The picturesque and the sublime in nature and the landscape: Writing and iconography in the

romantic voyaging in the Alps

Author(s): Guglielmo Scaramellini
Source: GeoJournal, Vol. 38, No. 1, Geography and Literature (January 1996), pp. 49-57
Published by: Springer
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Geojournal38.1: 49-57.

1996 (January)KluwerAcademiePublishers.Printedin theNetherlands.

The picturesqueand the sublimein natureand

the landscape: Writingand iconographyin the
romanticvoyagingin the Alps
Scaramellini,
Prof.Dr.,Istitutodi GeografiaUmana,
Guglielmo,
Universit
degliStudidi Milano,1-0000,Milan,Italy
Abstract: The culture of romanticismgave new meaning to the concepts sublime and
picturesque as applied to nature,making of them typical attributesof landscape. A privileged field of application of these concepts were mountains,in general, and the Alps, in
particular,whichin thosetimesbecame favoriteplaces of traveland sejourn.Typical product
of this esthetical-culturalconvergence was the 'picturesque voyage' in the Alps, large
volumes containingartisticdesigns (etchings)in whichmotivesof thepicturesquedominate,
accompanied by descriptivevignettes.Several 'picturesque voyages' into the centralAlps
are examined,and the iconographieand literarycontentsof these accounts are assessed.

The Alps and theromanticculture

of romanticism
The assertion
deep transprompted
in all aspectsof culturaland social life1:
formations
it elicitedradicalchangesin tasteand arousedthe
travellers
of hedonistic
altering,
by consecuriosity
and
modalities,
itineraries,
quence,themotivations,
goals of voyages.2In thisnew culturalclimate,a
forItaly,a
was demonstrated
predilection
particular
thatin precedingculturalperiodsattracted
country
in ways
of voyageursand intellectuals
theinterest
thatvariedgreatlyaccordingto the personalperItalyis viewedwitha
spectivesand interpretation.3
it becomestheplace of choicefor
new sensitivity:
the'spiritofthetimes,'a landofsplendorous
nature,
a
but
also
the
ruins
of
amidst
past,
glorious
spread
due to culturalfatigue.
decadentandempoverished
Coupled with its passion for Italy,the novel
forthe
tastedevelopsalso a greatinterest
romantic
mountains- the Alps in particular- which are
andthehabitatofa society
as a wilderness
regarded
freeand archaicin its directcontactwithnature.
centurytheSwitzerland
Alreadyin theeighteenth
and
to
thiscountryconverged
evolved,
paradigm
such as JohannJakobScheuchzerand
naturalists
de Saussure(Broc 1969), writers
Horace-Bndict
vonHaller(composerof thepoem
suchas Albrecht
suchas Jean
individuals
Die Alpen),ormulti-faceted
with
were
all
of
whom
regarded
JacquesRousseau,5
and
the
intellectual
elites
the
admiration
general
by
publicin Europe.Fromtheend of theeighteenth

that
century,
centuryand throughthe nineteenth
in its
interest
a growing
experienced
Alpinecountry
andpeoples(Pivetau1974, 1981;Walter
mountains
1984;Martinoni
1989).
Althoughin 1755 Edward Gibbon crossed
Switzerlandwithouteven mentioningthe Alps
(Venturi1973), two or threedecades later the
situation
changedtotally(Walter1984).Switzerland,
oftravel
andtheAlps,becametheaimofa modality
andexistential
esthetical,
bynewcultural,
prompted
motivationsthatheraldedthe onset of 'romantic
voyaging.'6
Whilein previoustimes,forthoseleavingItaly
overland,crossingtheAlps was a harshjourneyto
be accomplishedas quickly as possible, in the
centuriesthemountains
and nineteenth
eighteenth
route for a new flow of
became the preferred
travellers
attracted
byitshumanandnaturaluniqueness.7
of the'pre-romantic'
In theculturalatmosphere
in
the
well
as
as
halcyondaysofromanticism,
period,
the travelmodalitythat involvedprogramming,
tothe
thevoyageaccording
andenjoying
conduction,
newexistential
canonsof a newculturalsensibility,
attitudes,and novel estheticalvalues began to
dominate.The Alps, and otherexoticplaces - the
ItalianSouthor Mezzogiorno,Spain,Scotland,the
theHarz or theOrient(Newby1981;
Lake District,
Botta 1985) - met the new expectations.Their
grandeurand awesomeness,theirmorphological,
and theirsimple,
climaticand vegetational
variety,

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50

naive and industrious

(but also rudeand archaic)
populationsrespondedto the romantictravellers'
searchforstrongemotionsand stimuli.Theywere,
first,adventurouspioneers,who later became
gregarious'tourists,'ever increasingin numbers,
and thetrendof thetimes.
motivated
by imitation
Similarlyto the dated Grand Tour voyaging,
romantictravellingthroughthe Alps became an
withitsownobligatory
constants'
'objectofwriting
1981),veryspecificandcharac(Lacoste-Veysseyre
thatmadeof it a literary
teristic,
sub-genre.
Thus,whentheGrandTourfadedaway,romantic
affiliated
withthe
voyagingemerged,legitimately
'sentimental
voyaging'proposedbyLawrenceSterne
itssubtleironyand serenegood
(1983),butwithout
A negation
nature.
oftheostentatious
andaristocratic
GrandTour,theromantic
journeyacquired,in the
itreferred
courseoftime,similarattributes,
although
to diverse social and cultural concomitants
(Scaramellini1989).
The 'picturesquevoyage'as new literarytraveloguegenre
andaimsof
Theradicalchangein concept,modality
with
to
the
dated
romantic
Grand
regard
voyaging
Tourpromoted
also a renewalin literary
genres- or,
at least,inthewriting
andeditingoftexts- destined
nowtoconveythegeographical
knowledge
acquired
betweentravelaccount
via travelling.
Thedistinction
andtourist
guide- stillvaguein the1700s- is now
clearlydelineated,and thetraveloguenarrativeis
In thetimes
intogenresand sub-genres.
subdivided
had covereda
of theGrandTour,travelliterature
of
varietyof themes,includingdetailednarratives
the
and
journeys,personalexperiences, geography
andnumerous
details
ofthetravelled
country,
history
to
the
culture
and
of the
life,
psychology
pertaining
the
differentiation
and
encountered.
Now,
peoples
had
of
the
that
texts,
begunalreadyat
specialization
On one side
theend of the 1700s,is accomplished.
of
clear
the
'statistical
report'
documentary
emerges
and researchpurposes,commonsince Napoleonic
timesas basis documentto implement
governing
policies,8and on theother,thereis thedistancing
and
betweenthetravelaccount,now moreintimate
the
sixteenth
and
than
the
of
'reports'
poetical
- at leastin theintentions
of
seventeenth
centuries
the authors(Comparato1979, 1981) - fromthe
voyage.'Thisgenrehadappearedinthe
'picturesque
followingthenormsof the
century
mid-eighteenth
to thedescripGrandTour,but,itwas morefaithful
and thenaturalphenomena
tionof theenvironment
(Farinelliand Isenburg1981; Dubbini1994); at the
centuryit radically
beginningof the nineteenth
its
changed conceptualpostulatesand its editorialappearance.Travelaccounts- Voyages
typographic
Mahlerische
travels
Reisen,picturesque
pictoresques,

- areno longerlandscape
ortours,viajespintorescos
of solely literarycharacter,
but they
descriptions
volumesin
appearnow as large,richlyillustrated
whichtheraisond'treis compilingthesceneries
thatvisuallyillustrate
themostprominent
placesof
an itinerary.
The textis butan informative
guide,
enrichedby historicalor scholarlynotesaboutthe
thevisualimage.
placesvisited,thatcomplements
whiletheguidelosesitsprimary
role
Accordingly,
oftraveldescription
tobecomea catalogueofplaces
andattractions
worthseeing,thetravelogue
describes
accuratelythe itineraryand its stages fromthe
and experienceof theauthor.The new
perspective
picturesquevoyage selects in advance the places
'worthseeing,' admiring,celebrating,
or remembering,and compilesthemas scene and landscape
illustrations.These selected picturesare often
displayedas decorativeimages in the homes of
travellers
andsedentary
landpeoples:inthismanner
as panoramas,
are differentiated
scapes,understood
fromviews,sketches,or artisticmanufactures,
but
also codifiedaccordingto theestheticpreferences
of thetimes.Thus,thealreadywell-developed
gregarious instinct of travellersis strengthened
1980a-b), andtheyareonlytoohappy
(Scaramellini
toexperience
thesameemotions
orsensations
feltby
theirillustriouspredecessorsor suggestedby the
authorsof views and landscape sketches.These
printedproductswereintendedto serveas models
to the viewingand readingof landscapes,or, as
itinerary
guidesestablishedaccordingto particular
canons.In identicalfashion,'artistic'and 'musical'
to satisfy
otheresthetic-cultural
guideswerewritten
cravings.9
This interestin the landscapeis manifested
in
anothereditorialproductthatrangessomewhere
betweenthepicturesque
voyageand thetravelogue:
themid-sizevolumesin whichthetextclearlydominatesover theiconography,
althoughthelatteris
and
remarkably
important verycarefully
presented.
In thiscategory
aretheworksofRodolpheToepffer,
WilliamBrockedon,
andFrancescoGandini(Toepffer
1844;Brockedon1828-1829;Gandini1831-1834).
The uniquenessofthesenewliterary
andillustrativeproductions
can be understood
onlywhenconsideration
is madeof theremarkable
improvements
of thetransportation
services(efficiency,
reliability,
andspeed)thatoccurredsincethebeginnings
ofthe
1800s, when these means allowed largersocial
and
groupstotravelforpleasureandtoenjoyesthetic
in
accordance
with
the
landscapeexperiences
prevailingestheticalcanons.Picturesquevoyagingis,
almostexclusively,
overlandtravel:walking,horseback tripsor in carriagesof animaltraction;
these
modalitiesofferedtheopportunity
to see thelandscape in a mannerthat WolfgangSchivelbush
(1988)10refersto as 'panoramictravelling'.
The repetitiveness
shownby theseliterary
and
illustrative
worksdoes notdetract,however,from

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51
- particularly
moralandmystical
inclinations
among
and romantic
writers.
Morecloseness
pre-romantic
is achievedbetweenthe writingagent(or literary
and theenvironmental
personality)
settingin which
he is placed.
In literarywritingthe landscapebecomes the
'mirror
oftheinterior
world'orthemeansfortransmitting
personalemotionsinsteadof offering
only
(Dubbini1994;Lacosteplacedescriptions
Veysseyre
1981). Like in painting,
landscapecan be an 'efficientinstrument
forexploringa vastarrayof states
of mind(moods)' beyondthemerereproduction
of
externalrealities(Gage 1994). Due to thisconverofthosetimeswerealso painters:
gencemanywriters
SalomonGessner,AdalbertStifter,
Gottfried
Keller,
Massimo Azeglio,EdmondandJulesde Goncourt,
andeven,Johann
Goethe.
Wolfgang
The importance
oflandscapeinromantic
is
poetry
also provenby the factthattheEnglishadjective
romantic
(which,precisely,
appearedin thosetimes)
The 'landscape' and theromanticpoetry
is oftenutilizedas an attribute
of a certain'nature,'
theparticular
'scenery'or 'landscape'indicating
way
Given the relevance'nature'assumedwithinthe in whichnatureis perceivedand categorized
by an
romantic
of observer.
themselves
culture,it is obviousthattheattention
as unusual,
Landscapespresent
authors
andreadersfocusedontheindividualization, wild,desolate,and appearto theobserveras lonely,
andvisualization
ofthosenatural
or hostile(Praz 1966; Battistini
description
aspects, melancholic
1981).
or otherdetails relatedto 'nature,'thataccom- Natureis, therefore,
consonant
with,or commensumodatedbest theprevailingestheticalcanonsand rateto humans,but also overwhelming,
and ever
to
the
ideal
models
of
the
to
ensnare
and
annihilate
them.
artists, ready
corresponded
- at thesametime- thetasteandexpectaThe challengeto describethis 'nature' is an
meeting
tionsof travellers
andreaders.
to makenatureunderstandable,
to makeits
attempt
To render
such
an
of
'ineff
accessible
to
intuition
enjoyable
object contempla(Praz 1966),or,
ability'
artshadformulated
thenotionof to expressthe 'inexpressible'(Lacoste-Veysseyre
tion,thefigurative
as thesynthetical
and geo- 1981; Franci1993), ratherthanoffering
an objeclandscape,understood
harmonious
of
the
elements
tive
All
means
of
metrically
presentation
image.
understanding
reality
of an environment,
a territory
or geographical
area, offered
arts,asidefromotherforms
bythefigurative
as perceivedby theobserver,
whowas foremost
an of scientificcognition,are utilizedto thisend by
artistand then,a hedonist.This observeris placed thosewhoknowhowtouse them.Thenotioninfinity,
in an external
andtheblurriness
itcauses
positionwithrespectto theterritorial becauseofthefascination
whichis regarded
froma particular in thehumanmind,is perhapstheextreme
manifesobjectobserved,
and a givenperspective.
,nThus,thepor- tationof thistendency
viewpoint
(Relia 1993;Franci1993).
All this explainsthe use of a vocabularyand
(orlandscape)is theformal'comtrayalof'country'
moreevocativethandescriptive,
more
position,'the'setting,'theselectiveand suggestive phraseology
of nature(pristineor humanized) suggestivethanqualifying,
morein tunewiththe
'representation'
attribfollowingcertainfigurative
techniques:composi- observer'ssensationsthanwiththeintrinsic
or chromatic.
It is notbychance utesoftheobjectobserved.
Do terms
tional,perspective,
like'beautiful',
thatsincetheearly1700slandscaperepresentations 'amiable', 'sweet', 'picturesque', 'grandiose',
had madeuse of elaboratetheatrical
haveanyobjective
techniquesin 'sublime','awful'or 'horrifying'
and illumination
thatled to theinven- content?Is it not thatthese terms,the same as
scenography
tionofthe'diorama'(Nicosia 1993).
Sehnsuchtor wistful,'give no morethana vague
Fromthe figurative
of whatthingsare,leavingto theimagiarts,the landscapetheme indication
on
to
where
nation
the
literature,
passed
vocabulary,
phrasepowerof evokingits attributes?'
(Praz
and
attributes
such
as
ology syntax
1966).
replacedpictorial
Moreover,the constantresortingto painting
design,composition,
perspective,
planes,colors,and
theinterplay
of lightand shadow.12
in SalvtorRosa, GuildoReni,Claude
Subsequently, (particularly
towards
theendoftheeighteenth
the
Nicolas
Lorrain,
century, literary
Poussin)and therecallof ancient,
orgothicromances
landscape transcendedthe banal and stereotype medievalandmodern
epicpoetry
to become an strengthen
the suggestivecharacterof 'romantic
descriptionof the environment
instrument
also reflectiveof moods, sentiments, landscapes.'This demonstrates
how a literaryor
theirdocumentary
relevance
andundisputable
artistic
value: It is theexpressionof a travelmodalityand
thatfellwithintheboundsofthecultural
enjoyment
of thatsocietyand corresponded
to the
atmosphere
and thetechnicalmeansof visualor
transportation
available.
literary
expression
The adventand diffusion
ofrailways,a transport
overplain terrain,
systemdevelopedfortravelling
theuse of abridgedversionsof thetravel
prompted
guides already mentioned.The travel modality
theimportance
promoted
by therailwaydiminished
thatintermediate
betweentouristic
journeys
polesof
attraction
themto 'dead
previously
enjoyed,
reducing
a 'loss ofthetravelled
times,'anddetermining
space
regardedas an organiccontinuity'(Schivelbusch
1988). At this pointin time,however,romantic
voyagingis comingto an end,supplanted
by con'tourism'.
temporary

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52

betweenobserver
modelis interpolated
iconographie
it is notthelandandobservedlandscape.In reality,
an ambience,
but,a panorama,
scapethatis observed,
whichonlyafterthevisualperception
or a territory,
can be organizedby the mindinto the figurative
ofa 'landscape'.Paintings,
graphicillusexpression
trations,
excerptsfrompoetryor prosa,or anyother
of a realor imaginary
representation
landscape,are
codifiedas publicimage(Scaramellini1985:28-29,
92-94). The observer
realityof
capturestheexternal
the
ofan idealmodel;therefore,
a subjectinfunction
moldto whichthe
artisticmodelis thepre-existing
perceptionof realityis adapted,and, fromthis
adaptationrealityemergesas pictorialor literary
'landscape.'
Contraryto what happenedin the past, now
'natureimitates
art,andnotvice-versa'(Praz 1966;
Battistini1981). The taskpursuedby artistsis to
of an ideal model by
recall the typicalattributes
means of literarystylisticartificesor figurative
is 'recollection'
conventions.
(Givone1993:
Painting
of
and
not
313)
perceptions.
representationsubjective
in guidingthe
canonsare important
The prevailing
of concretegeographical
subjectto theobservation
in
environments,selectingwhatis worthseeingand
and in codifyingarchtypicallandremembering,
The
recurrence
oftheirexceptionality.
the
scapesby
of
canonssurpassedthethreshold
romantic
esthetical
what was considered 'beautiful' (the absolute
measureof the eighteenth
century)to categorize
Now,
order,decor,harmony,
light,and proportions.
thereis a searchforconceptualand estheticalcategories capable of expressingthe new Romantic
andbodyto the
to lendvoiceto theineffable
poetry,
is to search
invisible.
Thepurposeofthesecategories
certain
andmakeexplicitinreality
landscapemodels:
iftheyarenotfound,theyareinvented
andimposed
on to realityitself.
of beautiful
It is to be notedthattheabrogation
canonof absolutevalue occurredin
as an esthetical
centurywhennew
Englandduringthe eighteenth
and
formal
researchin the
conceptualprecepts
in
a heatedphiloarts
ensued
and
figurative literary
a new'landdebate
and
generated
sophical-esthetical
school
in
and
literature.13
painting
scape-oriented'
in the debate occurredwhen
The turnaround
EdmundBurkepublishedA PhilosophicalEnquiry
intotheOriginofourIdeas of theSublimeand the
Beauty (1757, re-issuedin 1759) in which he
proposeda newusage of theold estheticalcategory
of sublime in oppositionto its connotationas
of 'beauty'(Russo 1987 b-c).
maximum
expression
- where
thatnotionfromrhetorics
Burkeextracted
it had prospered(Sertoli1985) - and madeof it 'a
psychologicalconceptfoundedon the theoryof
passions'(Reichler1994:28). He states:'Mostofthe
ideas whichare capableof makinga strongimpressionon themind,whether
simplyofPainorPleasure,
or of modification
of those,maybe reducedvery

and
nearlyto these two heads: self-preservation
society:to theendsof theone or theotherofwhich
all our passions are calculated to answer.The
turnmostly
passionswhichconcernself-preservation,
onpain anddanger. . . Whateveris fitted
to excite
theideasofpainanddanger,thatis to say,whatever
is in anysortterrible,
or is conversant
aboutterrible
objects,or operatesin a manneranalogousto terror,
is a sourceof thesublime',
thatis, is productive
of
thestrongest
emotionwhichthemindis capableof
feeling. . . Whendangeror pain presstoo nearly,
theyare incapableof givingany delight,and are
simplyterrible:but at certaindistances,and with
certainmodifications,
theymay be, and theyare
we
as
delightful, everydayexperience.'(Burke1968:
I, 38-40) It is an emotionprovokedby a frightful
visionor by experiencing
a life-threatening
danger
fromwhichone can escape unscathed.
Thisformof
pleasureis definedby Burkeas 'relativepleasure'
or'delight'and is opposedto 'positivepleasure'or
thisis a
'pleasure'whichis causedby theBeautiful,
to
which
is not
of
self-preservation
type enjoyment
comes
alien.In thelatter,
the
paradoxically, pleasure
is not
fromconfronting
a dangerwhich,otherwise,
that
surmountable
orin thecertitude
ofencountering
sublime
In
this
manner
without
harmed.
danger
being
to the
is notan attribute
of thestylebutis intrinsic
of
The
main
source
observed
the
author.
object
by
thissensation
is natureitself:'The passioncausedby
thegreatand sublimein nature,whenthosecauses
andastonis Astonishment',
operatemostpowerfully
ishmentis the state of the soul in whichall its
withsomedegreeofhorror'
emotions
aresuspended,
(Burke1968: I, 35-37; II, 57).
The picturesqueand the sublimein the
narrativesof Alpinejourneys
in
The sublimefindsitsmostevidentmanifestations
and
thespectacleofnaturein all itssplendor,
power
ofnatural
awesomeness.
But,giventhegreatvariety
its
sublime
and
between
the
opposite,
landscapes,
rationalbeauty,thereis a vastarrayof intermediate
estabThe new conceptualperspective
gradations.
lishesotherestheticalcategories,suchas pleasant,
on one
friendly,
pleasurable,gracious,attractive,
extremeof the scale, and, grandiose,immense,
horribleon theother.But,it
awesome,frightening,
is the meaningof sublimethatleads to the redefinition
ofpicturesque- anothercategorywidely
usedin the1700s(Assunto1967)- accordingto the
landnew canons.A cardinalpointof theromantic
void
of
was
'anyphantastic
picturesque
scapepoetry,
or fictitiouselement'duringthe 'Centuryof the
that
byrepresentations
Lights'andwas substantiated
narrain
and
required'veracity accuracy travelogue
thema 'manifest
value.'
tives,'granting
documentary
The purposeof picturesque
is
representations'pre-

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53

suchas thoseimposedbynature
ofthescientific
imageofthe couldbe attributed,
disposingthediffusion
to makethemrough,but,also free
world but not its realization;it precludesand on itsinhabitants
of thatscientific
announcestheformulation
image, and 'natural.'This endeavorrequiresthe organic
andalpineenvironment,
it' (FarinelliandIsenburg relationbetweenpopulation
but,itdoesnotmaterialize
butcapable of stimulating
1981, 159). With romanticismthe picturesque harshand inhospitable,
In different
measuresand theircapacityofadaptation,
inventiveness
andimagacquiresnewconnotations.
a
ination
indicates
than
(Walter1984).
way
intensity sublime,picturesque
thepassiondemonof understanding
Indeed,it is not surprising
reality,withoutthemediationof
vital
and
intuition
strated
the
romantic
culture
foruplandsceneries
the
but
science, through
by
emphatic
with'nature.'It is an under- in general- such as the English Lake District
of themindin rapport
of the 'spirit,'the (Newby1981;Praz 1966)- andtheAlpinelandscape
standingwiththe participation
the
as 'theesthetic
emblemofthe
and
the
'idea,'
'mystery'thatdwellin inparticular,
regarded
'being,'
sublime'(Bottoni1980: 80).14
'nature.'
thedisAccordingto theestheticalparameters,
and
tinction
betweensublimeandpicturesque beauty
ofcanonsconcerning Descriptionand suggestionin the 'picturesque
on theabandonment
is founded
order,or decor,in favorof 'roughness' voyages'
harmony,
But,there
(Bottoni1981:78) and 'unpredictability.'
between'sublime'and 'pic- Writersand illustratorswith travel experience
is a formaldifference
theplacesandscenaries
worth
(Assunto1967). individualized
visiting,
turesque,'less neatand substantial
'vast dimensionswith viewingand admiring,
as faras theseplaces correThe picturesquesubstitutes
theemotionsbased on awe by sensual sponded to the estethicalmodels and idealized
irregularity;
and thepleasureof chromatic
codifiedaccording
totheprevailing
variations; emotions
popular
curiosity
or illustrations
of a territhecatalogueof unrelated
objectsby theharmonic taste.In theirdescriptions
in toryas 'landscape,'theyused literary
thussituations
ofthewhole,'creating
or figurative
perspective
and rawemotionis muffled
whichthepowerful
Forthis
by moldsto expressvarioustopicalsituations.
1981).Thus,the'dazzle ofeffects, reasonthereexistedselectedlexical and syntactic
'grace'(Battistini
therapidsuccessionof colors,lightsand shadows: templates
forthetextsand theimagesthatallowed
and enjoyment
scabrousness,sudden variationand irregularity' therecognition
by theconnoisseur
reduce to less incommensurable
dimensionsthe public.The lexisand thesyntaxof verbalor figuragrandiosityand awesomenessof the sublime. tiveelementsappliedto thelandscapemakereferandexpressive
caricatures'
whose
(Dubbini1994: ence to the artisticcanonsof romanticism,
'Figurines
intotherepresented
is easy and well-acknowledged
in their
84) are introduced
sceneryto recognition
notonlya graphic
scale- as ithappened
with codification
provide
by a vastpublic.
- butalso
the'picturesque'duringtheEnlightment
Contentanalysisand formalexamination
of texts
to instilllife in scenes otherwisetoo severe or and illustrations
show theircorrespondence
with
recurrepulsive. Furthermore,sceneries excessively establishedideal models,whilethefrequent
arereducedto more'human'perspectives rence of these models gives a 'measure' of the
grandiose
of suchperspective.
The analyticalprothrough
quotationsof eruditeor vernacular
origin, importance
sketchesor local colors,iconographie
references
to cedureis verysuitablein thecase of 'picturesque
thecollectiveimagination
or to anecdotic(carica- voyages'giventhefactthatthetextsand theilluscanonsandtastes.
turesque) occurrencesborn from international trations
fullyrespondtoprevailing
'tourism.'The 'picturesquevision' is 'adoptedas
textsand
However,it is worthnotingthatliterary
of theimages' (Praz figurative
principleforthecomposition
imagesdo notpossessthesame descrip1966: 17-18), forthe creationof ambiencesand tive powerand capacityof suggestion:given the
thatare codifiedaccordingto thetravel- diversevalueofbothexpression
situations
the'pismodalities,
theirinherent
oguepracticeof thetime.
toresquevoyage'triesto compensate
Even the researchand the individualization
of limitations
one withtheother.
bycomplementing
motiveswithinthepicturesqueand thesublimeOn theotherhand,it is certainly
notcoincidental
wherever
thatthemajority
of the'picturesque
existingand experiencedin journeys,as
voyages'focus
well as theirtransfer
to thepublic- are amongthe on mountains
andalpineareasbecausethenatureof
mostdemanding
tasksforthefigurative
andliterary theseplaces,theworksofman,andthespiritual
and
artists
ofromanticism.
One ofthegeographic
cultural
traits
ofmountain
communities
spaces material
fully
in whichthesethemesweredevelopedbestare the respondto theinterests
and intellectual
of
curiosity
elements
areperfectly
Alps,a realmeasilyaccessibleto theEuropeanhigh thosetimes.All thementioned
environmental
society.The characteristic
varietyof adaptedto providelandscapematerialssuitableto
theAlpsoffered
concrete
manifestations
ofidealized be treated
accordingto theestethical
preceptsofthe
landscape models: the mountainswere also an picturesqueand the sublime.15
of these
imaginary-symbolic
space to whichideal properties
Surely,the prose and the illustrations

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54

do notmeasureup tothegreatliterary
travelaccounts
thefacts,mateworksofromanticism:16
andpictorial
rialsandconceptsoffered
bythetravelgenrecannot
competewiththemasterworksof theirtime.The
images of traveloguesdo not comparewith the
litof romantic
achievements
painting(or romantic
offered
erature)whichdevelopall thepotentials
by
the'picturesque'and the'sublime.'In therealmof
thepicturesque'the humbleand simpleaspectsof
natureare emphasized(resulting,later on, in a
realisticnatutowardsa progressively
propensity
successful
while
the
sublime
more
ralism),'
opens
and
'thestrong
venues,liberating
visionary emotional
with the
inclinationswhich in the confrontation
led
to
about
the
of
nature
thinking
permanence
human
develof
life
and
or,
vulnerability'
transiency
opingthat'visionaryand almostreligiousspiritualism. . . thatforgedan artappropriately
populated
withsymbols'(Belli 1993; Sandoz 1983).
of the 'picturesque
The proseand iconography
since
fell
short
of
these
accomplishments
voyage'
and couldnotallow for
itspurposewas descriptive
offancyenjoyedbyartgratia
andflights
theliberties
artis.

of travelogueliterature
(Scaramellini
shortcomings
1989b).
thegraphicillustrations
of 'picBy thecontrary,
turesquevoyages' has more limitedexpressive
means,but,since theyare notboundby language
constraints
ofuniversalvalue,theauthor'sabilityis
manifested
in thereproduction
of salientandunique
traitsof a landscapethrough
i.e.,
designattributes,
lines,tones,shades,proportions,
perspective,
plurality
ofplanes,or colors(whentheyareused).Reference
to idealmodelsin illustrations
can be ofimportance,
butit mustnotbe as dominantas to renderplaces
thegraphicexpression
is,thus,more
unrecognizable:
tiedto realitythanthewritten
word.
all
While textscan deployin similaritineraries
lexical gradationsof theesthetical-emotional
scale
(fromthepleasantor amicableto thehorribleand
sublime),landscape iconographymustsomewhat
'imitate'realityand cannotreproduceit freely.It
the'real thing.'In this,
reconstructs
programatically
to
theauthorswereforcedto pay specialattention
thosereal elementsthatcame closestto the ideal
models, such as scenic grandeur,imposingand
bizarrereliefs,impetuouswatercourses,or lush
but,theycould notdismissthevisible
vegetation,
from
theirpictorialreproductions.
reality
illustrators
For
this
A
literature:
and
travel
reason,
usually chose the
comparison
Iconography
of
the
intermediate
picturesque,
givinga certain
way
the
Whenliterarytextsare gauged againstfigurative nobilityto banal landscapes,or attenuating
to
harsh
or
attributed
effects
sometimes
sublime
for
seem
better
suited
'conveying'
they
descriptions,
and formvariety,
wordis, poten- grandioselandscapes.Irregularity
thesenseof a journey.The written
of planes,lightsand shadowsare stressed;
moreflexibleand rich interplay
tially,a tool of description
andwanderers,
ofshepherds
thandesign.This is theopinionof EdmundBurke smallfigurines
peasants
and
travellers
ladiesandcountrywomen,
of andhunters,
somecommonconvictions
whoseviewscontradict
histimes(Burke1968).Similarviewsareexpressed painters,sailboatsand carts,beastsof burdenand
inmarginal
1796 domesticorwildanimalsareintroduced,
byGeorgW. F. Hegel in hisAlpenwanderung,
- an Alpinejourneymuchin tunewiththespiritof locations,toenlivenscenesthatwouldhavebeentoo
and terminology,
thetime,in termsof itinerary
but, solemn,and lendlocal coloringto otherwise
anonyor landscapes.19
moussituations
in
which
he
remarks
in
content
anti-romantic
totally
This tendencyappears in all iconographiesof
that'the natural'sublimeimpliesa new way of
to
offer
the
fails
which,however,
spiritany 'pictorialvoyages' in which the picturesqueis
observing
12It shouldnotcome
the
attimes,thisdrivestowards
dominant:
1989:
newactivity'
385).
absolutely
(Hegel
thepromi- pleasant, or conversely,towards the sublime,
as a surprisethatJosephM. W. Turner,
and themood
nent romanticpainter,consideredthe poetryof dependingon thescene's characters
restslargely
effect
the
artist.
Since
of
the
such
as
some of his contemporaries,
Wordsworth,
suggestive
informative
an
texts
the
the
on
of
more
and
illustrations,
play
capable transmitting
Coleridge Byron,
Jakob
Johann
as
role
in
certainsensations
Mayer's
exemplifiedby
dynamism nature)
(particularly
ofthe
tothecomments
Reisenaccording
thanthebestofpaintings
(Sandoz1983;Brown1993; Mahlerische
Ebel
Ebel
Gottfried
Johann
erudite
of
the
1826;
This
Nicosia1993).
(Mayer
capacity
majorexpressive
of
reduced
to
are
or
are
if
the
authors
wordis manifested
written
1831)
sketchypresentations
only
Bernucca's
as
Giovanni
such
itineraries
and
and
abletoreproduce
atmospheres special places
suggestive
are texts which are splendidlyaccompaniedby the
Mostoften,however,
descriptions
impressions.18
so thatthetaskof creating aquatintsof Federico Lose (Bernucca and Lose
and stereotype,
ordinary
to the opinionsof contematmospheresand impressionsis left to lexical 1824). Thus, contrary
of the 'picturesque'as
choice
the
in
codified
associationsand syntaxconstructions,
porarytheorists,
andformin the
content
for
framework
esthetical
the
ideal modelsof rhetorical
or,retraceable
matrices,
more
the
renders
'romantic
are
Thesemodels
authors.
ofauthoritative
towritings
iconography
journey'
than
evocative
more
and
another
fromone geographical
transferable
writing.
descriptive
place to
ofthelatter
thegreater
potential
expressive
(Brown 1993), whichis one of the mostrepeated However,

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55

is rarelymaximizedby the 'normal' authorsof

travelogues.
Theillustrations
ofthe'pictorial
voyages'display,
of 'romantic
therefore,
quitea fewcharacteristics
realism'(Belli 1993;Pomarde1993),forinstance,
on exactness
forms,
greatemphasison thesuperficial
ofproportions,
on dimensions,
theaspectsofpersons
or manufactured
articles,while,on theotherhand,
in brightlightsand shroudedin
are
bathed
places
evocativeand suggestiveatmospheres.
The whole
of
the
figurative
genre
'picturesque
voyage'ranges
fromtheexactnessand realismof the'topographic
design'20to the visionarycalligraphyof certain
(Brown1993; Sitt 1993),
symbolicrepresentations
both differingin quality and style among
individualauthors.The choiceof fieldin the'picrealism'is almost
turesque
voyage'andin 'subjective
once
the
choice
is
but,
made,theauthors
obligatory;
let themselves
be guidedby theirown artisticpertheiresthetical
sonalities,
canons,andtheirtechnical
abilities.Thus, one findsworkscharacterized
by
great'realism' (such as the suggestivebut also
accuratedocumentary
of Lose, Meyer,
productions
andWetzel)or otherworksof 'impressionistic'
and
ante-litteram
likethoseofGeorgeClowesor
nature,
EdouardPingret,
whichare somewhat
artless.
In thisway,the'picturesque
the
voyages'satisfied
demandsand theconverging
tastesof quitea large
audience- giventhecanonsof thesetimes- and
alsotothevariedbackgrounds
andcultural
responded
interests
of thatpublic.

9
10

1'
12

13

Notes
1 From the exhaustive
bibliographyon romanticismwe underscore particularly
thestimulatingand dense treatiseof Arnold
Hauser, Sozialgeschichte der Kunst und Literatur, whose
Italian edition of 1987 has been used in this article (pp.
159-220). See also AA.VV. (1993).
Lucia Tresoldi (1975: 43) pointsout thattowardsthe end of
the 1700s 'the concept of voyage was modified,in content
as well as in theexteriorformof theaccounts' in theGerman
authorsthatshe studied.
3 There are numerous studies
concerning the idea and the
images of Italy conveyed by travel accounts. See in particular Venturi (1973), Scaramellini (1987, 1993), Viola
(1987), Kanceff (n.d.), as well as the essays published by
Botta (1989). Further,consult the rich, but incomplete,
bibliographies of Manichelli (1962), Pine-Coffin (1974),
Tresoldi (1975), Fazio (1984-1985-1986).
4 On the
poetic works of Albrechtvon Haller and Salomon
Gessner, consult Mittner (1964: 119-139), Gage (1993:
62-63). For the receptionof Gessner in Italy see De' Giorgi
Bertola (1789) who also translatedpartof the worksof this
travellernative of Zurich. Bertola also left valuable testimonies of the interestin Switzerlandduringhis times,and
of the diverse attitudesregardingtravellingto thatcountry
duringthe mid-1700s. His firstaccount, published in 1787
(De' Giorgi Bertola 1972) is moredisattachedand scientific,
while the re-elaborationof his work in 1795 (De' Giorgi
Bertola 1986) is more 'picturesque' and 'sentimental.'
It is superfluousto insiston therole played by J.J.Rousseau

15

16

18

19
20

(particularlyhis La nouvelle Hloise, 1761) for awakening

the love forthe Alps in the cultureof the 1700s. Of interest
in our approach are Pivetau (1981), Relia (1993: 29-30),
OttaniCavina (1993: 45).
The attitudeof travellerstowardsthevalleys of CantonTicino
is ambivalentand ambiguous: some referto themas 'Italian'
and othersas 'Swiss, according to the interpretative
models
and stereotypesapplied to bothnations.Scaramellini(1980b:
206-221), Martinoni(1989: XX-XXII).
On this issue consult also Kanceff (1983), Candaux (1983),
Lovie (1983), Moinet (1983), and Guichonnet(1988).
Also of interestare the statisticalworks of MelchiorreGioia
(1767-1829), Lucca De Samuele Cagnazzi (1764-1852),
Vincenzo Cuoco (1770-1823), Gian Domenico Romagnosi
(1761-1835), Carlo Cattaneo (1801-1869), Stefano Jacini
(1826-1891). See also Gambi (1973: 6-11).
Examples of this are Burney (1979); Eustace, 1813-1818;
Itinraire classique. . . , 1825; Valry (1831); Jal (1836);
Viadot(1855).
It is also curious,but understandable,thata workverymuch
inclinedtowardsthe anthropological-psychological,
like that
of Leed ( 1992), mentionsas importantmomentsin a journey
the 'departure' and the 'arrival' in contrastto 'transiting,'
phases of a voyage that relegate the itineraryto a simple
passage froma place of originto a goal, and do not value it
as an experienceper-se.
Pertainingto the positionof an observeras an insiderversus
an outsider,see Cosgrove (1984, 18-20, 25-27, 269-270).
From literature,throughthe mediation of personalitieslike
Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), 'landscape' became
a subject of geographic enquiry. Scaramellini has studied
the role of 'landscape study' in Italian geographicresearch.
The relations established between painting,literature,and
geographyduringthenineteenth
centuryhave been researched
by Bunkse (1981), Oraezie Vallino (1993), Rees (1973, 1976,
1982).
Bibliographyon thissubject is ample: Assunto(1967), Sertoli
(1985, 1987), Russo (1987 a-c), Morpurgo-Taglabue(1987),
Frenci (1987). Consult also AA.VV. (1993) and theessay of
Brown (1993).
About the 'sublime' in romanticart(specificallyin landscape
portraying)see Cosgrove (1984: 226-239).
During the early decades of the nineteenthcenturythereis a
series of 'picturesque voyages' to northern Italy and
Switzerlandon whichthispaper is based: Loryand Osterwald
(1811); Bruun Neergard (1820), Lose and Lose (1820),
Burnucca and Lose (1824), Meyer and Ebel (1826), Clowes
(1827), Sennones and Pingret(1827), Meyerand Ebel (1831).
On the attentiongiven by romanticismto the landscape,
consult the French work by Lacoste-Veysseyre (1981),
Molinari (1981), Nicosia (1993), Dubbini (1994: 66-139).
The originaltextof Hegel reads: 'Man kannes nureine neue
Art von Sehen nennen,die aber dem Geist schlechterdings
keineweitereBeschaeftigunggibt' [One can onlycall it a new
way of looking, which, however, does not provide further
stimulationto the mind].
Franois-Ren de Chateaubriand's role in the creationof a
of the tasteforlanddescriptivetechniqueand determination
scape is well known (Claval 1981: 40-42). It was, however,
WalterScott who createdgeographicalambientationsforthe
actionsof his 'historicalnovels' - a typicalgenreof romantic
literature.On this subject consult Dubbini (1994), Peterson
(1965).
R. Dubbini (1994: 110, 118-122) recalls the role played by
the 'picturesque' in making evident the 'local character'in
the paintingsof the turnof the nineteenthcenturv.
A typical example are the illustrationsof Giuseppe Pietro
Bagetti (1764-1831), a land surveyor and painter from
Piamonte,Italy. See also, Romano (1978: 1 13-127), Piantoni
(1993: 278), AA.VV. (1993: 449). Referenceis to be made

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56
Brown(1993: 109-110),Sitt
hereto 'pre-Raphael'painters:
(1993: 141-143).

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