Laboratory Manual

For

COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING (I.E.)
B.E (E.C)
SEM IV

Electronics & Communication Department

Government Engineering College Dahod
www.gecdahod.ac.in

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EXPERIMENT-1

AIM: To study amplitude modulation and demodulation.

1. Measure modulation index.
2. Study under, over, and perfect modulation.
3. To demodulate AM signal and observe on CRO.
APPARATUS: Amplitude modulation
generator, probes, connecting wires.

trainer

kit,

CRO,

function

THEORY:
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of
a carrier signal is varied in accordance with a modulating signal. The base
band signal is referred to as the modulating signal and the output of the
modulation process is called as the modulation (modulated) signal.
Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which is the
amplitude of the carrier wave is varied about a means values linearly with
the base band signal.
The envelope of the modulating wave has the same shape as the base
band signal provided the following two requirements are satisfied
1. The carrier frequency fc must be much greater then the highest frequency
components fm of the message signal m (t) i.e. fc >> fm
2. The modulation index must be less than unity. if the modulation index is
greater than unity, the carrier wave becomes over modulated.
Amplitude modulation index:
m = Emax Emin
Emax + Emin
Emax = maximum peak to peak value of modulated signal.
Emin = minimum peak to peak value of modulated signal

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The modulation index must not allowed to exceed unity; else the ve
peak of the modulating waveform is clipped. This clipping not only causes
distortion but also interference.
Depending on the value of modulating index there are three types of
modulation
1. under modulation (m<1).
2. perfect modulation (m=1).
3. over modulation (m>1).
Over modulation occurs when the magnitude of the peak negative
voltage of modulating wave exceeds the peak carrier voltage. To ensure that
peak value of modulating signal should not exceed the peak value of carrier
signal.

PROCEDURE:
1. Using function generator applies 1 kHz frequency and 1Vp-p voltage
to the modulating signal to the AM circuitry.
2. Also apply high frequency carrier signal which is given to AM kit.
3. Switch ON the AM kit.
4. Observe the Amplitude modulated wave at the output terminal using
CRO and draw wavwforms.
5. Now by varying the amplitude of the modulating signal observe the
under, over and perfect modulated wave.
6. Measure Emax ,Emin for each case and find out modulation index and %
modulation.

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Amplitude modulation signals:

OBSERVATION TABEL:

Sr.No. Emax

Emin

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%m

Remark

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AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION
The process of detection provides a means of recovering the
modulating Signal from modulated signal. Demodulation is the reverse
process of modulation.
The detector circuit is employed to separate the carrier wave and
eliminate the side bands. Since the envelope of an AM wave has the same
shape as the message, independent of the carrier frequency and phase,
demodulation can be accomplished by extracting envelope.
This circuit is essentially a rectifier circuit followed by a capacitor
across the output terminal.

1N914
+
Input
-

+
Output
-

(ENVELOPE DETECTOR)
WORKING:
On the positive half cycle of the input signal, the capacitor C charges
up to the peak voltage of the input signal, as the input falls below this
voltage, the diode is cutoff because Vc is greater than V1.The capacitor
discharges through R during the negative cycle.
When V1>Vc diode conducts .The capacitor charges up to the new
value of this cycle. The capacitor discharges slowly during cutoff and hence
Vc charges negligibly. Thus during each +ve cycle C charges up to the new
peak value and holds on to it till the next +ve cycle.
The time constant RC is adjusted so that exponential decay of Vc
follows the envelope .

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PROCEDURE:
.

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Amplitude modulated signal from AM generator is give as input to the
circuit.
3. The demodulated output is observed on the CRO.
4. Draw the output waveform.
CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-2
AIM: To study frequency modulation and demodulation.
1. To modulate audio signal, observe the waveform and calculate
modulation index.
2. To demodulate FM signal and observe.
APPARATUS: Frequency modulation trainer kit, CRO, probes, connecting
wires.
THEORY:
Frequency modulation is a technique in which the frequency of the
carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal amplitude.
In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the modulated carrier
signal is kept constant. Thus information is contained in frequency variation
of carrier signal.
As a result of this, FM is much more immune to the effect of noise,
because noise generally affects the amplitude of a waveform.
An unmodulated carrier may be written as:
Ec = A sin(t+)
The instantaneous frequency of FM carrier is given by:
f = fc (1+ k Em cos mt)
fmax = fc (1+k Em)
Modulation index for FM:
mf = maximum frequency deviation
modulating frequency
mf =
fm
mf can vary if either the modulating frequency changes or the
frequency deviation changes.
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As the modulation index increases number of side bands increases so

bandwidth required for FM signal increases. Higher side bands are generally
ignored due to their negligible amplitudes.
An FM system where mf>5 is called wideband FM. This system is
able to suppress noise and other interference more efficiently. Short distance
communication systems generally use narrow band FM. Salellite
communications generally use wide band FM.

Reactance modulator circuit is used for generation of FM signal.

1. The oscillator and the tuned circuit provide the unmodulated carrier
frequency and this frequency is present on the collector of the transistor.
2. The capacitor and the resistor provide 90 phase shift between the
collector voltage and current. This makes the circuit appears as capacitor.

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3. The changing information signal applied to the base has the same effect
as changing the bias voltage applied to the transistor and this would have
the effect of increasing and decreasing the value of this capacitance
4. As the capacitance is effectively in parallel with the tuned circuit the
variation in value will cause the frequency of resonance to change and
hence the carrier frequency will be varied in sympathy with the
information signal input

Demodulation:
At the receiver the information contained in the modulated carrier has to be
extracted, i.e frequenct change in to the amplitude change. This conversion
must be linear otherwise distortion is generated.
Slope detection is one way of demodulation of of FM signal. But this
method works only if the frequency deviation are limited to the linear range
of tuned circuit.
A high Q circuit is required in the slope detector, so as to get a high variation
in amplitude at output. This type of receiver is simple and reduce the
complexity of receiver.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Draw and connect circuit as shown in the kit.
2. Connect CRO to the socket modulating signal out and note down
the frequency of audio signal let this be fm.
3. Measure the frequency of the carrier wave at FM out let this be fc.
4. Again feed audio signal and observe Fm wave on CRO. Note down
the maximum frequency of a part of a wave form on CRO. Let this be
fmax .
Frequency deviation = (fmax-fc).
Modulation index mf = /fm.
5. Now connect FM out to the input of demodulator and observe
demodulated out put on CRO.
6. Draw demodulated output waveform.

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-3
AIM: To study DSB-SC and SSB AM transmission system.
APPARATUS: DSB/SSB transmitter trainer kit, function generator,
CRO, probes, connecting wires
THEORY:
Like AM, DSBSC uses a microphone or some other transducer to
convert speech and music to an electrical signal called the message or base
band signal. The message signal is then used to electrically vary the
amplitude of a pure sine wave called the carrier. And like AM, the carrier
usually has a frequency that is much higher than the messages frequency.
It is seen that, in sinusoidal AM,
Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)
Thus at 100% modulation, power in any one side band
Psf=Pc/4
The total transmitted power is:
Pt=1.5 Pc
DOUBLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC):
Certain types of amplitude modulators make use of multiplying action
in which the modulating signal multiplied with carrier signal like
balanced modulator.
DSBSC = the message the carrier
DSBSC signal consists of two sine waves:
1. One with a frequency equal to the sum of the carrier and message
frequencies
2. One with a frequency equal to the difference between the carrier and
message frequencies.

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Importantly, the DSBSC signal doesnt contain a sine wave at the carrier
frequency. This is an important difference between DSBSC and AM.
The presence of both sidebands but the absence of the carrier gives us
the name of this modulation method - double-sideband, suppressed carrier
(DSBSC).
The carrier in AM makes up at least 66% of the signals power but it
doesnt contain any part of the original message and is only needed for
tuning. So by not sending the carrier, DSBSC offers a substantial power
saving over AM and is its main advantage.

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SINGLE SIDE BAND (SSB):

Generally in both side band the information contain is same so if one
of the sidebands of DSB-SC signal is removed either by filtering or by
cancellation it is known as single side band modulation.
There are three methods of generation of SSB:
1. Balanced modulator (filter method).
2. Phase shift method.
3. The third method.
The most popular today is the third method. Earlier once simply used the
technique of generating a DSB-SC signal and then filtering one of the side
bands.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the trainer to mains. Make all necessary onboard
connections.
2. Provide information signal either internally or externally.
3. Observe the DSB-SC wave form at the output of the balances
modulator.
4. The SSB signal is obtained at the o/p of the ceramic BP filter.
5. Compare and contrast the two waveforms on the CRO.
6. Draw SSB signal.
CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-4
AIM: To study pulse modulation and demodulation.
1. Pulse amplitude modulation
2. Pulse width modulation
3. Pulse position modulation.
APPATATUS: Pulse modulator trainer, CRO, probes, connecting wires
THEORY:
In continuous-wave (CW) modulation, some parameter of a sinusoidal
carrier wave is varied continuously in accordance with the message signal.
This is indirect contrast to pulse modulation where some parameter of a
pulse train is varied in accordance with the message signal.
We may distinguish two families of pulse modulation:
1. analog pulse modulation
2. digital pulse modulation.
In analog pulse modulation, a periodic pulse train is used as the
carrier wave, and some characteristic feature of each pulse is varied in a
continuous manner in accordance with the corresponding sample value of
the message signal. Thus in analog pulse modulation, information is
transmitted basically in analog form, but the transmission takes place at
discrete times.
In analog pulse modulation there are three types of modulation:
1. Pulse amplitude modulation
2. Pulse width modulation
3. Pulse position modulation.
(1) PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
In PAM, the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in
proportion to the corresponding sampled values of a continuous message
signal; the pulses can be of a rectangular form or some other appropriate
shape.

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Pulse-amplitude modulation as defined here is somewhat similar to

natural sampling, where the message signal is multiplied by a periodic train
of rectangular pulses.
In natural sampling the top of each modulated rectangular pulse varies
with the message signal, whereas in PAM it is maintained flat.

There are two operations involved in the generation of PAM signal:

1. Instantaneous sampling of the message signal m(t) every Ts
seconds, where the sampling rate fs = 1/Ts is chosen in accordance
with the sampling theorem (The sampling frequency must at least be
twice the highest frequency in the modulating signal).

2. Lengthening the duration of each sample so obtained to some

constant value T.
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(2) PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

In this type, the amplitude is maintained constant but the duration or
length or width of each pulse is varied in accordance with instantaneous
value of the analog signal.
The negative side of the signal is brought to the positive side by
adding a fixed d.c. voltage.
(3) PULSE POSITION MODULATION
In this type, the sampled waveform has fixed amplitude and width
whereas the position of each pulse is varied as per instantaneous value of the
analog signal.
PPM signal is further modification of a PWM signal. It has positive
thin pulses (zero time or width) corresponding to the starting edge of a PWM
pulse and negative thin pulses corresponding to the ending edge of a pulse.

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General block diagram of pulse modulator

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the necessary circuit connections.
2. Observe the various waveforms for PAM, PPM, PWM at the output of
the respective modulators and draw same blocks.
3. Note the change in waveforms when natural/flat-top option is
selected.
4. Now observe the demodulated waveforms for different sampling
frequencies at the input.
CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-5

AIM: To study the technique of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

APPARATUS: Trainer kit, function generator, CRO, probes, patch cords.
THEORY:
It has been proved that in FM, noise has been greater effect on the
modulating frequencies. This effect can be reduced by increasing the value
of modulating index for higher modulating frequencies.
This can be done by increasing frequency deviation in turn can be
increased by increasing the amplitude of the modulating signal at higher
modulating frequency.
Thus, if we boost the amplitude of the higher modulating frequency
signal artificially then it will be possible to improve the noise immunity at
higher frequencies.
Pre-emphasis refers to a system process designed to increase, within
a band of frequencies, the magnitude of some (usually higher) frequencies
with respect to the magnitude of other (usually lower) frequencies in order to
improve the overall signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing the adverse effects
of such phenomena as attenuation distortion or saturation of recording media
in subsequent parts of the system. That is the mirror of the de-emphasis. The
whole system is called emphasis.
Pre-emphasis is commonly used in telecommunications, digital audio
recording, record cutting, in FM broadcasting transmissions.
In order to equalize the performance over the baseband, a deemphasis network is introduced after the modulator to attenuate the high
frequency components of noise.
De-emphasis is a system process designed to decrease, within a band
of frequencies, the magnitude of some (usually higher) frequencies with
respect to the magnitude of other (usually lower) frequencies in order to
improve the overall signal-to-noise ratio.
The overall effect is to leave the post detection signal level unchanged
while the noise frequency is attenuated.

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CIRCIIT DIAGRAM

Values of R1=75K, R2=50K,R3=40K, C1=C2=C3=0.001uf,

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OBSERVATION TABEL:

Frequency

Output

Gain

Gain in db.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Provide input in the audio frequency range using function generator.
3. Select one combination of RC and now vary the frequency from 0Hz
to 20KHz.observe output on CRO.
4. Plot the de-emphasis curve.
CONCLISION:

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EXPERIMENT-6

AIM: To study about time division multiplexing and de multiplexing.

APPARATUS: TDM trainer kit, CRO, probes, patch cords.
THEORY:
In Time-division multiplexing all signals operate with same frequency
at different times.
This is a base band transmission system, where an electronic
commutator sequentially samples all data source and combines them to form
a composite base band signal, which travels through the media and is being
de multiplexed into appropriate independent message signals by the
corresponding commutator at the receiving end.

As shown in the Fig the composite signal has some dead space
between the successive sampled pulses, which is essential to prevent inter
channel cross talks. Along with the sampled pulses, one synchronizing pulse
is sent in each cycle. These data pulses along with the control information
form a frame.
Each of these frames contain a cycle of time slots and in each frame,
one or more slots are dedicated to each data source. The maximum
bandwidth (data rate) of a TDM system should be at least equal to the same
data rate of the sources.
Synchronous TDM is called synchronous mainly because each time
slot is pre assigned to a fixed source. The time slots are transmitted
irrespective of whether the sources have any data to send or not. Hence, for
the sake of simplicity of implementation, channel capacity is wasted.

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Although fixed assignment is used TDM, devices can handle sources of

different data rates. This is done by assigning fewer slots per cycle to the
slower input devices than the faster devices.
Here using timing circuit we assign different time slots to different
PAM signals which are multiplexed and transmitted at receiver side it is
demultiplexed and demodulated.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply to the kit and switch it ON.
2. Connect 250Hz, 500Hz, 1KHz, 2KHz sine wave to the multiplexer
Input channels by the means of patch cords.
3. Observe TDM output at the output of multiplexer.
4. Now connect Tx, Rx clock of transmitter to the Tx, Rx clock pin of
receiver for synchronous reception.
5. Now connect multiplexed output to the input of demultiplexer
followed by low pass filter to recover original signal.

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CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-7
AIM: To study about frequency division multiplexing and de multiplexing.
APPARATUS: FDM trainer kit, CRO, patch cords.
THEORY:
In FDM the frequency spectrum is divided into several logical
channels, giving each user exclusive possession of a particular frequency
band. It is most popular and is used extensively in radio and TV
transmission.
In frequency division multiplexing, the available bandwidth of a
single physical medium is subdivided into several independent frequency
channels. Independent message signals are translated into different
frequency bands using modulation techniques, which are combined by a
linear summing circuit in the multiplexer, to a composite signal.
The resulting signal is then transmitted along the single channel by
electromagnetic means. The carriers used to modulate the individual
message signals are called sub-carriers.

At the receiving end the signal is applied to a bank of band-pass

filters, which separates individual frequency channels. The band pass filter
outputs are then demodulated and distributed to different output channels.

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If the channels are very close to one other, it leads to inter-channel

cross talk. Channels must be separated by strips of unused bandwidth to
prevent inter-channel cross talk. These unused channels between each
successive channel are known as guard bands.

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FDM are commonly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks. Since,

the frequency band used for voice transmission in a telephone network is
4000 Hz, for a particular cable of 48 KHz bandwidth, in the 70 to 108 KHz
range, twelve separate 4 KHz sub channels could be used for transmitting
twelve different messages simultaneously.
Each radio and TV station, in a certain broadcast area, is allotted a
specific broadcast frequency, so that independent channels can be sent
simultaneously in different broadcast area. For example, the AM radio uses
540 to 1600 KHz frequency bands while the FM radio uses 88 to 108 MHz
frequency bands.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect power supply to the kit.
2. Apply modulating signals and carrier signals to both balanced
modulator not that one carrier is 100 KHz and other is 200 KHz.
3. Apply both out put to linear summing circuit which will produce
FDM signal.
4. Now apply FDM signal to demodulator followed by low pass filter to
reproduce original information.
CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-8
AIM: To study about pulse code modulation and demodulation.
APPARATUS; PCM transmitter kit, PCM receiver kit, probes, CRO, patch
cords
THEORY:
In Pulse Modulation, analog message is transmitted in discrete time.
First of all, sampling of the message signal should be performed.
Considering the sampling process, the sampled signal appears as a train of
samples which is a form of PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) signal.
When M levels are used to quantize this signal, this modulation is called MPAM. If those pulses were converted to digital numbers, then the train of
numbers so generated would be called as Pulse Code Modulated PCM
signal. In PCM, modulation process is executed in three steps:
1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Coding

As stated before, in PCM, the information signal x(t) is first sampled

with the appropriate sampling frequency (sampling frequency fs 2highest
frequency of the information signal (fx) ), then the sampled levels are
quantized to appropriate quantization levels. In the last step, each quanta
level is demonstrated by a two-code word, that is by a finite number of {0,1}
sequence. After this step, the signal is called as PCM wave.
If the max and min amplitude values of information signal x(t) are
Amax and Amin, respectively, and if n-digit code words will be used, then the
quantizing interval/pace a becomes:

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In quantizing process, which quanta region does the sample belong

to is an important question. The sample value is rounded to the closest
quanta level. Later the quantized signal is encoded and the signal is matched
with code words. In two-word number system, +V volt pulse can be sent for
1s, and space/no volt is sent for 0s to transmit the code.
After quantization A/D converter is used for coding which produce
equivalent digital data which is followed by a parallel in serial out shift
register for serial transmission.
In PCM decoder reverse procedure is there received PCM signal first
passed through requisition circuit which produce fresh pulses.Followed by a
serial to parallel shift register, D/A converter, low pass filter for
reproduction of original information.

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PCM ENCODER

PCM DECODER

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PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Make the connections as shown in the block diagram.

Switch on the power supply.
Apply the information signal and observe PCM output on CRO.
Draw output waveform .
Connect PCM output at input terminal of the PCM decoder kit.
Observe decoded output draw waveform.

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-9
AIM: To study about digital modulation techniques.
APPARATUS: ASK, FSK, PSK modulation and demodulation kits, CRO,
patch cords.
THEORY:
Quite often we have to send digital data through analog transmission
media such as a telephone network. In such situations it is essential to
convert digital data to analog signal. This conversion is accomplished with
the help of special devices such as modem (modulator-demodulator) that
converts digital data to analog signal and vice versa.
Since modulation involves operations on one or more of the three
characteristics of the carrier signal, namely amplitude, frequency and phase,
three basic encoding or modulation techniques are available for conversion
of digital data to analog signals. The three techniques, referred to as
amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK) and phase shift
keying (PSK) respectively.
(1)AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)
In ASK, two binary values are represented by two different
amplitudes of the carrier frequency.
The unmodulated carrier can be represented by
ec(t) = Ec cos 2fct .
The modulated signal can be written as
s(t) = k emcos 2fct
for 1
s(t) = A1cos 2fct
s(t) = A2cos 2fct
for 0
Special case: On/Off Keying (OOK), the amplitude A2 = 0.
ASK is susceptible to sudden gain changes and OOK is commonly
used to transmit digital data over optical fibers.

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(2)FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)

In FSK, two binary values are represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency.
In FSK two carrier frequencies f1 and f2 are used to represent 1 and 0.
Here s(t) = A cos 2fc1t for binary 1
for binary 0
And s(t) = A cos 2fc2t
This method is less susceptible to errors than ASK. It is mainly used
in higher frequency radio transmission.

(3)PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK):

In this method, the phase of the carrier signal is shifted by phase
measured relative to the previous bit interval. The binary 0 is represented by
sending a signal of the same phase as the preceding one and 1 is represented
by sending the signal with an opposite phase to the previous one.
In PSK carriers used to represent 0 and 1 are:

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s(t) = A cos (2fct+) for binary 1

for binary 0
s(t) = A cos (2fct)

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

ASK BLOCK DIAGRAM

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FSK BLOCK DIAGRAM

PSK BLOCK DIAGRAM

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PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Switch on the power supply.

Connect the circuit as shown in block diagram.
Connect digital data output as the control input of the modulator.
Connect sin1 at the inp1 of the modulator and inp2 at the ground for
ASK.
5. Observe the output and connect it at the demodulator input and
observe its output.
6. Repeat same as shown in block diagram for FSK and PSK.

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-10
AIM: To study about fiber optic communication link.
APPARATUS: fiber optic transmitter and receiver kit, Fiber optic cable,
CRO.
THEORY:

Fiber optic technology is simply the use of light to transmit data.

FIBER OPTIC CABLE:

Optical fiber is composed of several elements. The construction of a
fiber optic cable consists of a core, cladding, coating buffer, strength
member and outer jacket. The optic core is the light-carrying element at the
center. The core is usually made up of a combination of silica and germania.
The cladding surrounding the core is made of pure silica.
The cladding has a slightly lower index of refraction than the core.
The lower refractive index causes the light in the core to reflect off the
cladding and stay within the core.

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There are basically two modes of a transmission in a fiber. A multi

mode fiber has a number of path in which light ray may travel. A single
mode has a light ray in one direction only.
Multimode fiber can be manufactured in two ways: step-index or
graded index. Step-index fiber has an abrupt change or step between the
index of refraction of the core and the index of refraction of the cladding.
Multimode step-index fibers have lower bandwidth than other fiber designs.
Graded index fiber is made up of multiple layers with the highest
index of refraction at the core. Each succeeding layer has a gradually
decreasing index of refraction as the layers move away from the center

LIGHT SOURCE:
It converts information signal in to light which travels through fiber
optic cable.
A light source such as LED or a Laser is placed at one end of the
fiber. The light source emits short but rapid pulses of light that enter the core
at different angles. The laser produces a pure and narrow beam. It also has a
high power output, allowing the light to propagate further that produces by
the LED. The LED produces less concentrated light consisting of many
wavelengths.
OPTICAL DETECTORS:

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It converts light signal to again electrical information signal at the

receiver.
It should have small size, very high sensitivity, fast response which is
satisfied bt p-i-n photo diode or avalanche diode.

Advantages of fiber optic communication:

1. High bandwidth for voice, video and data applications.
2. Fiber is more lightweight than copper.
3. Low loss. The higher frequency, the greater the signal loss using copper
cabling. With fiber, the signal loss is the same across frequencies, except at
the very highest frequencies.
4. Reliability - Fiber is more reliable than copper and has a longer life span.
5. Secure - Fiber does not emit electromagnetic interference and is difficult
to tap.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the power supply of transmitter and receiver kit.
2. Using function generator apply information signal to transmitter.
3. It converts information to light.
4. Now using fiber optic cable connect transmitter to receiver.
5. Connect output of receiver to CRO and observe output which same as
original information.
CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT-11
AIM: To study about fundamentals of television.
APPARATUS: Color TV trainer kit, CRO, probes, patch cords.
THEORY:

The aim of a television system is to extend the sense of sight beyond

its natural limits and to transmit sound associated with the scene. The picture
signal is generated by a TV camera and sound signal by a microphone. In the
625 line CCIR monochrome and PAL-B colour TV systems adopted by
India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and sound signal frequency
modulated before transmission. The two carrier frequencies are suitably
spaced and their modulation products radiated through a common antenna.
As in radio communication, each television station is allotted different
carrier frequencies to enable selection of desired station at the receiving end.

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The TV receiver has tuned circuits in its input section called tuner. It
selects desired channel signal out of the many picked up by the antenna. The
selected RF band is converted to a common fixed IF band for convenience of
providing large amplification to it. The amplified IF signals are detected to
obtain video (picture) and audio (sound) signals. The video signal after large
amplification drives the picture tube to reconstruct the televised picture on
the receiver screen. Similarly, the audio signal is amplified and fed to the
loudspeaker to produce sound output associated with the scene.

COLOUR PICTURES:
It is possible to create any colour including white by additive mixing
of red, green and blue colour lights in suitable proportions. For example,
yellow can be obtained by mixing red and green colour lights in intensity
ratio of 30 : 59. Similarly, light reflected from any colour picture element
can be synthesised (broken up) into red, green and blue colour light
constituents. This forms the basis of colour television where Red (R), Green
(G) and Blue (B) colours are called primary colours and those formed by
mixing any two of the three primaries as complementary colours.

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Any colour light has a certain intensity of brightness. Therefore, light

reflected from any colour element of a picture also carries information about
its brightness called luminance. A signal voltage (Y) proportional to
luminance at various parts of the picture is obtained by adding definite
proportions of VR, VG and VB (30:59:11). This then is the same as would be
developed by a monochrome (black and white) camera when made to scan
the same colour scene. This i.e., the luminance (Y) signal is also transmitted
alongwith colour information and used at picture tube in the receiver for
reconstructing the colour picture with brightness levels as in the televised
picture.
COLOUR TRANSMITTER:
Any colour system is made compatible with the corresponding
monochrome system. Compatibility means that the colour TV signal must
produce a normal black and white picture on a monochrome receiver and a
colour receiver must be able to produce a normal black and white picture
from a monochrome TV signal. For this, the luminance (brightness) signal is
transmitted in a colour system in the same way as in the monochrome
system and with the same bandwidth. However, to ensure compatibility, the
colour camera outputs are modified to obtain (B-Y) and (R-Y) signals.
These are modulated on the colour sub-carrier, the value of which is so
chosen that on combining with the luminance signal, the sidebands of the
two do not interfere with each other i.e., the luminance and colour signals
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are correctly interleaved. A colour sync signal called colour burst is also
transmitted for correct reproduction of colours.
COLOUR RECEIVER:
The main difference between colour receiver and black and white
receiver is the need of a colour or chroma subsystem. It accepts only the
colour signal and processes it to recover (B-Y) and (R-Y) signals. These are
combined with the Y signal to obtain VR, VG and VB signals as developed by
the camera at the transmitting end. VG becomes available as it is contained in
the Y signal. The three colour signals are fed after sufficient amplification to
the colour picture tube to produce a colour picture on its screen.

RECEIVER CONTROLS:
1. Channel selector :- is used for selecting the desired channel.
2. Fine tuning :- is provided for obtaining best picture details in the
selected channel.
3. Brightness :- varies beam intensity of the picture tube and is set for
optimum average brightness of the picture.
4. Contrast :- is actually gain control of the video amplifier. This can be
varied to obtain desired contrast between white and black contents of
the reproduced picture.
5. Volume controls :- The volume and tone controls form part of the
audio amplifier in sound section, and are used for setting volume and
tonal quality of the sound output from the loudspeaker.

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In colour receivers there is an additional control called colour

or saturation control. It is used to vary intensity or amount of colours
in the reproduced picture.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make connection.
2. Now using the CRO, observe the different voltages at different testpositions in the RF section.
3. Study the outputs observed on the CRO.

CONCLUSION:

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