Lecture Note Blast2015

Structural Response to Blast Loads
THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND MINING ENGINEERING
C&ENVENG 4099 Structural Response to Blast Loads (3 pts)
A/P. Chengqing Wu
Room N236
Civil & Env. Eng.
Phone: 8313-4834
cwu@civeng.adelaide.edu.au
Hanout Contents:
Part 1: Syllabus
Course objectives, methods of instruction, assessment, time
table
Part 2: Lecture Course
Introduction
Characterization of Blast Loading
Structural Dynamics
Blast Resistant Capacity Analysis
Structural Design Against Blast Loading
Retrofitting Structures against Blast Loading
THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
LECTURER:
A/P. Chengqing Wu
Room N236
Civil & Env. Eng.
.
Phone: 8313-4834
Email: cwu@civeng.adelaide.edu.au
10/02/2015
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
Recently terrorist attacks are becoming more and more realistic threats to society. These
terrorist attacks may cause severe damage and even collapse of structures. As a consequence,
there is always not only enormous economic loss, but also injuries and fatalities. To prevent
catastrophic collapse of structures under blast loading, there is a need to be able to develop
blast resistant systems that can be applied to the buildings to protect the its occupants. The
objective of this course is intended to understand the fundimenatal characteristics of blast
loads, the basic principles of dynamic analysis of structures and blast resistant design. Topics
covered include: blast loads; dynamic analysis method and structural design againt blast loads.
It is also to develop the ability to communicate through report writing and to encourage
original thought which are essential attributes to practising engineers.
ASSESSMENT:
Tutorial
Quizzes:
Design Project I:
Design Project II:
10%
50%
10%
30%
LEARNING RESOURCES:
Textbook: None.
Lecture note: Avaliable from myuni.
References: Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities (ASCE 1997);
UFC Structures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosion 2008;
Structural Dynamics (Mario Paz 1985).
Assignments: will be handed out in class.
MYUNI: Staff contact details; Lecture notes; Assignments; Design project in pdf format;
Reference papers
Time table:
Please note that these are approximate lecture times that can be increased or decreased
depending on the progress.
Day
Time
Venue
Description
Tuesdays
3-4pm
Ligertwood 231 Law Lecture Theatre 1 Lectures
Thursdays
3-4pm
Barr Smith South 3029 Flentje Lecture Lecture/Tutorial/quiz
Theatre
2
Chapter 2
Characterization of Blast Loading

2.1 Blast induced ground vibrtions
Surface and underground mine blasting (see Fig. 2.1), quarry blasting, construction blasting
and underground ammunition storage blasting will generate ground vibrations
Inhabited building distance DSD
Ground
Ds
Soil Mass
Dc
Rock Mass
Fig. 2.1 Underground explosion

2.1.1 Basic Theory of Wave Propagation
i. Characteristics of sinusoidal wave
Dropping a stone in the water, it will create a water wave that results in the motion of a
bobbing cork. The water wave that excites the cork is described by a sinusoidal wave either as
time history at a given position (Fig. 2.2a), or in terms of the location at a given instant of time
(Fig. 2.2b). The characteristics of the sinusoidal wave include its wavelength, , or the
distance between wave crests, the speed, c , at which it travels outward from the stones
impact; and the frequency, f , or the number of times the cork bobs up and down in 1
minute. The wave propagation velocity c should not be confused with the particle velocity u&
because c is the speed with which the water wave passes by the cork, whereas u& is the speed
at which the cork moves up and down while the wave passes by.
2.5
2.5
T
u
u
U
0
0
time t
U
0
15
-2.5
Fig. 2.2a. Sinusoidal displacement at a fixed

point (x=constant)
distance x
0
15
-2.5
Fig. 2.2b. Sinusoidal displacement at one instant

(t=constant)
The time and distance descriptions can be illustrated in a generalized mathematical equation
of the displacement u
u = u max sin( Kx + t )
(2-1)
where u max is the maximum displacement, K is a constant called the wave number, is also
a constant called the circular natural frequency, and t is time. If time and frequency are
constants, the variation of displacement u with the distance can be described as
u = u max sin( Kx + const )
(2-2)
If the wavelength is defined as the distance at which the wave repeats, K must be equal to
2 / to result in the sine function to repeat every time x increases by an amount equal to .
On the other hand, if the location and wavelength are constants, the variation with time at a
fixed point becomes
u = u max sin(const + t )
(2-3)
Since the period, T, is the time between repetitions, must be equal to 2 / T to cause the
sine function to repeat when time advances by one period.
Since the wave repeats after a time called the period T, the frequency f or number of times
the wave repeats itself each second is then 1/T and the circular natural frequency (which
has a unit of radians) is
1
T
= 2 = 2f
(2-4)
The frequency f (which has a unit of herz or second-1), is not the same as the circular natural
frequency and should not be confused when calculating peak accelerations and
displacements of sinusoidal waves.
For the sinusoidal waves, the wavelength and the propagation velocity c are related
through the period T as
= cT = c
1
f
(2-5)
Since velocity is defined as the change in displacement per unit time, the first order derivative
of Equation 2-1 with respect to time will give the particle velocity u& as
du
= u max cos( Kx + t )
dt
(2-6)
du&
= u max 2 sin( Kx + t )
dt
(2-7)
u& =
accordingly the acceleration u&& as
u&& =
Blast induced waves such as compressive wave can also be described as by their wave length,
propagation velocity and frequency in the same fashion as the water wave. There is one
difference between a surface water wave and one that propagates along the ground; however,
it does not affect any of the forgoing relations. The particle motion for a water wave is
progressive, while the solid is retrogressive. In other words, at top of a surface water wave the
cork will be moving in the direction of the propagation, whereas at the top of a surface ground
wave, soil particles will be moving in a direction opposite to the propagation direction.
ii. Plane waves and plane-wave equations

The simplest geometry for plane wave propagation is that the propagation occurs only in the
direction down a long bar. As a wave travels outward from the source in Fig. 2.3, the front of
the wave becomes less curves with the increasing distance. At the distance where the particle
motion is parallel along the structure of concern (such as house), the wave front is said to
behave as a plane.
Fig. 2.3 Plane-wave geometry (Plan view)

Plane wave approximation is reached if a difference of 5% between the particle motion
vectors is tolerable. For example, the plane wave approximation would be appropriate for a
10 m wide house if it is located at 15 m away from a blast centre. As shown in the Fig. 2.3, if
the vector between the source and the midpoint p of the structure is of length R, the edge
vector e which is 5 m away is 105% R when the angle between p and e is 180. Thus 5/R = tan
180 and R is approximately 15 m.
Compressive (longitudinal) waves generate particle motions in a direction that are parallel to
the direction of wave propagation as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Particle motion variation with wave type for compressive wave
When compressive wave travels in the direction of its propagation, the distance the wave
travels between times t1 and t2 is the product of the time interval and propagation velocity as
shown in the Fig. 2.5. Then, the generalized mathematical description of displacements
caused by a plane-wave travelling in the positive direction
u = u max sin( Kx ct )
(2-8)
With K=1, the particle velocity is expressed as
u& =
du
= u max c cos( x ct )
dt
(2-9)
1.5
u&
distance
0
0
-1.5
c(t2-t1)
Fig. 2.5 Transmission of wavefronts for sinusoidal pulse
iii. Strains induced by stress wave

Strain is usually defined as the change in length L divided by the original length L, or in
engineering term, L/L. This ratio is the same as the change in displacement per unit distance.
Therefore, the first derivative of Equation u = umax sin( x ct )with respect to position x yields
the strain
du
=
= u max cos( x ct )
(2-10)
dx
With K=1, the strain can be expressed in terms of particle velocity u&
= u& / c
(2-11)
Positive particle velocities towards the right then produce negative strains. Therefore negative
strains are compressive. Thus for plane waves, ground strains can be calculated directly for
the particle velocities if the compressive-wave propagation velocity is known.
Example
The strains plotted in the Figure can defined mathematically as follows (C = 300 m/s)
To determine particle velocity, acceleration and displacement history
iv. Wave propagation velocity and dynamic stress

The relationships between plane wave propagation velocity and particle velocity, and the
resulting normal stress as well as Youngs modulus E can be derived by considering a
stress wave propagation down a straight bar as shown in Fig. 2-6. Based on Newtons second
law, the force F, mass m and acceleration u&& have following relation
F = mu&&
(2-12)
Substitute appropriate values from Figure 2-6, it yields

u&
(2-13)
t
where is the mass density of the material in the bar, A the cross-sectional area, and x the
distance travelled by the wave in time t . Then by deleting the area in the Equation 2-9, the
relationship between stress and particle velocity can be written as
A = ( xA)
x
u&
t
= cc u& max
(2-14)
(2-15)
where u& max is the maximum particle velocity and x / t is the propagation velocity of the
longitudinal wavefront cc . The maximum stress then occurs at the maximum particle velocity
u& max . For elastic material, its Youngs modulus can be expressed as
=E
(2-16)
Thus
= E =
u&
u&
E=
E
cc
x / t
(2-17)
Substitution of Equation 2-17 to Equation 2-14

u&
E = cc u&E
cc
cc =
(2-18)
(2-19)
u&
+
u& + u&
A
Fig. 2.6 A stress wave propagation down a straight bar
Area
The wave velocity is found from the Youngs modulus E and the mass density .
v. Shear plane-wave velocity

Shear waves generate particle motions in one direction that are perpendicular to the direction
of propagation. They are distinguished from longitudinal waves with particle motions parallel
to the direction of travel. Stresses and strains from shear waves can be calculated from particle
velocities in a manner similar to that used form longitudinal waves due to body waves
producing particle velocities in one direction. Derivations of these equations are similar to
those used for compressive waves.
The shear wave propagation velocity c s is
cs =
where G is the shear modulus and is related to Youngs modulus by

E
G=
2(1 + )
in which is Poissons ratio.
(2-20)
(2-21)
vi. Transmission and reflection

Consider two identical longitudinal compressive waves moving toward each other along a bar
as shown in Fig. 2.7. When the two waves collide, the velocity vectors of the particles will
momentarily cancel and become zero along line aa and stresses will be doubled. The waves
retain their initial shape and continue to propagate after passing. When a compression and a
tension wave collide, the particle velocity vectors point in the same direction and add, but the
stresses cancel as shown in Fig. 2.7.
In collision case of compressive waves, the velocity at line aa is zero. Therefore the bar can be
thought of as being fixed at that position, meaning that a single compressive wave colliding
with a fixed boundary results in the reflection of another compressive wave, travelling in the
opposite direction. For the collision case of tension and compression waves, line aa has zero
stress and it can be thought of being free or unbounded.
a
u& +
Fixed
a
9
Free
a
Fig. 2.7. Two identical longitudinal compressive waves moving toward each other along a bar
Wave transmission can be generalized for transmission from one medium ( 1c1 ) to another
( 2 c 2 ) as shown in Fig. 2.8. The incident wave I , travelling done a bar with properties 1
and c1 intersects another material, with properties 2 and c 2 , produced a reflected wave R
and a transmitted wave T . At the interface the sum of the particle velocities on both sides
must be equal. Thus
u& I + (u& R ) = u&T
(2-22)
Reflected velocity is negative because it is travelling in the opposite direction. Since particle
velocity can be directly related to stress by Equation, thus
R
I
+
= T
(2-23)
1c1 1c1 2 c 2
Furthermore, the stress on each side of the interface must be equal and thus
I + ( R ) = T
(2-24)
Then the transmitted and reflected stresses can be calculated from the incident stress as
2 I ( 2 c 2 )
(2-25)
T =
2 c 2 + 1c1
( c 1c1 )
(2-26)
R = I 2 2
2 c 2 + 1c1
When 2 c 2 is many times that of 1c1 , R is equal to I and the interface is similar to a
fixed boundary. Similarly, if 2 c 2 is many times smaller that of 1c1 , the reflected wave
should be similar to that of a free boundary.
2 c2
1c1
2 c2
Fig. 2.8. Wave transmission from one medium to another
2.1.2. Characteristics of blast-induced ground motions

Blast-generated ground vibrations can be divided into body wave types, compressive, P, shear
S, and surface wave, R as shown in the Fig. 2.9(a). To describe the motions completely, three
perpendicular components of motion must be measured as shown in Fig. 2.9(b). The
longitudinal component, L, is usually oriented along a horizontal radius to the source. It
follows then, that the other two perpendicular components will be vertical, V, and transverse,
T, to the radial direction.
The three main types can be divided into two varieties: body waves, which propagate through
the body of the rock and soil, and surface waves, which are transmitted along a surface. Body
waves can be further subdivided into compressive waves denoted as P and shear waves
denoted as S. At small distances, explosion generates predominately body waves. These body
10
waves propagate outward in a spherical manner until they reach a boundary such as another
layer (rock or soil) or the ground surface. At this intersection, shear and surface waves are
produced and the reflected surface (Rayleigh) waves become important at larger transmission
distances. At the small distances, all three wave types will arrive together and greatly
complicate wave identification whereas at large distances, the more slowly moving shear and
surface waves begin to separate from the compressive.
Fig. 2.9 Compressive, P, shear S, and surface wave

The three wave types produce radically different patterns in soil and rock particles as they
pass. As a result, structures built on or in soil (or rock) will be deformed differently by each
type of wave. In each case, the wave is propagating or moving to the right as shown in the Fig.
2.10. The longitudinal (compressive) wave produces particle motions in the same direction as
it is propagating. On the other hand, the shear wave produces motions perpendicular to its
direction of propagation: either horizontal, as shown, or vertical. The Rayleigh wave (the most
complicated) produces motions both in the vertical direction and parallel to its direction of
propagation.
11
Fig. 2.10 Particle motion variation with wave type: (a) compressive; (b) shear; (c) Rayleigh
A close-in explosion produces the single-spiked pulse, A, by direct transmission to the
transducer at position A as shown in Fig. 2.11. But most blasting problems involve the
transducer position B and result in relatively sinusoidal waves B as shown in Fig. 2.11. The
idealized waves shown are typical for blasting where the close-in blasting produces transient
pulses that last 1 to 2 ms and 10 to 100 ms at relatively large distances. Combinations of these
single pulses produce the commonly observed blast-induced sinusoidal wave strains.
12
Fig. 2.11 Close-in and relative far explosion

For sinusoidal wave:
(2-27)
u = umax sin( Kx + t )
u& =
u&& =
du
= umax cos( Kx + t )
dt
(2-28)
du&
= umax 2 sin( Kx + t )
dt
(2-29)
In most circumstance, only the absolute value of the maximum motion is of interest:
u max = u max
(2-30)
u&max = u max = u max 2f
(2-31)
u&&max = umax 2 = umax 4 2 f 2 = 2fu&max
(2-32)
Calculation with the sinusoidal approximation as shown in Fig. 2.12.
u&max = 15 mm / s
Recorded blast vibration time histories
Fig. 2.12 The sinusoidal approximation
13
Theoretically, integration of the transverse particle velocity record would give the
displacement. For example, the area between time 1 and 3 in Fig. 2.12 is 0.54 mm and is
found by summing the product of the average velocity between two timing lines and interval
between timing lines. The entire velocity time history must be integrated from zero to find the
true displacement. In this case, the local integrated value of 0.54mm is the displacement the
occurs between the negative peak displacement and the positive peak displacement. Therefore
the zero-to-peak displacement is one-half this value, 0.27mm.
The maximum velocity is 15 mm/s. The period T is the twice the half period which is the time
difference between times 1 and 3 is 0.06 s. Therefore,
u max =
u&max u&maxT 15mm / s (2 0.06 s )

=
=
= 0.286mm
2f
2
2
(2-33)
Theoretically, acceleration is the maximum just after time 1, when the particle velocity slope
is a maximum, which the slope of the line between points 1 and 2
u& 12.5mm / s
(2-34)
=
= 1250mm / s 2
t
0.01s
The maximum acceleration with sinusoidal approximation is estimated as follows. The
appropriate period T would be four times the one-fourth period, which calls the rise time of
the pulse, which in this case is the time between times 1 and 2. Therefore
u&&max = u&max 2f =
u& max 2 15mm / s (2 )

=
= 1178mm / s 2
T
(4 0.02)
(2-35)
The principal frequency is defined as that associated with the greatest amplitude pulse as
shown in Fig. 2.13.
Fig. 2.13 Principal frequency definition
14
The principal frequency is also defined as that associated with the averaged amplitude pulse as
shown in Fig. 2.14.
0.4
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
-0.4
0.08
Fourier spectra (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
0.8
20
Fmax
Fmax
2
10
PF
0.1
0
-0.8
t(s)
F1 500
F2
1000
1500
2000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 2.14 Principal frequency definition (averaged)

Comparison of dominant frequencies from construction blasting with those by other segments
of the blasting industry as shown in Fig. 2.15.
Fig. 2.15 Comaprision of dominant frequencies
2.1.3 Prediction of blast induced vibrations

The most important information of blast induced vibrations includes principal frequency (PF),
and peak values such as peak particle acceleration (PPA)/ (peak particle velocity) PPV.
15
Frequency-based criteria for control of vibrations require methods to predict both peak
particle velocity (PPV) in Fig. 2.16 and principal frequency (PF) in Fig. 2.17.
Prediction of PPV can be approached from scaling relations which are often associated with
blasting in rock or soil. Scaling describes decay with distance that is normalized (hence
scaled) by the source energy, and is most useful when the same source at the same distance
may release variable energies, as in blasting and dynamic compaction activities.
When comparing blast wave the concept of scale distance is commonly used. Scale distance is
a comparative measure which can be used to scale down the amount of explosive needed to
create the same blast wave. This is useful in experimental testing as large blasts can be
simulated by locating a smaller charge weight at a closer distance to the specimen. The
relationship given for calculating scale distance:
Scale Distance (SD)
R
W
m/kg1/3
where R is the blast range in metres and W is the equivalent weight of TNT in kilograms. This
relationship has been used in this study to scale down potential explosive loads to a scale that
can be analysed in a blast chamber.
Blast Range
0.5 m
Blast Range
1m
Blast Range
10 m
Scale Distance Charge Weight (kg of TNT)

0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
2.00
1.000
0.296
0.125
0.064
0.037
0.016
8.000
2.370
1.000
0.512
0.296
0.125
8000.0
2370.4
1000.0
512.0
296.3
125.0
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
100
1/3
Scaled range m/kg
Peak particle velocity m/s
Peak particle velocity m/s
Prediction of peak particle velocity (PPV)

1
0.1
0.01
0.1
R
PPV = A 1/ 3
Q
10
100
1/3
Scaled range m/kg

m
(2-36)
PPV = Peak Particle Velocity (m/s);

Q = Equivalent TNT charge weight (kg);
R = Radial distance (m) measured from the charge center to the point of interest on the ground surface;
A is initial value at scaled range, R/Q1/3 = 1.0 ;and
m is the attenuation coefficient.
Fig. 2.16. PPV attenuation with scaled charge weights and radical distance
16
Prediction of principal frequency (FF)
Principal frequency Hz
1000
100
10
0.1
Scaled range m/kg
10
1/3
R
PF = B 1/ 3
Q
(2-37)
PF = Principal Frequency (Hz);

Q = Equivalent TNT charge weight (kg);
R = Radial distance (m) measured from the charge center to the point of interest on the
ground surface;
B is initial value at scaled range, R/Q1/3 = 1.0 ;
n is the attenuation coefficient.
Fig. 2.17. PF attenuation with scaled charge weights and radical distance
2.2 Free air blast

When a detonation occurs adjacent to and above a protective structure such that no
amplification of the initial shock wave occurs between the explosive source and the protective
structure, then the blast loads acting on the structure are free-air blast pressures (see Fig.2.18).
Fig. 2.18. Free air burst environment
17
The shock front, termed the blast wave, is characterized by an almost instantaneous rise from
ambient pressure to a peak incident pressure Pso (also called overpressure, see Figure). At any
point away from the blast, the pressure disturbance has the shape shown in Fig. 2.19. The
shock front arrives at a given location at time tA and, after the rise to the peak value, Pso the
incident pressure decays to the ambient value in time to which is the positive phase duration.
This is followed by a negative phase with a duration to- that is usually much longer than the
positive phase and characterized by a negative pressure (below ambient pressure)
Important parameters:
Peak overpressure Pso
Duration
Impulse
Arrive time
Fig. 2.19. Free field pressure time variation
The incident impulse density associated with the blast wave is the integrated area under the
pressure-time curve and is is denoted as for the positive phase and iS- is- for the negative
phase.
i. Dynamic Pressure (Drag)

The pressure shock front travels radially from the burst point with a diminishing shock
velocity U (C) which is always in excess of the sonic velocity of the medium. Gas molecules
behind the front move at a lower flow velocities, term particle velocities u. These latter
particle velocities are associated with the dynamic pressure whose pressure formed by the
winds produced by the passage of the shock front (blast wind) . Those parameters which vary
as the peak incident pressure varies are presented in Fig. 2.20.
Other parameters:
Peak dynamic pressure (Blast wind)
Shock front velocity U or C
Blast wave length Lw
Wave length Lw=Ut0

Fig. 2.20. Peak incident pressure versus peak dynamic pressure and particle velocity
18
ii. Reflected pressure history

As the incident wave moves radically away from the center of the explosion, it will impact
with the structure, and, upon impact, the initial wave (pressure and impulse) is reinforced and
reflected (see Fig. 2.21). The reflected pressure pulse of the Fig. 2.21 is typical for infinite
plane reflectors.
Fig. 2.21. Reflected free field pressure time variation
When the shock wave impinges on a surface oriented so that a line which describes the path of
travel of the wave is normal to the surface, then the point of initial contact is said to sustain
the maximum (normal reflected) pressure and impulse. Fig. 2.22 shows possitive and negative
phase shock wave parameters for a spherical TNT explosion in free air at see level. Fig. 2.23
presents reflected pressure as a function of angle of incidence.
Figure 2-7. Positive phase shock wave parameters for a
spherical TNT explosion in free air at sea level
1.E+5
Pr, psi
Pso, psi
Ir, psi-ms/lb^(1/3)
Is, psi-ms/lb^(1/3)
ta, ms/lb^(1/3)
to, ms/lb^(1/3)
U, ft/ms
Lw, ft/lb^(1/3)
10000
1000
100
10
1.0
0.1
.01
.001
0.1
1.0
10
100
Scaled Distance Z = R/W^(1/3)
Fig. 2.22. Possitive and negative phase shock wave parameters for a spherical TNT explosion in free
air at see level
19
Scaled height of the charge RA/Q1/3

Figure 2-9. Variation of reflected pressure
as a function of angle of incidence
1.E+6
Scaled height of charge
0.3
5.3
0.6
7.2
0.8
8.9
1.9
11.9
3.0
14.3
1.E+5
Pra (psi)
10000
1000
100
10
1.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Angle of Incidence, Degrees
Fig. 2.23. Variation of reflected pressure as a function of angle of incidence
Example
For Q = 1.1 tonne and H = 90m, determine peak overpressure Pso, peak reflected pressure Pr,
duration t0, arrival time ta, shock wave velocity U.
20
3. Surface explosion
A charge located on the ground surface is considered to be a surface burst as shown in Fig.
2.24. The initial wave of the explosion is reflected and reinforced by the ground surface to
produce a reflected wave. Unlike the air burst, the reflected wave merges with the incident
wave at the point of detonation to form a single wave, similar to the mach wave of the air
burst but essentially hemispherical in shape. Fig. 2.25. Possitive and negative phase shock wave
parameters for a hemispherical TNT explosion on the surface at see level
Fig. 2.24. Surfance burst blast environment

Figure 2-15. Positive phase shock wave parameters for a
hemispherical TNT explosion on the surface at sea level
1.E+6
Pr, psi
Pso, psi
Ir, psi-ms/lb^(1/3)
Is, psi-ms/lb^(1/3)
ta, ms/lb^(1/3)
to, ms/lb^(1/3)
U, ft/ms
Lw, ft/lb^(1/3)
1.E+5
10000
1000
100
10
1.0
0.1
.01
.001
0.1
1.0
10
100
Scaled Distance Z = R/W^(1/3)
Fig. 2.25. Possitive and negative phase shock wave parameters for a hemispherical TNT explosion on
the surface at see level
The air burst environment (see Fig. 2.26) is produced by detonations which occur above the
ground surface and a distance away from the protective structure so that the initial shock
wave, propagating away from the explosion, impinges on the ground surface prior to arrival
at the structure. As the shock wave continues to propagate outward along the ground surface ,
21
a front known as the Mach front is formed by the interaction of the initial wave and the
reflected wave as shown in Fig. 2.27.
Fig. 2.26. Air burst blast environment
The height of the Mach front increases as the wave propagates away from the center of the
detonation. This increase in height is referred to as the path of the triple point and is formed
by the intersection of the initial, reflected and Mach waves as shown in Fig. 2.28 and Fig.
2.29. A protected structure is considered to be subjected to a plane wave when the height of
the triple point exceeds the height of the structure. If the height of the triple point does not
extend above the height of the structure, the magnitude of the applied loads will vary above
the height of the structure.
Above the triple point, the

pressure-time
variation
consists of an interaction of
the incident and reflected
incident wave pressures
resulting in a pressure-time
variation different from that
of the Mach incident wave
pressures.
Fig. 2.27. Pressure time variation for air burst
22
Scaled height of the charge: H/Q^1/3

Figure 2-13. Scaled height of triple point
12
Scaled Height of Triple Point, ft/lb^(1/3)
Numbers adjacent to curves

indicate scaled charge
height, Hc/W^(1/3)
1
10
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
6
7
0
2
10
12
14
16
18
Scaled Horizontal Distance from Charge, ft/lb^(1/3)
Fig. 2.28 Scaled height of triple point
Scaled height of the charge: H/Q^1/3
Fig. 2.29. Variation of reflected pressure as a function of angle of incidence
23
4. External blast loading on structures (ASCE)

The blast loading on a structure caused by a highexplosive detonation as shown in Fig. 2.30 is
L
dependent on several factors:
The magnitude of the explosion.

The location of the explosion.
The geometrical configuration of the structure.
The structure orientation with respect to
H
W
Blast wave
the
explosion and the ground surface (above, flush with Fig. 2.30 Blast loading on a structure
or below the ground.
The procedures presented here for the determination of the external blast loads on structures
are restricted to rectangular structures positioned above the ground surface where the structure
will be subjected to a plane wave shock front as shown in Fig. 2.31 and Fig. 2.32.
The forces acting on a structure associated with a plane shock wave are dependent upon both
the peak pressure and the impulse of the incident and dynamic pressures acting in the free
field. For design purposes, it is necessary to establish the variation or decay of both the
incident and dynamic pressures with time since the effects on the structure subjected to a blast
loading depend upon the intensity-time history of the loading as well as on the peak intensity.
Fig. 2.32 Blast loading general arrangement

for a rectangular building
Fig. 2.31 Schematic of blast wave interaction

with a rectangular building
24
Front wall loads

At the moment the incident shock front strikes the front
wall, the pressure immediately rises from zero to the
normal reflected pressure Pr which is a function of the
incident pressure as shown in Fig. 2.33. The clearing
time tC (reflected pulse time) required to relieve the
reflected pressure is represented as:
tc =
3S
U
(2-38)
P = PS +CDq
Fig. 2.33 Front wall blast loading
where S is clearing distance and is equal to H or W/2 whichever is the smallest

H is height of the structure; W is the width of the structure;
U is sound velocity in the reflected region.
The pressure acting on the front wall after time tc is the algebraic sum of the incident pressure PS and the
drag pressure CDq:
(2-39)
Ps = Ps0 +CDq
The duration of the reflected overpressure effect tc should not exceed that of the free positive overpressure
td.
A value of CD = 1 for the front wall is considered adequate for plane pressure wave.
The bilinear pressure-time curve can be simplified to an equivalent triangle and the duration of the
equivalent triangle is determined
(2-40)
te = 2i/Pr = (td-tc)Ps/Pr+tc
Roof and side walls

The general form of side wall blast loading is
shown in Fig. 2.34. As the shock front travels
along the length of a structural element, the peak
overpressure will not be applied uniformly. It
varies with both time and distance. For example, if
the length of the side wall equals the length of the
blast wave, when the peak overpressure reaches
the far end of the wall, the overpressure at the near
end has returned to ambient. A reduction factor,
Ce is used to account for this effect in design (see
Fig. 2.35).
Fig. 2.34 Roof and side wall blast loading
The equation for the side walls is as follows

Pa = CePs0 +CDq
(2-41)
The side wall load has a rise time equal to

the time it takes for the blast wave to
travel across the element being
considered. The overall duration is equal
to the rise time plus the duration of the
free field overpressure.
Fig. 2.35 Effective overpressure values
The roof blast loading is similar to the side wall
25
Rear wall loading

The shape of the rear wall loading is similar to that
for side and roof loads, however, the rising time is
and duration are influenced by a not well known
pattern of spillover from the roof and side walls and
from ground reflection effects. The rear wall blast
load lags that for the front wall by L/U, the time for
the blast wave to travel the length L of the building
(see Fig. 2.36). The effective peak overpressure is
similar to that for the side walls (Pb is normally used
to designate the real wall peak overpressure instead
of Ps).
Pb = CePs0 +CDq
Peak dynamic
0--0.172
pressure
(MPa)
(MPa)
Drag coefficient CD -0.4
Fig. 2.36 Rear wall blast loading
(2-41)
0.172--0.344 0.344--0.896
(MPa)
(MPa)
-0.3
-0.2
Table for Drag coefficient vs peak dynamic pressure
Example
The dimensions of the building are 20m*10m*3m. Determine blast loading on the
components of the building subjected to an explosion 1000 lb at the scaled distance of 3
m/kg1/3. The blast wave will be applied normal to the long side of the building. It is assumed
that the peak incident pressure and duration do not change significantly over the length of the
building.
10m
3m
20m
blast
26
5. External blast loading on structures (TM5-1300)

The form of incident blast wave is shown in the Fig. 2.37. For design purposes, the actual decay of the
incidental pressure may be approximated by the rise of an equivalent triangular pressure pulse. The actual
positive duration is replaced by a fictitious duration which is expressed as a function of the total positive
impulse and peak pressure:
tof = 2i / p
(2-42)
For determining the pressuretime data for the negative
phase, a similar procedure as
used in the evaluation of the
idealized positive phase may
be utilized. The equivalent
negative pressure-time curve
will have a time of rise equal
to 0.25 to whereas the
fictitious duration is given by
the triangular equivalent pulse
equation:
tof = 2i / p
(2-43)
Fig. 2.37 Idealized pressure-time variation
The interaction of the incident blast wave with a structure is a complicated process. To reduce
the complex problem of blast to reasonable terms, it will be assumed that (1) the structure is
generally rectangular in shape; (2) the incident pressure of interest is 1.4 MPa or less; (3) the
structure being loaded is in the region of the Mach stem; and (4) the Mach stem extends above
the height of the building (see Fig. 2.38).
Fig. 2.38 Air burst blast environment
27
Front wall loads

At the moment the incident shock front strikes
the front wall (Fig. 2.39), the pressure
immediately rises from zero to the normal
reflected pressure Pr which is a function of the
incident pressure. The clearing time tC (reflected
pulse time) required to relieve the reflected
pressure is represented as:
tc =
4S
(1 + R )Cr
(2-44)
where S is clearing distance and is equal

to H or W/2 whichever is the smallest
H is height of the structure;
R is ratio of S/G where G is equal to H or
W/2 whichever is larger
Cr is sound velocity in the reflected
region.
Fig. 2.39 Front wall blast loading
Front wall loads

The pressure acting on the front wall after time tC is
the algebraic sum of the incident pressure PS and the
drag pressure CDq:
P = PS +CDq
(2-45)
A value of CD = 1 for the front wall is considered

adequate for the pressure ranges in TM5.
At higher pressure ranges, the above procedure may yield a fictitious pressure-time curve due to the
extremely short pressure pulse duration involved. Thus, the pressure-time curve constructed must be
checked to determine its accuracy. The comparison is made by constructing a second curve (dotted
triangle as indicated in the Fig) using the total reflected pressure impulse ir for a normal reflected
shock wave. The fictitious duration trf for the normal reflected wave is calculated from:
trf = 2ir/Pr
(2-46)
whichever curve gives the smallest value of the impulse (area under curve)
28
Front wall loads

If the shock front approaches the
structure at an oblique angle, the peak
pressure will be a function of the
incident pressure and the incident angle
between the front wall as shown in Fig.
2.40.
Figure 2-193. Reflected pressure coefficient
versus angle of incidence
13.5
Peak Incident Overpressure, psi
5000
70
3000
50
2000
30
1000
20
500
10
400
5
300
2
200
1
150
0.5
100
0.2
12
10.5
Cr = Pr / Pso
7.5
4.5
1.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Angle of incidence, Degrees
Fig. 2.40 Reflected pressure coefficient versus angle of incidence
Roof and side walls

As the shock front traverses a structure a pressure is imparted to the roof slab, and side walls equal to
the incident pressure at a given time at any specified point reduced by a negative drag pressure. The
portion of the surface loaded at a particular time is dependent upon the magnitude of the shock front
incident pressure, the location of the shock front and the wavelength of the positive and negative
pulses.
As the shock wave traverses the roof, the peak value of the incident pressure decays and the wave
length increases. The equivalent uniform pressure will increase linearly from time tf when the blast
wave reaches the beginning of the element (point f) to time td when the peak equivalent uniform
pressure is reached when the shock front arrives at point D. The equivalent uniform pressure will
then decrease to zero where the blast load at point b on the element decreases to zero. td is rising
time. Fig. 2.41 shows average pressure-time variation for roof and side wall.
d
D
td =
D
U
Fig. 2.41 Average pressure-time variation for roof and side wall
29
The peak value of the pressure acting on the roof PR is the sum of contribution of the
equivalent uniform pressure and drag pressure
PR = CEPsof +CDqof
(2-47)
where Psof is the incidental pressure occurring at point f and q is the dynamic pressure
corresponding to CE Pof. CE is equivalent load factor. The drag coefficient CD for the roof
and side walls is a function of the peak dynamic pressure. Recommended values are as shown
in Fig. 2.42.
Fig. 2.42 The equivalent load factor CE and location of the peak equivalent uniform pressure vs
wavelength-span ratio
Rear walls
The blast loads on the rear wall is calculated using equivalent uniform method used for computing the
blast loads on the roof and side wall as shown in Fig. 2.43. The peak pressure of the equivalent uniform
pressure-time curve is calculated using the peak pressure Psob. The equivalent uniform load factors CE
are based on the wave length of the peak pressure and the height of the rear wall HS as are the time rises
and duration of both the positive and negative phase.
Like the roof and side walls, the blast
loads acting on the rear wall are a function
of the drag pressures in addition to the
incident pressure. The dynamic pressure
of the drag corresponds to that associated
with the equivalent pressure CEPsob, while
the recommended drag coefficients are the
same as used for the roof and side walls.
PR = CEPsob +CDqob
Fig. 2.43 Average pressure-time variation for rear wall
30
6. Confined and partially confined explosions (TM5-1300)

6.1 Effects of Confinement
When an explosion occurs within a structure, the peak pressures associated with the initial
shock front (free-air pressures) will be extremely high and, in turn, will be amplified by their
reflections within the structure. In addition, and depending upon the degree of confinement,
the effects of the high temperatures and accumulation of gaseous products produced by the
chemical process involved in the explosion will exert additional pressures and increase the
load duration within the structure. The combined effects of these pressures may eventually
destroy the structure unless the structure is designed to sustain the effects of the internal
pressures. Provisions for venting of these pressures will reduce their magnitude as well as
their duration.
The use of cubicle-type structures (Figure 2-44a) or other similar barriers with one or more
surfaces either sufficiently frangible or open to the atmosphere will provide some degree of
venting depending on the opening size. This type of structure will permit the blast wave from
an internal explosion to spill over onto the surrounding ground surface, thereby, significantly
reducing the magnitude and duration of the internal pressures. The exterior pressures are quite
often referred to as "leakage" pressures while the pressures reflected and reinforced within the
structure are termed interior "shock pressures." The pressures associated with the
accumulation of the gaseous products and temperature rise are identified as "gas" pressures.
For the design of most fully vented cubicle type structures, the effects of the gas pressure may
be neglected.
49 Fig. 2.44 Patially confined blast environment

Detonation in an enclosed structure with relatively small openings (Figure 2-44b) is associated
with both shock and gas pressures whose magnitudes are a maximum. The duration of the gas
pressure and, therefore, the impulse of the gas pressure is a function of the size of the opening.
It should be noted that the onset of the gas pressure does not necessarily coincide with the
onset of the shock pressure. Further, it takes a finite length of time after the onset for the gas
pressure to reach its maximum value. However, these times are very small and, for design
purposes of most confined structures, they may be treated as instantaneous.
In the following paragraphs of this section, a simple cantilever barrier as well as cubicletype
and containment type structures will be discussed. The cubicles are assumed to have one or
31
more surfaces which are open or frangible while the containment structures are either totally
enclosed or have small size openings. The effects of the inertia of frangible elements of these
structures will be discussed in subsequent sections.
50
6.2 Shock Pressures.
6.2.1 Blast Loadings.
When an explosion occurs within a cubicle or containment-type structure, the peak
pressures as well as the impulse associated with the shock front will be extremely high and
will be amplified by the confining structure. Because of the close-in effects of the explosion
and the reinforcement of blast pressures due to the reflections within the structure, the
distribution of the shock loads on any one surface will be nonuniform with the structural
surface closest to the explosion subjected to the maximum load.
An approximate method for the calculation of the internal shock pressures has been developed
using theoretical procedures based on semi-empirical blast data and on the results of response
tests on slabs. The calculated average shock pressures have been compared with those
obtained from the results of tests of a scale-model steel cubicle and have shown good
agreement for a wide range of cubicle configurations. This method consists of the
determination of the peak pressures and impulses acting at various points of each interior
surface and then integrating to obtain the total shock load. In order to simplify the calculation
of the response of a protective structure wall to these applied loads, the peak pressures and
total impulses are assumed to be uniformly distributed on the surface. The peak average
pressure and the total average impulse are given for any wall surface. The actual distribution
of the blast loads is highly irregular, because of the multiple reflections and time phasing and
results in localized high shear stresses in the element. The use of the average blast loads, when
designing, is predicated on the ability of the element to transfer these localized loads to
regions of lower stress. Reinforced concrete with properly designed shear reinforcement and
steel plates exhibit this characteristic.
The parameters which are necessary to determine the average shock loads are the structure's
configuration and size, charge weight, and charge location. Figure 2-45 shows many possible
simple barriers, cubicle configurations, and containment type structures as well as the
definition of the various parameters pertaining to each. Surfaces depicted are not frangible for
determining the shock loadings.
Because of the wide range of required parameters, the procedure for the determination of the
shock loads was programmed for solutions on a digital computer. The results of these
calculations are presented in UFC (Figures 2-52 to 2-100) for the average peak reflected
pressures pr (Figures 2-101 through 2-149) in UFC for the average scaled unit impulse ir/W1/3.
These shock loads are presented as a function of the parameters defining the configurations
presented in Figure 2-45. Each illustration is for a particular combination of values of h/H, l/L,
and N reflecting surfaces adjacent to the surface for which the shock loads are being
calculated. The wall (if any) parallel and opposite to the surface in question has a negligible
contribution to the shock loads for the range of parameters used and was therefore not
considered.
The general procedure for use of the above illustrations is as follows:
51
32
1. From Figure 2-45, select the particular surface of the structure which conforms to the
protective structure given and note N of adjacent reflecting surfaces as indicated in
parenthesis.
2. Determine the values of the parameters indicated for the selected surface of the
structure in Item 1 above and calculate the following quantities: h/H, l/L, L/H, L/RA,
and ZA = RA/W1/3.
3. Refer to Table 2-3 for the proper peak reflected pressure and impulse charts
conforming to the number of adjacent reflected surfaces and the values of l/L and h/H
of Item 2 above, and enter the charts to determine the values of pr and ir/W1/3.
In most cases, the above procedure will require interpolation for one or more of the
parameters which define a given situation, in order to obtain the correct average reflected
pressure and average reflected impulse. Examples of this interpolation procedure are given in
Appendix 2A.
Because of the limitations in the range of the test data and the limited number of values of the
parameters given in the above shock load charts, extrapolation of the data given in UFC (in
Figures 2-52 through 2-149) may be required for some of the parameters involved. However,
the limiting values as given in the charts for other parameters will not require extrapolation.
The values of the average shock loads corresponding to the values of the parameters, which
exceed their limiting values (as defined by the charts), will be approximately equal to those
corresponding to the limiting values. The following are recommended procedures which will
be applicable in most cases for either extrapolation or establishing the limits of impulse loads
corresponding to values of the various parameter which exceed the limits of the charts:
33
2-45
34
1. To extrapolate beyond the limiting values of ZA, plot a curve of values of pr versus ZA
for constant values of L/RA, L/H, h/H and l/L. Extrapolate curve to include the value of
pr corresponding to the value of ZA required. Repeat similarly for value of ir /W1/3.
2. To extrapolate beyond the limiting values of L/RA, extrapolate the given curve of pr
versus L/RA for constant values of ZA, L/H, h/H and l/L to include the value of pr
corresponding to the value of L/RA required. Repeat this extrapolation for value of ir
/W1/3.
3. Values of pr and ir /W1/3 corresponding to values of L/H greater than 5 shall be taken as
equal to those corresponding to L/H = 6 for actual values of ZA, h/H, and l/L but with a
fictitious value of L/RA in which RA is the actual value and L is a fictitious value equal
to 5H.
4. Values of pr and ir /W1/3 corresponding to values of l/L less than 0.10 and greater than
0.75 shall be taken as equal to those corresponding to l/L = 0.10 and 0.75, respectively.
5. Values of pr and ir /W1/3 corresponding to values of h/H less than 0.10 and greater than
0.75 shall be taken as equal to those corresponding to h/H = 0.10 and 0.75,
respectively.
A protective element subjected to high intensity shock pressures may be designed for the
impulse rather than the pressure pulse only if the duration of the applied pressure acting on the
element is short in comparison to its response time. However, if the time to reach maximum
displacement is equal to or less than three times the load duration, then the pressure pulse
should be used for these cases. The actual pressure-time relationship resulting from a pressure
distribution on the element is highly irregular because of the multiple reflections and time
phasing. For these cases, the pressuretime relationship may be approximated by a fictitious
peak triangular pressure pulse. The average peak reflected pressure of the pulse is obtained in
UFC (from Figures 2-52 through 2-100) and the average impulse in UFC (from Figure 2-101
through 2-149) and a fictitious duration is established as a function of the reflected pressure pr
and impulse ir acting on the element.
(2-48)
to = 2ir / pr
The above solution for the average shock load does not account for increased blast effects
produced by contact charges. Therefore, if the values of the average shock loads given in UFC
(in Figures 2-52 through 2-149) are to be applicable, a separation distance between the
element and explosive must be maintained. This separation is measured between the surface
of the element and the surface of either the actual charge or the spherical equivalent,
whichever results in the larger normal distance between the element's surface and the center of
the explosive (the radius of a spherical TNT charge is r = 0.136 W1/3). For the purposes of
design, the following separation distances are recommended for various charge weights:53
35
The above separation distances do not apply to floor slabs or other similar structural elements
placed on grade. However, a separation distance of at least one foot shouldbe maintained to
minimize the size of craters associated with contact explosions.
It should be noted that these separation distances do not necessarily conform to those specified
by other government regulations; their use in a particular design must be approved by the
cognizant military construction agency.
Average shock loads over entire wall or roof slabs were discussed above. An approximate
method may be used to calculate shock loads over surfaces other than an entire wall. These
surfaces might include a blast door, panel, column, or other such items found inside any
shaped structure.
The method assumes a fictitious strip centered in front of the charge having a width equal to
the normal distance RA and a height equal to that of the structure. This is the maximum
representative area that may be considered. Average shock loads can be determined on entire
area or any surface falling within the boundaries of the representative area.
The procedure for determining the shock loads consists of partitioning the surface under
consideration into subareas. These subareas do not need to be the same size. The angle of
incidence to the center of each subarea is calculated. The reflected pressure and scaled
impulse are determined for each subarea using Figure 2-25, respectively. A weighted average
with respect to area is taken for both pressure and scaled impulse.
Both the pressure and the impulse are multiplied by a factor of 1.75 to account for
secondary shocks.
6.3 Gas Pressures.

63.1 Blast Loadings.
When an explosion occurs within a confined area, gaseous products will accumulate and
temperature within the structure will rise, thereby forming blast pressures whose magnitude is
generally less than that of the shock pressure but whose duration is significantly longer. The
magnitude of the gas pressures as well as their durations is a function of the size of the vent
openings in the structure. For very small openings or no openings at all, the duration of the gas
pressures will be very long in comparison to the fundamental periods of the structure's
elements and, therefore, may be considered as a long duration load similar to that associated
with a nuclear event.
These conditions usually occur in total or near containment type structures. In the former, the
internal blast pressures must be contained because of the presence of toxic or other harmful
materials in the structure. In near containment structures, the leakage of pressure flow out of
the structure usually must be limited because either personnel or frangible structure are
located immediately adjacent to the donor structure. In other cases, however, openings in
structures may be quite large, thereby minimizing the products' accumulation and limiting the
temperature rise, hence producing gas pressures with limited duration or no duration at all.
The structures without gas pressure buildup are referred to as fully vented structures.
36
A typical pressure-time record at a point on the interior surface of a partially vented chamber
is shown in UFC (in Figure 2-151 in UFC). The high peaks are the multiple reflections
associated with shock pressures. The gas pressure, denoted as pg, is used as the basis for
design and is a function of the charge weight and the contained net volume of thechamber.
UFC (Figure 2-152 in UFC) shows an experimentally fitted curve based upon test results of
partially vented chambers with small venting areas where the vent properties ranged between:
(2-49)
0 Af /V2/3 0.022
The values of A and Vf are the chamber's total vent area and free volume which is equal to the
total volume minus the volume of all interior equipment, structural elements, etc. The
maximum gas pressure, Pg, is plotted against the charge weight to free volume ratio.
UFC (Figures 2-153 through 2-164 in UFC) provides the relationship of the gas pressure
scaled impulse ig /W1/3 as a function of the charge weight to free volume ratio W/Vf, scaled
value of the vent opening A/Vf 2/3, the scaled unit weight of the cover WF/W1/3 over the
opening, and the scaled average reflected impulse ir /W1/3 of the shock pressures acting on the
frangible wall or a non-frangible wall with a vent opening. The curves in UFC (in Figures 2153 through 2-164 in UFC) for WF/W1/3 = 0 were obtained from data with A/Vf 2/3 1.0.
Extrapolated values, for which there is less confidence, are dashed. Curves for WF/W1/3 > 0 are
not dashed at A/Vf 2/3 > 1.0 because they are not strongly dependent on the extrapolated portion
of the curve for WF/W1/3 = 0. Even lightweight frangible panels displace slowly enough that
the majority of the gas impulse is developed before significant venting (A/Vf 2/3 > 1) can
occur.) For a full containment type structure the impulse of the gas pressure will be infinite in
comparison to the response time of the elements (long duration load). For near containment
type structures where venting is permitted through vent openings without covers, then the
impulse loads of the gas pressures are determined using the scaled weight of the cover equal
to zero. The impulse loads of the gas pressures corresponding to scaled weight of the cover
greater than zero relates to frangible covers and will be discussed later. The effects on the gas
pressure impulse caused by the shock impulse loads will vary. The gas impulse loads will
have greater variance at lower shock impulse loads than at higher loads. Interpolation will be
required for the variation of gas impulse as a function of the shock impulse loads. This
interpolation can be performed in a manner similar to the interpolation for the shock
pressures.
The actual duration and the pressure-time variation of the gas pressures is not required for the
analysis of most structural elements. Similar to the shock pressures, the actual pressure-time
relationship can be approximated by a fictitious peak triangular pulse. The peak gas pressure
is obtained in UFC (from Figure 2-152 in UFC) and the impulse in UFC (from Figures 2-153
through 2-164 in UFC) and the fictitious duration is calculated from the following:
tg = 2ig / Pg
(2-50)
58
UFC (Figure 2-165a in UFC) illustrates an idealized pressure-time curve considering both the
shock and gas pressures. As the duration of the gas pressures approaches that of the shock
pressures, the effects of the gas pressures on the response of the elements diminishes until the
duration of both the shock and gas pressures are equal and the structure is said to be fully
vented.
If a chamber is relatively small and/or square in plan area then the magnitude of the gas
pressure acting on an individual element will not vary significantly. For design purposes the
gas pressures may be considered to be uniform on all members. When the chamber is quite
37
long in one direction and the explosion occurs at one end of the structure, the magnitude of
the gas pressures will initially vary along the length of the structure. At the end where the
explosion occurs, the peak gas pressure is Pg1 (Figure 2-165bin UFC) which after a finite time
decays to Pg2, and finally decays to zero. The gas pressure Pg2 is based on the total volume of
the structure and is obtained in UFC (from Figure 2-152 in UFC) while the time for this
pressure to decay to zero is calculated from Equation 2-4 where the impulse is obtained in
UFC (from Figures 2-153 through 2-164 in UFC) again for the total volume of the structure.
The peak gas pressure Pg1 is obtained in UFC (from Figure 2-152 in UFC) based on a pseudo
volume in UFC (Figure 2-165bin UFC) whose length is equal to its width and the height is the
actual height of the structure. The time tp for the gas pressure to decay from Pg1 to Pg2 is taken
as the actual length of the structure minus the width divided by the velocity of sound (1.12
fpms). At the end where the explosion occurs, the peak gas pressures (Pg1, Figure 2-165b in
UFC) will be a maximum and, after a finite time, they will decay to a value (Pg2, Figure 2165b in UFC) which is consistent with full volume of the structure; after which they will
decay to zero. The magnitude of the peak gas pressures (Pg1) may be evaluated by utilizing in
UFC (Figure 2-152 in UFC) and a pseudo volume whose length is equal to its width and the
height is the actual height of the chamber. The length of time tp between the two peak gas
pressures may be taken as the length minus the width of the structure divided by the velocity
of sound.
UFC
38
Chapter 3
Structural Dynamics (Single Degree of Freedom Model)
3.1 Analysis of Free Vibrations
3.1.1 Single Degree-of-Freedom system
The structures modelled as systems with a single displacement coordinate as shown Fig. 3.1 called Single
Degree Of Freedom System
fD(t)
fS(t)
fI(t)
y(t)
y(t)
fD(t) Damping force = cy(t)

fS(t) Spring force = ky(t)
..
fI(t) Inertia force = my(t)
Fig. 3.1 Components of the Basic Dynamic System
Equation of motion of the basic dynamic system
Then
fI(t)+ fD(t)+fS(t) = p(t)
(3-1)
m&y& + cy& + ky = p (t )
(3-2)
3.1.2 Analysis of Undamped Free Vibrations

For undampted free vibrations, fD(t)= 0 p(t) = 0, Eq. 3.2 can be simplified as
m&y& + ky = 0
To solve the second-order differential equation, a trial solution given by y = A cos t
y = B sin t and then submitting them to Eq 3.3, it has
(3-3)
or
(m 2 + k ) A cos t = 0
k
2 =
= k /m
m
Thus the solution is y = A cos t + B sin t . The velocity is
Initial conditions
t = 0, y = y0
y& =v 0
(3-4)
y& = A sin t + B cos t
and A = y0 , B = v0 /
39
The final solution is
y = y0 cos t +
v0
sin t
(3-5)
Cyclic frequency f = / 2 and Period (reciprocal) 1/f
3.1.3 Analysis of Damped Free Vibrations

m&y& + cy& + ky = 0
(3-6)
A trial solution given by exponential function: y = Ce st . Then
mCs 2 e st + cCse st + kCe st = 0

The characteristic equation for the system:
ms 2 + cs + k = 0
The roots of this quadratic equation
(3-7)
(3-8)
c
k
c

2m
2m m
General solution is give by the superposition of the two possible solutions:
s1, 2 =
y = C1e s1t + C2 e s2t
(3-9)
(3-10)
Three cases corresponding to radical being zero, positive or negative.
i. Critical Damped System

The quantity under the radical is zero:
2
k
ccr
=0
m
2m
The roots of this quadratic equation
General solution:
ccr = 2 km
s1, 2 =
y = C1e s1t + C2 e s2t
(3-11)
ccr
2m
y = (C1 + C2t )e ( ccr / 2 m ) t
ii. Overdamped System

when c > ccr, the quantity under the radical is positive. Thus the two roots of the characteristic
equation are real and distinct, consequently, the solution is given directly:
(3-12)
y = C e s1t + C e s2t
1
It should be noted that for the overdamped system and the critical damped system, the
resulting motion is not oscillatory; the magnitude of the oscillation decays exponentially with
time to zero.
iii. Damped System

when c < ccr, the quantity under the radical is negative. The roots of this quadratic equation
2
c
k c
s1, 2 =
i
2m
m 2m
40
(3-13)
For this case, it is convenient to make use of Eulers equations which relate exponential and
trigonometric functions:
eix = cos x + i sin x

e ix = cos x i sin x
General solution:
y = e ( c / 2 m )t ( A cos D t + B sin D t )
where D the damped frequency of the system, that can be expressed as
D =
in which
k c
m 2m
D = 1 2
c
ccr
t = 0, y = y0
= k /m
With initial conditions
y& =v 0
y = e t ( y 0 cos D t +
Alternatively,
where
C=
v0 + y 0
y = Ce t cos( D t )
y02 +
(3-14)
(v0 + y0 )2
2
D
tan =
(3-15)
sin D t )
| v0 + y0 |
D y0
TD =
1 2
In practice, the natural frequency for a damped system may be taken to be equal to the
undamped natural frequency. Fig. 3.2 shows free vibration response with under-critically
damped system.
y(t)
Ce t
y0
Fig. 3.2 Free vibration response with under damped system
iv. Logarithmic Decrement

In free vibration
At point points
y = Ce t cos( D t )
y2 = ce t2
y1 = ce t1
Logarithmic decrement :
= ln
y1
ce t1
= ln t2 = T D
y2
ce
41
TD =
1
For small damp ratio:
2
2
1 2
y(t)
Tangent points
[cos( Dt ) = 1]
ce t
y1
y2
Fig. 3.3 Curve showing peak displacement and displacements at points of tangency
3.2 Response to Harmonic Loading

3.2.1 Undamped Harmonic Excitation
Motion equation for undamped harmonic excitation
m&y& + ky = F 0sin t
(3-16)
The complementary solution of the free vibration:
yc (t ) = A cos t + B sin t
Particular solution:
3-17)
y p (t ) = Y sin t
m 2Y sin t + kY sin t = F 0sin t
Y=
where =
F0
F /k
= 0 2
2
k m
1
(3-18)
the ratio of the applied forced frequency to the natural frequency of vibration of the
system
Fig. 3.4 a: Undampeted harmionic excited SDOF system. b: Free body diagram
42
y (t ) = yc (t ) + y p (t )
General solution:
y (t ) = A cos t + B sin t +
F0 / k
sin t
1 2
For the system starting from rest (t=0 y0=0, v0=0):

y (t ) =
A= 0
(3-19)
B =
F0 / k
1 2
F0 / k
(sin t sin t )
1 2
(3-20)
Since in a practical case, damping will cause the last term to vanish eventually. The forcing
frequency term (transient response) is
y (t ) =
F0 / k
sin t = Y sin t
1 2
(3-21)
F0/k = yst is the displacement which would be produced by the load F0 applied statically
D=
Y
1
=
y st 1 2
is the dynamic magnification factor (DMF) representing the amplification factor of the
harmonically applied loading. It can be seen, when forcing frequency is equal to the natural
frequency, the amplitude of the motion becomes infinitely large. In this case, the system is said at
resonance.
3.2.2 Damped Harmonic Excitation

Motion equation for damped harmonic excitation
(3-22)
m&y& + cy& + ky = F 0sin t

The complementary solution of the free vibration:
yc (t ) = e t ( A cos D t + B sin D t )
y p ( t ) = C 1 cos t + C
Follow Eulers relation:
eit = cost + i sin t
Rewritten motion equation
m&y& + cy& + ky = F 0e it
(3-23)
sin t
y p = Ce it
mC 2 ei t + icCei t + kCei t = F0 ei t
C=
F0
k m + ic
2
Using polar coordinate form
(3-24)
F0 eit
yp =
k m 2 + ic
k m
+ ic =
(k m
) + ( c ) 2 e i
43
yp =
F0 e it
yp =
( k m 2 ) 2 + ( c ) 2 e i
F0 ei (t )
(k m ) + (c )
2 2
tan =
c
k m 2
The response to the force is then the imaginary component

F0 sin(t )
yp =
(3-25)
(k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
or
y p = Y sin(t )
Y=
where
Y=
F0
(k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
y st
yp =
(1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 ) 2
tan =
2
1 2
yst = F0 / k
c
ccr
General solution:
y (t ) = e t ( A cos Dt + B sin D t ) +
y st sin(t )
(1 2 ) 2 + (2 ) 2
=
y st sin(t )
(1 2 ) 2 + (2 ) 2
(3-26)
The dynamic magnification factor

D=
Y
1
=
yst
(1 2 ) 2 + (2 ) 2
(3-27)
3.2.3 Resonant Response

It is clear that the steady-state response amplitude of a undamped system tends towards
infinity as the frequency ratio approaches unity. When the frequency of the applied loading
equals the undamped natural vibration frequency, is called resonance. It is also seen that at
1
resonance the dynamic magnification factor is
D =1 =
2
D=
Y
1
=
yp
(1 2 ) 2 + (2 ) 2
44
tan =
2
1 2
Fig. 3.5 Dynamic magnification factor for damped system
3.3 Response to General Dynamic Loading

3.3.1 Impulsive Loading and Duhamels Integral
dv
F ( )d
= F ( )
dv =
d
m
Lets consider this impulse F()d acting on the structure represented by the undamped
oscillator. At the time the oscillator will experience a change of velocity given by dv. This
v
change of velocity is then introduced in the equation
y = y cos t + 0 sin t
Newtons Law of Motion:
as the initial velocity v0 together with y0 = 0 at time producing a displacement at a later t in

the following
1 t
F ( ) d
y (t ) =
F ( ) sin (t ) d (Duhamels Integral)
dy (t ) =
sin (t )
m 0
m
Considering initial conditions: t = 0, y = y0 y& =v 0 , the total displacement of undamped SDOF
an arbitrary load:
y(t) = y0 cost +
v0
sint +
1 t
F( ) sin(t )d
m 0
(3-28)
Fig. 3.6 General load function as impulse loading
45
3.3.2 Constant Force

For a constant force applied suddenly to the undamped oscillator at time t = 0, both initial
displacement and initial velocity equal to zero,
1 t
y (t ) =
F0 sin (t )d
(3-29)
m 0
F
F
t
y (t ) = 0 2 cos (t ) 0
y (t ) = 0 (1 cos t ) = y st (1 cos t )
and integration yields:
m
k
Fig. 3.7 Response of undampted SDOF system to a suddenly applied constant force
3.3.3 Rectangular Loading

For a constant force applied suddenly but only
during a limited time duration td, at td time,
displacement and velocity are
F0
(3-30)
(1 cos t d )
k
F
vd = 0 sin t d
(3-31)
k
For the response after time td, it follows free
vibrations.
yd =
y = y0 cos t +
v0
sin t
(3-32)
Fig. 3.8
Replacing t by t-td, and y0 and v0 respectively, it has
y (t ) =
F0
F
(1 cos t d ) cos (t t d ) + 0 sin t d sin (t t d )
k
k
y(t ) =
F0
[cos(t td ) cost )]
k
If the dynamic load factor (DLF) is defined as the displacement at any time t divided by static
displacement
DLF = 1 cos t
or
t
DLF = 1 cos 2 '
T
t td
DLF = cos (t t d ) cos t
t td
t td
t t
t
DLF = cos 2 ( d ) cos 2 '
T T
T
t td
(3-33)
46
3.3.4 Triangle Loading

For a triangular force which has an initial value
F0 and decreases linearly to zero at a time td:
F ( ) = F0 1
td
(3-34)
y0 = 0
and the initial conditions by
v0 = 0
substitute these values in Eq.

y (t ) =
1 t
F ( ) sin (t )d
m 0
(3-35)
Fig. 3.9
and integration gives

F
F sin t
y = 0 (1 cos t ) + 0
t
k
kt d
(3-36)
or in terms of the dynamic load factor and dimensionless parameters

DLF =
y
sin( 2t / T ) t
= 1 cos( 2t / T ) +
y st
2t d / T
td
t td
(3-37)
The displacement and velocity at time td as
yd =
F0 sin t d
cos t d
k t d
vd =
F0
cos t d 1
sin t d +
(3-38)
k
td
td
For the response after time td, it follows free vibrations.

v
y = y0 cos t + 0 sin t
(3-39)
Replacing t by t-td, and y0 and v0 respectively, it has

y=
DLF
or
F0
(sin t sin (t t d ) ) F0 cos t
kt d
k
1
(sin t sin ( t t d )) cos t
td
DLF =
(3-40)
(3-41)
1
t
t t
t
(sin 2 sin 2 ( d )) cos 2
2td / T
T
T T
T
3.3.5 Duhamels Integral-Undamped System

Total displacement:
y (t ) =
1 t
F ( ) sin (t )d
m 0
y (t ) = sin t
or
1 t
1 t
F ( ) cos d cos t
F ( ) sin d
m 0
m 0
(3-42)
(3-43)
y (t ) = A(t ) sin t B(t ) cos t
47
F()
where
A(t ) =
1
F ( ) cos d
m 0
t
B (t ) =
1
F ( ) sin d
m 0
t
F0
F1
F3
F4
F2
F5
The calculation of Duhamels integral requires the evaluation of the

integrals A(t) and B(t) numerically. Several numerical integration
techniques have been used for this evaluation. In these techniques the
integrals are replaced by a suitable summation of the function
v()=F()cos under the integral and evaluated for convenience at n
equal time increments, as shown in this Fig. The numerical
integral A(t) can now be used as follows:
F6
v() = F()cos
v2
v3
v0
v4
v1
0
v6
Fig. 3.10 Duhamels interal
A( t n ) =
(v0 + v1 + ... + vn 1 )
m
Simple summation:
Trapezoidal rule:
A(t n ) =
A(t n ) =
Simpson rule:
(v0 + 2v1 + ... + 2vn 1 + vn )

2m
(v0 + 4v1 + 2v2 + ... + 4vn 1 + vn )

3m
n = 1, 2, 3,
(3-44)
(3-45)
n = 1, 2, 3,
(3-46)
n = 2, 4, 6,
Using any of these equations, A(t) can be obtained directly for any specific value of n
indicated. However, usually the entire time-history of response is required so that one
must evaluate A(t) for successive values of n until the desired time-history of response is
obtained. For this purpose, it is more efficient to use these equations in their recursive
forms:
Simple summation:
A ( t i ) = A ( t i 1 ) +
v i 1
i = 1, 2, 3,
(3-47)
m
(vi 1 + vi )
2m
Trapezoidal rule:
A(ti ) = A(ti 1 ) +
Displacement response:
y ( t n ) = A ( t n ) sin t n B ( t n ) cos t n
i= 1, 2, 3,
(3-48)
(3-49)
Example
Determine the dynamic response of a tower subjected to a blast loading. The idealization of
the structure and the blast loading are shown in Fig. Neglecting damping.
y(t)
F(t)
F(t)
48
3.4 Nonlinear Structural Response

3.4.1 Nonlinear SDOF Model
The equilibrium of these forces is expressed as
FI(ti)+ FD(ti)+FS(ti) = F(ti)
(3-50)
and at short time t later as
FI(ti+t)+ FD(ti+t)+FS(ti+t) = F(ti+t)
(3-51)
Subtracting the above equations results in the

differential equation of motion in terms of
Fig. 3.11 Dampted SDOF system
FI+ FD+ FS = F
(3-52)
where the incremental forces in this equation are defined as
FI = FI(ti+t) - FI(ti) FD = FD(ti+t) - FD(ti) FS = FS(ti+t) - FS(ti)
(3-53)
F = F(ti+t) - F(ti)
FI+ FD+ FS = F
If assuming the damping force is a function
of the velocity and the spring force a
function of displacement as shown
graphically in Fig. while the inertia force
remain proportional to the acceleration, the
incremental forces can be expressed as
FI = m&y&i
Nonlinear stiffness
FD = ci y& i
Nonlinear damping
FS = ki yi
.
where the incremental displacement yi, incremental velocity
yi, and incremental ..
acceleration yi are given by
yi = y(ti+t) - y(ti)
Fig. 3.12 Nonlinear stiffness and damping
.
.
.
The incremental equation can be written as
.. ..
..
m&y&i + ci y& i + ki yi = Fi
(3-54)
(3-55)
3.4.2 Linear Acceleration Step-by-Step Method

In the linear acceleration method, it is
assumed that the acceleration may be
expressed by a linear function of time during
the time interval t as
&y&(t ) = &y&i +
&y&i
(t ti )
t
Integrating above equation, the

1 &y&
velocity
y& (t ) = y& i is
+ &y&i (t ti ) +
(t ti ) 2
2 t
the displacement then is
given as
(3-56)
t
(3-57)
m&y&i + ci y& i + ki yi = Fi
Fig. 3.13 Linear acceleration method
49
y (t ) = yi + y& (t t i ) +
1
1 &y&i
&y&i (t ti ) 2 +
(t t i ) 3
2
6 t
(3-58)
The above equations at time t = ti +t gives

1
y& i = &y&i t + &y&i t
2
1
1
yi = y& i t + &y&i t 2 + &y&i t 2
2
6
(3-59)
(3-60)
Now to use the incremental displacement y

as the basic variable in the analysis
Fig. 3.14 Acceleration, velocity and displacement
From yi = y& i t +
Substitute
&y&i =
1
1
&y&i t 2 + &y&i t 2
2
6
&y&i =
6
6
yi
y& i 3 &y&i
2
t
t
y& i =
to
6
6
yi
y& i 3 &y&i
2
t
t
(3-61)
1
y& i = &y&i t + &y&i t
2
(3-62)
. t &y&
3
y i 3 yi
i
t
2
The incremental equation:
(3-63)
m&y&i + ci y& i + k i yi = Fi
(3-64)
6
t
6
3
&y&i + k i yi = Fi
m 2 yi
y& i 3 &y&i + ci yi 3 yi
t
2
t
(3-65)
Transferring all the terms containing the

ki yi = Fi
unknown incremental displacement y to the left
_
in which ki is the effective spring constant ki = ki + 6m2 + 3ci
(3-66)
t
t
_
t
6
and Fi is the effective incremental force Fi = Fi + m y& i + 3 &y&i + ci 3 y& i + &y&i (3-67)
t
The equation
ki yi = Fi
is equivalent to the static incremental equilibrium equation
The incremental displacement is simply determined by

The displacement yi+1 at time ti+1 is obtained by
The incremental velocity is given by
The velocity at time ti+1 is obtained by
y& i =
yi =
Fi
ki
yi +1 = yi + yi
3
t
y i 3 yi &y&i
.
t
2
y& i +1 = y& i + y& i
(3-67)
(3-68)
(3-69)
(3-70)
..
The acceleration yi+1 at the end of the time step is obtained directly from the differential
equation of motion
1
&y&i +1 = {F (ti +1 ) FD (ti +1 ) FS (ti +1 )}
m
(3-71)
50
After the displacement, velocity and acceleration have been determined at time ti+1, the
outlined procedure is repeated to calculate these quantities at the following time step ti+2
and the process is continued to any desired final value of time.
3.4.3 Elasto-Plastic Behavior

Elasto-plastic behaviour is a simplified model by assuming a
definite yield point beyond which additional displacement
takes place at a constant value for the restoring force
without any further increase in the load.
Referred to the Fig. 3.15, assuming the initial conditions are
zero for the unloaded structure. Initially, as the load is
applied, the system behaves elastically along curve E0. The
displacement yt at which plastic behaviour in tension may
be initiated and displacement yc at which plastic behaviour
in compression may be initiated are calculated
yt = Rt / k
yc = Rc / k
(3-72)
Fig. 3.15 Elasto-plastic behaviour
The system will remain on curve E0 as long as the displacement y satisfies
y c < y < yt
If the displacement y increases to yt, the system begins to behave plastically in tension along
.
.
curve T as shown; it remains on curve T as long as the velocity y > 0. When y < 0, the system
reverses to elastic behaviour on a curve such as E1 with new yielding point given by
yt = ymax
yc = ymax ( Rt Rc ) / k
(3-73)
Conversely, if y decreases to yc, the system begins to behave plastically in compression

.
.
along curve C as shown; it remains on curve C as long as the velocity y < 0. When y > 0,
the system reverses to elastic behaviour on a curve such as E2 with new yielding point
given by
yt = ymin + ( Rt Rc ) / k
yc = ymin
(3-74)
The restoring force on an elastic phase of the cycle is calculated as

R = Rt ( yt y )k
on a plastic phase in tension
R = Rt
(3-75)
on a plastic phase in compression
R = Rc
3.4.4 Algorithm for Step-by-Step Solution for Elastoplastic SDOF System

ki yi = Fi
ki = ki +
6m 3ci
+
t 2 t
t
6
Fi = Fi + m y& i + 3 &y&i + ci 3 y& i + &y&i

2
t
51
(3-76)
(3-77)
(3-78)
(3-79)
52
(3-80)
(3-81)
(3-82)
(3-83)
(3-84)
(3-85)
(3-86)
(3-87)
(3-88)
(3-89)
53
Example
To illustrate the hand calculation in applying the step-by-step integration method described above, consider the
single degree-of-freedom system in Fig. 7.5 with elastoplastic behavour subjected to loading history as shown.
For this example, we assume that the damping coefficient remains constant ( = 0.087). Hence the only
nonlinearities in the system arise from the changes in stiffness as yielding occurs.
54
3.5 Generalized Single Degree of Freedom System

3.5.1 General comments on SDOF system
In formulating the SDOF equations of motion and response analysis procedures, it is
assumed that the structure under consideration has a single lumped mass that can move
only in a single fixed direction. The equation of motion for a linear elastic SDOF system
under blast loads is presented as
M&y& + Ky = p (t )
y
p (t)
R = KX
M
L
Fig. 3.16 SDOF system for structural member
However, the analysis of most real systems requires the use of more complicated
idealization. In the case of structures having distributed elasticity, the SDOF shape
restriction is merely an assumption because the distributed elasticity actually permits an
infinite variety of displacement patterns to occur. However, when the system motion is
limited to a single form of deformation, it only has a SDOF in a mathematical sense.
Therefore, when the generalized mass, damping, and stiffness properties associated with
this degree of freedom have been evaluated, the structure may be analyzed in the same way
as a true SDOF system.
3.5.2 Dynamic transformation factors

In most cases, a structure can be replaced by an idealized system which behaves timewise
in nearly the same manner as the actual structure. The distributed masses of the given
structure are lumped together in to a concentrated mass. A structural system having
distributed mass can be modeled as a SDOF system.
y
y
p (t)
FE
x
M
KE
x
ME
L
L
Fig. 3.17 SDOF syste for a distributed mass of a structural memeber
In order to define an equivalent one-degree system, it is necessary to evaluate the

parameters of that system; namely, the equivalent mass ME, the equivalent spring constant
KE and the equivalent load FE. The equivalent system is selected usually so that the
deflection of the concentrated mass is the same as that for a significant point of the
structure. The single-degree-of-freedom approximation of the dynamic behavior of the
structural element may be achieved by assuming a deflected shape for the element which
is usually taken as the shape resulting from the static application of the dynamic loads.
The assumption of a deflected shape establishes an equation relating the relative deflection
of all points of the element.
55
3.5.3 Load Factor

If the actual total load on the structure is F and the equivalent load is FE, the load
factor KL is defined by the equation
(3-90)
KL = FE /F
The load factor is derived by setting the external work done by the equivalent load FE on
the equivalent system equal to the external work done by the actual load F on the actual
element deflecting to the assumed deflected shape. For a structure with distributed loads;
L
WD = FE max = p ( x) ( x)dx
0
where
max =
p(x) =
(x) =
L=
Elastic
(3-91)
p (t)
x
M
maximum deflection of actual structure

distributed load per unit length
deflection at any point of actual structure
length of structure
rearranging
FE
x
max
L
FE = p ( x) ( x)dx
(3-92)
where (x) = (x)/max and is called the shape
Fig. 3.18 Load factor for a structural member
It should be noted that the shape function, (x) is different for the elastic range and the
plastic range and therefore the load factor, KL, will be different.
For example; the shape factor for a simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed
load, in the elastic rangers is defined as
max =
=
5 p ( x ) L4
384 EI
( x) =
p( x) 3
( L x 2 Lx 3 + x 4 )
24 EI
(3-93)
( x) p( x) 3
384 EI
16
=
( L 2 Lx 2 + x 3 )
= 4 ( L3 x 2 Lx 3 + x 4 )
4
max 24 EI
5 p ( x) L 5 L
(3-93)
while for the plastic range
max = ( L / 2) tan
( x) =
Then
( x) = x tan
( x)
x tan
=
= 2x / L
max ( L / 2) tan
FE =
p ( x ) ( x ) dx
(3-94)
(3-95)
KL = FE /F
(3-96)
56
Example
If: p(x) = 1000kg/m; L = 10m , determine load factors
Elastic Response
p (t)
x
M
L
Plastic Response
p (t)
x
M
L
57
For a structure with concentrated loads

i
WD = FE max = Fr r
(3-97)
r =1
where Fr is rth concentrated load, r is deflection at load r, i is number of concentrated loads

i
rearranging terms
FE = Frr
(3-98)
F1
FE
r =1
F2
where the shape factor is defined as
r = r / max
ma
(3-99)
r =1
For example: P = 1000kg; L = 10m
Fig. 3.19 Load factor for concentrated load
3.5.4 Mass Factor

If the total mass of the actual element is M and the mass of the equivalent system is ME,
the mass factor KM is defined by the equation
KM = ME /M
(3-100)
KM can be obtained by setting the kinetic energy of the equivalent system equal to the
kinetic energy of the actual structure as determined from its deflected shape.
For a structure with continuous mass

L
K E = M E ( max ) 2 / 2 = m( x)( ( x)) 2 dx / 2

0
where
= natural circular frequency
m(x) = distributed mass per unit length
rearranging
ME
L
Fig. 3.20 Mass factor for a structural member
M E = m( x) 2 ( x)dx
0
(3-101)
(3-102)
where the shape function (x) is based on the deflected shape of the element due to the
applied loading and not to the distribution of the mass. Since the deflected shape of the
element is different for the elastic and plastic ranges, (x), and therefore KM, will also be
different.
58
For example:
m(x) = 0.1(kg-s2/m4)
L=10m
Elastic Response
p (t)
(x) = (16/5L4)(L3x - 2Lx3 + x4)
x
M
L
For example:
L = 10m
m(x) = 0.1(kg-s2/m4)/m
( x) =
Px
3L2 4 x 2
48 EI
( x) =
max =
PL3
48EI
( x ) Px(3L2 4 x 2 ) 48 EI
=
max
48 EI
PL3
= 3L2 x 4 x 3 / L3
59
3.5.5 Resistance Factor

Through the early stages of blast loading, deflection resistance is elastic but as cracks
develop and steel begins to yield, the section begins to plastically deform and resistance
begins to plateau. Consequently this spring stiffness idealisation is no longer valid and
must be replaced with resistance function, R(y):
M&y& + R ( y ) = p (t )
(3-103)
If the total resistance of the actual structural element is R and the equivalent total resistance of the
equivalent system is RE, the resistance factor KR is defined by the equation
(3-104)
KR = RE /R
To obtain the resistance factor, it is necessary to equate the strain energy of the structural
element, as computed from the assumed deflection shape, and the strain energy of the
equivalent single-degree-of-freedom system.
Since the resistance of an element is the internal force tending to restore the element to its
unloaded static position, it can be shown that the resistance factor KR must always equal the
load factor KL.
3.4.6 Load-Mass Factor

The load-mass factor is a factor formed by combining the two basic transformation factors, KL and KM. It
is merely the ratio of the mass factor to the load factor, and it is convenient since the equation of motion
may be written in terms of that factor alone.
The equation of motion of the actual system is given as
KLF - KLR = KMMa
and for the equivalent system
which can be re-written as
F - R = Ma
F - R = (KM /KL)Ma
or F
- R = KLMMa = Mea
(3-105)
(3-106)
(3-107)
where KLM = load-mass factor = KM /KL

and Me =
effective total mass of the equivalent system
when expressed in terms of the unit area of the element, Equation can be written as
f - r = KLMma = mea
(3-108)
Instead of computing the several factors above, the load-mass factors in the elastic and elasto-plastic
ranges can be determined by relating the primary mode of vibration of the member to that of an
equivalent single-degree-of-freedom system. In the plastic range, it can be assumed that neither the
moment nor the curvature changes between the plastic hinges under increasing deflection. This
behavior results in a linkage action, consideration of which can be used to evaluate the effective plastic
mass.
60
Natural Period of Vibration

To determine the maximum response of a system either by numerical methods or design
charts (both methods are described), the effective natural period of vibration is required.
This effective natural period of vibration, when related to the duration of a blast loading of
given intensity and a given structural resistance, determines the maximum transient
deflection Xm of the structural element.
The effective natural period of vibration is
Tn = 2(me/KE)1/2 = 2 (KLmMm/KE)1/2
(3-109)
where
me =
KE =
the effective unit mass

the equivalent unit stiffness of system
The values used for the effective mass and stiffness for a particular element depends on the
allowable maximum deflection. When designing for completely elastic behavior, the elastic
stiffness is used. In all other cases the equivalent elasto-plastic stiffness, KE, is used. The
elastic value of the effective mass is used for the elastic range, while in the elasto-plastic
range the effective mass is the average of the elastic and elasto-plastic values.
61
62
Chapter 4
Resistance-Deflection Function and Dynamic Analysis
4.1 Static versus dynamic material response
Conventional loads such as wind and live
loads are applied relatively slowly to a
structure and remain constant for a relatively
long period of time compared to the
response of the structure. Blast loaded
structures experience a very rapid
application of the load and a corresponding
rapid rise in member stresses. This is
transient and will normally return to ambient
conditions in a short period of time.
Material response under dynamic loads is
markedly different than for static loads. As a
material is loaded rapidly, it cannot deform
at the same rate at which the load is applied.
This creates an increase in the stress level at
which yield occurs as well as the ultimate
stress achieved prior to rupture. As a fast
strain rate, a greater load is required to
produce the same deformation at a lower
strain rate
Fig. 4.1 Typical stress-strain curves for concrete and reinforcing steel
In general, the faster the material is deformed (strain rate) the greater the increase in
strength. The resulting strength increase allows members to develop structural resistance in
excess of their static capacity. This increase can be on the order of several times, thus it is
too significant to ignore these effects when computing flexural response. This effect is
accounted for in blast engineering by the use of a dynamic increase factor.
Fig. 4.2 Regimes of strain rates
63
4.2 Dynamic Increase Factors

The dynamic increase factor, DIF, is equal to the ratio of the dynamic stress to the static stress, e.g., fdy/fy,
fdu/fu and f'dc/f'c. The DIF depends upon the rate of strain of the element, increasing as the strain rate
increases.
Both steel and concrete are strain rate dependant materials and it is, therefore, essential to identify the
loading rate and material response characteristics experienced during blast loading. The DIF
relationships for concrete in compression, concrete in tension and steel are well defined
DIF values for any strength of concrete under compression are
defined by Li and Meng as:
DIF = y s (1 + (log & + 3) 0.03438) / 0.01413 & <= 102 s-1 (4-1)
& > 102 s-1 (4-2)

D IF
DIF = 8.5303 7.1372 log & + 1.729 log 2 &
10
where
y s = 10 ( 6.156 s 2)
(4-3)
s = 1 (5 + 9 f cs / 10)
(4-4)
1
1
10
100
1000
10000
Strain rate (1/s)
& is the strain rate (s-1) and fcs is compressive strength of concrete
Fig. 4.3 DIF for
concrete under compression
(MPa).
DIF values for any strength of concrete under tension are defined by Malvar and Crawford as:
&
DIF =
&S
0.03759
&
DIF = 0.0168
&S
& 1 s 1
1
3
(4-5)
(4-6)
& > 1 s 1
where &S is the static strain rate (30 x 10-6 s-1).

Fig. 4.4 DIF for concrete under tension
DIF values for any strength of steel are defined by Malvar and Crawford as:
DIF
&
= 4
10
(4-7)
for yield stress:
= 0.074 0.040
fy
414
for ultimate stress:
= 0.019 0.009
(4-8)
fy
414
(4-9)
where fy is the steel yield strength (MPa).
64
The design curves for the DIF for the unconfined compressive strength of concrete and for
the yield stress of ASTM A 615, Grade 60, reinforcing steel, are given in Figure 4-9 and 410, respectively. The curves were derived from test data having a maximum strain rate of 10
x 10-3 in./in./msec. for concrete and 2.1 x 10-3 in./in./msec. for steel. Values taken from
these design curves are conservative estimates of DIF and safe for design purposes.
Figure 4-9 Design curve for DIF for
ultimate compressive strength of concrete
Figure 4-10 Design curve for DIF for

yield stress of ASTM A 615 Grade 60 reinforcing steel
1.8
1.7
2,500 psi < f'c < 5,000 psi

1.6
1.65
1.5
DIF, fdy / fy
DIF, f'dc / f'c
1.5
1.35
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.05
0.9
1.E-6
1.1
1.E-5
1.E-4
.001
.01
1
1.E-6
1.E-5
Strain Rate (in./in./msec.)
1.E-4
.001
.01
0.1
Strain Rate (in./in./msec.)
Fig. 4.5 DIF for concrete and steel bar(ASTM)
Fig. 4.6
ASCE guidelines for DIF (1997)
65
TM5-1300 guidelines for DIF (1997)
Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) for Design of Reinforced Concrete Elements

TYPE OF
STRESS
FAR DESIGN RANGE
CLOSE-IN DESIGN RANGE
Reinforcing Bars
Concrete
Reinforcing Bars
Concrete
fdy/fy
fdu/fu
f'dc/f'c
fdy/fy
fdu/fu
f'dc/f'c
Bending
1.17
1.05
1.19
1.23
1.05
1.25
Diagonal
Tension
1.00
------
1.00
1.10
1.00
1.00
Direct Shear
1.10
1.00
1.10
1.10
1.00
1.10
Bond
1.17
1.05
1.00
1.23
1.05
1.00
Compression
1.10
------
1.12
1.13
------
1.16
M(k
N.m
)
4.3 Yield and Ultimate Moment Capacity of a Section (ASCE)
Mu
My
Kp
K=
384 EI
3
5L
y
curvature
Fig. 4.6 Yield and ultimate moment capacity of a section
The ultimate unit resisting moment Mu of a rectangular section of width b with tension
reinforcement only is given by: Mu = (Asfds/b)[d - (a/2)] in which: a = Asfds/(0.85 b f'dc)
As = area of tension reinforcement within the width b
fds = dynamic design stress for reinforcement
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
b = width of compression face
f'dc = dynamic ultimate compressive strength of concrete
66
Layered Capacity Analysis

1.18
& = 66.2 Prmax
Concrete
Steel
Steel
FRP
Fig. 4.7 Layered analysis of a cross-section

Strain Rate Profile (s-1)
DIF
FRP
Steel
Compression
Tension
Concrete
Steel
Fig. 4.8 Calculating DIF values from strain rate

(Strain)
y
(Stress)
F (Force)
Fp1
Fs1
Fc
ku
d
bar= y
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fs2
Fp2
Fig. 4.9 Yield capacity of a section
To calculate the yield capacity of the section in Fig. 4.9(a), the strain in the tensile steel is
first set at its yield strain and an estimate of the neutral axis depth kud is made as in Fig.
4.9(b). From the strain diagram with a DIF value calculated from the strain rate diagram, a
stress profile can be derived as in Fig. 4.9(c) from which the longitudinal forces acting are
calculated as in Fig. 4.9(d). The neutral axis depth is varied until longitudinal equilibrium
is achieved and the moment capacity and curvature can be calculated.
In calculating the yield capacity of the retrofitted section, a check is required as to whether
the CFRP debonds before the steel yields. This was found not to be a factor in calculating
the yield capacity of an FRP NSM plated section due to the close proximity of the FRP to
the steel reinforcement and the relatively high debonding strain achieved using the NSM
technique. For example, the 20mm NSM plates used in the experimental tests in the Fig.
had an IC debonding strain of 0.0164 compared to the steel reinforcement yield strain of
0.0028. However for EB plates, a typical IC debonding strain for a 200mm wide FRP plate
would be 0.0016, which is lower than the steel reinforcement yield strain and implies that
the plate would debond before the member begins to yield. This need be discussed where
the use of EB plating options is analyzed.
67
(Strain)
<c
u
kud
k ud
(Strain)
k ud
(a)
<IC
<fr
(b)
IC/fr
(c)
d
(d)
Fig. 4.10 Flexural analysis of ultimate capacity concrete crushing and debonding
When calculating the ultimate capacity of the retrofitted section, there are three possible
failure mechanisms that can govern the ultimate capacity: (1) crushing of the concrete on
the compression face at a strain c of about 0.003 as shown in Fig. 4.10(b); (2) failure of
the FRP strips due to IC debonding at a plate strain of IC as in Fig. 4.10(c); (3) or failure of
the plate at a fracture strain of fr as shown Fig. 4.10d. A solution is found by pivoting
about each of these failure strains in turn to find the pivotal failure strain and its associated
failure strain profile which lies within the two remaining failure strains.
4.4 Resistance-deflection function

Under the action of external loads, a structural element is deformed and internal forces set
up. The sum of these internal forces tending to restore the element to its unloaded static
position is defined as the resistance. The resistance of a structural element is a reactive
force associated with the deflection of the element produced by the applied load. It is
convenient to consider the resistance as an equivalent load in the same manner as the
applied load, but opposite in direction. The variation of the resistance vs. displacement is
expressed by a resistance-deflection function and may be represented graphically. An
idealized resistance-deflection function is shown in Figure. Elastic resistance is the level at
which the material reaches yield at the location of maximum moment in the member.
Beyond the point of first yield of a member, plastic regions are formed in the section and
an elastic-plastic condition occurs. When last section yields, no additional resistance is
available and the resistance-deflection curve is flat. The first step to develop a resistance
function is to determine the section capacity such as yield moment and ultimate moment.
68
Fig. 4.11 Typical resistance-deflection function
Resis
tance
(kN)
M(k
N.m
)
Mu
My
Kp
K=
Rult
Ryield
Kp
384 EI
3
5L
K
yult
yyield
curvature
Deflection (mm)
Neutral axis
t
Fig. 4.12 Moment-curature analysis of a section
For example, a RC beam with simple supports subjected to uniformly distributed loads needs
only one plastic hinge to develop the ultimate resistance of the element
L
Lh Lh
Plastic Hinge
2Lh
Fig. 4.13 Pleastic hinge to develop the ultimate resistance of the element
R yield = 8M yield / L
(4-10)
y yield = R yield / K
384 EI
K=
3
5L
Resis
tance
(kN)
Elastic Response:
Rult
Ryield
Kp
(4-11)
Plastic Response:
Rult = 8M ult / L
(4-12)
K
yult
yyield
Assuming the plastic hinge length to be 0.75 times the depth of the
specimen, the rotation in the member can be calculated by
Fig. 4.14 Resistance deflection curve
Lh
L
= ult dx
= ult Lh
yult =
0
2
Deflection (mm)
69
For the beam fixed at both ends, more plastic hinge is required
1. Elastic
2. Elastic-Plastic
3. Plastic
Elastic Response:
R y = 12M us / L
(4-13)
ye = R y / K e
Ke =
384 EI
L3
(4-14)
yu
ye
ye-p
Fig. 4.15 Resistance deflection curve for two end fixed beams
Elastic-Plastic Response:
Ru = 8( M us + M uc ) / L
K e p =
Ru R y
ye p y e
Ke p =
384 EI
5L3
(4-15)
Plastic Response:
Ru = 8( M us + M uc ) / L
Lh
= ult dx
0
= ult Lh
yult =
L
2
(4-16)
Equivalent resistance-deflection curve

Usually for easy calculation, tri-linear resistance deflection function for fixed end beam
is simplified by the equivalent elastic resistance-deflection function (bi-linear) defined
by XE and KE as indicated by the dotted line prior to the numerical integration. The
equivalent elastic stiffness KE and the equivalent elastic deflection XE are calculated
such that the area under the dotted curve is equal to the area under the solid curve,
thereby producing the same potential energy in each system.
KE
XE
Fig. 4.16 Resistance deflection curve for fixed end beam with UDL
Mpc = ultimate positive unit moment capacity at midspan.

Mps = ultimate negative unit moment capacity at the support.
70
Energy Absorption
The importance of resistance-deflection curves is that the total energy absorption capacity of
a member can be found by calculating the area under the curve. This concept is extremely
useful in making comparisons of members capacities to resist blast loads.
2
ib
rX
m
= u E + a ru ( yult X E )
2ma
2
mu
(4-17)
where mu is equal to KLMmu (mu is plastic mass) ma is the average of the effective elastic and
plastic masses and XE the equivalent deflection. Ductility of the member is defined as yu/yy.
A
B
yyB
yuA
yyA
yuB
Fig. 4.17 Energy absorption of RC members against blasts
Slabs reinforced with steel bars at different reinforcement ratios will absorb energy differently.
40000.0
1200.0
35000.0
1000.0
0.50%
30000.0
1.00%
800.0
1.36%
1.47%
600.0
1.69%
2.01%
0.00%
400.0
0.28%
Resistance (kNmm)
Resistance (kN)
0.79%
25000.0
20000.0
15000.0
10000.0
200.0
5000.0
0.0
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
Deflection (mm)
50.0
60.0
70.0
0.0
0.00%
0.50%
1.00%
1.50%
2.00%
2.50%
3.00%
3.50%
Reinforcement Rate
Fig. 4.18 Optimized design of RC members against blasts

The optimized reinforcement ratio of the designed slab is corresponding to the maximum energy
absorption capacity of the member.
71
ASCE guidelines for one-way element
72
ASCE guidelines for one-way element
TM5 guidelines for one-way element
Mp =
MN =
ultimate positive unit moment capacity at midspan.

ultimate negative unit moment capacity at the support.
73
4.5 Structural response to blast loads

The response of a structural system subjected to a dynamic load is defined in terms of its
maximum deflection Xm (or yult). The dynamic load is defined by its peak value P and
duration T while the single-degree-of-freedom system is defined in terms of its ultimate
resistance ru, elastic deflection XE and natural period TN.
M&y& + R( y ) = p (t )
Fig. 4.19 SDOF analysis
4.5.1 Numerical methods

y
Step-by-Step Solution for Elastoplastic SDOF System
p (t)
x
ki yi = Fi
(4-18)
(4-19)
Resis
tance
(kN)
6m 3c
k i = ki + 2 + i
t
t
Rult
Ryield
K=
384 EI
3
5L
Kp =
1/2
Tn = 2(me/KE)
Rult R yield
yult y yield
1/2
= 2 (KLmMm/KE)
Kp
(4-20)
K
yult
yyield
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 4.20 Numerical methods for SDOF model
Numerical Integration
Initialise:
Determine the stiffness, K, mass, M, tension resistance, Rut, compression resistance, Ruc,
dampening coefficient, C, forcing function F(t), time increment, t, reaction resistance
coefficient, a, and reaction force coefficient, b.
For blast design, the dampening is usually set to zero.
To include the effects of static loads, the tension and compression resistance should be
adjusted accordingly.
At each time step (step = 0 to last), determine the value of the forcing function, F0...Flast.
For the initial time step (step = 0), initialize the displacement, velocity, acceleration, yield
displacements, and resistance.
74
y0
=
0
v0
=
0
a0
=
Fo/M
yt,0
=
Rut/K
yc,0
=
Ruc/K
R0
=
0
Initialise the response indicator, KEY,
0
(elastic)
KEYo =
For each time step: (step = i, beginning with i = 0)
Calculate the effective stiffness,
If (KEYi = 0) then Ki = K + (6/t2)M + (3/t)C
Other wise Ki = (6/t2)M + (3/t)C
Calculate the effective incremental force,
Fi = (Fi+1 Fi) + [ 6/t2)M + (3/t )C ] vi + [ (3)M + (t/2)C ] ai
Solve for the incremental displacement,
yi = Fi / Ki
Calculate the incremental velocity,
vi = (3/t)yi (3)vi (t/2)ai
Calculate displacement, an velocity at the next time step (step = i+1)
yi+1 = yi + yi
vi+1 = vi + vi
Determine the calculation case, Z, for the next time step, (Z is used as a switching
mechanism in selecting the appropriate formulas for KEY, yt, and yc)
If (KEYi < 0) and (vi+1 < 0) then Zi+1 = 1
If (KEYi < 0) then Zi+1 = 2
If (KEYi < 0) and (vi+1 > 0) then Zi+1 = 1
If (KEYi > 0) then Zi+1 = 3
If (yi+1 < yci) then Zi+1 = 5
If (yi+1 > yti) then Zi+1 = 6
Othersixe Zi+1 = 4
Determine the response indicator for the next time step,
then KEYi+1 = KEYi
(same as previous time step)
If ( Zi+1 = 1 or 4 )
If ( Zi+1 = 5 ) then KEYi+1 = -1 (plastic compression)
If ( Zi+1 = 6 ) then KEYi+1 = 1 (plastic tension)
Otherwise KEYi+1 = 0
(elastic)
Determine the tension yield displacement at the next time step,
If ( Zi+1 = 2) then yt,i+1 = yi + (Rut-Ruc)/K
If ( Zi+1 = 3) then yt,i+1 = yi+1
Otherwise yt,i+1 = yti,1
Determine the compression yield displacement at the next time step,
If ( Zi+1 = 2) then yc,i+1 = yi+1
If ( Zi+1 = 3) then yc,i+1 = yi - (Rut-Ruc)/K
Otherwise yc,i+1 = yci,1
75
Calculate the resistance at the next time step based on the value KEY,
If (KEYi+1 = 0)
then Ri+1 = Rt (yt,i+1 - yi+1)K
If (KEYi+1 = 1)
then Ri+1 = Rut
Otherwise Ri+1 = Ruc
Calculate the resistance at the next time step,
Ai+1 = [ Fi+1 (C) vi+1 - Ri+1 ] / M
Calculate the dynamic reaction,
Vi = (a)Ri + (b)Fi
Repeat the loop until the desired deformations are reached.
4.5.2 Charted solution

The response of single-degree-of-freedom systems subjected to idealized blast loadings is
presented in the form of non-dimensional curves. In order to utilize these response charts,
both the blast loads (pressure - time history) and the resistance-deflection curve of the
structural system are idealized to linear or bilinear functions.
The response of a structural system subjected to a dynamic load is defined in terms of its
maximum deflection Xm (or ym). The dynamic load is defined by its peak value P and
duration T while the single-degree-of-freedom system is defined in terms of its ultimate
resistance ru, elastic deflection XE and natural period TN. Response charts relate the
dynamic properties of the blast load (P and T or Fo and td) to those of the element (r, X,
TN), that is, Xm/XE (or ym/ye) are plotted as a function of ru/P and T/TN (or td/tn).
Fig. 4.21
76
Fig. 4.22 Mximum deflection of SDOF for triangular loads
Example
Determine the maximum response of a single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to dynamic load using
design charts.
Step 1. Given:
m = 2.5 Kips-sec2/ft
K = 9,860 Kips/ft
Ru = 750 Kips
XE = 0.076 ft
T = 0.10 sec
P = 1000 Kips
77
Chapter 5
Structural Design against Blast Loads
5.1 Structural Behavior of Reinforced Concrete

The resistance-deflection curve
shown
in
Figure
5-1
demonstrates the flexural action
of a reinforced concrete element.
When the element is first loaded,
the resistance ideally increases
linearly with deflection until
yielding of the reinforcement is
first initiated. As the element
continues to deflect, all the
reinforcing steel yields and the
resistance is constant with
increasing deflection. Within this
yield range at a deflection
corresponding to 2 degrees
support rotation, the compression
concrete crushes. For elements
without shear reinforcement, this
crushing of the concrete results
in failure of the element.
Fig. 5.1
For elements with shear reinforcement (single leg stirrups shown in Figure 5-2 or lacing shown
in Figure 5-3) which properly tie the flexural reinforcement, the crushing of the concrete
results in a slight loss of capacity since the compressive force is transferred to the compression
reinforcement. As the element is further deflected, the reinforcement enters into its strain
hardening region, and the resistance increases with increasing deflection. Single leg stirrups
will restrain the compression reinforcement for a short time into its strain hardening region. At
four (4) degrees support rotation, the element loses its structural integrity and fails. On the
other hand, lacing through its truss action will restrain the reinforcement through its entire
strain hardening region until tension failure of the reinforcement occurs at 12 degrees support
rotation.
Fig. 5.2 shear reinforcement (Single leg stirrups)
Fig. 5.3 Lacing reinforcement

78
Deformation limits (ASCE)
Fig. 5.4 Hinge rotation
5.2 Design of a one-way slab in flexure

Step 1: Material properties:
Step 2: Design loads:
Step 3: trial size:
Step 4: Compute bending moment resistance:
Step 5: Compute SDOF equivalent system:
Step 6: Numerical and Charted solution
Step 7: Compute shear resistance:
Dynamic Design Stresses

The magnitude of stresses produced in the reinforcement of an element responding in the
elastic range can be related directly to the strains. However, in the plastic range the stresses
cannot be related directly to the strains. An estimate of the average stress over portions of
the plastic range can be made by relating this average stress to the deflection of the
element. The deflection is defined in terms of the angular rotation at the supports. The
average dynamic stress is expressed as a function of the dynamic yield stress fdy and the
dynamic ultimate stress fdu.
Criteria for the dynamic stresses to be used in the plastic design of ductile reinforced
concrete elements are presented in Table 5-2. The dynamic design stress is expressed in
terms of fdy, fdu, and f'dc. The value of these terms is determined by multiplying the
appropriate static design stress by the appropriate value of the DIF, so that:
f(dynamic) = DIF x f(static)
79
Table 5-2
Dynamic Design Stresses for Design of Reinforced Concrete Elements
TYPE
OF
STRESS
Bending
Diagonal
Tension
Diagonal
Tension
DYNAMIC DESIGN STRESS

TYPE
MAXIMUM
SUPPORT
OF
REINFORCE ROTATION, REINFORCEMENT, CONCRETE, fdc
MENT
m
fds
(DEGREES)
Tension
0<<2
fdy (1)
f'dc
and
2<<5
fdy + (fdu -fdy)/4
(2)
Compression 5 < < 12
(fdy+fdu)/2
(2)
0<<2
fdy
f'dc
Stirrups
Lacing
Direct Shear Diagonal Bars
Compression
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Column
2<<5
fdy
f'dc
5 < < 12
0<<2
fdy
fdy
f'dc
f'dc
2<<5
fdy + (fdu-fdy)/4
f'dc
5 < < 12
0<<2
(fdy + fdu)/2
fdy
f'dc
f'dc
2<<5
5 < < 12
fdy + (fdu-fdy)/4
(fdy + fdu)/2
(3)
(3)
(4)
fdy
f'dc
Tension reinforcement only.

Concrete crushed and not effective in resisting moment.
Concrete is considered not effective and shear is resisted by the reinforcement only.
Capacity is not a function of support rotation.
ASCE guidelines for dynamic design stress (1997)
80
Moment of Inertia
The determination of the deflection of a reinforced concrete member in the elastic and
elasto-plastic ranges is complicated by the fact that the effective moment of inertia of the
cross section along the element changes continually as cracking progresses. It is further
complicated by the fact that the modulus of elasticity of the concrete changes as the stress
increases. It is recommended that the computation of deflections throughout this volume be
based upon empirical relations determined from test data.
The average moment of inertia Ia should be used
in all deflection calculations and is given by
Ia =
I g + Ic
2
3
For the design of beams, the entire crossbTc
I
=
Ic = Fbd3
g
section is considered, so that
12
For the design of slabs, a unit width of the

cross-section is considered, so that
Ia =
Ig =
Ig =
Tc
12
Ic = Fd3
3
average moment of inertia of concrete cross section

moment of inertia of the gross concrete cross section (neglecting all
reinforcing steel)
Ic = moment of inertia of cracked concrete cross section
b = width of beam
Tc = thickness of gross concrete cross section
F = coefficient given in Figures 5-5 and 5-6
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement
Fig. 5.5 Coefficient for moment of inertia of cracked sections with tension
reinforcement only
81
Fig. 5.6 Coefficient for moment of inertia of cracked sections with equal reinforcement
on both faces
Ultimate Dynamic Strength of Slabs

Depending upon the magnitudes of the blast output
and permissible deformations, one of three types of
reinforced concrete cross sections (Figure 5-17 can
be utilized in the design or analysis of blast
resistant concrete slabs:
a. type I The concrete is effective
in resisting moment. The concrete cover over the
reinforcement on both surfaces of the element
remains intact.
b. type II The concrete is crushed
and not effective in resisting moment.
Compression reinforcement equal to the tension
reinforcement is required to resist moment. The
concrete cover over the reinforcement on both
surfaces of the element remains intact.
c. type III The concrete cover over
the reinforcement on both surfaces of the element
is completely disengaged. Equal tension and
compression reinforcement which is properly tied
together is required to resist moment.
Fig. 5.7 typical reinforced concrete sections
Elements designed using the full cross section (type I) are usually encountered in those structures
or portions of structures designed to resist the blast output at the far design range. This type of
cross section is utilized in elements with maximum deflections corresponding to support rotations
less than 2 degrees.
82
Crushing of the concrete cover over the compression reinforcement is exhibited in elements
which undergo support rotations greater than 2 degrees. Sufficient compression reinforcement
must be available to fully develop the tension steel (tension and compression reinforcement
must be equal). Elements which sustain crushing of the concrete without any disengagement of
the concrete cover are encountered in structures at the far design range when the maximum
deflection conforms to support rotations greater than 2 degrees but less than 5 degrees.
Although the ultimate strength of elements with type III cross sections is no less than that of
elements with type II cross sections, the overall capacity to resist the blast output is reduced. The
spalling of the concrete cover over both layers of reinforcement, caused by either the direction
transmission of high pressures through the element at the close-in range or large deflections at the
far range, produces a loss of capacity due to the reduction in the concrete mass.
Ultimate Moment Capacity

Cross Section Type I
The ultimate unit resisting moment Mu of a rectangular section of width b with tension
reinforcement only is given by: Mu = (Asfds/b)[d - (a/2)] and a = Asfds/(0.85 b f'dc)
The reinforcement ratio p is defined as: = As/bd
To insure against sudden compression failures, the reinforcement ratio must not exceed 0.75 of the
ratio b which produces balanced conditions at ultimate strength and is given by:
b = (0.85K1f'dc/fds)[87,000/(87,000 + fds)] where:
0.85 for f'dc up to 4,000 psi and is reduced 0.05 for each 1,000 psi in excess of 4,000 psi.
K1 =
Cross Section Types II and III

(5-1)
Mu = Asfdsdc/b
As = area of tension or compression reinforcement within the width b
dc = distance between the centroids of the compression and the tension reinforcement
The above moment capacity can only be obtained when the areas of the tension and
compression reinforcement are equal. In addition, this reinforcement must be properly
restrained so as to maintain the integrity of the element when large deflections are
encountered.
Minimum Flexural Reinforcement

To insure proper structural behavior under both conventional and blast loadings, a minimum amount of
flexural reinforcement is required. The minimum reinforcement required for beams is somewhat greater than
that required for slabs since an overload load in a slab would be distributed laterally and a sudden failure will
be less likely. The minimum required quantity of reinforcement is given by:
(5-2)
=
which, for 60,000 psi yield strength steel, is equal to a reinforcement ratio of 0.0033. This minimum
reinforcement ratio applies to the tension steel at mid-span of simply supported beams and to the tension steel
at the supports and mid-span of fixed-end beams.
83
Ultimate Shear (Diagonal Tension) Capacity

The ultimate shear stress vu, as a measure of diagonal tension, is computed for type I sections from:
(5-3)
vu = Vu/bd
and for type II and III sections from:
vu = Vu/bdc
(5-4)
where Vu is the total shear on a width b at either the face of the support, or at the section a distance d
(type I) or dc (types II or III) from the face of the support. For the latter case, the shear at sections
between the face of the support and the section d or dc away need not be considered critical.
The ultimate shear stress vu must not exceed 10 (f'dc) in sections using stirrups and 2 (f'dc) in
sections without stirrups.
The shear stress permitted on an unreinforced web of a member subjected to flexure only is limited to:
vc = [1.9(f'dc)1/2 + 2500] <= 3.5(f'dc)1/2
(5-5)
where is the reinforcement ratio of the tension requirement at the support. For the computation of the
reinforcement ratio, d is used for type I sections and dc for type II and III sections.
Direct Shear Capacity

Direct shear failure of a member is characterized by the rapid propagation of a vertical crack through
the depth of the member. This crack is usually located at the supports where the maximum shear
stresses occur. Failure of this type is possible even in members reinforced for diagonal tension.
Diagonal bars are required at slab supports to prevent direct shear failure: when the design support
rotation exceeds 2 ; when the design support rotation is <= 2 but the direct shear capacity of the
concrete is insufficient.
the ultimate direct shear force, Vd, that can be resisted by the concrete in a slab is:
Vd = 0.18 f'dc bd
(5-6)
84
Problem Design of a one-way slab in flexure

Exterior wall of the building is 3.66 m from floor slab
to roof. The shorter wall of the building is 20.34 m.
An explosion of occurs on the short side of the
building. Design the front wall of the building.
28m
3.66m
Step 1: Material properties:

20.34m
reinforcing steel: grade 60, fy = 60 ksi (414 MPa)

concrete: fc = 4000 psi (27.6 MPa)
steel modulus: Es = 29000000 psi (199,948 MPa)
concrete modulus: Ec = 3605000 psi (24,856 MPa)
n = Es/Ec = 8.04
blast
85
5.3 Column Design

The design of columns is limited to those in shear wall type structures where the lateral loads are
transmitted through the floor and roof slabs to the exterior (and interior, if required) shear walls.
Due to the extreme stiffness of the shear walls, there is negligible sidesway in the interior columns
and, hence, no induced moments due to lateral loads. Therefore, interior columns are axially loaded
members not subjected to the effects of lateral load. However, significant moments can result from
unsymmetrical loading conditions.
Fig. 5.8 Columns against blasts
Fig. 5.9 Column design against blast loads

86
Strength of Compression Members (P-M Curve)

The plot of a given loading condition that falls within
the area represents a loading combination that the
column can support, whereas, a plot that falls outside
the interaction curve represents a failure combination.
Three points of the interaction diagram are used to
define the behavior of compression members under
combined axial and flexural loads. These points are:
(1) pure compression (Po, M = 0), (2) pure flexure (P
= 0, Mo), and, (3) balanced conditions (Pb, Mb). The
eccentricity of the design axial load for the condition
of pure compression is zero. However, under actual
conditions, pure axial loads will rarely, if ever, exist.
Therefore, the maximum axial load is limited by a
minimum eccentricity, emin. At balanced conditions,
the eccentricity is defined as eb while the eccentricity
at pure flexure is infinity. The strength of a section is
controlled by compression when the design
eccentricity e = Mu/Pu, is smaller than the eccentricity
under balanced conditions. The strength of the section
is controlled by tension when the design eccentricity
is greater than that for balanced conditions.
Fig. 5.10 Column interaction diagram
Pure Compression
The ultimate dynamic strength of a short reinforced concrete column subjected to pure axial
load (no bending moments) is given by:
Po = 0.85 f'dc(Ag - Ast) + Ast fdy
(5-7)
Po =
maximum axial load
Ag =
gross area of section
Ast =
total area of reinforcing steel
A member subjected to pure axial compression is a hypothetical situation since all columns
are subjected to some moment due to actual load conditions. All tied columns must be
designed for a minimum load eccentricity. This minimum design situation is presented in a
subsequent section.
Pure Flexure
An interior column of a shear wall type structure cannot be subjected to pure flexure under
normal design conditions. For the purpose of plotting a P-M curve, the criteria presented for
beams is used.
87
Balanced Conditions
At balanced conditions, the eccentricity of the load is defined as eb, and is given by:
eb= Mb/Pb
(5-8)
The balanced eccentricity is the important parameter since a

comparison of the actual eccentricity to the balanced
eccentricity distinguishes whether the strength of the section
is controlled by tension or compression.
For a rectangular tied column with equal reinforcement on
opposite faces, the balanced eccentricity is given by:
eb = 0.20h + (1.54mAs)/b
and:
m = (fdy) / (0.85 f'dc)
eb =
h=
b=
As =
(5-9)
(5-10)
balanced eccentricity
depth of rectangular section
width of rectangular section
area of reinforcement on one face of the section
Fig. 5.11 Rectangular section with
equal reinforcement
For a circular section with spiral reinforcement, the balanced eccentricity is given by:
eb = (0.24 + 0.39 Tm) D
(5-11)
and: T = Ast/Ag
T =
Ast =
Ag =
D=
total percentage of reinforcement

total area of reinforcement
gross area of circular section
overall diameter of circular section
Fig. 5.12 Circular section with equal
reinforcement
Compression Controls
When the ultimate eccentric load Pu exceeds the balanced value Pb, or when the eccentricity e
is less than the balanced value eb, the member acts more as a column than as a beam.
For a rectangular tied column with equal reinforcement on opposite faces (Fig. 5.11), the
ultimate axial load capacity at a given eccentricity is approximated by:
Pu =
As f dy
bhf 'dc
+
e
3he
+ 0 .5
+ 1.18
2d h
d2
(5-12)
88
Pu =
e=
As =
d=
h=
b=
ultimate axial load at actual eccentricity e

actual eccentricity of applied load
area of reinforcement on one face of the section
distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement
depth of rectangular section
width of rectangular section
For a circular section with spiral reinforcement, the ultimate axial load capacity at a given
eccentricity is approximated by:
Ast f dy
Ag f 'dc
+
Pu =
9.6 De
3e + 1.0
+ 1.18
Ds
(0.8 D + 0.67 Ds )2
(5-13)
Ast total area of uniformly distributed longitudinal reinforcement

Ag gross area of circular section
D overall diameter of circular section
Ds diameter of the circle through centers of reinforcement arranged in a circular pattern
Tension Controls
When the ultimate eccentric load Pu is less than the balance value Pb or when the eccentricity
e is greater than the balanced value eb, the member acts more as a beam than as a column.
For a rectangular tied column with equal reinforcement on opposite faces (Fig. 5.11), the
ultimate axial load capacity at a given eccentricity is approximated by:
1/ 2
2
e' (1 e')
h e'
Pu = 0.85 f 'dc bd 1 +
+ 2 (m 1) 2 +
(5-14)
d d
d d
s = A / bd
e' = e + d - (h/2)
m = fdy / (0.85 f'dc)
percentage of reinforcement on one face of section

e' eccentricity of axial load at the end of member measured from the
centroid of the tension reinforcement
For a circular section with spiral reinforcement, the ultimate axial load capacity at a given
eccentricity is approximated by:
1/ 2
2
0.85e
mD
0.85e
T
s
Pu = 0.85 f 'dc D
0.38 +
0
.
38
2.5 D
D
D
(5-15)
total percentage of reinforcement
89
Slenderness Effects
It is recommended that for the design of columns in shear wall type structures the effective
length factor k may be taken as 0.9 for columns that are definitely restrained by beams and
girders at the top and bottom. For all other cases k shall be taken as 1.0 unless analysis shows
that a lower value may be used.
For columns braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected when:
kLu
M
< 34 12 1
r
M2
(5-16)
k=
Lu =
r=
effective length factor

unsupported length of column
radius of gyration of cross section of column (r = 0.3h for tied columns and 0.25D for
circular columns)
M1 = value of smaller end moment on column, positive if member is bent in single curvature
and negative in double curvature
M2 = value of larger end moment on column
In lieu of a more accurate analysis, the value of M1/M2 may conservatively be taken equal to
1.0.
kLu
22
(5-17)
r
Moment Magnification
Slenderness effects due to buckling and secondary bending moments must be considered in
the design of columns whose slenderness ratio is greater than that given by Equation. The
reduction in the ultimate strength of a slender column is accounted for in the design procedure
by increasing the design moment. The cross section and/or reinforcement is thereby increased
above that required for a short column.
A column braced against sidesway is designed for the applied axial load P and a magnified
moment M defined by:
C
= m
(5-18)
P
M = M2
1
Pc
M=
design moment
=
moment magnifier
M2 = value of larger end moment on column
Cm = equivalent moment correction factor defined by equation
M1 = value of smaller end moment on column
P=
design axial load
Pc =
critical axial load causing buckling defined by equation
Cm = 0.6 + 0.4 M1 / M2
(5-19)
Therefore, in the design of interior columns, Cm may be taken as 1.0.
90
The critical axial load that causes a column to buckle is given by
Pc =
2 EI
(5-20)
(kLu )2
An approximate expression for EI at the time of buckling is given
EI =
Ia =
Ig =
Ic =
F=
Ec I a
1 .5
Ia =
I g + Ic
Ic = Fbd3
(5-21)
average moment of inertia of section

moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, neglecting
reinforcement
moment of inertia of cracked concrete section with equal reinforcement on opposite
faces
coefficient given before
Dynamic Analysis
Columns are not subjected to the blast loading directly. Rather, the load that a column must
resist is transmitted through the roof slab, beams and girders. These members "filter" the
dynamic effects of the blast load. Thus, in buildings designed to obtain plastic deformations,
the dynamic load reaching the columns is typically a fast "static" load, that is, a flat top
pressure time load with a relatively long rise time.
The roof members and columns act together to resist the applied blast load. However, a
reasonable design can be achieved by considering the column separately from the roof
members. The response (resistance-time function) of the roof members to the blast load is
taken as the applied dynamic load acting on the columns.
Columns are subjected to an actual axial load (with associated eccentricity) equal to the
ultimate resistance of the appropriate roof members acting over the tributary area supported by
the column. It is recommended for design of columns the ultimate axial load be equal to 1.2
times the actual axial load. This increase insures that the maximum response of the column
will be limited to a ductility ratio (Xm/Xe) of 3.0 or less. If the rise time of the load (time to
reach yield for the appropriate roof members) divided by the natural period of the column is
small (approximately 0.1), the maximum ductility is limited to 3.0. Whereas, if the time ratio
is equal to 1.0 or greater, the column will remain elastic. For the usual design cases, the ratio
of the rise time to the natural period will be in the vicinity of 1.0. Therefore, the columns will
remain elastic or, at best, sustain slight plastic action.
Design of Tied Columns
An approximate design method has been developed which gives satisfactory results for biaxial
bending. The equation is in the form of an interaction formula which for design purposes can
be written in the form:
1
1 1 1
= +
Pu Px Py Po
(5-22)
91
Pu =
Px =
Py =
Po =
ultimate load for biaxial bending with eccentricities ex and ey

ultimate load when eccentricity ex is present (ey = 0)
ultimate load when eccentricity ey is present (ex = 0)
ultimate load for a concentrically loaded column (ex= ey= 0)
The above Equation is valid provided Pu is equal to or greater than 0.10 Po. The usual
design cases for interior columns satisfy this limitation.
Minimum Eccentricity
Due to the possible complex load conditions that can result in blast design, all tied columns
shall be designed for biaxial bending. If computations show that there are no moments at the
ends of the column or that the computed eccentricity of the axial load is less than 0.1h, the
column must be designed for a minimum eccentricity equal to 0.1h. The value of h is the
depth of the column in the bending direction considered. The minimum eccentricity shall
apply to bending in both the x and y directions, simultaneously.
Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirements
To insure proper behavior of a tied column, the longitudinal reinforcement must meet certain
restrictions. The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.01 nor more than
0.04 times the gross area of the section.
Example, Column Design

Required:
Step 1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Design of a rectangular, tied interior column.

Given:
Both ends of column fixed
Clear height of column, l = 120 in
Axial load 491,000 lbs
Moment about x-axis, 2,946,000 in-lbs
No calculated moment about y-axis
Reinforcing steel, fy = 66,000 psi
Concrete, f'c = 4,000 psi
Step 2. Equivalent static loads.

a.
Axial load
P = 491,000 x 1.2 = 589,200 lbs
b.
Moment about x-axis
Mx = 2,946,000 x 1.2 = 3,535,200 in-lbs
c.
Moment about y-axis
My = 0 in-lbs
92
5.4 Masonry Design

Although unreinforced masonry is not recommended for blast design due to a lack of ductility,
it is often encountered in existing buildings.
24.4m
Required:
Design of a unreinforced
masonry wall spanning between foundation and
roof (one-way)
3.05 m
18.3m
blast
Step 1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Given: One story reinforced concrete and masonry structure

Width = 80 ft (24.4 m)
Length = 60 ft (18.3 m)
Height = 10 ft (3.05 m)
Area = 4800 ft2 (446 m2)
volume = 48000 ft3 (1359 m3)
Masonry: (hollow units) fm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa)
Concrete: fc = 3000 psi (20.7 MPa)
Reinforcement: fy = 60 ksi (414 MPa)
Acceleration g = 386 in/sec2 (980 cm/sec2)
Reflected overpressure Pr = 23.4 kPa

Effective duration is 0.09 s
23.4
kPa
90 ms
For unreinforced masonry, the failure mode is based on tensile cracking. To avoid the resulting
catastrophic failure, the wall must remain elastic. Thus the ductility ratio is 1.0.
93
Add reinforcing steel and fill wall cavities solid with concrete.
Fig. 5.13 Add reinforcing steel and fill wall cavities solid with concrete
Retrofitting masonry structure against blast loads
Before test
After test
C2
Fig. 5.14 Retrofitting masonry using spread on techology
94
5.5 Pressure-Impulse Diagram (P-I Diagram)

A pressure-impulse diagram is a representation of iso-damage curves corresponding to various
failure criteria for particular structural components loaded with a particular loading history
(Shi et al. 2007). P-I diagrams are commonly used in the preliminary design to establish a safe
response limit for given blast-loading scenarios.
Figure 5.15 Pressure-Impulse Diagram

The general representative of a P-I diagram is demonstrated in Figure 5.15. The two important
characteristics of a P-I diagram, which are the horizontal and vertical asymptotes, suggest that
a P-I diagram can be divided into three regimes (Li and Meng, 2002):
1. Regime I (Impulsive Loading): in this regime, the peak pressure is very high while the
blast duration is extremely short; therefore, it is an impulse controlled regime, meaning
the damage level is predominantly determined by peak impulse.
2. Regime II (Dynamic Loading): it is a peak load and impulse- controlled regime, meaning
the damage level is determined by both peak impulse and peak pressure.
3. Regime III (Quasi-Static Loading): to the contrary of Regime I, the peak pressure is
relatively low in regime II while the blast duration is very long; thus, it is a peak pressurecontrolled regime, meaning the damage level is predominantly determined by peak
pressure.
5.6
Procedure used to generate P-I diagrams
Pressure impulse diagrams were generated by having a maximum reflected pressure as a start
off point .This point was inputted by the user and could be altered easily each time. The SDOF
model then starts with a positive pressure duration (td) of zero and incrementally increases it
95
until failure criterion has been reached. This is graphically represented on Figure 5.16. The
failure criterion was chosen to be the hinge failure when generating those P-I diagrams.
Moreover the space variation of the load vector was not considered significant when
producing PI diagrams and thus assuming blast events at arbitrary standoff distances. To
account for this and to be conservative, the standoff distance was set to a large value (1000m)
and thus resulting in Pr acting at every point on the beam without space variation.
Figure 5.16 Maximum reflected pressure with increasing td starting from zero
Once the failure point has been found, then the SDOF will incrementally decrease the
maximum reflected pressure based on the number of points required for the P-I diagram (also
inputted by the user) and the same procedure is repeated. Figure 5.17 shows a graphical
representation of the procedure used to generate P-I diagrams.
Figure 5.17 Procedure used in generating P-I diagrams
96
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Structural Response to Blast Loads

THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Part 2: Lecture Course

Structural Response to Blast Loads

THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Characterization of Blast Loading

Fig. 2.1 Underground explosion

Fig. 2.2a. Sinusoidal displacement at a fixed

Fig. 2.2b. Sinusoidal displacement at one instant

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Structural Response to Blast Loads

ii. Plane waves and plane-wave equations

Fig. 2.3 Plane-wave geometry (Plan view)

Structural Response to Blast Loads

iii. Strains induced by stress wave

Structural Response to Blast Loads

To determine particle velocity, acceleration and displacement history

iv. Wave propagation velocity and dynamic stress

Substitute appropriate values from Figure 2-6, it yields

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Substitution of Equation 2-17 to Equation 2-14

v. Shear plane-wave velocity

where G is the shear modulus and is related to Youngs modulus by

Structural Response to Blast Loads

vi. Transmission and reflection

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Fig. 2.8. Wave transmission from one medium to another

2.1.2. Characteristics of blast-induced ground motions

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Fig. 2.9 Compressive, P, shear S, and surface wave

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Fig. 2.11 Close-in and relative far explosion

u&max = u max = u max 2f

u&&max = umax 2 = umax 4 2 f 2 = 2fu&max

Calculation with the sinusoidal approximation as shown in Fig. 2.12.

Recorded blast vibration time histories

Fig. 2.12 The sinusoidal approximation

Structural Response to Blast Loads

u&max u&maxT 15mm / s (2 0.06 s )

u& max 2 15mm / s (2 )

Fig. 2.13 Principal frequency definition

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Fourier spectra (m/s)

Fig. 2.14 Principal frequency definition (averaged)

Fig. 2.15 Comaprision of dominant frequencies

2.1.3 Prediction of blast induced vibrations

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Scale Distance (SD)

Scale Distance Charge Weight (kg of TNT)

Scaled range m/kg

Peak particle velocity m/s

Peak particle velocity m/s

Prediction of peak particle velocity (PPV)

Scaled range m/kg

PPV = Peak Particle Velocity (m/s);

Structural Response to Blast Loads

Prediction of principal frequency (FF)

Scaled range m/kg

PF = Principal Frequency (Hz);

2.2 Free air blast

Fig. 2.18. Free air burst environment

Structural Response to Blast Loads