Introduction To Computers

le s s o n 1
An Overview of the
Computer System
This lesson includes the following sections:
• The Parts of a Computer System
• Looking Inside the Machine
• Software: Bringing the Machine to Life
The Parts of a Computer System
• What is a Computer?
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• Users
The Parts of a Computer System
- What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device used to process data.

• A computer can convert data into information that is
useful to people.
• A complete computer system includes four distinct
parts:
Hardware
Software
Data
User
The Parts of a Computer System - Hardware
• A computer's hardware consists of electronic

devices; the parts you can see and touch.
• The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware
used by the computer, such as a keyboard, monitor,
modem, mouse, etc.
The Parts of a Computer System - Software
• Software – also called programs – consists of

organized sets of instructions for controlling the
computer.
• Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help

it manage its own tasks and devices.
• Other programs exist for the user, and enable the

computer to perform tasks for you, such as creating
documents.
The Parts of a Computer System - Data
• Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can

manipulate and process into information that is
useful to people.
• Computerized data is digital, meaning that it has
been reduced to digits, or numbers. The computer
stores and reads all data as numbers.
• Although computers use data in digital form, they
convert data into forms that people can
understand, such as text, numerals, sounds, and
images.
Ten different
symbols in
the decimal
system
Numbers above 9
use more than 1 digit
The Parts of a Computer System – Users
• People are the computer's operators, or users.
• Some types of computers can operate without

much intervention from people, but personal
computers are designed specifically for use by
people.
Looking Inside the Machine
• Types of Hardware
• The CPU
• Memory
• How Memory is Measured
• Input and Output Devices
• Storage Devices
Looking Inside the Machine –
Types of Hardware
A computer's hardware devices are categorized as
follows:
• Processor
• Memory
• Input and output (I/O) devices
• Storage devices
01101111
10001111
01101010 10000000
01001010
Looking Inside the Machine - The CPU
The procedure that The processor
transforms raw data is also called
into useful the central
information is called processing
processing. This unit (CPU). It
function is divided manages all
between the devices and
computer's processor performs the
and memory. actual
processing of
data.
The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the

computer's main circuit board (the motherboard).
Looking Inside the Machine - Memory
• Memory also consists of chips attached to the
motherboard.
• Memory holds data and program instructions as

the CPU works with them. This memory is called
Random Access Memory (RAM).
• The CPU can find any piece of data

in RAM, when it needs it for processing.
• RAM is volatile, meaning it holds data

only when the power is on. When the power
is off, RAM's contents are lost.
Looking Inside the Machine
– How Memory is Measured
• The smallest usable unit of measure for memory is
the byte – the amount of memory required to hold
one character, like the letter A or the numeral 2.
• Computers work with larger chunks of data,

measured in multiple bytes, as shown below:
Unit Approx. Value Actual Value

(bytes) (bytes)
Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 1,024

Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 1,048,576
Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 1,073,741,824
Terabyte (TB) 1,000,000,000,000 1,099,511,627,776
Looking Inside the Machine –
Input and Output Devices
• Input devices accept data and instructions from the

user or from another computer system. The keyboard
and mouse are examples of input devices.
• Output devices return processed data back to the

user or to another computer system. The printer and
monitor are examples.
• Communications devices (such as modems and

network interface cards) perform both input and
output, allowing computers to share information.
Looking Inside the Machine - Storage Devices
• Storage devices hold data not currently being used

by the CPU. Data is commonly stored on a magnetic
or optical disk. Each type uses a special medium for
storing data on its surface.
• A disk drive is a device that reads data from and

writes data to a disk. Most new computers feature a
floppy disk drive, a hard disk drive, and an optical
disk drive.
• The most common optical storage devices are CD-

ROM and DVD-ROM drives.
Software: Bringing the Machine to Life
• What is Software?
• System Software
• Application Software
Bringing the Machine to Life –
What is Software?
• Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells

the computer how to do certain tasks. A set of
instructions is often called a program.
• When a computer is using a particular program, it is

said to be running or executing the program.
• The two most common types of programs are system

software and application software.
Bringing the Machine to Life –
System Software
• System software exists primarily for the computer

itself, to help the computer perform specific
functions.
• One major type of system software is the operating

system (OS). All computers require an operating
system.
• The OS tells the computer how to interact with the

user and its own devices.
• Common operating systems include Windows, the

Macintosh OS, OS/2, and UNIX .
Bringing the Machine to Life - Applications
• Application software tells the computer how to

accomplish tasks the user requires, such as creating a
document or editing a graphic image.
• Some important kinds of application software are:
Word processing programs Spreadsheet software

Database management Presentation programs
Graphics programs Networking software
Web design tools and browsers Internet applications
Communications programs Utilities
Entertainment and education Multimedia authoring
le s s o n 1 r e v ie w
• List the four parts of a computer system.
• Identify four types of computer hardware.
• List five units of measure for computer memory and

storage.
• Provide two examples of input and output devices.
• Name and describe three types of storage devices.
• Differentiate the two main categories of computer

software.
• List four specific types of application software.

le s s o n 2
The Shapes of
Computers Today
• Supercomputers
• Mainframe Computers
• Minicomputers
• Workstations
• Microcomputers, or Personal Computers
The Shapes of Computers Today
- Supercomputers
• Supercomputers are the most powerful computers.

They are used for problems requiring complex
calculations.
• Because of their size and expense, supercomputers

are relatively rare.
• Supercomputers are used by universities,

government agencies, and large businesses.
- Mainframe Computers
• Mainframe computers can support hundreds or

thousands of users, handling massive amounts of
input, output, and storage.
• Mainframe computers are used in large

organizations where many users need access to
shared data and programs.
• Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers,

handling transactions over the Internet.
- Minicomputers
• Minicomputers are smaller than mainframes but

larger than microcomputers.
• Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals.
• Minicomputers may be used as network servers and

Internet servers.
The Shapes of Computers Today –
Workstations
• Workstations are powerful single-user computers.
• Workstations are used for tasks that require a great

deal of number-crunching power, such as product
design and computer animation.
• Workstations are often used as network and Internet

servers.
The Shapes of Computers Today –
Microcomputers, or Personal Computers
• Microcomputers are more commonly known as

personal computers. The term "PC" is applied to
IBM-PCs or compatible computers.
• Full-size desktop computers are the most common type

of PC.
• Notebook (laptop) computers are used by people who

need the power of a desktop system, but also
portability.
• Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a

desktop or notebook PC, but offer features for users
who need limited functions and small size.
le s s o n 2 R e v ie w
• List the five most common types of computer systems.
• Identify two unique features of supercomputers.
• Describe a typical use for mainframe computers
• Differentiate workstations from personal computers.
• Identify four types of personal computers.

le s s o n 3
Standard Methods
of Input
• The Keyboard
• The Mouse
• Variants of the Mouse
The Keyboard
• The Standard Keyboard Layout
• Ergonomic Keyboards
• How a Keyboard Works

The Keyboard - Standard Keyboard Layout
• A standard computer keyboard has about 100 keys.
• Most keyboards use the QWERTY layout, named for

the first six keys in the top row of letters.
The Keyboard - Standard Keyboard Layout
Most keyboards have keys arranged in five groups:
1. Alphanumeric keys
2. Numeric keypad
3. Function keys
4. Modifier keys
5. Cursor-movement keys
ACADEMIC RECORDS
Password * * * * *
ENTER Invalid Password
The Keyboard - Ergonomic Keyboards
• Long periods of keyboard use can cause injuries.
• An ergonomically correct keyboard can help you

avoid injuries.
• You also can avoid injuries by adopting correct

keyboarding practices.
The Keyboard - How a Keyboard Works
When you press a key:
• The keyboard controller detects the keystroke.
• The controller places a scan code in the keyboard

buffer, indicating which key was pressed.
• The keyboard sends the computer an interrupt

request, telling the CPU to accept the keystroke.
The Mouse
• What is a Mouse?
• Mouse Techniques
The Mouse - What is a Mouse?
• The mouse is a pointing device. You use it to

move a graphical pointer on the screen.
• The mouse can be used to issue commands, draw,

and perform other types of input tasks.
The Mouse - Mouse Techniques
Using the mouse involves five techniques:
1. Pointing; Move the mouse to move the on-screen
pointer.
2. Clicking; Press and release the left mouse button

once.
3. Double-clicking; Press and release the left mouse

button twice.
4. Dragging; Hold down the left mouse button as you

move the pointer.
5. Right-clicking; Press and release the right mouse button.

Variants of the Mouse
• Trackballs
• Trackpads
• Integrated Pointed Devices

Variants of the Mouse - Trackballs
• A trackball is like a mouse turned upside-down.

• Use your thumb to move the exposed ball and your
fingers to press the buttons.
Many styles of
trackball are
available.
Variants of the Mouse - Trackpads
• A trackpad is a touch-sensitive pad that provides the

same functionality as a mouse.
• To use a trackpad, you glide your finger across its

surface.
• Trackpads provide a set of buttons that function like

mouse buttons.
Variants of the Mouse-
Integrated Pointing Devices
• An integrated pointing device is a small joystick built

into the keyboard.
• To use an integrated pointing device, you move the

joystick.
• These devices provide a set of buttons that function

like mouse buttons
• Identify the five key groups on a standard computer

keyboard.
• Describe the purpose of a mouse and the role it plays

in computing.
• Identify the five essential techniques for using a

mouse.
• Identify three common variants of the mouse.

le s s o n 4
Alternative Methods
Of Input
• Devices for the Hand
• Optical Input Devices
• Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices
Alternative Input Devices –
Devices for the Hand
• Pens
• Touch Screens
• Game Controllers
Devices for the Hand - Pens
• With a pen-based system, you use an electronic pen
to write on the screen and choose commands.
• Pens are common input devices for handheld

computers, like “personal digital assistants (PDAs).”
• Pens are handy for making notes or selecting

commands, not for inputting a lot of text.
The user can point, tap,
draw and write on the
computer’s screen with a
pen.
Devices for the Hand - Touch Screens
• Touch-screen systems accept input directly through

the monitor.
• Touch screens use sensors to detect the touch of a

finger. They are useful where environmental
conditions prohibit the use of a keyboard or mouse.
• Touch-screen systems are useful for selecting options

from menus.
Devices for the Hand - Game Controllers
• The two primary types of game controllers are

joysticks and game pads.
• Game pads usually provide controls for each hand.
• Joysticks are popular for flight simulator and

driving games.
Optical Input Devices
• Bar Code Readers
• Image Scanners and OCR

Optical Input Devices - Bar Code Readers
• Bar code readers can read bar codes—patterns of
printed bars.
• The reader emits light, which reflects off the bar code
and into a detector in the reader. The detector
translates the code into numbers.
• Flatbed bar code readers are commonly found in

supermarkets. Courier services often use handheld
readers.
Bar code readers
commonly track
sales in retail
stores
Optical Input Devices –
Image Scanners and OCR
• Image scanners digitize printed images for storage and
manipulation in a computer.
• A scanner shines light onto the image and interprets

the reflection.
• Optical character recognition (OCR) software

translates scanned text into editable electronic
documents.
Document
being
scanned
Converts
diode signals
to numbers
To computer
Light source, lens

and diode array
Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices
• Microphones and Speech Recognition
• Video Input
Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices -
Microphones and Speech Recognition
• Microphones can accept auditory input. A

microphone requires a sound card in the PC.
• A sound card can digitize analog sound signals, and

convert digital sound signals to analog form.
• With speech recognition software, you can use your

microphone to dictate text, navigate programs, and
choose commands.
Analog Sound Signals
Digital Audio Output
[electrical signals]
(ex. 11100011) to
computer
Analog Signals are Digitized

Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices –
Video Input
• PC video cameras digitize full-motion images.
• Digital cameras capture still images.
• These cameras break images into pixels and store

data about each pixel.
• Video images may be compressed to use less memory

and storage space.
• List two reasons why some computer users prefer
alternative methods of input over a standard keyboard
or mouse.
• List three categories of alternative input devices.
• List two type of optical input devices and describe

their uses.
• Describe the uses for speech-recognition systems.
• Identify two types of video input devices and their

uses.
le s s o n 5
Monitors and Sound
Systems
• Monitors
• PC Projectors
• Sound Systems
Monitors
• Categories of Monitors
• CRT Monitors
• Flat-Panel Monitors
• Comparing Monitors
• Video Controllers
Monitors - Categories of Monitors
Monitors are categorized by the technology they use:
• Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors

• Flat-panel displays
And by the way they display colors:
• Monochrome – One color on a black background

• Grayscale – Shades of gray on a white or off-white
background
• Color – From 16 to 16 million unique colors
Monitors - CRT Monitors
• In CRT monitors, electrons are fired at phosphor

dots on the screen.
• The dots are grouped into pixels, which glow when

struck by electrons.
• In color CRTs, each pixel contains a red, green, and

blue dot. These glow at varying intensities to
produce color images.
Monitors - Flat-Panel Monitors
• Most flat-panel monitors use liquid crystal display

(LCD) technology.
• Passive matrix LCD uses a transistor for each row

and column of pixels.
• Active matrix LCD uses a transistor for each pixel on

the screen.
• Thin-film transistor displays use multiple

transistors for each pixel.
Flat-panel monitors take up less desk space.
Monitors - Comparing Monitors
When comparing monitors, consider four features:
• Size
• Resolution
• Refresh rate
• Dot pitch
Comparing Monitors - Size
• A monitor's size is the diagonal measurement of its
face, in inches.
• For years, 15" monitors (13"viewing area) were

standard.
• Today, 17" monitors (15" viewing area) are common.
• Larger monitors are available, but can be expensive.

The diagonal
size (often 15”)
Comparing Monitors - Resolution
• Resolution is the number of pixels on the screen,

expressed as a matrix (such as 600x800).
• A 17" monitor offers resolutions from 640x480 up to

1280x1024.
• The Video Graphics Array (VGA) standard is

640x480. Super VGA (SVGA) monitors provide
resolutions of 800x600, 1024x768 or higher.
Resolution (image sharpness) is important.
(Especially for graphics, page layout, and CAD)

Comparing Monitors - Refresh Rate
• Refresh rate is the number of times each second that

the electron guns scan the screen's pixels.
• Refresh rate is measured in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per

second.
• Look for a refresh rate of 72 Hz or higher. A slower

rate may cause eyestrain.
Fast scanning = Quick refresh (less flicker)
Comparing Monitors - Dot Pitch
• Dot pitch is the distance between the phosphor dots

that make up a single pixel.
• In color monitors, three dots (red, green, and blue)

comprise each pixel.
• Look for a dot pitch no greater than .28 millimeter.

Fine dot pitch = Crisp displays
B+G R+B
R+G
R+B+G
Phosphor Dot Color Mixing

Monitors - Video Controllers
• The video controller is an interface between the

monitor and the CPU.
• The video controller determines many aspects of a

monitor's performance, such as resolution or the
number of colors displayed.
• The video controller contains its own on-board

processor and memory, called video RAM (VRAM).
Video Control Board
with Monitor Cable
VRAM
Graphic intensive applications such

as games require plenty of VRAM.
PC Projectors
• A PC projector connects to a PC and is used to

project images on a large screen.
• Many PC projectors provide the same resolutions and

color levels as high-quality monitors.
• Digital light processing (DLP) projectors use a

microchip containing tiny mirrors to produce very
sharp, bright images.
Projected
Screen
Sound Systems
• Multimedia PCs come with a sound card, speakers,

and a CD-ROM or DVD drive.
• A sound card translates digital signals into analog

ones that drive the speakers.
• With the right software, you can use your PC to edit

sounds and create special sound effects.
le s s o n 5 - R e v ie w
• List the two most commonly used types of computer

monitors.
• Explain how a CRT monitor displays images.
• Identify two types of flat-panel monitors and explain

their differences.
• List four characteristics you should consider when

comparing monitors.
• Explain how a computer outputs sound.

le s s o n 6
Devices that Output
Hard Copy
• Overview of Printers
• Dot Matrix Printers
• Ink Jet Printers
• Laser Printers
• Snapshot Printers
• Other High-Quality Printers
Overview of Printers
• Categorizing Printers
• Evaluating Printers
Overview of Printers - Categorizing Printers
Printers fall into two categories:
• Impact printers use a device to strike an inked

ribbon, pressing ink from the ribbon onto the paper.
• Non-impact printers use different methods to place

ink (or another substance) on the page.
Overview of Printers - Evaluating Printers
When evaluating printers, consider four criteria:
• Image quality – Measured in dots per inch (dpi). Most

printers produce 300 – 600 dpi.
• Speed – Measured in pages per minute (ppm) or
characters per second (cps).
• Initial cost – Consumer printers cost $250 or less, but
professional printers can cost thousands of dollars.
• Cost of operation – This refers to the cost of supplies
used by the printer.
Dot Matrix Printers
• How Do Dot Matrix Printers Work?
• Performance
Dot Matrix Printers -
How Do Dot Matrix Printers Work?
• Dot matrix printers are a common type of impact

printer.
• A dot matrix printer's print head contains a cluster

of pins. The printer can push the pins out to form
patterns in rapid sequence.
• The pins press an inked ribbon against the paper,

creating an image.
Dot Matrix Printers - Performance
• Lower-resolution dot matrix printers use nine pins.

Higher-resolution models have 24 pins.
• Speed is measured in characters per second (cps).

Some dot matrix printers print 500 cps.
Ink Jet Printers
• How Do Ink Jet Printers Work?
• Performance
Ink Jet Printers –
How Do Ink Jet Printers Work?
• Ink jet printers are an example of non-impact

printers.
• The printer sprays tiny droplets of ink onto the

paper.
• Ink jet printers are available for color and black-and-

white printing.
Ink Jet Printers - Performance
• Ink jet printers offer speeds of (2 – 4 pages per

minute ppm) and resolution (300 – 600 dots per
inch dpi), comparable to low-end laser printers.
• Ink jet printers are inexpensive and have low

operating costs.
Laser Printers
• How Do Laser Printers Work?
• Performance
Laser Printers –
How Do Laser Printers Work?
• Laser printers are non-impact printers.
• They use heat and pressure to bond particles of

toner to paper.
• Laser printers are available for color and black-

and-white printing.
Laser Printers - Performance
• Laser printers provide resolutions from 300 – 1200
dpi and higher.
• Black-and-white laser printers usually produce 4 –

16 ppm.
• Laser printers produce higher-quality print than

ink jet printers, but are more expensive.
Snapshot Printers
• Snapshot printers are specialized, small-format

printers that print digital photographs.
• Snapshot printers are fairly slow, and can be more

expensive to operate
Snapshot printers are popular among
digital camera users
Other High-Quality Printers
Print shops and publishers use these printers to create
high-quality color images:
• Thermal-wax
• Dye-sublimation
• Fiery
• IRIS
• Plotters
Plotters use mechanical, ink jet, or thermal technology
to create large-format images for architectural or
engineering uses.
• List the three most commonly used types of printers.
• List the four criteria you should consider when

evaluating printers.
• Describe how a dot matrix printer creates an

image on a page.
• Explain the process by which a laser printer

operates.
• List five types of high-quality printing devices

commonly used in business.
le s s o n 7
Transforming Data
into Information
This lesson includes the following
sections:
• How Computers Represent Data
• How Computers Process Data
• Factors Affecting Processing Speed
• Extending the Processor's Power to
Other Devices
How Computers Represent Data
• Binary Numbers
• The Binary Number System
• Bits and Bytes
• Text Codes
How Computers Represent Data
– Binary Numbers
• Computer processing is performed by transistors,
which are switches with only two possible states: on
and off.
• All computer data is converted to a series of binary

numbers– 1 and 0. For example, you see a sentence as
a collection of letters, but the computer sees each
letter as a collection of 1s and 0s.
• If a transistor is assigned a value of 1, it is on. If it has

a value of 0, it is off. A computer's transistors can be
switched on and off millions of times each second.
Ten different
symbols in
the decimal
system
Numbers above 9
use more than 1 digit
Base 10 Base 2
The Binary Number System
0 0
• To convert data into strings of 1 1
numbers, computers use the binary
number system. 2 10
3 11
• Humans use the decimal system
4 100
(“deci” stands for “ten”).
5 101
• The binary number system works the 6 110
same way as the decimal system, but
has only two available symbols (0 and 7 111
1) rather than ten (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1000
8, and 9).
9 1001
10 1010
How Computers Represent Data - Bits and Bytes
• A single unit of data is called a bit, having a value of 1

or 0.
• Computers work with collections of bits, grouping

them to represent larger pieces of data, such as letters
of the alphabet.
.
• Eight bits make up one byte. A byte is the amount of

memory needed to store one alphanumeric character.
• With one byte, the computer can represent one of 256

different symbols or characters.
1 01 10 1 01 01 1 01
How Computers Represent Data - Text Codes
• A text code is a system that uses binary numbers (1s
and 0s) to represent characters understood by humans
(letters and numerals).
• An early text code system, called EBCDIC, uses eight-

bit codes, but is used primarily in older mainframe
systems.
• In the most common text-code set, ASCII, each

character consists of eight bits (one byte) of data.
ASCII is used in nearly all personal computers.
• In the Unicode text-code set, each character consists of

16 bits (two bytes) of data.
Code Character
00110000 0
00110001 1
00110010 2
Examples from the
00110011 3
ASCII Text Code
00110100 4
00110101 5
01000001 A
01000010 B
01000011 C
01000100 D
01000101 E
How Computers Process Data
Where Processing Occurs:
• The Control Unit

• The Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Machine Cycles
• The Role of Memory in Processing
• Types of RAM
How Computers Process Data –
Where Processing Occurs
• Processing takes place in the PC's central processing

unit (CPU).
• The system's memory also plays a crucial role in

processing data.
• Both the CPU and memory are attached to the

system's motherboard, which connects all the
computer's devices together, enabling them to
communicate.
The Control Unit
The two main parts of a CPU are the control unit and the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
• The control unit directs the flow of data through the

CPU, and to and from other devices.
• The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which

contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can
perform.
The Arithmetic Logic Unit
• The actual manipulation of data takes place in the

ALU.
• The ALU can perform arithmetic and logic

operations.
• The ALU is connected to a set of registers—small

memory areas in the CPU, which hold data and
program instructions while they are being processed.
ALU Operations List
Arithmetic Logical
Operations Operations
+ Add =, ≠ equal to, not equal to
− Subtract >, > greater than, not greater than
x Multiply <, < less than, not less than

÷ Divide ≥, ≥ greater than or equal to,
not greater than or equal to
^ Raise by a power ≤, ≤ less than or equal to,
not less than or equal to
Machine Cycles
• The CPU follows a set of steps-called a machine cycle-
for each instruction it carries out.
• By using a technique called pipelining, many CPUs can

process more than one instruction at a time.
• The machine cycle includes two smaller cycles:
9During the instruction cycle, the CPU "fetches" a

command or data from memory and "decodes" it for
the CPU.
9During the execution cycle, the CPU carries out the

instruction, and may store the instruction's result in
memory.
The Role of Memory
• RAM stores data and program code needed by the

CPU. The contents of RAM change rapidly and often.
• Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile (or

permanent). It holds instructions that run the
computer when the power is first turned on.
• The CPU accesses each location in memory by using a

unique number, called the memory address.
How Computers Process Data -
Types of RAM
There are two basic types of RAM: static and dynamic
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips must be recharged

with electricity very frequently, or they will lose their
contents.
• Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be recharged

as often as DRAM, and can hold its contents longer.
Another type of RAM, called flash memory, can store its

contents after power is turned off. Flash memory is used
in digital cameras to store pictures.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed
• Registers
• RAM
• The System Clock
• The Bus
• Cache Memory
Factors Affecting Processing Speed – Registers
• The CPU contains a number of small memory areas,

called registers, which store data and instructions
while the CPU processes them.
• The size of the registers (also called word size)

determines the amount of data with which the
computer can work at a one time.
• Today, most PCs have 32-bit registers, mean the CPU

can process four bytes of data at one time. Register
sizes are rapidly growing to 64 bits.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed – RAM
• The amount of RAM in a PC has a direct affect on
the system's speed.
• The more RAM a PC has, the more program

instructions and data can be held in memory, which
is faster than storage on disk.
• If a PC does not have enough memory to run a

program, it must move data between RAM and the
hard disk frequently. This process, called swapping,
can greatly slow a PC's performance.
More RAM = Better Performance!
Factors Affecting Processing Speed –
The System Clock
• The computer's system clock sets the pace for the CPU
by using a vibrating quartz crystal.
• A single "tick" of the clock is the time required to turn

a transistor off and back on. This is called a clock
cycle.
• Clock cycles are measured in Hertz (Hz), a measure of

cycles per second. If a computer has a clock speed of
300 MHz, then its system clock "ticks" 300 million
times every second.
• The faster a PC's clock runs, the more instructions the

PC can execute each second.
The Bus
• A bus is a path between the components of a
computer. Data and instructions travel along these
paths.
• The data bus' width determines how many bits can be

transmitted between the CPU and other devices.
• The address bus runs only between the CPU and

RAM, and carries nothing but memory addresses for
the CPU to use.
• Peripheral devices are connected to the CPU by an

expansion bus.
Cache Memory
• Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the

most recent data and instructions that have been
loaded by the CPU.
• Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the

CPU and RAM, making it faster than normal RAM.
• CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1) cache.

External cache is called Level-2 (L2) cache.
• The amount of cache memory has a tremendous

impact on the computer's speed.
Extending the Processor's Power
to Other Devices
• Ports
• Expansion Slots and Boards

Extending the Processor's Power
to Other Devices – Ports
• External devices—such as those used for input and

output—are connected to the system by ports on the
back of the computer.
• PCs feature a number of built-in ports, which are

ready to accept devices such as a printer, mouse,
keyboard, phone line, microphone and speakers,
and others.
• Most computers come with a serial port and a

parallel port. A serial port transmits one bit of data
at a time; a parallel port transmits data one byte at
a time.
Adding Other Devices –
Expansion Slots and Boards
• If the PC does not have a port for an external device,
you can install an expansion board into one of the
empty expansion slots.
• A board provides the correct port for the new device,

and connects the device to the CPU by way of the
computer's expansion bus.
• Newer bus technologies such as Universal Serial Bus

(USB) and IEEE 1394 enable many devices to be
connected to one port.
• Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is an older

standard for extending the bus to multiple devices
through a single port.
• List two reasons why computers use the binary

number system.
• List the two main parts of the CPU and explain how
they work together.
• Explain the difference between RAM and ROM.
• Identify two RAM technologies used in PCs.
• List three hardware factors that affect processing
speed.
• Identify four connections used to attach devices to a
PC.
le s s o n 8
CPUs Used in
Personal Computers
This lesson introduces:
• Intel Processors
• AMD Processors
• Cyrix Processors
• Motorola Processors
• RISC Processors
CPUs Used in Personal Computers –
Intel Processors
• Since 1978, Intel's processors have evolved from the

8086 and the 8088 to the 80286, 80386, and 80486, to
the Pentium family of processors. All are part of the
80x86 line.
• Intel's Pentium family of processors includes the

Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium with MMX, Pentium
II, Pentium III, Celeron, and Xeon processors.
• The earliest Intel processors included only a few

thousand transistors. Today's Pentium processors
include 9.5 million transistors or more.
Intel’s
Pentium III
processor
AMD Processors
• Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) was long known as a

provider of lower-performance processors for use in
low-cost computers.
• With its K6 line of processors, AMD challenged Intel's

processors in terms of both price and performance.
• With the K6-III processor, AMD broke the 600 MHz

barrier, claiming the "fastest processor" title for the
first time in IBM-compatible computers.
The AMD K6-III
processor
CPUs Used in Personal Computers -
Cyrix Processors
• Cyrix began as a specialty chip maker, but eventually

began producing microprocessors.
• Cyrix processors are most commonly used in low-

price, low-end consumer PCs.
• Cyrix formerly produced the MediaGX processor, and

now produces the MII series of processors.
The Cyrix
Processor
Motorola Processors
• Motorola makes the CPUs used in Macintosh and

PowerPC computers.
• Macintosh processors use a different basic structural

design (architecture) than IBM-compatible PC
processors.
• With the release of the G3 and G4 PowerPC processors,

Macintosh computers set new standards for price and
performance.
Apple’s G4 computers are
based on Motorola processors
CPUs Used in Personal Computers
- RISC Processors
• Most PCs are based on complex instruction set

computing (CISC) chips which contain large
instruction sets.
• Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) processors

use smaller instruction sets. This enables them to
process more instructions per second than (CISC)
chips.
• RISC processors are found in Apple's PowerPC

systems, as well as many H/PCs, workstations,
minicomputers, and mainframes.
Compaq’s AlphaServer computers are based on
RISC processors
CPUs Used in Personal Computers
-Parallel Processing
• In parallel processing, multiple processors are used in a

single system, enabling them to share processing tasks.
• In a massively parallel processor (MPP) system, many

processors are used.
• Some MPP systems utilize thousands of processors

simultaneously.
• Name the three best-known families of CPUs and list

their differences.
• List all the processors in Intel’s 80x86 line of
processors.
• Identify the key processor families from AMD and
Cyrix.
• Differentiate the processors used in Macintosh and
IBM-compatible PCs.
• Define the terms CISC and RISC.
• Identify one advantage of using multiple processors in
computers.
le s s o n 9
Types of
Storage Devices
• Categorizing Storage Devices
• Magnetic Storage Devices
• Optical Storage Devices
Categorizing Storage Devices
• Storage devices hold data, even when the computer is
turned off.
• The physical material that actually holds data is called

a storage medium. The surface of a floppy disk is a
storage medium.
• The hardware that writes data to or reads data from a

storage medium is called a storage device. A floppy
disk drive is a storage device.
• The two primary storage technologies are magnetic

and optical.
The primary types of magnetic storage are:
• Diskettes (floppy disks)
• Hard disks
• High-capacity floppy disks
• Disk cartridges
• Magnetic tape
The primary types of optical storage are:
• Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM)
• Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory

(DVD-ROM)
• CD-Recordable (CD-R)
• CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)
• PhotoCD
Magnetic Storage Devices
• How Magnetic Storage Works
• Formatting
• Disk Areas
• Diskettes
• Hard Disks
• Disk Capacities
• Other Magnetic Storage Devices

Magnetic Storage Devices
- How Magnetic Storage Works
• A magnetic disk's medium contains iron particles,

which can be polarized—given a magnetic charge—in
one of two directions.
• Each particle's direction represents a 1 (on) or 0 (off),

representing each bit of data that the CPU can
recognize.
• A disk drive uses read/write heads containing

electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the
medium.
Write head
Medium
Random particles Current flow

(no data stored) (write operation)
Organized particles
(represent data)
As the medium
rotates, the head
writes the data.
Magnetic Storage Devices - Formatting
• Before a magnetic disk can be used, it must be
formatted—a process that maps the disk's surface and
determines how data will be stored.
• During formatting, the drive creates circular tracks

around the disk's surface, then divides each track into
sectors.
• The OS organizes sectors into groups, called clusters,

then tracks each file's location according to the clusters
it occupies.
Formatted Disk
Magnetic Storage Devices - Disk Areas
When a disk is formatted, the OS creates four

areas on its surface:
• Boot sector – stores the master boot record, a small
program that runs when you first start (boot) the
computer
• File allocation table (FAT) – a log that records each

file's location and each sector's status
• Root folder – enables the user to store data on the disk

in a logical way
• Data area – the portion of the disk that actually holds

data
Magnetic Storage Devices - Diskettes
• Diskette drives, also known as floppy disk drives,
read and write to diskettes (called floppy disks or
floppies).
• Diskettes are used to transfer files between

computers, as a means for distributing software, and
as a backup medium.
• Diskettes come in two sizes: 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch.

3.5 inch
floppy
and drive
Magnetic Storage Devices - Hard Disks
• Hard disks use multiple platters, stacked on a

spindle. Each platter has two read/write heads, one
for each side.
• Hard disks use higher-quality media and a faster

rotational speed than diskettes.
• Removable hard disks combine high capacity with

the convenience of diskettes.
Read/write heads
Magnetic Storage Devices - Disk Capacities
• Diskettes are available in different capacities, but
the most common store 1.44 MB.
• Hard disks store large amounts of data. New PCs

feature hard disks with capacities of 10 GB and
higher.
Magnetic Storage Devices -
Other Magnetic Storage Devices
• High-capacity floppy disks offer capacities up to 250
MB and the portability of standard floppy disks.
• Disk cartridges are like small removable hard disks,

and can store up to 2 GB.
• Magnetic tape systems offer very slow data access,

but provide large capacities and low cost.
Due to long access times, tape
drives are used mainly for backups.
Optical Storage Devices
• How Optical Storage Works
• CD-ROM
• CD-ROM Speeds and Uses
• DVD-ROM
• Other Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices –
How Optical Storage Works
• An optical disk is a high-capacity storage medium.

An optical drive uses reflected light to read data.
• To store data, the disk's metal surface is covered with

tiny dents (pits) and flat spots (lands), which cause
light to be reflected differently.
• When an optical drive shines light into a pit, the light

cannot be reflected back. This represents a bit value
of 0 (off). A land reflects light back to its source,
representing a bit value of 1 (on).
1 0
CD-ROM
• In PCs, the most commonly used

optical storage technology is called
Compact Disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM).
• A standard CD-ROM disk can store up to 650

MB of data, or about 70 minutes of audio.
• Once data is written to a standard CD-ROM

disk, the data cannot be altered or overwritten.
CD-ROM Speeds and Uses
• Early CD-ROM drives were called single speed, and

read data at a rate of 150 KBps. (Hard disks transfer
data at rates of 5 – 15 MBps).
• CD-ROM drives now can transfer data at speeds of

up to 7800 KBps. Data transfer speeds are getting
faster.
• CD-ROM is typically used to store software

programs. CDs can store audio and video data, as
well as text and program instructions.
Optical Storage Devices - DVD-ROM
• A variation of CD-ROM is called Digital Video Disk

Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM), and is being used
in place of CD-ROM in many newer PCs.
• Standard DVD disks store up to 9.4 GB of data—

enough to store an entire movie. Dual-layer DVD
disks can store up to 17 GB.
• DVD disks can store so much data because both sides

of the disk are used, along with sophisticated data
compression technologies.
Optical Storage Devices -
Other Optical Storage Devices
• A CD-Recordable (CD-R) drive lets you record your

own CDs, but data cannot be overwritten once it is
recorded to the disk.
• A CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) drive lets you record a

CD, then write new data over the already recorded
data.
• PhotoCD technology is used to store digital

photographs.
• List four types of magnetic and four types of optical

storage devices.
• Identify three common uses for floppy disks.
• Name the four areas created on a magnetic disk

during formatting.
• Explain how data is stored on the surface of magnetic

and optical disks.
• List three variations on optical disk technology.

le s s o n 10
Measuring Drive
Performance
• Average Access Time
• File Compression
• Data-Transfer Rate
• Drive-Interface Standards
Average Access Time
• In storage devices, average access time (or seek
time) is the time required for a read/write head to
move to a spot on the storage medium.
• For storage devices, access time is measured in

milliseconds (ms), or thousandths of a second. In
memory, access time is measured in nanoseconds
(ns), or one-billionths of a second.
• Diskette drives offer an average access time of 100

ms. Hard drives are faster, usually between 6 – 12
ms.
Typical Access Times for Memory and Storage Devices
Device Typical Access Time

Static RAM (SRAM) 5-15 ns
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) 50-70 ns
Read only memory (ROM) 55-250 ns
Hard disk drives 6-12 ms
CD ROM drives 80-800 ms
Tape drives 20-500 s
File Compression
• File compression technology shrinks files so they take
up less disk space.
• Using a compression utility, you can shrink multiple
files into a single archive file.
• Utilities such as Windows' DriveSpace enable you to
compress the entire contents of your hard disk.
My archive
Data-Transfer Rate
• Data-transfer rate (or throughput) measures the time
required for data to travel from one device to another.
• If a device transfers 45,000 bytes per second, its data-

transfer rate is 45 KBps.
• Hard disks offer the fastest data-transfer rates of any

storage device.
Hard Disk Fragmentation
One file can end up fragmented

(scattered) over the disk surface.
Hard Disk Fragmentation
This results in multiple head accesses

which degrades performance.
Drive-Interface Standards
• All PCs use a disk controller as an interface between
a disk drive and the CPU. The two most common
interface standards are EIDE and SCSI.
• EIDE has evolved over the years and has several

variants, all of which have different names.
• SCSI is a faster, more flexible drive-interface

standard found in high-performance computers.
• Define average access time and explain how it is

measured.
• Explain why file compression is a factor in drive

performance.
• Define data transfer rate and describe how it is

measured.
• Identify two drive interface standards.

le s s o n 11
Operating System
Basics
• The User Interface
• Running Programs
• Managing Files
• Managing Hardware
• Utility Software
The User Interface
• Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
• GUI Tools
• Applications and the Interface
• Menus
• Dialog Boxes
• Command-Line Interfaces
The User Interface
- Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
• Most modern operating systems, like Windows and

the Macintosh OS, provide a graphical user interface
(GUI).
• A GUI lets you control the system by using a mouse

to click graphical objects on screen.
• A GUI is based on the desktop metaphor. Graphical

objects appear on a background (the desktop),
representing resources you can use.
Icons
Program
running in
Desktop
a window
Window control buttons
Start menu
Start button
Dialog box
Taskbar
The User Interface - GUI Tools
• Icons are pictures that represent computer

resources, such as printers, documents, and
programs.
• You double-click an icon to choose (activate) it, for

instance, to launch a program.
• The Windows operating system offers two unique

tools, called the taskbar and Start button. These
help you run and manage programs.
The Windows start
button can be used
to launch programs.
Or, icons can be

double-clicked to
launch programs.
The User Interface –
Applications and the Interface
• Applications designed to run under one operating
system use similar interface elements.
• Under an OS such as Windows, you see a familiar

interface no matter what programs you use.
• In a GUI, each program opens and runs in a separate

window—a frame that presents the program and its
documents.
• In a GUI, you can run multiple programs at once,

each in a separate window. The application in use is
said to be the active window.
Titlebar
Click the Menubar

Minimize button to Scroll arrow
reduce
Click the Maximize buttonbutton
Click the Close to restore
to close
the
theprogram
window to
theto a button
its
window on the
previous size.taskbar.
altogether.
Toolbar Scroll box
Scroll bar
The User Interface - Menus
• GUI-based programs let you issue commands by

choosing them from menus.
• A menu groups related commands. For example, the

File menu's commands let you open, save, and print
document files.
• Menus let you avoid memorizing and typing

command names.
• In programs designed for the same GUI, menus and

commands are similar from one program to another.
The User Interface - Dialog Boxes
• A dialog box is a special window that appears when
a program or the OS needs more information
before completing a task.
• Dialog boxes are so named because they conduct a

"dialog" with the user, asking the user to provide
more information or make choices.
.
The User Interface - Command-Line Interfaces
• Some older operating systems, such as DOS and

UNIX, use command-line interfaces.
• In a command-line interface, you type commands at a

prompt.
• Under command-line interfaces, individual

applications do not need to look or function the same
way, so different programs can look very different
The DOS Prompt is not seen much these days!
Running Programs
• Basic Services
• Sharing Information
• Multitasking
Running Programs - Basic Services
• The operating system manages all the other

programs that run on the PC.
• The operating system provides services to programs

and the user, including file management, memory
management, and printing
• To provide services to programs, the OS makes

system calls—requesting other hardware and
software resources to perform tasks.
Running Programs - Sharing Information
• Some operating systems, such as Windows, enable

programs to share information.
• You can create data in one program and use it again

in other programs without re-creating it.
• Windows provides the Clipboard, a special area that

stores data cut or copied from one document, so you
can re-use it elsewhere.
Information is clipped
1 from one application (Excel)
Using the clipboard Viewer to
2 examine the information
Pasting the information
3 into another application (WordPro)
Running Programs - Multitasking
• Multitasking is the capability of running multiple

processes simultaneously.
• A multitasking OS lets you run multiple programs at

the same time.
• Through multitasking, you can do several chores at

one time, such as printing a document while
downloading a file from the Internet.
• There are two types of multitasking: cooperative and

preemptive.
Managing Files
• The operating system keeps track of all the files on

each disk.
• Users can make file management easier by creating

a hierarchical file system that includes folders and
subfolders arranged in a logical order.
Managing Hardware
• The OS uses interrupt requests (IRQs) to maintain

organized communication with the CPU and other
pieces of hardware.
• Each hardware device is controlled by a piece of

software, called a driver, which allows the OS to
activate and use the device.
• The operating system provides the software necessary

to link computers and form a network.
Utility Software
A utility is a program that performs a task that is not

typically handled by the operating system.
Some utilities enhance the operating system's

functionality.
Some of the major categories of utilities include:

• File defragmentation
• Data compression
• Backup
• Antivirus
• Screen savers
• Name four components found in most graphical user

interfaces.
• Describe the operating system’s role in running

software programs.
• Explain how the OS enables users to manage files.
• List three hardware management tasks performed by

an OS.
• Name five types of utility software.

le s s o n 12
PC Operating Systems
in Review
• UNIX
• DOS
• The Macintosh Operating System
• Windows 3.x
• OS/2 Warp
• Windows NT
• Windows 95 and 98
• Linux
• Windows 2000
UNIX
• UNIX is the oldest operating system used on PCs.
• UNIX was the first multi-user, multiprocessor,

multitasking operating system available for use on
PCs.
• Most versions of UNIX use a command-line

interface, but some versions offer a GUI.
DOS
• DOS dominated the operating system market during

the 1980s.
• DOS is a single-user OS that supports only 640 KB of

memory.
• DOS features a command-line interface, and does not

support multitasking or multiprocessing.
• Because DOS provides no interface restrictions, DOS

applications can look and function differently.
The Macintosh Operating System
• The Macintosh OS supports the graphical nature of
the Macintosh computer.
• The Mac OS brought the first truly graphical user

interface to consumers.
• The Mac OS also brought interface conformity to

the desktop. All applications running under the
Mac OS, therefore, provided the same "look and
feel" to the user.
Windows 3.x
• Windows 3.0, 3.1, and 3.11 are called the Windows 3.x
family.
• Windows 3.x brought a GUI and multitasking

capabilities to PCs running DOS.
• Windows 3.x is an operating environment because it

ran on top of DOS, which was the actual OS.
OS/2 Warp
• OS/2 Warp was the first true GUI-based operating

system for Intel-based PCs.
• OS/2 is a multitasking OS that provides support for

networking and multiple users.
• It was the first PC OS to feature built-in speech

recognition capabilities.
Windows NT
• Microsoft's Windows NT was meant as a

replacement for DOS, but was too resource- intensive
to work on most PCs at the time of its release.
• Microsoft issued two versions of Windows NT—

Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server.
• NT is a very powerful and robust OS, resistant to

system crashes.
Windows 95 and 98
• Windows 95 was Microsoft's first true GUI-based,

32-bit operating system for Intel PCs.
• Windows 95 supports multitasking and can run

older DOS and Windows 3.x programs.
• Windows 98's features include advanced Internet

capabilities, an improved user interface, and
enhanced file system performance, among others.
Linux
• Linux is a recently developed version of UNIX, which

is available for free or at a very low cost from various
sources.
• Linux is a very powerful 32-bit OS that supports

multitasking, multiple users, networking, and
virtually any application.
• Linux can run on nearly any type of computer.
• Because of its power and openness, Linux is

attracting many users, including students, teachers,
Internet service providers, and others.
Windows 2000
• Windows 2000 features the same interface and

features of Windows 98, with the file system,
networking, power, and stability of Windows NT.
• Several versions of Windows 2000 are available, each

targeting a specific user or computing environment,
from home PCs to large enterprise networks.
• List all the major PC operating systems.
• Identify some of the limitations of DOS.
• List two features that made the Macintosh OS

popular.
• Differentiate between the terms operating

environment and operating system.
• List the various versions of Windows.

le s s o n 13
Word Processing and
Desktop Publishing
Software
• Word Processing Programs and Their Uses
• The Word Processor's Interface
• Entering and Editing Text
• Formatting Text
• Special Features of Word Processing Software
• Desktop Publishing Software
• Converting Documents into World Wide Web Pages

Word Processing Programs and Their Uses
• Word processors provide tools for creating, editing,

and formatting text-based documents.
• You can use a word processor to create virtually any

type of document, from a simple letter to a complete
book.
• A word processor's formatting tools let you create

professional-quality documents easily.
Word processors provide tools to produce
professional looking documents.
The Word Processor's Interface
Most Windows-based word processors offer a similar
set of tools, which you use to navigate, edit, and format
documents:
• Document area
• Menu bar
• Toolbars
• Rulers
• Scroll Bars
• Status Bar
Menu bar Toolbars
Ruler Scroll bar

Scroll boxes
Document area
Status bar
Entering and Editing Text –
Adding Text to a Document
• You create a document by entering text in the

document window.
• A blinking insertion point shows you where

characters will be placed as you type.
• When you type to the end of a line, the program

automatically moves the insertion point to the next
line. This feature is called word wrap.
Entering and Editing Text –
Editing a Document
Making changes to an existing document is called
editing. Tools are provided for erasing and retyping
text quickly:
• The Backspace and Delete keys let you erase one or
more characters.
• Overtype mode lets you type over previously

entered text.
• AutoCorrect can automatically correct spelling and

typing errors.
• Undo and Redo let you reverse the effect of a

previous action.
Entering and Editing Text - Selecting Text
• Word processors let you work with entire blocks of

text. You can format, move, copy, or delete a block.
• To work with a block of text, you must first select it,

using one of many selection options. Selected text is
highlighted on the screen.
• When you are finished working with selected text, you

can deselect it.
Here, a selected block of text is deleted.
Electrical.wpd
Formatting Text
Formatting a document means controlling its appearance.
Formats fall into three broad categories:
• Character formats
• Paragraph formats
• Document formats
Formatting Text - Character Formats
• You can use multiple fonts in a document, such as

Arial or Times.
• Word processors let you apply different sizes –

measured in points – to the text in a document.
• You can apply type styles to your text, such as bold,

italic, and underline, among others.
Formatting Text - Paragraph Formats
• In a word processor, you create a new paragraph
whenever you press Enter. You can format each
paragraph in a different way.
• You can set the amount of blank space between lines

in a paragraph and between paragraphs in a
document.
• To align a paragraph, you set the space between its

edges and the page's margins. You can also indent a
paragraph's first line.
• Borders and shading create special effects for

paragraphs.
Formatting Text - Document Formats
• Margins are the amount of blank space between the
edges of the text and the edges of the page.
• Word processors let you print documents on different

size paper, in portrait or landscape orientation.
• Headers and footers are commonly used in long

documents, to provide continuing information along
the top or bottom of the pages.
As shown on the next graphic, documents can be divided

into sections to give each a unique format.
Three-column format section
Heading section
Special Features of Word Processing Software
Today's word processors provide a variety of specialized
tools, including:
• Language tools
• Tables
• Mail Merge
• Support for graphics and sounds
• Templates
Special Features of Word Processing
Software - Language Tools
Language tools can help you improve the quality of
your documents by catching language errors.
Language tools include:
• Spell checkers, which can help you find and

correct misspelled words.
• Grammar checkers, which help your document

conform to accepted grammatical rules.
• Thesauri, which can help you make the best word

choices.
Whoops!
Software - Tables
• Tables let you set up rows and columns of information.
• You can format a table in dozens of ways, add

headings, and more.
Software - Mail Merge
• Mail merge is the process of combining a form
letter with contents of an address database.
• Using mail merge, you can create a standard letter

and automatically make a copy for each person in
your database.
Software - Support for Graphics and Sounds
• Word processors allow you to add images to your
documents.
• Once you add a graphic to a document, you can select it,

move it, resize it, and more.
• You also can add sound files to a document. A sound file

appears as an icon; click the icon on screen and the file
plays.
Imported graphic
Embedded sound file

Software - Templates
• A template is a predesigned document.
• A template simplifies document design. You simply

open the document and type your text.
Desktop Publishing Software
• Desktop publishing (DTP) software is specialized for

designing and laying out long documents, such as
magazines or books.
• DTP software provides special tools for fine-tuning

the appearance of text and graphics in a document.
• DTP software can produce documents that are

ready to be sent to a professional printer.
Converting Documents Into World Wide
Web Pages
• Word processors can create documents in HTML

format, ready to be published on the World Wide
Web.
• To create an HTML document, create a normal

document then save it in HTML format. The word
processor inserts all the required HTML tags.
• Many word processors include HTML templates,

which let you easily create finished Web pages.
• Identify three basic word processing tools that
simplify document editing.
• Explain what is meant by "selecting" parts of a

document.
• Identify five special features commonly found in

modern word processors.
• Distinguish desktop publishing software from word

processing software.
• Describe how word processors can convert normal

documents into World Wide Web pages.
le s s o n 14
Spreadsheet
Software
• Spreadsheet Programs and Their Uses
• The Spreadsheet's Interface

• Entering Data in a Worksheet
• Editing and Formatting a Worksheet
• Adding Charts
• Analyzing Data in a Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet Programs and Their Uses
• Spreadsheets provide tools for working with

numerical data.
• You can use a spreadsheet program to create

budgets, balance sheets, and other types of
number- based documents.
• You can display your information in a traditional

row-and-column format, or in a chart.
Report using
color and graphics
Classic row and column

format
The Spreadsheet's Interface
• In a spreadsheet program, you work in a document

called a worksheet. You can collect multiple
worksheets into a file called a workbook.
• Most Windows-based word spreadsheets offer a

similar set of tools, including a formula bar, where
you can enter and edit data.
• Data is displayed in cells. A cell is the intersection

of a row and column.
• Each cell has a cell address – the combination of

the cell's column letter and row number.
Cell Menu bar
Tool bars Formula bar
Row
Column Scroll boxes

Status bar
Entering Data in a Worksheet
- Types of Data
You enter four types of data in a worksheet's cells:
• Labels--text or numbers not used in calculations.
• Values--numbers that can be used in calculations.
• Dates--a necessary part of most worksheets.
• Formulas--commands to perform calculations

based on numbers or formulas.
Entering Data in a Worksheet
- Formulas and Functions
• If a formula uses a value in another cell, the formula

contains a cell reference, or the address of the
referred cell.
• Formulas can refer to entire ranges (or blocks) of

contiguous cells as well as individual cells.
• A function is a predefined formula, which the

spreadsheet provides to perform a specific type of
calculation. You provide arguments that tell the
function what data to use.
Editing and Formatting a Worksheet
• Spreadsheets provide many of the same editing and

formatting tools found in word processors.
• You can change, copy, move, and delete the data in

any cell.
Relative and Absolute Cell References
• If a formula uses a relative cell reference, it

automatically dates if (copied or moved), to a
different place.
• An absolute cell reference always refers to the

same cell even if the formula is moved to a
different place.
Adding Charts
• A chart is a graphical representation of the data in

a worksheet.
• Spreadsheets provide tools that make it easy to

create a chart from worksheet data.
• You can use many different types of charts, and

apply many effects to a chart, to present your data
in the most appropriate way.
Analyzing Data in a Spreadsheet
Three commonly used data-analysis tools are:
• What-if analysis, which lets you test scenarios to see

how each affects the result.
• Goal seeking, which finds values that make the

result meet your specifications.
• Sorting, which lets you arrange the worksheet's

data in various ways.
• Define and differentiate the terms worksheet and
spreadsheet.
• Identify four types of data that can be entered in a

worksheet.
• Explain how cell addresses are used in spreadsheet

programs.
• Explain what a formula is and how formulas can be

used in spreadsheet programs.
• List three types of analytical tools commonly found

in spreadsheets.
le s s o n 15
Presentation
Programs
• Presentation Program Basics
• Integrating Multiple Data Sources
• Presenting Slide Shows
Presentation Program Basics
• Presentation Programs and Their Uses
• The Presentation Program's Interface
• Creating a Presentation
• Formatting Slides
• Special Features of Presentation Programs

Presentation Program Basics -
Presentation Programs and Their Uses
• Presentation programs are used to create slides–

single-screen images that contain text, graphics,
charts, and more.
• A collection of slides is called a presentation.
• A presentation program lets you create a set of

slides and show (present) them to an audience.
The Presentation Program's Interface
Presentation programs provide many of the same

editing and formatting tools found in word processors
and other common applications.
Title bar
Menu bar
Tool bars
Document area
Drawing tools
Status bar
Creating a Presentation
• To create a presentation, you can select a predesigned

template to create a common look for the slides.
• Individual slide elements appear inside text boxes and

. frames.
• You can easily add text or graphics to a box or frame,

and move or resize it as needed.
Formatting Slides
You can format a slide by choosing different:

• Fonts and font sizes
• Colors
• Backgrounds
• Borders
To resize a frame or text box, click it, then drag

one of its handles.
Gradient fill background
Borders
Special Features
Presentation programs provide several special features:
• Outlining—for contents, arrangement and order.
• Annotations—notes to individual slides.
• Animation—moving transitions to parts of a slide.
• Sound and video—audio or multimedia enhancement.
• Embedded objects—WWW links.
• HTML conversion—presentations on the Web.

Integrating Multiple Data Sources
in a Presentation
• You can add different media types, such as audio or

video files, to a slide.
• If you present your slides from the PC's disk and

have the appropriate output devices, you can
present multimedia elements in a slide show.
Presenting Slide Shows
You can print slides and present them on a slide or
overhead projector.
You also can display slides directly from the PC's disk,
with the following advantages:
• You can present them in any order you like.
• You can display slides on the PC's monitor, project

them on a screen, or connect the PC to a TV or
large monitor.
• You can move from slide to slide manually, or

automate the presentation.
• Identify four interface elements found in most

presentation programs.
• Describe the process of creating a presentation.
• Name three media sources that might be used in a

multimedia presentation.
• List three ways that slides can be presented from a

presentation program.
le s s o n 16
Database Management
Systems and Enterprise
Software
• Databases and Management Systems
• Working with a Database
• Enterprise Software
Databases and Database Management
Systems
• The Difference between Databases and DBMSes
• Database Basics
• DBMSes Basics
Databases and Database Management Systems
The Difference between Databases and
DBMSes
• A database is a repository for collections of related
data or facts.
• A database management system (DBMS) is a

software tool that lets users add, view, and work
with the data in a database.
• Large databases and DBMS’ are commonly used by

companies, but many productivity applications are
built around database concepts.
Databases and DBMSes - Database Basics
Databases use three main structures for organizing
data:
• Fields, which store various pieces of data related
to a single entity.
• Records, or collections of fields relating to an

entity.
• Tables, which are collections of related records.
The two primary types of databases are flat-file

databases (with only one table) and relational databases
(with multiple, related tables).
Field
Record
PROFESSIONAL ADDRESS BOOK
Table
Databases and DBMSes - DBMS Basics
A DBMS allows users to access and manage the data

collected in a database.
Data management tasks (all done through the DBMS)

can be divided into three categories:
• Entering data into the database.
• Sorting (rearranging) the data in the database.
• Obtaining subsets of the data for use.

Working With a Database
• Creating Database Tables
• Viewing Records
• Sorting Records
• Querying a Database
• Generating Reports
Working With a Database –
Creating Database Tables
• The first step in building a database is to create its

tables. This means identifying, naming, and
organizing its fields to receive data.
• Databases can store the following types of fields:
Text Logical Numeric Date/Time
Memo Binary Counter

Working With a Database –
Creating Database Tables
• You can create forms that let you view and enter data
for one record at a time.
• Database tools such as masks can validate data as it is

entered and thus ensure the data is in the correct
format.
Working With a Database - Viewing Records
• A filter is a tool that lets you view records that

match a given criteria.
• Filters are helpful when searching for certain types

of information in a large database with many
records.
• A form can work with a filter, but enables you to

view information about a single record.
Working With a Database - Sorting Records
• Sorting means arranging the records in a database.
• A DBMS enables you to sort records alphabetically,

numerically, and chronologically.
• You can sort records in ascending (A-Z) order or

descending (Z-A) order.
Working With a Database -
Querying a Database
A query is a statement you define, which tells the DBMS

to find records that match criteria you specify.
Modern DMBS software provides built-in querying tools,

based on one or more of the following languages:
• SQL
• Query by Example (QBE)
• Xbase
Working With a Database -
Generating Reports
• A report is a subset of information from a database,
produced in printed form.
• You can generate the data for a report by using a

query, filter, or other tools.
• Reports can be formatted in a wide variety of ways.

Enterprise Software
• Enterprise software is a large-scale application based

on a DBMS, used by a large organization.
• Enterprise software can meet the needs of many

different users in different locations.
• In an enterprise, different users by have different

interfaces to the database, so they can work only with
the data they need.
• Define the terms database and database
management system (DBMS).
• List three tasks that a DBMS enables users to do.
• Differentiate between flat-file databases and

relational databases.
• List three steps needed to create a database.
• Explain the purpose of filters and forms.
• List three examples of query languages.

le s s o n 17
Networking
Basics
• The Uses of a Network

• How Networks are Structured
• Network Topologies for LANs
• Network Media and Hardware
• Network Software
The Uses of a Network
A network connects computers so they can communicate,
exchange information, and share resources.
The main benefits of using a network are:
• Simultaneous Access
• Shared Peripheral Devices
• Personal Communication
• Easier Backup
The Uses of a Network -
Simultaneous Access
• In organizations, many people may need to use the

same data or programs. A network solves this
problem.
• Shared data and programs can be stored on a

central network server. A server that stores data
files may be called a file server.
• Managers may assign access rights to users. Some

users may only be able to read data, others may be
able to make changes to existing files.
Read/write
Read only
Shared Peripheral Devices
• Because peripheral (external) devices like printers

can be expensive, it is cost-effective to connect a
device to a network so users can share it.
• Through a process called spooling, users can send

multiple documents (called print jobs) to a
networked printer at the same time. The documents
are temporarily stored on the server and printed in
turn.
Personal Communication
• One of the most common uses of networks is for

electronic mail (e-mail).
• An e-mail system enables users to exchange written

messages (often with data files attached) across the
local network or over the Internet.
• Two other popular network-based communications

systems are teleconferencing and videoconferencing.
1 2 3 4
The Uses of a Network - Easier Backup
• Networks enable managers to easily back up (make

backup copies of) important data.
• Administrators commonly back up shared data files

stored on the server, but may also use the network to
back up files on users' PCs.
How Networks are Structured
• Local Area Networks (LANs)
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Server-Based Networks
• Client/Server Networks
• Peer-to-Peer Networks
How Networks are Structured –
Local Area Networks (LANs)
• A LAN is a network whose computers are located

relatively near one another. The nodes may be
connected by a cable, infrared link, or small
transmitters.
• A network transmits data among computers by

breaking it into small pieces, called packets.
• Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that

governs how packets are configured and
transmitted.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Multiple LANs can be connected together using

devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways, which
enable them to share data.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together.

The LANs can be many miles apart.
• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data

over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links
such as satellites.
Type A
header
Payload Type A
header
Payload
ROUTER ROUTER
Significant
geographical
SERVER distance SERVER
Type A
header
Payload
LAN 1 LAN 2
WAN
Server-Based Networks
• In addition to the individual users' PCs (nodes),
many networks use a central computer, called a
server.
• A server has a large hard disk for shared storage. It

may provide other services to the nodes, as well.
• In a file server network, nodes can access files on the

server, but not necessarily on other nodes.
A gateway performs the translation
between two different types of networks.
3
Client/Server Networks
• In client/server computing, individual nodes share the

processing and storage workload with the server.
• Client/server networks require specialized software

that enables nodes and the server to collaborate on
processing and storage, but no special type of network
hardware.
1 3
2
Peer-to-Peer Networks
• In a peer-to-peer network, all nodes have an equal

relation to one another.
• Each node usually has access to some resources on

other nodes, so users can share files, programs, or
devices on other users' systems.
• Some peer-to-peer networks use a server, but some

do not.
Network Topologies for LANs
A network's topology is the layout of the cables and
devices that connect the nodes. The four most common
network topologies are:
• Bus. Each node is connected in series along a

single conduit.
• Star. All nodes are connected to a central hub.
• Ring. Nodes are connected in a circular chain,
with the conduit beginning and ending at the
same computer.
• Mesh. Each node has a separate connection to
every other node.
Network Media and Hardware
• In a network, the media are the wires, cables and other
means by which data travels from its source to its
destination.
• The most common network media are twisted-pair

cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless
links.
• Each node uses a special device, called a network

interface card (NIC). The card connects to the network
media and controls the flow of data.
• NICs must use a common network technology to

communicate. The most popular network technologies
for LANs are Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Token Ring.
Network Software
A network operating system (NOS) is the group of

programs that manages the resources on a network.
Common network operating systems for PC-based

networks include:
• Novell NetWare
• Microsoft Windows NT Server
• Microsoft Windows 2000
• Banyan VINES
• AppleShare
• Linux
• List the four benefits of using a network.
• Differentiate between LANs and WANs.
• Identify three common network topologies.
• Name four common network media.
• List four examples of network operating systems.

le s s o n 18
Networking at Home
and Abroad
• Standard Telephone Lines
• Digital Telephone Lines
• Networks in the Home
Data Communications over Standard
Telephone Lines
• Networks commonly use dedicated media to transmit

data. However, the public telephone system can also be
used for data communications.
• Standard phone lines transmit data much more slowly

than network media, but devices such as modems make
phone lines practical for data transmission over long
distances.
• Many people and businesses use modems to exchange

data, and to establish connections with office networks.
Telephone Lines - Modems
• Most telephone lines attached to home and businesses
are analog, not digital.
• Because PCs transmit and receive data in digital

format, a device called a modem is needed to convert
digital data to analog format for transmission over
phone lines.
• When receiving data from another computer, the

modem converts it from analog format to digital
format.
The analog signal
(audible)
is sent through
telephone lines.
011010001 MODEM MODEM 011010001
Digital signal
Digital signal
This modem converts This modem converts

digital to analog. analog to digital.
Telephone Lines - Choosing a Modem
When choosing a modem, consider the following factors:
• Transmission speed - the speed at which the modem
sends data - which is measured in bits per second.
• Data compression, the technology the modem uses to

shrink data so it can be transmitted faster.
• Error correction, the method the modem uses to

ensure data is sent and received without errors.
• Internal versus external, which describes whether or

not the modem fits inside the PC case.
Internal
Modem External
Modem
Telephone Lines - Uses for a Modem
Modems are primarily used for file transfer, or sending

files to a remote computer
• Sending a file to another computer is called
uploading.
• Receiving a file from another computer is called

downloading.
Using Digital Telephone Lines
• Telephone companies are now installing digital

telephone lines, which are dedicated to transmitting
data in digital format.
• Digital phone lines transmit data at much higher

speeds than standard analog phone lines.
• Often, data travels across analog lines and digital

lines. In such cases, data may need to be converted
from one format to another multiple times before
reaching its destination.
1
2
3
Using Digital Telephone Lines -
Common Digital Services
The most commonly used digital telephone services are:

• ISDN, T1, and T3
• DSL
• ATM
• Cable Modem
Using Digital Telephone Lines –
ISDN, T1, and T3
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a system

that replaces analog phone services with digital services.
• Basic rate ISDN (BRI) offers three channels on one

phone line: two for data and one for control. BRI
transmits data up to 128 Kbps.
• Primary rate ISDN (PRI) offers 24 channels at

transmission speeds up to 1.544 Mbps. This is T1
service.
• Using even more channels, T3 service offers up to 672

channels and speeds up to 44.736 Mbps.
DSL Technologies
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service is outpacing

ISDN services.
• Standard DSL offers speeds of 52 Mbps using

standard phone lines.
• Several types of DSL service are available, reaching

transmission speeds up to 51.84 Mbps.
Using Digital Telephone Lines - ATM
• Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) digital service is

offered as a high-bandwidth, efficient means for
transferring multimedia content, data, and voice over
phone lines.
• Some types of ATM service can reach transmission

speeds of 10,000 Mbps.
Cable Modem Connections
• Cable modems allow users to connect their PCs to

the Internet via the local cable television system.
• Cable companies offer Internet service by

combining television and data signals and
distributing them over the cable system.
• Cable modem service can achieve speeds of 27 Mbps.

Home and Business
Subscribers
Routers
Internet
Backbone
TV
signals Distribution
Servers
Cable Company
Head End
Networks in the Home
• Because more homes now have multiple computers,

home networks are gaining in popularity. Home
networks offer the same advantages to home users as
to a business.
• Home networks are typically based on existing

telephone or wireless technologies.
• Popular PC operating systems, such as Windows and

the Mac OS, provide simple networking tools that
are adequate for running a home network.
• Explain how computer data travels over telephone

lines.
• Explain a modem's function.
• List four features you should consider when

.
evaluating modems.
• Differentiate four types of digital telephone services.
• Describe one potential use for a home network.

le s s o n 19
Internet Basics
• The Internet: Then and Now
• How the Internet Works
• Major Features of the Internet
• Online Services
• Internet Features in Application Programs
The Internet: Then and Now
• The Internet was created by the Advanced Research

Projects Agency (ARPA) and the U.S. Department of
Defense for scientific and military communications.
• The Internet is a network of interconnected networks.

Even if part of its infrastructure was destroyed, data
could flow through the remaining networks.
• The Internet uses high-speed data lines, called

backbones, to carry data. Smaller networks connect to
the backbone, enabling any user on any network to
exchange data with any other user.
How the Internet Works
• TCP/IP
• Routing Traffic Across the Internet
• Addressing Schemes
• Domains and Subdomains

How the Internet Works - TCP/IP
• Every computer and network on the Internet uses

the same protocols (rules and procedures) to control
timing and data format.
• The protocol used by the Internet is the

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, or
TCP/IP.
• No matter what type of computer system you

connect to the Internet, if it uses TCP/IP, it can
exchange data with any other type of computer.
How the Internet Works -
Routing Traffic Across the Internet
• Most computers don't connect directly to the Internet.
Instead, they connect to a smaller network that is
connected to the Internet backbone.
• The Internet includes thousands of host computers

(servers), which provide data and services as
requested by client systems.
• When you use the Internet, your PC (a client)

requests data from a host system. The request and
data are broken into packets and travel across
multiple networks before being reassembled at their
destination.
Addressing Schemes
• In order to communicate across the Internet, a

computer must have a unique address.
• Every computer on the Internet has a unique

numeric identifier, called an Internet Protocol (IP)
address.
• Each IP address has four parts – each part a number

between 0 and 255. An IP address might look like
this: 205.46.117.104.
Domains and Subdomains
• In addition to an IP address, most Internet hosts or

servers have a Domain Name System (DNS) address,
which uses words.
• A domain name identifies the type of institution that

owns the computer. An Internet server owned by IBM
might have the domain name ibm.com.
• Some enterprises have multiple servers, and identify

them with subdomains, such as products.ibm.com.
Major Features of the Internet
• The World Wide Web
• E-Mail
• News
• Telnet
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

Major Features of the Internet -
The World Wide Web
• The World Wide Web is a part of the Internet, which

supports hypertext documents, allowing users to view
and navigate different types of data.
• A Web page is a document encoded with hypertext
markup language (HTML) tags.
• HTML allows designers to link content together via

hyperlinks.
• Every Web page has an address, a Uniform Resource

Locator (URL).
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“online.”
Major Features of the Internet - E-Mail
• Electronic mail (e-mail) is the most popular reason

people use the Internet.
• To create, send, and receive e-mail messages, you need

an e-mail program and an account on an Internet mail
server with a domain name.
• To use e-mail, a user must have an e-mail address,

which you create by adding your user name to the
e-mail server's domain name, as in jsmith@aol.com.
Major Features of the Internet - News
• One Internet-based service, called news, includes

tens of thousands of newsgroups.
• Each newsgroup hosts discussions on a specific topic.

A newsgroup's name indicates its users' special topic
of interest, such as alt.food.cake.
• To participate in a newsgroup, you need a

newsreader program that lets you read articles that
have been posted on a news server. You can post
articles for others to read and respond to.
Major Features of the Internet - Telnet
• Telnet is a specialized service that lets you use one

computer to access the contents of another computer –
a Telnet host.
• A Telnet program creates a "window" into the host so

you can access files, issue commands, and exchange
data.
• Telnet is widely used by libraries, to allow visitors to

look up information, find articles, and so on.
Major Features of the Internet -
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• File transfer protocol (FTP) is the Internet tool used to
copy files from one computer to another.
• Using a special FTP program or a Web browser, you

can log into an FTP host computer over the Internet
and copy files onto your computer.
• FTP is handy for finding and copying software files,

articles, and other types of data. Universities and
software companies use FTP servers to provide visitors
with access to data.
Major Features of the Internet –
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
• Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a service that allows

users to communicate in real time by typing text in a
special window.
• Like news, there are hundreds of IRC "channels,"

each devoted to a subject or user group.
• You can use a special IRC program to participate in

chatroom discussions, but many chatrooms are set up
in Web sites, enabling visitors to chat directly in their
browser window.
Online Services
• An online service is a company that provides access to

e-mail, discussion groups, databases on various
subjects, and the Internet.
• America Online, CompuServe, and Prodigy are

examples of popular online services.
Internet-Related Features in Application
Programs
• Popular application programs, such as word

processors and spreadsheets, feature Internet-related
capabilities.
• Using these special features, you may be able to create

content for publication on the Internet or view content
directly from the Internet.
• Name the two organizations that created the network

now called the Internet.
• Explain the importance of TCP/IP to the Internet.
• Describe the basic structure of the Internet.
• List the major services the Internet provides to its

users.
• Identify two key Internet-related features found in

many software applications.
le s s o n 20
Getting Online,
Working Online
• Accessing the Internet
• Connecting a PC to the Internet
• Working on the Internet
• Commerce on the World Wide Web
Accessing the Internet
• Non-Standard Methods
• Common Connection Methods
• High-Speed Data Links

Accessing the Internet -
Non-Standard Methods
These methods of connecting to the Internet are not
commonly used:
• Direct connection – connects an isolated PC directly to

the Internet backbone via serial line interface protocol
(SLIP) or point-to-point protocol (PPP).
• Remote terminal connection – allows the user to

exchange commands and data in ASCII text format
with a UNIX host computer.
• Gateway connection – connects a non-TCP/IP network

to the Internet via a gateway.
Common Connection Methods
Here are some very common methods for connecting
PCs to the Internet:
• Connection through a LAN – if a LAN uses TCP/IP, it

can exchange data over the Internet without a
gateway. If the LAN is connected to the Internet via a
router, the connection is extended to all nodes on the
network.
• Connection through a modem – if a stand-alone PC

has access to a modem and phone line, it can connect
directly or via an Internet Service Provider (ISP). ISP
accounts are the most common type of connection.
High-Speed Data Links
Because modem speeds are limited to 56 Kbps, many
home users and small businesses connect to the
Internet via high-speed lines, such as:
• ISDN service can transmit data up to 128 Kbps and

carries voice and data signals over a single
connection.
• xDSL services are available in several forms with
download speeds up to 52 Mbps, and also offer
simultaneous voice and data transmissions.
• Cable modem service offers high-speed data
transmission over a cable television system's existing
coaxial lines.
Connecting a PC to the Internet
• To connect a PC to the Internet, you use

applications and network connections that conform
to the Winsock standard.
• The Winsock standard ensures that connections and

applications use TCP/IP protocols and can
communicate with each other.
• You can mix and match any Winsock application

and connection and be sure they will work together.
Working on the Internet
• Businesses and Firewalls
• Intranets and Extranets
• Issues for Telecommuters

Working on the Internet -
Businesses and Firewalls
• Many businesses connect their LANs to the

Internet, making their data vulnerable to access by
unauthorized users, such as hackers.
• Businesses can use a firewall to control access to

their network from the Internet, by persons outside
the company.
• A firewall gives outsiders access to public areas of a

network while restricting access to protected parts
of the network.
Invalid
password
STOP
Intranets and Extranets
• Many organizations are configuring their internal
networks to resemble the World Wide Web, so
users can navigate them with a browser.
• An intranet is a LAN or WAN that uses TCP/IP

but is accessible only to internal users. Intranets
are not connected to the Internet.
• An extranet is an intranet that allows outside

access via the Internet. Usually, external users
must log in with an ID and password.
Issues for Telecommuters
• A telecommuter is someone who works outside the

workplace, but uses a computer and communications
software to access the company's network, usually
over the Internet.
• When accessing a corporate network online,

telecommuters need to be aware of issues such as
security, ownership of sensitive data, libel, and
appropriate use of business resources.
Commerce on the World Wide Web
• The Web is a vehicle for electronic commerce
(e-commerce), which simply means doing business
online.
• For consumers, e-commerce means being able to

securely shop, pay bills, and conduct other types of
transactions online.
• For businesses, e-commerce means a new way to sell

and distribute goods and services, and to expand
markets beyond physical locations or geographical
boundaries.
• Describe how to connect a computer to the Internet.
• Identify three kinds of high-speed data links

commonly used to connect to the Internet.
• Describe the process of connecting a PC to the

Internet through an ISP account.
• Explain what a firewall is, and the uses for a firewall.
• Define the terms intranet and extranet.
• Explain what is meant by e-commerce and how it

affects consumers and businesses.
le s s o n 21
Working with Images
• Computer Platforms Used for Graphics
• Types of Graphics Files
• Getting Images into Your Computer
• Copyright Issues
Computer Platforms Used for Graphics
• The Macintosh started the era of art on the PC in

1984. With its mouse and GUI, the Mac quickly
became popular with designers.
• With the release of Windows, PCs caught up with the

Mac in terms of graphics capabilities. Designers
routinely use PCs and Macs together.
• Because of their power and cost, workstations are used

only for the most demanding graphics applications.
Types of Graphics Files
Graphics files can be saved in many different ways, but

fall into two basic groups:
• Bitmaps
• Vectors
Because graphics programs support so many different

file formats, compatibility becomes an important issue
for designers.
Types of Graphics Files - Bitmaps
• A bitmap is a grid whose cells are filled with a color.

If you zoom into a bitmap-based line on the
computer's screen, you can see the cells (pixels) that
comprise it.
• Bitmaps are sometimes called raster images or

bitmapped images.
• Bitmap software lets you control each pixel in an

image. This software keeps track of all the pixels in an
image, which may number in the millions.
Zooming in on
a bitmapped line
Types of Graphics Files - Vectors
• A vector is a set of mathematical equations that

describe the characteristics of a line or shape.
• A vector-based program does not see a graphical

entity as a set of pixels. Instead, the program sees the
entity as a set of start and end points, with thickness,
color, and other attributes.
80,60
320,240
Types of Graphics Files -
File Formats and Compatibility Issues
• A file format is a standardized method of encoding

data for storage.
• There are many different file formats for graphics.

Some programs recognize more formats than others
do.
• Some programs cannot use certain file formats. These

files are said to be incompatible with the program.
Types of Graphics Files –
Standard File Formats
• To solve incompatibility problems, designers can save

bitmap files in one of several standard formats, which
can be used in many programs.
• The most commonly used bitmap file formats are BMP,

PICT, TIFF, JPEG, GIF, and PNG.
• Most vector programs use their own proprietary file

format, but may recognize standard vector formats
such as DXF and IGES.
Getting Images into Your Computer
Graphics programs let you start an image from scratch,
but designers often use existing images, which they load
from various sources.
The four most common sources of digital images are:

• Scanners
• Digital cameras
• Clip art
• Electronic photographs
Copyright Issues
• Copyright is an important concern if a designer wants

to reuse art created by someone else.
• Copyright laws govern the way images can be reused

and distributed and thus protect the rights of the
images’ owners.
• Identify three computer platforms widely used in

graphic design.
• Define bitmap and vector, and differentiate these file

types.
• List the standard file formats for bitmap and vector

images.
• List four ways to load graphic files into a computer.
• Discuss copyright issues that arise from the use of

computer graphics.
le s s o n 22
Graphics Software
• Paint Programs
• Photo-Manipulation Programs
• Draw Programs
• Computer-Aided Design Programs
• 3-D Modeling Programs
• Animation
• Graphics and the World Wide Web
Paint Programs
• Paint programs work with bitmap images and manage

the individual pixels that make up an image.
• Paint programs provide a variety of tools that can add

special effects to an image.
• It can be difficult to edit an entity in a paint program

because the program does not see the entity as a whole,
but as a set of pixels. To edit the image, you must make
changes to the pixels that comprise it.
As the circle is zoomed on the screen,
the individual pixels can be seen.
Pixelization is characteristic
of paint programs.
Photo-Manipulation Programs
• Photo-manipulation programs are bitmap-based

programs, which are used primarily to edit electronic
or digitized photographs.
• Photo-manipulation programs can repair problems

with an image, such as adjusting colors or hiding
mistakes.
• Photo-manipulation programs can produce

sophisticated effects, such as combining multiple
images into a seamless whole, hiding parts of an image,
and more.
The airbrush tool can
be used to repair a
scratched photograph.
Draw Programs
• Draw programs work with vectors and give the

designer a great deal of flexibility in editing an image.
• Objects created in a draw program can be altered

easily and without loss of image quality.
• Draw programs work well with text.

Computer-Aided Design Programs
• Computer-Aided Design (CAD) programs are used in

technical design fields to create models of objects that
will be built or manufactured.
• CAD software allows users to design objects in three

dimensions (3-D) and to produce 3-D wireframe and
solid models.
• CAD products provide the user with high precision,

and enable the user to divide drawings into layers, and
add accurate dimensions (measurements) to a drawing.
3-D Modeling Programs
Designers use 3-D modeling programs to build three-
dimensional models of objects and characters, and to add
special effects to them.
Modeling programs use four techniques to build models:
• Surface modeling
• Solid modeling
• Polygonal modeling
• Spline-based modeling
Gear Model in 3-D
Animation
• Computers are used to create animation in various

fields, including games and movies.
• Fly-bys and walk-throughs are basic types of computer

animation.
• Character animation is the art of creating a character

and making it move in a lifelike manner.
• Compositing tools allow designers to add characters

and objects to scenes that did not originally contain
them.
Fly-by frame sequence
Graphics and the World Wide Web
• Web pages support many types of graphics, including
bullets, rules, logos, complex artwork, and
photographs.
• The GIF and JPEG image formats are the most widely
used formats on the Web.
• Animation can be added to a Web page by using

simple animated GIF images or plug-in software such
as Flash or Shockwave.
• List five types of graphics software and their uses.
• Differentiate the way bitmap and vector graphics

programs work.
• Describe four methods for creating 3-D computer

models.
• Identify three categories of computer-generated

animation.
• Name five types of graphics elements commonly found in

Web pages.
le s s o n 23
Understanding
Multimedia
• Multimedia, Interactivity, and New Media
• Information in Layers and Dimensions
• Hardware Considerations for Multimedia
• Applications for Multimedia
Multimedia, Interactivity, and
New Media Defined
• Multimedia
• Interactivity
• New Media and Digital Convergence

New Media Defined - Multimedia
• A medium is a way of conveying information. Speech is
one medium, text is another.
• There are many kinds of unique media. ("Media" is

the plural of "medium.")
• Multimedia is the use of more than one type of medium

at the same time to convey a message or information.
A lecture presented along with slides is an example of a
simple multimedia event.
New Media Defined - Interactivity
• Like television, a PC can present many media types

simultaneously. For example, text, animation, music,
and narration can all play at one time.
• TV is not interactive; it only delivers content. The PC

enables the use of interactive multimedia such as
games and reference products.
• Interactivity means that the user and program

respond to one another. The program provides an
ever-changing array of choices, which the user selects
to direct the flow of the program.
Multimedia, Interactivity, and New Media
Defined - New Media and Digital Convergence
• "New media" is a term that encompasses all types of

interactive multimedia technologies.
• New media bring together not only multimedia content,

but delivery technologies such as cable, telephone lines,
networks, and the Internet.
• New media is based on the concept of digital

convergence, which means many different technologies
can be used together to deliver different types of
content in one digital stream.
Information in Layers and Dimensions
• The Importance of Content
• Hypermedia and Navigation

Information in Layers and Dimensions -
The Importance of Content
• The purpose of multimedia is to make information
(content) more interesting, compelling, or enjoyable, as
well as easy to navigate.
• Multimedia technologies give users choices of the type

of content that is presented, and the manner in which it
is presented.
• Regardless of the technologies used in multimedia, the

primary focus is on providing high-quality content.
Information in Layers and Dimensions -
Hypermedia and Navigation
• The process of moving through electronic information is
called navigation.
• Well designed multimedia products provide a variety of

methods for the user to navigate and choose content.
Multimedia navigation is based on “hypermedia”.
• Hypermedia allows different types of content to be

linked together. By choosing a hyperlink, WWW users
jump to a new web page or multimedia feature.
external
links
REWIND BACK 1 STOP PAUSE ADV.1 PLAY F-FWD
Navigation buttons for

embedded
media on this site
Hardware Considerations for Multimedia
• Most new PCs are multimedia-capable, featuring all the
hardware required to play back multimedia content.
• To play multimedia content, a PC needs (at the very

least) a sound card, speakers, and a CD-ROM or
DVD-ROM drive. A large hard disk and lots of RAM
are also helpful.
• New PCs must meet requirements set in the PC 97 or

PC 99 standard to be considered multimedia-compliant.
Applications for Multimedia
• In the School
• In the Workplace
• In the Home
Applications for Multimedia - In the School
• Many types of multimedia tools are being used in

schools, from CD-based reference products, to games,
to online collaboration.
• Distance learning technologies allow schools to provide

courses online, over the Internet. These online learning
environments are called virtual universities.
Applications for Multimedia –
In the Workplace
• Companies are increasingly using multimedia for sales,
marketing, and training.
• Using computer-based training (CBT) products,

companies can quickly and cost-effectively teach
employees new skills.
• Because multimedia content can be distributed over the

Web, many companies have developed online outlets
which enable customers to view and purchase products
from their PC.
Applications for Multimedia -
In the Home
In the home, multimedia products are used largely for
the following purposes:
• Reference materials
• Self-help and instruction
• Entertainment
• Define multimedia, interactivity, and new media.
• Explain how different types of media are used to create

multimedia events.
• List three essential hardware components for a

multimedia-capable PC.
• Name four specific uses for multimedia products.

le s s o n 24
Creating &
Distributing
New Media Content
• Creating New Media Content
• Technologies That Support New Media
• Distributing New Media Content
Creating New Media Content
The creation of multimedia products (such as CD-ROM

encyclopedias or online games) requires the skills of many
people, working in a process that involves these phases:
• Defining the Audience
• Design and Storyboarding
• Choosing Tools, Creating Content, and Multimedia

Authoring
• Testing
Creating New Media Content -
Defining the Audience
• Before any code is written or graphics are drawn, the

multimedia team must determine who will be the
audience for its product.
• By identifying the audience, the developers can

determine the users' needs and manner in which the
product will be used.
• Developers typically define their product's audience by

attempting to answer a series of questions about the
users. The answers determine how the product will
ultimately look and behave.
Creating New Media Content -
Design and Storyboarding
• Multimedia design involves determining the exact
content the product must include, the order in which it
will flow, and the types of tools and options the user
will want.
• Developers often map out the flow of a product's

content by creating storyboards – sketches of scenes
from the product.
Creating New Media Content - Choosing
Tools, Creating Content and Authoring
• Multimedia developers can choose from a wide range of

tools for creating their products. The tools used depend
on the type of content, interactive capabilities, and
navigational features desired in the product.
• Different team members create different kinds of

content for the product. Writers create text content or
narration scripts, for instance.
• The process of combining various elements into the

finished product is called multimedia authoring, and
requires special tools that recognize and control all
types of content.
Creating New Media Content - Testing
• Before being released to its end users, a multimedia

product goes through various types of testing.
• If the product fails any portion of a test, it may be

sent back into the development process or even may
be redesigned from scratch.
Technologies That Support New Media
In order to present various types of content and allow

user interaction, multimedia programs may use a wide
range of technologies, such as:
• MPEG and JPEG
• QuickTime
• Video for Windows
• RealAudio and RealVideo
• Shockwave
Technologies That Support New Media -
MPEG and JPEG
• High-quality images consume a great deal of
bandwidth and can cause multimedia products to
perform poorly if not handled in an efficient way.
• MPEG is a standard file format for full-motion video,

which allows for efficient compression while
maintaining high image quality.
• JPEG is a standard file format for still images, such as

photographs, which also provides compression and
high image quality.
24-7
QuickTime
• QuickTime is a multimedia file format originally

meant for use on Apple computers. QuickTime-
format files are used on the Web and in stand-alone
multimedia products.
• QuickTime allows for high-quality streaming audio

and video. The QuickTime player supports a variety
of file formats, including MPEG.
• QuickTime VR uses QuickTime technology to present

immersive environments, with almost the same impact
as true 3-D.
24-8
Video for Windows
• Video for Windows is a very basic format that allows

full-motion audio and video to be played on a PC.
• Though limited in its capabilities, Video for Windows

does not require any special hardware or software, and
files can be played on any Windows PC.
RealAudio and RealVideo
• The RealPlayer is a multimedia utility that can play

streaming audio and video files, distributed over the
Internet or on CD.
• The RealPlayer plays audio files in RealAudio format,

and video files in RealVideo format.
• Online media outlets, such as CNN and the Weather

Channel, provide RealPlayer-format versions of their
programming, which can be viewed from the Web.
Shockwave
• Shockwave is a specialized file format that supports

full-motion, interactive animation and sound.
• Using the Shockwave plug-in utility, you can view

Shockwave-format animations directly in your
browser window on the Web.
• Shockwave is unique because it allows developers to

create fully interactive animations, such as games,
which can be distributed online or on disk.
24-11
Distributing New Media Content
Currently, multimedia content is typically delivered to

users by one of three means:
• CD-ROM or DVD-ROM
• The Internet or a network connection
• Television
• Describe the phases of the multimedia design

process.
• List three technologies that support full-motion video

in multimedia products.
• Identify one technology that supports streaming audio

and video on the Web.
• Name three ways in which multimedia content is

commonly distributed.
le s s o n 25
The Basics of
Information Systems
The Purpose of Information Systems
• Uses for Information Systems
• The Parts of an Information System

• The Purpose of Information Systems
• Types of Information Systems
• The Information Systems Department
The Purpose of Information Systems -
Uses for Information Systems
• An information system is a mechanism that helps

people collect, store, organize, and use information.
This is the primary use for computers.
• An information system can be manual, like a card

catalog or an address book.
• Computerized information systems can range from a

simple database of names to a satellite-tracking system.
The Purpose of Information Systems –
Parts of an Information System
Any information system has three parts:
• A physical means for storing information, such as
disks.
• A procedure for handling information, to ensure its

integrity.
• Rules regarding the use or distribution of

information, to ensure it is used by the right people.
All information systems, regardless of their type, serve

the same purpose – to help users get a certain type of
value from their information.
Types of Information Systems
• Office Automation Systems
• Transaction Processing Systems
• Decision Support Systems
• Management Information Systems
• Expert Systems
Types of Information Systems -
Office Automation Systems
• Office automation systems are used to automate

routine office tasks, such as the creation of documents,
billing, and others.
• Office automation systems can be built from off-the-

shelf applications – standard productivity software
that most users are familiar with.
• In some office systems, commercial software may be

customized to perform specific tasks, but this is not
always necessary.
Transaction Processing Systems
• A transaction processing system is used to handle the
processing and tracking of transactions.
• A transaction is an event that can occur as a series of

steps, such as taking and fulfilling an order from a
customer.
Decision Support Systems
• A decision support system collects various types of
business data, and is used to generate special reports
that help managers make decisions.
• A decision support system may use data from a

company's transaction processing system and from
external sources, such as stock market reports,
information about competitors, and so on.
• These systems provide highly tailored, structured

reports that can be used for very specific business
situations.
Customers and Competition and
Governmental Supplies global markets
External Data Sources
Input and feedback
Interaction Decision Support

Software
Mathematical modeling tools
Database manager
Manager or Query, model and
Staff Specialist analysis results
Management Information Systems
• A management information system (MIS) is designed
to provide information that is design for use by
different types of managers.
• This type of system can create reports that meet the

needs of managers at different levels.
• Senior-level managers need different types of

information than mid- or low-level managers. These
people may need entirely different types of
information, or to view the same type of information
in unique ways.
Types of Information Systems –
Expert Systems
• An expert system is a specialized information system
that performs tasks normally done by people, such as
making decisions.
• Expert systems are used to approve bank loans, make

large-scale purchasing decisions, and assist with
medical diagnoses.
• Expert systems rely on huge, detailed databases

(knowledge bases). Special software, called an
inference engine, analyzes data to answer questions or
make choices.
The Information Systems Department
• The Role of the IS Department
• Role Players in an IS Department

The Information Systems Department -
The Role of the IS Department
• The Information Systems (IS) department is
responsible for designing, building, and managing an
organization's information systems.
• In years past, the IS department served only the

informational needs of managers. Today, the IS team
supports all workers in a business, and supports the
business' mission, as well.
• An IS department's tasks include designing, planning,

installing, and maintaining systems; generating
reports; and cost control.
The Information Systems Department -
Role Players in an IS Department
An IS department can include many members with many

different skills. A large IS staff may include:
Managers Purchasing Agents

Computer Scientists Security Managers
Systems Analysts Trainers
Programmers User Assistance Architects
Database Specialists Technical Writers
System or Network Managers
Hardware Maintenance Technicians
• Define the term information system.
• Name five types of information systems.
• Explain the purpose of each major type of

information system.
• List at least six jobs that are part of an IS

department.
le s s o n 26
Building Information
Systems
• The Systems Development Life Cycle
• Phase 1: Needs Analysis
• Phase 2: Systems Design
• Phase 3: Development
• Phase 4: Implementation
• Phase 5: Maintenance
The Systems Development Life Cycle
The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is an
organized method for building an information system.
The SDLC includes five phases:

• Needs analysis
• Systems design
• Development
• Implementation
• Maintenance
Phase 1: Needs Analysis
• In the needs analysis phase, the development team

must define the IS-related problem, analyze the
current system, and select a solution.
• Analysts may document the current system using tools

such as data flow diagrams, structured English, or
decisions trees.
• In this phase, IS workers learn how the current

system functions and how it meets (or fails to meet) the
organization's informational needs.
Phase 2: Systems Design
During systems design, the team determines how the
selected solution will work. To do this, designers may use
two design methods:
• Top-down design, in which designers start with the

large picture and move to the details of its function.
• Bottom-up design, in which designers start with the

details and move to the major functions.
In this phase, designers may create working models, or

prototypes, of parts of the system, to see if their designs
will work.
Phase 3: Development
• In the development phase, software components are

either created or acquired.
• Programmers may elect to build required software

from scratch, or to customize software that is
purchased from another source.
• In this phase, documentation (such as user manuals or

online help systems) is also developed.
Phase 4: Implementation
During implementation, the new system is installed.
Four conversion methods can be use to move from an
old system to a new one:
• Direct – all users stop using the old system and start
using the new one.
• Parallel –the old system stays in use as increasing

amounts of data are processed in the new one.
• Phased – users start using the new system, one

component at a time.
• Pilot – users at one site use the new system while all
other users keep the old system.
Phase 5: Maintenance
• During the maintenance phase, continuing support is
provided to the new system's users.
• Changes and upgrades are part of the maintenance

phase, as is the process of isolating and repairing
problems with the system.
• Define the term systems development life cycle

(SDLC).
• Identify the five phases in the SDLC.
• Name the IS professionals involved in each phase of

the SDLC.
• Describe four ways an organization can convert from

an old information system to a new one.
le s s o n 27
Creating Computer
Programs
• What is a Computer Program?
• How Programs Solve Problems
• Two Approaches: Structured &

Object-Oriented Programming
What is a Computer Program?
• Files
• Hardware/Software Interaction
What is a Computer Program? - Files
Typically, a program is stored as a collection of files.

Some common file types used in programs are:
• Executable (.EXE) files actually send commands to

the processor.
• Dynamic Link Library (.DLL) files are partial .EXE

files.
• Initialization (.INI) files contain configuration

information for a program.
• Help (.HLP) files contain information for the user.

What is a Computer Program? -
Hardware/Software Interaction
• The program tells the CPU to process interrupts, or
sets of steps the CPU must follow to perform a task.
• To control hardware, a program must be written in
binary numbers (1s and 0s). This code is called
machine code or machine language.
• Programmers use programming languages to write
code in nearly human language. The resulting
description is called source code.
• Compilers and interpreters translate a program into
object code, the binary version of source code.
How Programs Solve Problems
• Program Control Flow
• Algorithms
• Heuristics
• Common Flow Patterns
• Variables and Functions

How Programs Solve Problems –
Program Control Flow
• The order in which program statements are executed
is called program control flow.
• To determine program control flow, programmers

may use a flowchart to map the program's sequence.
• Programmers may also create a simple text version of

a program's code – called pseudocode – to determine
how the program will flow.
This flowchart
shows that the
sequence can
vary depending
on conditions.
How Programs Solve Problems - Algorithms
• An algorithm is a set of steps that always lead to a
solution. The steps are always the same, whether the
problem is being solved manually or with a PC.
• A computer program may contain thousands of

algorithms, each one devoted to a single task.
• An algorithm, for example, will find the highest point

in a mountain range by comparing all the points until
the highest one is found.
no
How Programs Solve Problems - Heuristics
• If a problem is too complex to be solved by an

algorithm, a programmer may try to solve it by using
heuristics.
• Heuristics are like algorithms, and will always find a

solution to a problem. But unlike algorithms,
heuristics are not guaranteed to find the best possible
solution.
• A heuristic, for example, may find the highest point in

a mountain range by comparing random points, but
this process may never find the highest one.
How Programs Solve Problems -
Common Flow Patterns
• To determine when and where to pass program

control, a developer may use conditional statements or
loops.
• A conditional statement determines whether a

condition is true. If so, control flows to the next part
of the program.
• A loop repeats again and again until a condition is

met. Control then passes to another part of the
program.
How Programs Solve Problems -
Variables and Functions
• A variable is a named placeholder for data that is

being processed. Programs contain variables to hold
inputs from users, for example.
• A function is a set of steps that are followed to

perform a specific task. By assembling a collection of
functions together, a developer can build a complete
program.
Two Approaches: Structured &
Object-Oriented Programming
Early programmers allowed control to pass from one part
of a program to another by using goto statements.
Control would "go to" a different part of the program
when conditions allowed.
Goto statements cause programs to become very complex.

To eliminate their use, programmers developed two
approaches to development:
• Structured programming
• Object-oriented programming
This type of programming has fallen into disfavor.
Two Approaches: Structured & Object-Oriented
Programming - Structured Programming
Structured programming uses three types of control
structures to make program control flow more
predictable:
• Sequence structure defines the default control flow.
• Selection structures are built around conditional

statements.
• Repetition (looping) structures use loops, which

execute according to the results of conditional
statements.
Two Approaches: Structured & Object-Oriented
Programming - Object-Oriented Programming
• In object-oriented programming (OOP), programs are
built from blocks of code, called objects. Each object
has functions and characteristics (attributes), and can
contain (encapsulate) other objects.
• Objects that share common attributes can be grouped

into classes. Classes can be divided into subclasses.
• In OOP, objects communicate with one another by

exchanging messages.
• Define the term computer program.
• Describe the use of flowcharts and pseudocode in

programming.
• Identify two ways in which a program can work

toward a solution.
• Differentiate the two main approaches to computer

programming.
• List and describe three elements of object-oriented

programming.
le s s o n 28
Programming
Languages and the
Programming Process
• The Evolution of Programming Languages

• The Systems Development Life Cycle for
Programming
The Evolution of Programming Languages
To build programs, people use languages that are similar
to human language. The results are translated into
machine code, which computers understand.
Programming languages fall into three broad categories:
• Machine languages
• Assembly languages
• Higher-level languages
The Evolution of Programming Languages -
Machine Languages
• Machine languages (first-generation languages) are the

most basic type of computer languages, consisting of
strings of numbers the computer's hardware can use.
• Different types of hardware use different machine

code. For example, IBM computers use different
machine language than Apple computers.
Assembly Languages
• Assembly languages (second-generation languages)
are only somewhat easier to work with than machine
languages.
• To create programs in assembly language, developers

use cryptic English-like phrases to represent strings
of numbers.
• The code is then translated into object code, using a

translator called an assembler.
Assembly
code
Assembler
Object code
Higher-Level Languages
Higher-level languages are more powerful than assembly

language and allow the programmer to work in a more
English-like environment.
Higher-level programming languages are divided into

three "generations," each more powerful than the last:
• Third-generation languages
• Fourth-generation languages
• Fifth-generation languages
Higher-Level Languages -
Third-Generation Languages
• Third-generation languages (3GLs) are the first to
use true English-like phrasing, making them easier
to use than previous languages.
• 3GLs are portable, meaning the object code created

for one type of system can be translated for use on a
different type of system.
• The following languages are 3GLs:

FORTAN C
COBOL C++
BASIC Java
Pascal ActiveX
Fourth-Generation Languages
• Fourth-generation languages (4GLs) are even easier
to use than 3GLs.
• 4GLs may use a text-based environment (like a 3GL)

or may allow the programmer to work in a visual
environment, using graphical tools.
• The following languages are 4GLs:

Visual Basic (VB)
VisualAge
Authoring environments
Fifth-Generation Languages
• Fifth-generation languages (5GLs) are an issue of

debate in the programming community – some
programmers cannot agree that they even exist.
• These high-level languages would use artificial

intelligence to create software, making 5GLs
extremely difficult to develop.
The Systems Development Life Cycle for
Programming
The SDLC for programming follows the same

phases as the SDLC for information systems
development:
• Phase 1: Needs Analysis

• Phase 2: Program Design
• Phase 3: Development
• Phase 4: Implementation
• Phase 5: Maintenance
• Identify the three main categories of programming

languages.
• Describe the five generations of programming

languages.
• Name at least five major programming languages.
• Describe a visual programming environment and

how it is used.
• List the five phases of the software development life

cycle.
le s s o n 29
Computers and the
Individual
• Ergonomics and Health Issues
• Privacy Issues
Ergonomics and Health Issues
• Ergonomics Defined
• Repetitive Stress Injuries
• Avoiding Repetitive Stress Injuries
• Eyestrain
• Electromagnetic Fields
Ergonomics and Health Issues -
Ergonomics Defined
Ergonomics is the study of the physical relationship
between people and their tools – such as computers.
Extended or improper computer use may result in a

number of ailments, such as:
• Repetitive injuries
• Carpal tunnel syndrome
• Eyestrain
• Exposure to electromagnetic fields

Repetitive Stress Injuries
• Repetitive stress injuries (RSIs) result from using the

body continuously in ways it was not designed to
work.
• RSIs have appeared in office workers who spend a

lot of time using the computer keyboard and mouse.
• Carpal tunnel syndrome is a common type of

repetitive stress injury, which may be caused by
extended or improper use of a computer keyboard.
Avoiding Repetitive Stress Injuries
• One of the easiest ways to avoid RSIs is to use
ergonomically correct furniture, including an
ergonomically designed chair and keyboard.
• An ergonomically correct chair features adjustable

height, lower-back support, and armrests. It should
allow you to type with your forearms parallel to the
floor.
• An ergonomically correct keyboard is designed to allow

the hands to rest in a natural, comfortable position so
you can type without overreaching or getting fatigued.
Lower back support
Armrests
Adjustable height
Angles place hands

in a natural position
Ergonomics and Health Issues - Eyestrain
• Many computer users find their vision deteriorating

after a while. This is caused by using the PC too long,
poor positioning, or other factors.
• To avoid eyestrain, don't stare at the screen too long,

place the monitor from 2 to 2 ½ feet away, avoid glare,
and keep the screen clean.
• Use a monitor that holds a steady image without

flickering. Look for a dot pitch no greater than .28
mm and a refresh rate of at least 72 Hz.
Electromagnetic Fields
Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) occur during the

generation, transmission, and use of low-frequency
electrical power. Some people are concerned that EMFs
are linked to cancer.
To reduce your risks from EMF exposure:
• Take frequent breaks away from the computer.

• Sit at arm's length from the system unit and monitor.
• Use a flat-panel display (which does not produce
EMFs).
Privacy Issues
• Junk Faxes and E-Mail
• Beating Spammers at Their Own Game
• Privacy Issues Facing Corporate Computer Users

Privacy Issues - Junk Faxes and E-Mail
• Junk faxes are unsolicited messages received from

unnamed senders. Because they consume the
recipient's resources, junk faxes have been outlawed.
• Junk e-mail (spam) is any uninvited e-mail message,

but spam usually is commercial in nature and is
delivered to many users at one time.
• Using a technique called spoofing, the spammer

sends messages but hides his or her identity so the
recipients cannot respond.
Privacy Issues –
Beating Spammers at Their Own Game
• Spam can cost businesses due to lost productivity. It
can be annoying to individual users who must deal
with junk messages.
• One way to fight spammers is to read your ISP's
appropriate use policy and to report spam to your ISP
and to the sender's ISP, if possible.
• You can also block messages from certain senders and
domains, and use spam-blocking software provided by
your ISP or a third party.
• You can reduce junk mail by not adding your name to
mailing lists, and by making sure your credit records
do not fall into the wrong hands.
Privacy Issues -
Privacy Issues & Corporate Computer Users
A business owns its computer systems and the data they
contain. Businesses are entitled to restrict the use of their
systems, to inspect them, and to block employees from any
or all services.
Businesses commonly monitor the use of their systems to:
• Protect trade secrets.
• Prevent the distribution of libelous messages.
• Prevent users from downloading inappropriate
materials.
• Ensure that resources are not wasted.
• Define ergonomics and list four health risks

related to computer use.
• Define spamming and spoofing and explain how

they affect computer users.
• Name three normal activities that result in a threat

to personal privacy.
• List four reasons why a business may monitor

employees' use of its systems.
le s s o n 30
Computing Issues
that Affect Us All
• Computer Crime
• Computer Viruses
• Theft
• Computers and the Environment
Computer Crime
• Software Piracy
• Protections from Piracy

Computer Crime - Software Piracy
• Software piracy – the illegal copying of software
programs – is the biggest legal issue affecting the
computer industry.
• Piracy is of greatest concern to developers of

commercial software, or programs that must be
purchased before using.
• Piracy is less of a concern for shareware makers,

whose programs must be registered but not always
purchased.
• Piracy is not a concern for freeware, which is

software that can be freely distributed by anyone.
Computer Crime - Protections from Piracy
Various forms of copy protection have been used to
discourage piracy, including:
• Installation diskettes that record the number of

times the software is installed.
• Hardware locks, without which the program

cannot function.
• Passwords, serial numbers, or other codes

required for installation.
Computer Viruses
• Categories of Viruses
• Preventing Infection
Computer Viruses - Categories of Viruses
A virus is a parasitic program that infects another

program (the host). Most viruses fall into the following
categories:
Boot sector viruses Self-encrypting viruses

Cluster viruses Self-changing viruses
File-infecting viruses Stealth viruses
Worms Macro viruses
Bombs Joke programs
Trojan Horses Bimodal viruses
Polymorphic viruses Bipartite viruses
Self-garbling viruses Multipartite viruses
E-mail viruses Macro viruses
Computer Viruses - Preventing Infection
Viruses are spread in several ways. The most common
are:
• Receiving an infected disk.
• Downloading an infected executable file from a
network or the Internet.
• Copying a document file that is infected with a
macro virus.
To avoid viruses, you should:
• Treat all disks as though they are infected.

• Install an antivirus program and keep its virus
definitions (database of virus information) up to date.
• Run your antivirus program regularly.
Theft
• Hardware and Software Theft
• Data Theft
• Protecting Networks
Theft - Hardware and Software Theft
• As PCs become smaller – and as more people use

laptop and handheld computers – hardware theft is
becoming a growing problem.
• Software theft is also a major problem for companies,

many of which must purchase large quantities of
expensive software programs.
• To combat hardware and software theft, many

companies are locking hardware to desks and
securing software in libraries, granting access to
employees only as needed.
Theft - Data Theft
• Data theft can be far more serious than software or
hardware losses, because data can be difficult or
impossible to replace.
• Hackers are a threat to sensitive corporate and
government data because they pride themselves on
getting around security measures.
• Organizations can keep hackers at bay by protecting
their networks. This can be done by enforcing the use of
user IDs and passwords.
• Data can also be protected through encryption, making
it useless to anyone who does not have the encryption
key.
Computers and the Environment
• Planned Obsolescence
• Use of Power
Computers and the Environment -
Planned Obsolescence
• Because hardware and software products become
obsolete after a given time, older systems are
disposed of in large numbers.
• Large-scale disposals add to the clogging of landfills

and pollution.
• To reduce these problems, organizations can

download software from the Internet (reducing the
number of disks and manuals used). Hardware can
be recycled or donated to charities or schools.
Computers and the Environment -
Use of Power
• Many people leave their computers running

continuously, whether in use or not. This consumes
power unnecessarily.
• To solve this problem, you can use a "green PC,"

which automatically powers down the monitor and
hard drive after a period of non-use.
• Another way to conserve energy is to use hardware

that conforms to the EPA's "Energy Star" program,
which sets standards for power consumption.
• Define software piracy and explain why it is illegal.
• Name two ways in which computer viruses can be

spread.
• Describe two methods used to protect networks from

hackers.

Introduction To Computers

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le s s o n 1

A computer is an electronic device used to process data.

• A computer's hardware consists of electronic

• Software – also called programs – consists of

• Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help

• Other programs exist for the user, and enable the

• Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can

• People are the computer's operators, or users.

• Some types of computers can operate without

The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the

• Memory holds data and program instructions as

• The CPU can find any piece of data

• RAM is volatile, meaning it holds data

• Computers work with larger chunks of data,

Unit Approx. Value Actual Value

Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 1,024

• Input devices accept data and instructions from the

• Output devices return processed data back to the

• Communications devices (such as modems and

• Storage devices hold data not currently being used

• A disk drive is a device that reads data from and

• The most common optical storage devices are CD-

• Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells

• When a computer is using a particular program, it is

• The two most common types of programs are system

• System software exists primarily for the computer

• One major type of system software is the operating

• The OS tells the computer how to interact with the

• Common operating systems include Windows, the

• Application software tells the computer how to

Word processing programs Spreadsheet software

• Identify four types of computer hardware.

• List five units of measure for computer memory and

• Provide two examples of input and output devices.

• Name and describe three types of storage devices.

• Differentiate the two main categories of computer

• List four specific types of application software.

• Supercomputers are the most powerful computers.

• Because of their size and expense, supercomputers

• Supercomputers are used by universities,

• Mainframe computers can support hundreds or

• Mainframe computers are used in large

• Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers,

• Minicomputers are smaller than mainframes but

• Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals.

• Minicomputers may be used as network servers and

• Workstations are powerful single-user computers.

• Workstations are used for tasks that require a great

• Workstations are often used as network and Internet

• Microcomputers are more commonly known as

• Full-size desktop computers are the most common type

• Notebook (laptop) computers are used by people who

• Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a

• List the five most common types of computer systems.

• Identify two unique features of supercomputers.

• Describe a typical use for mainframe computers

• Differentiate workstations from personal computers.

• Identify four types of personal computers.

• The Standard Keyboard Layout

• How a Keyboard Works

• A standard computer keyboard has about 100 keys.

• Most keyboards use the QWERTY layout, named for