are initially limited by the combustion system design. If further
NO x reduction is necessary. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) NO x control systems can be
installed, most frequently between the exit of the boiler economizer and the air. Such designs are
referred to as high-dust applications because all the fly ash passes through them on the way to the
particulate control system. Low-dust systems can be installed after a particulate control system but
typically involve higher capital costs. A reagent, typically ammonia, is uniformly injected and mixed
into the products of combustion upstream of the SCR reactor which contains the blocks of highsurface-area catalyst. As the products of combustion pass through the catalyst, the ammonia and
NO x react to produce water vapor and gaseous nitrogen. The most common catalyst types are coated
metal plate catalyst, homogeneous ceramic honeycomb catalyst, and coated corrugated glass fiber
substrate catalyst.
The catalyst performance is temperature-dependent with an optimal range of 700 to 750F (371 to
399C) although specialized catalyst can perform somewhere in the wider temperature window of 625
to 800F (329 to 427C) depending upon the gas composition and modified catalyst formulation. Some
catalysts are also specially formulated to be resistant to certain constituents of the products of
combustion which can poison and deactivate the catalyst surface. SCR units can effectively reduce
77

NO x levels leaving the boiler by 90 percent or greater depending upon the site- and boiler-specific
conditions. Commercial projects are usually designed for 70 to 90 percent reduction. Ammonia is
supplied in anhydrous or aqueous forms and from systems which convert urea to gaseous ammonia.
3. Control of SO 2
Sulfur dioxide (SO 2) comes from sulfur in the fuel. The dominant method of SO 2 reduction for coalfired units is through the installation of a flue gas desulfurization (FGD) system downstream of the
boiler. There are two basic types of FGD systems in wide use today, wet FGD scrubbers and dry FGD
scrubbers. The selection of the most appropriate system depends upon the site- and fuel-specific
economics.
Wet scrubbing is centered on a large-diameter absorber module in which sorbent slurry consisting of
water mixed with a reagent (usually limestone, lime, magnesium-enhanced lime, or sodium carbonate)
is contacted with the products of combustion. The SO 2 is first absorbed by the aqueous solution and
then reacted with the reagent in the slurry. Limestone (CaCO 3) based systems with forced oxidation of
the residual slurry by-product to produce wallboard-quality gypsum (CaSO 4 2H 2O) are the dominant
systems being installed. Wet scrubbing is highly efficient with > 97 percent removal of the SO 2 at
calcium-to-sulfur molar ratios of close to 1.0. The full scrubber system consists of reagent receiving
and preparation equipment, the absorber module with recirculation pumps, and the spent slurry
dewatering system. The absorbers are designed with corrosion-resistant linings or materials to prevent
chemical attack. One or more absorber modules (more commonly one on new systems) are located
between the forced-draft fan and the stack. Performance-enhancing additives can be used to reduce
power consumption or increase removal efficiency.
Dry scrubbing, which is more correctly referred to as spray dryer absorption (SDA), involves the
spraying of an aqueous sorbent slurry into a reaction vessel under conditions which permit the slurry
droplets to dry as they contact the hot gas [~300F(~149F)]. The SO 2 reaction occurs during the
drying process and results in a dry particulate containing reaction products and unreacted sorbent or
reagent entrained in the products of combustion flow along with the fly ash. These materials are then
captured in the downstream particulate control equipment. The reagent is usually lime. Scrubber
modules are located between the air heater and particulate control equipment, which often is a fabric
filter to take advantage of the increased removal possible, since the unreacted lime collected in the bag
filter cake reacts with the remaining SO 2. Such SDA plus fabric filter systems can be designed to
78

remove 90 percent or more of the inlet SO 2. The SDA reactor is made of carbon steel. The full SDA
system consists of reagent receiving and preparation equipment, the SDA, a fabric filter, and spent
reagent/ash collection and disposal. A key attribute of the system is the dry waste residue.

POWER PLANTS VISITED

BHILAI STEEL PLANT (BSP):
There are 6 Vertical tubes, Pulverized, Russian Boilers in BSP which Produces Steam at 150
tons/hr. These boilers are Multi-fuel boiler using the fuels such as BF Gas, Coke Oven Gas,
PCM Oil, and Coal.
The temperature of the Boiler is maintained between 1200-1300C. The steam is superheated at
temp. Of about 450C with pressure of 40 kg/sq.cm. And then expanded to the turbine.
The power generation capacity of the plant is 50 MW which varies between 25-30 MW as per
consumption and requirement.
The Turbine used is Impulse Reaction turbine rotating at speed of about 6000rpm.
The Turbine is 19 stage turbines.
GODAVARI POWER & ISPAT LTD.:
Power Plant Section with production capacity of 25 MW using WHRB Technique.
Boiler Specifications :

30 tones/hr

Furnace Temp 1000 C

Turbine Specification :

Multi-stage Impulse Reaction Turbine.

Turbine Speed 7000 rpm.

Inlet Steam Pressure 100 kg/cm (98 bar)

Inlet Temperature 520 C.

Material Wrought Nickel-alloy

79

Exhaust Steam Pressure 0.176 kg/cm.

Exhaust Temperature 57 C.

80

ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

1. The fuel used is quite cheap.
2. Less initial cost as compared to other generating plants.
3. It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal.
4. The coal can be transported to the site of the plant by rail or road.
5. It requires less space as compared to Hydro power plants.
6. Cost of generation is less than that of diesel power plants.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
2. It is costlier in running cost as compared to Hydro electric plants.

81

RESULT

We have studied the Components of Thermal Power Plant.

We made a Prototype Model of Steam Power Plant, using the turbine of 6 cm diameter
with 32 blades and the Boiler capacity of 1.5 litres which generates the electricity to glow
an LED of 3volts.

82

CONCLUSION
By the use of advanced Boiler Technologies, we can improve the efficiency of thermal plant as well
as we can reduce the waste toxic flue gases harmful for the environment.
To increase steam cycle and power plant efficiency, higher steam pressures and temperatures are
often used with once-through forced circulation boilers where the steam-water circuitry is designed
so that water is continuously converted to steam without the use of a large steam drum. Such units
can be designed for constant-pressure operation at all loads or variable-pressure operation where the
operating pressure can be reduced as the load is reduced.
Design of steam turbine machine parts such as nozzles and blades to make them aerodynamic using
computational fluid dynamics has gained a lot of steam as a field in itself. A small advancement in
the blade design could help in increasing efficiency tremendously.
Due to the ever-increasing costs of natural gas and other liquid fuels, the coal-fired steam cycle has
once again become the technology of choice for new power plants. Operating within the SC and
USC steam domain, the HHV-based net cycle efficiency of these plants could reach 4245 percent.
A steam turbine has thousands of miniature components. From the gigantic blades that drive the
rotor, to the bearings and nuts that keep the machine in place, the steam turbine has tremendous
scope for improvement and effective design of every part plays a significant role in improving the
turbines overall efficiency. Some of the areas where a lot of research goes into are those such as
nozzle design, aerodynamic blade design, lubrication engineering, heat transfer mechanisms, part
cooling, fabrication and part machining, pipe flow mechanisms, metallurgy etc.

83

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