Brands and Brand Strategies

Mrci i strategii de marc: consideraii manageriale
Daniel ERBNIC
Academia de Studii Economice Bucureti
Rezumat
n marketingul orientat spre consumatori, mrcile ofer adesea elementele eseniale pentru
a face diferena ntre diferite oferte competitive i, din acest punct de vedere, ele sunt
eseniale pentru succesul companiei. Aadar, este important ca managementul de marc
s fie abordat dintr-o perspectiv strategic. Mrcile joac un rol fundamental n
expansiunea pe plan internaional a oricrei companii. Realizarea unei structuri de brand
coerente la nivel internaional este o component cheie a ntregii strategii de marketing
internaional a companiei, deoarece ea propune o structur la nivelul altor mrci puternice
pentru intrarea pe alte piee, pentru asimilarea mrcilor achiziionate i adaptarea strategiei
de marc a companiei pe plan internaional. Aceast lucrare este o trecere n revist a
literaturii de specialitate, cu scopul de a examina conceptele de marc, aa cum sunt ele
dezvoltate n management, dar i natura dinamic a mrcilor, din punctul de vedere al
schimbrii de strategie, innd cont de preteniile din ce n ce mai mari ale consumatorilor.
Cuvinte cheie: branding, management de marc, multi-branding, brand global
Introducere
Experii n branding consider c mijlocul anilor 1980 a reprezentat un punct de
cotitur, n momentul n care comunitatea financiar a constatat c mrcile au devenit
principala valoare a companiilor (Kapferer, 2004). Companiile nu mai erau achiziionate
pentru capacitatea operaional sau pentru cunotinele de management, ci pentru c
deineau un portofoliu de mrci puternice. n acest context, marketingul a devenit,
treptat, un marketing centrat pe marc (Rust, Zeithaml i Lemon, 2004).
Odat cu globalizarea pieelor i creterea competiiei la nivel global, companiile
pun tot mai mult accent pe expansiunea geografic a operaiunilor lor, nfiinnd sau
achiziionnd companii n alte ri, sau formnd aliane care depesc graniele naionale.
n acelai timp, odat cu rspndirea mijloacelor de comunicare globale i regionale,
dezvoltarea internaional a vnzrilor cu amnuntul i deplasarea persoanelor, bunurilor
i organizaiilor dincolo de graniele naionale trec printr-un profund proces de integrare
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Brands and Brand Strategies: Managerial Considerations

Daniel ERBNIC
Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest
Abstract
In consumer marketing, brands often provide the primary points of differentiation between
competitive offerings, and as such they can be critical to the success of companies.
Hence, it is important that the management of brands is approached strategically. Brands
play a critical role in a firms international expansion. A coherent international brand
architecture is a key component of the firms overall international marketing strategy as
it provides a structure to leverage strong brands into other markets, assimilate acquired
brands, and rationalize the firms international branding strategy. This paper is a review
of the brand literature and his aim is to examine the brand concepts developed by
management and the dynamic nature of brands in terms of changing brand strategy and
increasing consumer sophistication.
Keywords: branding, brand management, multi-branding, global brand
Introduction
Brand experts pinpoint to the mid 80s as the turning point when the financial
community discovered that brands were becoming the firms key assets (Kapferer, 2004).
Firms were not anymore acquired for their operations capacity or their managerial
know-how, but because they detained a portfolio of strong brands. In such a context,
marketing progressively became brand-centered (Rust, Zeithaml & Lemon; 2004).
With the globalization of markets and the growth of competition on a global scale,
companies are increasingly expanding the geographic scope of their operations, setting
up or acquiring companies in other countries, or entering into alliances across national
boundaries. At the same time, with the spread of global and regional media, the
development of international retailing, and the movement of people, goods, and
organizations across national borders, markets are becoming more integrated (Aaker
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(Aaker, 1996b). Ca urmare, firmele trebuie s acorde mai mult atenie coordonrii i
integrrii strategiei de marketing pe pieele internaionale.
Un element important al strategiei de marketing internaional a unei companii este
politica sa de marc. Mrcile puternice consacr identitatea firmei pe pia i au o
poziie solid n rndurile consumatorilor (Aaker 1996, Keller 1998, Kapferer 1997) i,
n plus, constituie un instrument de contracarare a forei mereu crescnde a vnzrilor
cu amnuntul (Barwise i Robertson 1992). Ele stau de asemenea la baza extinderii de
marc, n vederea ntririi pe mai departe a poziiei firmei i a creterii valorii sale
(Aaker i Keller 1990). Pe pieele internaionale, companiile se confrunta cu o problem
major dac s foloseasc acelai nume de marc n ri diferite, ntrind astfel fora
mrcii dincolo de granie, sau s menin mrci locale, care s rspund preferinelor
consumatorilor din ara respectiv.
Dezvoltarea semnificaiei de marc i nelegerea sa de ctre consumatori este
important pentru managerii de marketing din zilele noastre (Keller 2003).
Astzi, orice student la marketing poate spune c, pentru a avea succes, mrcile
trebuie s fie relevante pentru pieele lor int i s fie diferite fa de cele care aparin
competitorilor. Dar exist numeroase dovezi ale faptului c, n timp, marketingul i-a
pierdut n parte capacitatea de a crea i de a administra mrcile difereniate. Aceast
incapacitate de difereniere determin mrcile s intre n competiie pe baza preului,
subminnd nsi motivaia existenei mrcilor.
Incapacitatea de difereniere implic faptul c nereuita pe pia se datoreaz lipsei
de gndire original, lipsei de creativitate n probleme strategice. Diferenierea are
nevoie de o strategie de marc original. Aadar, creativitatea este esenial pentru
dezvoltarea unei strategii de marc plin de succes (poziionarea ori tema mrcii, aa
cum o denumim noi). Brandul este indisolubil legat de reputaia produsului, a serviciului
sau a companiei cu care este asociat. Nu e doar un concept de marketing, cci tot ce
face acea companie i poate afecta reputaia (adic, marca).
Crearea, dezvoltarea, implementarea i meninerea mrcilor de succes se afl adesea
n centrul strategiei de marketing. Brandingul de succes se bazeaz pe o perspectiv
strategic (de Chernatony 1998) prin care structura mrcilor puternice este prezentat
i comunicat unor segmente int bine definite, aceast aciune avnd ca efect crearea
unei imagini favorabile pentru marc, care s reflecte identitatea acestuia (Gardner i
Levy 1955, Reynolds i Gutman 1984, Kapferer 1997).
Numeroase tipologii de marc (de ex. Chernatony i DallOlmo Riley 1997; Leahy
1994) arat modul n care strategii de marc structureaz conceptual anumite mrci
care, prin natura lor, sunt astfel unice (Gardner i Levy, 1955). De-a lungul timpului
aceste concepte au acoperit o gam larg, de la brandul privit ca simpl formul de
identificare, la dezvoltarea unor identiti complexe, de mare valoare. Inteniile
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1996b). As a result, firms need to pay greater attention to coordinating and integrating
their marketing strategy across markets.
An important element of a firms international marketing strategy is its branding
policy. Strong brands help to establish the firms identity in the market place, and develop
a solid customer franchise (Aaker 1996, Keller 1998, Kapferer 1997) as well as providing
a weapon to counter growing retailer power (Barwise and Robertson 1992). They can
also provide the basis for brand extensions, which further strengthen the firms position
and enhance value (Aaker and Keller 1990). In international markets, an important
issue for the firm is whether to use the same brand name in different countries, leveraging
brand strength across boundaries, or whether to maintain local brands responding to
local customer preferences.
Developing and understanding a brands meaning to consumers is important for
todays marketing managers (Keller 2003).
Now any student of marketing can tell you that brands need to be relevant to their
targets and differentiated from their competitors to be successful. But there is ample
evidence that marketing has somehow lost the capacity to create and manage
differentiated brands. This lack of differentiation forces brands to compete on the basis
of price and undermines the business reasons why brands exist in the first place.
The inability to differentiate suggests that our downfall as marketers is our lack of
original thought, a lack of creativity in strategic matters. Differentiation demands an
original brand strategy. Therefore, creativity is vital to developing successful brand
strategy (the positioning or brand theme, as we call it). A brand is akin to the reputation
of a product, service or company with which it is associated. It is not just a marketing
concept, since everything a company does can affect its reputation (that is, the brand).
Creating, developing, implementing and maintaining successful brands is frequently
at the heart of marketing strategy. Successful branding requires a strategic perspective
(de Chernatony 1998) whereby strong brand concepts are presented and communicated
to well targeted segments resulting in favorable brand images which reflect the brands
identity (Gardner and Levy 1955, Reynolds and Gutman 1984, Kapferer 1997).
Various brand typologies (e.g. de Chernatony and DallOlmo Riley 1997; Leahy
1994) show how brand strategists have plans for particular brand concepts whose nature
is unique to the particular brand concept (Gardner and Levy, 1955). Over time these
brand concepts have ranged from the brand acting as a simple identification device to
the development of complex, value-laden identities. The goals managers have for their
brands must mesh with those of their target consumers. The goals consumers have for
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brandului, aa cum este el gndit de manageri, trebuie s se identifice cu inteniile

consumatorilor int. Inteniile consumatorilor int sunt numeroase (Gordon 1991),
ntre ele numrndu-se, de exemplu, comunicarea unor aspecte specifice persoanei i
modului ei de via, prin intermediul folosirii brandului respectiv (Goffman, 1959; Grubb
i Hupp, 1968). Dac inteniile managerilor i cele ale consumatorilor nu coincid,
consumatorii vor ignora, probabil, ceea ce le comunic marca, sau i vor acorda foarte
puin atenie; nu vor afla mai nimic, iar inteniile managerilor nu se vor putea mplini.
Aadar, inteniile celor dou pri sunt indestructibil legate.
Stadiile mrcii
Un model deosebit de util a fost conceput de Goodyear (1996); el arat modul n
care a evoluat, n timp, natura mrcii. Modelul Goodyear se concentreaz mai mult pe
natura brandingului, n permanent evoluie n timp i mai puin pe proiectul strategic
al conceptelor de marc la un moment dat, sau pentru lansarea unui anumit brand.
Goodyear nu urmrete dezvoltarea unui anumit brand n timp, ci reprezint, mai
degrab, un model conceptual al stadiilor prin care ar putea trece un brand.
Cele ase stadii se refer la schimbrile aprute n timp, n practicile de branding, la
o categorie de produs, i nu la transformrile suferite de un brand anume. Atunci cnd
un produs este nou, companiile ncearc s explice exact ce este produsul, ce face i ce
beneficii ar putea avea consumatorii din adoptarea lui; lund brandul ca element de
referin, aceasta este stadiul n care conducerea firmei ncearc s scoat n eviden
propriul brand n comparaie cu altele cu aceleai atribute ale produsului. E posibil ca,
atunci cnd un brand nu mai poate menine avantajul competitiv pe baza atributelor
produsului, conducerea companiei s treac la construirea personalitii mrcii. Pe
msur ce brandul devine cunoscut pe plan mondial, el poate deveni un simbol, o
imagine iconic. n marketingul post-modern, marca poate fi compania nsi, sau se
poate asocia cu cauze sociale. Astfel, pentru orice categorie de produs, mrci diferite
se pot regsi ntr-una din cele ase stadii; mrcile i pot schimba strategia (de exemplu,
de la element de referin la personalitate); n orice stadiu pot aprea mrci noi i, la fel
de bine, este posibil ca, pentru o anumit categorie de produs, procesul de branding s
nu treac niciodat prin toate cele ase stadii.
Modelul Goodyear poate fi folosit pentru a explica situaii n care conducerea
companiei utilizeaz diferite strategii pentru acelai brand; n consecin, marca se
regsete n mai multe stadii. Astfel, managerii pot percepe brandul ca aflndu-se n
mai multe stadii, n funcie de stadiul ciclului de via al mrcii pe piaa (pieele) relevante.
n seciunile care urmeaz, se descrie relaia dintre efortul de marketing i efortul
consumatorului, pentru fiecare stadiu.
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brands are numerous (Gordon 1991) and include such things as communication of
particular aspects of self and lifestyle through the use of specific brands (Goffman,
1959; Grubb and Hupp 1968). If managements and consumers goals for specific brands
do not coincide, consumers would ignore or pay minimal attention to brand
communications; little learning would occur and the goals of management would not
be realized. Thus, the goals of the two are inextricably tied to each other (de Chernatony
1993).
The stages of brand

A particularly helpful model has been devised by Goodyear (1996) showing how
the nature of branding has evolved over time. The Goodyear model focuses on the
evolving nature of branding over time rather than on the strategic design of brand
concepts at particular times and for particular brand launches. Rather than a tracing of
an actual brand over time, Goodyears is a conceptual model of the possible stages that
a brand might go through.
The six stages refer to changes in branding practices in a product category over time
rather than changes in any specific brand. When the product is new, companies attempt
to explain what the product is, does and how it can benefit consumers; this is the stage,
brand as reference, in which management tries to distinguish its brand from others
using product attributes. When a brand can no longer sustain a competitive advantage
on the basis of product attributes, management may decide to build a personality for
the brand. As the brand becomes well-known, world-wide, it may become a symbol or
icon. In post-modern marketing, the brand may be the company or align itself with
social causes. Thus, in any product category, different brands may be in any one of the
six stages; brands may change strategies (for example, from reference to personality);
new brands may enter at any stage and the branding process in a particular product
category may never complete all six stages.
The Goodyear model can be used to explain situations in which management uses
different strategies for the same brand with the result that the brand is located in more
than one stage. Thus, managers can view any brand as being in multiple stages depending
on the stage of the brand life cycle in the relevant market(s).In the succeeding sections,
the relationship between the marketing effort and consumer effort is described for each
stage.
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Stadiul 1: Bunuri care nu reprezint un brand. n rile dezvoltate acest stadiu este
de obicei trecut cu vederea, dar are o importan mai mare n economiile n curs de
dezvoltare. Excepie fac bunurile de larg consum, sau cazurile n care consumatorii nu
doresc s fac o distincie ntre mrci de exemplu, scobitori sau bolduri. Chiar i n
economiile n care mrcile nu reprezint un element obinuit (de exemplu, fosta URSS)
acest stadiu poate fi scurtat, deoarece consumatorii folosesc elemente substitutive pentru
a face diferena ntre bunuri despre care se presupune c nu reprezint un brand. n
aceast faz, multe organizaii se poart ca i cum nu prea ar fi nevoie de eforturi
pentru comercializare. n economiile occidentale, revoluia industrial a schimbat
aceast stare de lucruri, pentru c oferta a nceput s depeasc cererea, iar productorii
au fost nevoii s nvee s-i vnd produsele (de Chernatony i DallOlmo 1997). n
acest stadiu, scopul productorului este s-i vnd, pur i simplu, bunurile, iar cel al
consumatorului, s cumpere o parte din bunurile limitate. Scopul principal al
consumatorilor este acela de a obine bunurile necesare, iar scopul managerilor este
acela de a produce i de a vinde bunurile respective. n acest stadiu, reeaua mental a
consumatorului se constituie, n primul rnd, din punctul nodal care identific respectiva
categorie de produs. Informaiile despre produs sunt n general limitate la modul n
care se utilizeaz acesta.
Stadiul 2: Mrcile ca element de referin. n acest stadiu, elurile managementului
de marc se ndreapt spre poziionarea mrcii ca deintor de beneficii funcionale
unice, adic spre identificarea beneficiilor funcionale ale mrcii sub un nume distinctiv,
care astfel s-l diferenieze de alte mrci (Copeland 1923; Jones 1986; Brown 1992).
Aceste aciuni asigur firmei i managementului o serie de beneficii. ncercnd, cu
rbdare, s dea mrcii un nume distinctiv potrivit, acesta poate fi protejat prin
nregistrarea patentului, oferindu-i protecie legal mpotriva imitatorilor i artnd sursa
de proprietate (Fogg 1998). ntr-adevr, definiia dat mrcii de ctre Asociaia American
de Marketing, n 1960, este foarte apropiat de brand ca element de referin, acesta
fiind definit ca un termen, simbol sau design... care trebuie s identifice bunurile sau
serviciile unui productor... i s-l diferenieze de cele ale competitorilor. Amintirea
acestei percepii cu privire la funcia mrci lor domin i astzi manualele de marketing
(de ex. Kotler i Armstrong, 1996).
Diferenierea se face cel mai simplu prin accentuarea atributelor produsului
(funcionalitate), deoarece consumatorii pot fi nc n faza n care afl cte ceva despre
produs. Acum, consumatorii i pot mbunti selecia de produse/mrci, deoarece pot
identifica mrcile i pot face deosebirea ntre ele (Hoyer i Brown, 1990).
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Stage 1: Unbranded Goods In developed countries this stage is usually by-passed

but has more relevance to developing economies. Exceptions might be commodity
goods or cases where consumers are unwilling to make brand distinctions for example,
toothpicks or clothes pins. Even in economies where brands are not common (for example
the former USSR) this stage can be short lived as consumers use surrogate cues to
differentiate between supposedly unbranded goods. In this phase, many organizations
adopt the attitude that there is little need for selling effort. In Western economies, the
industrial revolution changed this because supply began to exceed demand and
producers had to learn to sell their goods (de Chernatony and DallOlmo 1997). In this
stage the goal of the manufacturer is simply to sell goods and the consumer to acquire
some of the limited goods. The primary goal of consumers is to obtain the necessary
goods and the goal of management is to produce and distribute the good. In this stage,
the consumers memory network consists primarily of a node identifying the product
category. Information about the product is generally limited to product uses.
Stage 2: Brands as Reference In this stage, the goals of brand management are to
position the brand as having unique functional benefits, i.e. to identify the brands
functional benefits with a distinctive name thereby differentiating it from other brands
(Copeland 1923; Jones 1986; Brown 1992). Doing so provides the firm and management
several benefits. By taking time to give a brand an appropriate and distinctive brand
name, the brand name can be protected through trademark registration, giving it legal
protection against imitators and denoting the source of ownership (Fogg 1998). Indeed,
the 1960 American Marketing Association definition of a brand is very much akin to the
brand as reference, defining it as a term, symbol or design.... intended to identify the
goods or services of one seller...and to differentiate them from those of competitors.
Remnants of this perception of the function of brands still dominate marketing textbooks
(eg Kotler and Armstrong, 1996).
Differentiation is most readily achieved by stressing product attributes (functionality)
because consumers may still be learning about the product. This is the beginning of
secondary demand stimulation. Consumers can now improve product/brand selection
because they are able to identify brands and to distinguish between them (Hoyer and
Brown 1990).
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Pentru identificare, nu e nevoie dect de contientizarea, de ctre consumatori, a

numelui de marc; diferenierea le cere mai mult, i anume s acumuleze mai multe
informaii despre marc.
Aplicarea caracteristicilor funcionale le permite consumatorilor s catalogheze rapid
marca n propriile structuri mentale (Cohen i Basu, 1987). Mai precis, calitatea sigur
este cheia ctre un branding de succes (Doyle 1989). Diveri autori pun n eviden
faptul c marca reprezint o garanie pentru cumprtorul potenial (de Chernatony
1989; Low i Fullerton, 1994; Irons 1996). Unul din modurile n care pot fi interpretate
mrcile este acela c ele reprezint valori n mintea consumatorilor (Southgate 1994).
Acestea nu sunt doar valori funcionale (Sheth, Newman i Gross 1991). Pe o pia cu
consumatori cu experien, se poate pune ntrebarea dac mrcile adaug suficient
valoare, nct s poat fi deosebite de produsul de baz (Southgate 1994).
n acest stadiu, n memoria consumatorilor se face legtura ntre diferite mrci i
categoria respectiv de produse (Cohen i Basu 1987; Bousch 1993). Aceste conexiuni
au o natur extrem de categoric (Mervis i Rosch 1981), prin faptul c diferenierea
ntre mrci se face n principal pe baza atributelor fizice. Acest proces este descris de
Keller (1993), care definete cunoaterea mrcii, pe baza a dou componente:
contientizarea mrcii i imaginea mrcii. Aceste conexiuni relativ simple le permit
consumatorilor s selecteze produsele rapid i s evite anumite elemente de risc perceput.
Fiecare marc reprezint un set de informaii, fiecare set de informaii fiind construit de
ctre consumatori, pentru a evita, explicit, atributele multiple (de Chernatony i
DallOlmo 1998). Cea mai mare parte a eforturilor de marketing se concentreaz pe
dezvoltarea i accentuarea caracteristicilor funcionale ale mrcii, ca i pe comunicarea
acestora ctre consumatori. La rndul lor, aceste elemente le permit consumatorilor s
identifice i s deosebeasc marca de cele rivale, constituindu-se i ntr-o garanie a
calitii durabile. Astfel, productorii se angajeaz ntr-un proces de poziionare a mrcii,
definit de Ries i Trout (1981) i care construiete percepia mrcii prin comparaie cu
mrcile rivale.
Stadiul 3: Mrcile ca personalitate. Ajuni n stadiul 3, consumatorii se confrunt
cu un mare numr de mrci cu o mulime de promisiuni funcionale (Biel 1994). Dar
avansul tehnologic face dificil meninerea avantajului funcional (Lambin 1997), ceea
ce face ca mrcile care intr n competiie n aceeai categorie s aib caliti similare
din punct de vedere funcional (de Chernatony 1997). Pentru a-i diferenia mrcile,
specialitii n marketing se concentreaz pe incorporarea unor valori emoionale n
mrcile lor, ilustrnd acest lucru metaforic, prin personalitatea de marc. Ei aleg anumite
trsturi de personalitate pentru marc, astfel nct acestea s fie n armonie cu valorile
emoionale ale mrcii i cu stilul de via al consumatorilor int (Aaker, 1996; Smothers
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Identification requires only that the consumer be aware of the brand name;
differentiation requires more of the consumer, e.g. that they acquire some knowledge
about the brand.
Use of functional characteristics enables consumers to rapidly categorize the brand
in their mental sets (Cohen and Basu 1987). In particular, consistent quality is a key to
successful branding (Doyle 1989). A variety of authors stress that the brand is a guarantee
to the potential customer (de Chernatony 1989; Low and Fullerton, 1994; Irons 1996).
One interpretation of brands is that they are values in consumers minds (Southgate
1994). These are not solely functional values (Sheth, Newman and Gross 1991). In a
market with experienced consumers some might question whether the brand adds enough
value to be distinguishable from the basic product (Southgate 1994).
In this stage, consumers are linking various brand nodes to the product category in
memory and expanding the network associated with each brand (Cohen and Basu 1987;
Bousch 1993). These networks are mostly categorical in nature (Mervis and Rosch 1981)
in that they differentiate brands primarily on physical attributes. This process is described
by Keller (1993) who conceptualizes brand knowledge as having two components:
brand awareness and brand image. These relatively simple networks enable consumers
to make product selections quickly and to avoid some elements of perceived risk. Each
brand represents a chunk of information and each chunk of information is constructed
by consumers to avoid explicitly multiple attributes. (de Chernatony and DallOlmo
1998).Most marketing effort concentrates on developing and enhancing functional
characteristics of the brand and communicating these to consumers. This, in turn, enables
consumers to identify and distinguish the brand from the competition and also acts as a
guarantee of consistent quality. Thus, marketers are engaging in a brand positioning
process defined by Ries and Trout (1981) which builds perception of the brand vis-a-vis
competitive brands.
Stage 3: Brands as Personality By stage 3, consumers are faced with a variety of
brandsall of which make functional promises ( Biel 1994). But advances in technology
make it difficult to sustain a functional advantage (Lambin 1997) with the result that
brands competing in the same category have become functionally more similar (de
Chernatony 1997). To differentiate their brands, marketers focus on incorporating
emotional values into their brands, portraying this through the metaphor of brand
personality. They select brand personalities consonant with the emotional values of the
brand and the target consumers lifestyle (Aaker, 1996; Smothers 1993; Shields 1992;
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1993; Shields 1992; Belk, 1988; Plummer, 1985), astfel nct consumatorul i
personalitatea mrcii s fie convergente (Malhotra 1988; Schiffman i Kanuk 1996).
Din perspectiva interaciunii sociale, indivizii i formeaz concepte despre ei nii,
reprezentnd percepia fiecruia despre rspunsul celorlali fa de ei (Solomon 1983)
i folosesc aceste concepte despre ei nii pentru a le ghida comportamentul la
cumprare (Dolich 1969, Grubb i Hupp, 1968).
n stadiul de brand considerat ca personalitate, marca ajunge s reprezinte mai mult
dect produsul (Southgate 1994). Ea reprezint valorile care merg dincolo de
funcionalitatea produsului, pentru a deveni un mijloc eficient de comunicare a
personalitii proprietarului (Lanon 1993). Valorile mrcii se modific, de la instrumental
la simbolic, facilitnd exprimarea sinelui sau ajutndu-i pe oameni s i reprezinte
propria istorie trecut (Csikszentmihalyi i Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Belk 1988).
Capacitatea obiectului deinut de a conferi o semnificaie simbolic a aprut dintr-un
lung ir de cercetri. De exemplu, obiectele deinute le permit indivizilor s se exprime,
pe ei nii i trecutul lor (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Belk, 1990;
Dittmar, 1992); valorile personale sau credinele religioase (Belk 1992) ; identitatea
etnic (Mehta i Belk, 1991) ; propria competen (Hirschman i LaBarbera, 1990) ;
puterea social i statutul personal (Furby, 1978) i modul n care se difereniaz de
ceilali (Csikzentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981).
n stadiul 3 este important ca managerii s acorde o atenie constant pieei, pentru
a crea personalitatea cea mai potrivit pentru marc i pentru a o moderniza atunci
cnd este necesar. Personalitatea de marc trebuie s se schimbe constant, pentru a se
conforma expresiei i imaginilor despre sine ale consumatorului, aflate i ele n continu
schimbare. Specialitii de pia ncep prin a conferi mrcii elemente de personalitate
care s incorporeze caracteristici i valori umane, astfel nct marca s devin o
modalitate de exprimare a propriului sine i a propriei identiti (de Chaernatony i
Mc Williams 1989) : Printr-un proces complex, n care consumatorii apeleaz la nelesuri
sociale mprtite, ei transform, modific, primesc i reflecteaz constant imagini i
nelesuri de marc pentru a-i exprima propriul sine, stilul de via, apartenena de
grup, statutul i valorile n care crede, cum ar fi succesul. n acest proces, consumatorii
simt c marca le aparine, prin modul n care l interpreteaz. Drept urmare, ei stabilesc
o relaie cu mrcile.
Stadiul 4 : Brandul ca imagine iconic. n stadiul mrcii ca imagine iconic, nelesul
diferitelor mrci este acceptat pe o scar att de larg, nct brandul poate fi considerat
relevant pentru ceva ce trece dincolo de el, devenind un simbol. n aceast privin
Goodyear (1996) consider c, de fapt, consumatorii dein marca , deoarece ei neleg
i folosesc proprietile simbolice ale acestuia. Imaginea mrcii este suficient de puternic
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Belk, 1988; Plummer, 1985) so that consumer and brand personalities are brought into
alignment (Malhotra 1988; Schiffman and Kanuk 1996). From a social interactionist
perspective, individuals form self concepts which are ones perceptions of the responses
of others to ones self (Solomon, 1983) and use these self concepts to guide purchase
behavior (Dolich, 1969, Grubb and Hupp, 1968).
In the stage of brand as personality, the brand has become more than the product
(Southgate 1994). It represents values which go beyond the functional ones of its product
form to act as an efficient communicator of the personality of the owner (Lanon 1993).
The values of the brand change from instrumental to symbolic and facilitate expression
of self or help people represent their past history (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton,
1981; Belk 1988). The ability of possession to confer symbolic meaning has been borne
out by a long stream of research. For example, possessions enable individuals to express
themselves and their past (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Belk, 1990;
Dittmar, 1992); personal values or religious beliefs (Belk, 1992); ethnic identity (Mehta
and Belk, 1991); ones competence (Hirschman and LaBarbera. 1990); social power
and status (Furby, 1978) and differentiation of ones self from others (Csikzentmihalyi
and Rochberg-Halton, 1981).
Stage 3 requires that management pay constant attention to the market to create the
right personality for the brand and to update it when needed. The brands personality
must constantly change to keep up with constantly shifting consumer self images and
expression. Marketers begin giving brands personalities that incorporate human
characteristics and values so that the brand becomes a means of expressing ones identity
and self ((de Chernatony and McWilliams 1989). Through a complex process in which
consumers use shared social meanings, they constantly transform, alter, receive and
reflect brand images and meanings to express self, lifestyle, group membership, status
and values such as success. In this process, consumers are making the brand their own
through their interpretation of it. As a result, they form relationships with brands.
Stage 4: Brand as Icon In the Brand as icon stage, the meaning of various brands has
become so widely accepted that the brand can be used to stand for something beyond
itself; in short, it has become a symbol. At this point Goodyear (1996) believes consumers
own the brand, because they understand and use its symbolic properties. The brands
image is strong enough to stand on its own in signifying values and consumers use it for
that purpose (Goffman, 1959; Gardner and Levy, 1955). The fourth stage usually results
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pentru a-i reprezenta propriile valori, iar consumatorii o folosesc tocmai n acest scop
(Goffman 1959 ; Gardner i Levy, 1955). Cel de-al patrulea stadiu rezult, de obicei,
din utilizarea ampl i continu, de ctre management, a aceleiai valori, pe perioade
ndelungate de timp. Managerii decid s asocieze marca cu o anumit valoare i, de
obicei, extind acea percepie a mrcii n ntreaga lume. Astfel, pentru a avea succes,
simbolul ales (fie c e vorba de calitate, prestigiu sau faptul c brandul respectiv este
beton ) trebuie s reprezinte o valoare pentru consumatorii din ntreaga lume.
Pentru a ntri latura lor simbolic, mrcile folosesc adesea anumite simboluri fizice
relevante pentru marc. Mercedes folosete acelai ornament de pe capot (steaua n
cerc) de cteva decenii ; Marlborough pachetul rou cu alb ; camioanele Mack
buldogul; Harley Davidson vulturul, iar Coca-Cola sticla n form de clepsidr.
Aceste imagini iconice ajung un mod rapid de identificare a simbolurilor mrci lor,
indiferent n ce limb sunt prezentate. n acest stadiu, conexiunile mentale ale
consumatorilor, reprezentnd cunoaterea, sunt bine dezvoltate, aa cum arat Keller
(1993). Krishnan (1996) a explicat importana asocierilor primare i secundare n
construirea echitii de marc. Toate mrcile trebuie s determine asocieri mentale
comune, astfel nct s fie clasificate mpreun cu acestea. Astfel, LA Gear, Adidas,
Reebok i Nike sunt, toate, firme de nclminte de sport, cu anumite caracteristici
comune. Conceptul de marc se alege nainte de intrarea pe pia, cu o perspectiv pe
termen lung, astfel nct managerii s se angajeze s foloseasc acelai concept de
marc, fie el funcional sau simbolic, pe toat durata ciclului de via al produsului. n
aceast perioad, mixtura de elemente de marketing are rolul de comunicare a
conceptului de marc ctre pieele int respective, i de nlesnire a activitilor de
tranzacionare, de exemplu stabilirea punctelor de distribuie corespunztoare (de
Chernatony i Daniels, 1994).
Stadiul 5 : Brandul ca organizaie. Trecerea n stadiul 5 marcheaz tranziia de la
marketingul clasic la cel post-modern, aa cum este definit de Brown (1995). Att
consumatorii, ct i managerii trebuie s aplice schimbri majore. De partea cererii,
consumatorii sunt mult mai rafinai, au o mai mare experien cu o gam larg de
mrci i sunt specialiti att n utilizarea computerului, ct i n studierea pieelor ;
drept rezultat, comunicarea nu mai este la fel de bine structurat, dar este mai interactiv
i mai potrivit pentru a rspunde solicitrilor individuale (Barwise, 1997). Folosirea pe
scar din ce n ce mai larg a internetului permite tot mai multor consumatori s
descopere ceea ce doresc ei s tie despre mrci, iar nu ceea ce specialitii de pia
doresc s le spun (Mitchell, 1997). Pe msur ce compania/organizaia devine un
brand, comunicarea trebuie s se extind pentru a prezenta acelai mesaj n toate
punctele de contact. Numeroi acionari interacioneaz cu diferite seciuni ale firmei.
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from managements extensive and continued use of the same value for long periods of
time. Management has chosen to associate the brand with a particular value and usually
extended that perception of the brand around the globe. Thus, the chosen symbol
(whether quality, prestige, or coolness) must be of value to consumers around the
world to be successful.
To reinforce the symbolism, brands frequently use some physical symbol to denote
the brand. Mercedes has used the same hood ornament (star in a circle) for decades;
Marlborough its red and white packaging; Mack trucks its bulldog; Harley Davidson an
eagle; and Coca Cola its hourglass bottle. These icons become shorthand means of
identifying symbolic brands no matter what the local language. In this stage, consumer
networks of knowledge, as described by Keller (1993), are well developed. Krishnan
(1996) has explained the importance of primary and secondary associations in building
a brands equity. All brands must have some common associations so that they can be
categorized together. Thus, LA Gear, Adidas, Reebok and Nike are all athletic shoes
with certain characteristics in common. The brand concept is chosen before entry with
a long run perspective in mind so that management is committed to using the same
brand concept whether functional or symbolic throughout the product life cycle. In this
period, the marketing mix is charged with communicating the brand concept to the
appropriate market targets and to facilitating transaction activities such as arranging for
appropriate distribution outlets (de Chernatony and Daniels 1994).
Stage 5: Brand as Company Entry into stage five marks the transition from classical
marketing to postmodern marketing as defined by Brown (1995). This necessitates major
changes on the part of both consumers and management. On the demand side, consumers
are far more sophisticated, have a greater experience of a broader array of brands and
have become computer as well as market literate with the result that communication
becomes less structured, more interactive and better suited to answering individual
queries (Barwise, 1997). Growing penetration of the Internet allows more consumers to
find out what they want to know about brands, rather than what marketers want to say
(Mitchell, 1997). As the company becomes the brand, communication must expand to
present the same message at all of the points of contact. Numerous stakeholders interact
with different parts of the firm. Any individual could be a consumer of the brand, a
media reporter about the company, an owner of the brand through stock purchase or a
regulator of the company in an elected, regulatory capacity.
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Orice individ este un consumator potenial al mrcii, un reporter media despre companie,
un deintor al mrcii prin cumprarea de aciuni, sau un element de reglaj al companiei,
n capacitatea sa electiv limitat.
Pentru asigurarea unei comunicri constante, firmele au ajuns la concluzia c proprii
angajai sunt la fel de importani ca i constructorii de marc (de Chernatony 1996;
King 1991): Firma trebuie s se asigure c toi angajaii neleg viziunea mrcii, valorile
lui inerente, i c ilustreaz valorile mrcii prin aciunile de fiecare zi, devenind astfel
o surs cheie de personificare a mrcii (de Chernatony i DallOlmo 1998, Riley 1998).
mplinirea acestui deziderat cere o pregtire extensiv i explicarea detaliat a nelesului
i strategiei de marc. Accentul pus n planul de comunicare a mrcii se relev mai
nti prin prezentarea angajailor i a noii campanii; numai atunci cnd angajaii neleg
i sunt capabili s respecte promisiunile poate ncepe comunicarea cu consumatorii.
Angajaii trebuie s neleag brandul propriu, s fie motivai pentru a aciona aa cum
o cere identitatea mrcii i trebuie s fie mputernicii s ia msurile care se impun
pentru creterea importanei acestuia. n acest stadiu, extinderea mrci lor devine mai
dificil. Mulumit brandingului umbrel extinderea are un impact asupra modului n
care este perceput firma, dar i fiecare marc n parte. Unele studii au demonstrat c
extinderea poate avea att efecte pozitive, ct i negative asupra mrcilor existente
(Dacin i Smith, 1994; Aaker i Keller, 1990; Bottomley i Doyle, 1996; Broniarczyk i
Alba, 1994; Bousch i Loken, 1991; Park, Milberg i Lawson, 1991; Reddy, Holak i
Bhat, 1994; dar i Keller i Aaker, 1992). Ca rezultat, este posibil ca nelesul mrcii s
se dilueze sau chiar s devin nesigur, deoarece valorile incorporate n marc se pot
schimba. Aadar, este esenial ca tuturor acionarilor s le fie transmis acelai mesaj.
Managerii trebuie s stabileasc foarte clar care sunt valorile pe care doresc s le
comunice, cum pot fi inclui consumatorii n crearea de valoare adugat i cum se
poate menine un mesaj stabil. Toate acestea ncep cu dorina consumatorilor de a se
implica mai mult i cu dorina lor de a stabili o relaie mai strns cu mrcile i firmele
crora acestea le aparin.
Stadiul 6: Brandul ca politic. n stadiul final, brandul ca politic, marca i compania
au ajuns s se identifice strns cu problemele sociale, etice i politice (Goodyear 1996).
Consumatorii i arat ataamentul fa de aceste mrci i fa de companiile care le
mprtesc prerile.
Brandul global
Din ce n ce mai muli teoreticieni sunt de acord c adevrul despre globalizarea
mrcilor se afl undeva ntre extremele tezei omogenizrii, postulate de Ted Levitt
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To ensure consistent communication, firms find that staff become critically important
as brand builders.( (de Chernatony 1996;King, 1991) The firm must ensure that all its
staff understand the brands vision, its core values and live the brands values through
their daily actions, thereby being a key source in the brands personification (de
Chernatony and DallOlmo Riley 1998). Achieving this requires extensive training and
a comprehensive explanation of the brands meaning and strategy. The emphasis of the
brand communication plan shifts to firstly showing staff any new campaigns and only
when they understand and are able to deliver the promises, can consumer
communication commence. Staff must understand their brand, be motivated to perform
in a manner consistent with the brands identity and be empowered to take actions that
enhance it. In this stage, extending brands becomes more difficult. Thanks to umbrella
branding, the extension has an impact on the perception of the firm as well as the
individual brand. A number of studies have demonstrated that extensions can have
both positive and negative effects on existing brands. (Dacin and Smith, 1994; Aaker
and Keller, 1990; Bottomley and Doyle, 1996; Broniarczyk and Alba, 1994; Bousch
and Loken, 1991; Park, Milberg and Lawson, 1991; Reddy, Holak and Bhat, 1994; and
Keller and Aaker, 1992) The result can be a dilution of brand meaning or even an
inconsistency of meanings as values incorporated into the brand can change. Thus, it is
critical that all stakeholders receive the same message. Management must explicitly
consider what values they will communicate, how they can include the consumer in
the creation of added value and how they can maintain consistency of message. All of
this begins with the desire of consumers to become more involved and the desire to
form a closer relationship with brands and their firms.
Stage 6: Brand as Policy In the final stage, brand as policy, the brand and company
become closely identified with social, ethical and political issues (Goodyear 1996).
Consumers commit to those brands and companies who share their views.
The global brand

There is growing consensus that the truth about globalization of brands lies somewhere
between the extremes of Ted Levitts thesis of homogenization (Levitt, 1983) and Naomi
Kleins more recent prediction of a no logo backlash (Klein, 2000). To move beyond a
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(Levitt, 1983) i predicia mai recent aparinnd lui Naomi Klein, cu privire la reacia
negativ de tip fr forme de identificare (Klein, 2000). Dincolo de dezbaterile sterile,
abstracte, despre globalizare, strategii de marc au nevoie de criterii strategice care s
se bazeze pe tipologia mrci lor i mediilor n care se pot aplica acestea, pentru a fi
bine informai atunci cnd iau decizia dac, unde, cnd i cum s globalizeze sau s
localizeze un brand anume. Teza lui Ted Levitt despre globalizarea pieelor afirma c
firmele cu acoperire global i mrcile lor urmau s cunoasc o cretere inexorabil,
oferindu-le consumatorilor globali o combinaie imbatabil de calitate, disponibilitate,
siguran i pre sczut. El descria o Utopie de Brand n care gusturile i nevoile urmau
s se omogenizeze tot mai mult, n vreme ce companiile de succes urmau s se
concentreze pe ceea ce dorete toat lumea.
Unii autori (Quelch, Holt i Taylor, 2003) au definit patru tipuri diferite de brand
global.
1. Mrcile fundamentale cum sunt Nike, Sony i Coca-Cola i definesc categoria i
se construiesc pe baza unor mituri sau istorii puternice (de exemplu, tema independenei,
specific pentru Levis, sau tema conectrii la Nokia). Pentru aceste mrci tocmai
universalitatea firului narativ i nu caracterul global nsui st la baza atraciei pe care
o exercit. Adeseori, acestea sunt mrcile iniiatoare, care definesc o anumit categorie.
Cum astfel ele i pot influena motenirea, principala provocare cu care se confrunt
specialitii evoluiei pe pia a mrci lor fundamentale, n acest caz, este nevoia de
face ca mitul s rmn la fel de puternic pentru fiecare nou generaie. Coca-Cola a
avut mare succes n acest sens; Levis mai puin. Aa cum s-a dovedit n cazul CocaCola, mrcile fundamentale pot trece dincolo de graniele naionale, fiind mbriate
de consumatori ca mrci cu adevrat globale. De aceea ele pretind i permit un
grad mic de specific local, pentru a nu-i periclita universalitatea sau aura mitic. n
plus, mrcile fundamentale sunt mai puin exclusive i exclusiviste dect mrcile de
prestigiu.
2. Mrcile de prestigiu cum sunt Chanel, BMW, Rolex i Gucci atrag prin mituri
specifice de origine cultural, sau legate de proveniena fondatorului sau a tehnologiei
(de exemplu Mercedes ca ntruchipare a excelenei germane n proiectare i inginerie).
Aceste mrci se afl mereu n centrul ateniei i au o valoare nalt de aspiraie. Ca o
amulet magic, marca de prestigiu determin creterea valorii celor care l folosesc.
Cu riscul de a-i exclude pe cei muli pentru a-i atrage pe cei puini dar buni, mrcile de
prestigiu resping categoric specificul local. De exemplu, BMW i Mercedes din Japonia
i Singapore vor evita, n general, folosirea unor simboluri iconice locale, pentru a
rmne o aspiraie suficient de puternic.
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sterile debate about globalization in the abstract, brand strategists need decision criteria
based on a typology of brands and environments that they can apply to make informed
decisions about whether, when, where and how to globalize or localize a brand. Ted
Levitts globalization of markets thesis asserted that global companies and their brands
would grow inexorably, offering global consumers an unbeatable combination of quality,
availability, reliability and low price. He described a Brand Utopia in which tastes and
needs would become increasingly homogenised, with successful companies focusing
on what everyone wants.
Some authors (Quelch, Holt and Taylor, 2003) revealed four different types of global
brand.
1. Master brands like Nike, Sony and Coca-Cola define their category and are built
on powerful myths or narratives (e.g. Levis theme of independence or Nokias theme
of connection). For these brands it is this universality of their narrative rather than the
fact of globalness itself that is at the heart of their appeal. Often, these are first mover
brands that define a category. While they can thus leverage their heritage, the
corresponding key challenge facing marketers of Master brands is the need to keep the
myth relevant to each new generation. Coca-Cola has been superbly successful at this;
Levis has been less so. As Coca-Cola also illustrates, Master brands can transcend their
national origins to be embraced by consumers as truly global brands. They thus require
- and permit - little if any localization that might threaten to undermine their universality
or mythical appeal. Master brands are also less exclusive - and exclusionary - than
Prestige brands.
2. Prestige brands such as Chanel, BMW, Rolex and Gucci have an appeal built on
specific myths of cultural origin or the provenance of a founder or a technology (e.g.
Mercedes as the embodiment of German design and engineering excellence). These
brands are nearly always in strong display categories with high aspirational value. Like
a magic amulet, a Prestige brand increases the value of the one who uses it. At the risk
of excluding many to appeal to the chosen few, Prestige brands actively reject
localization. For example, BMW and Mercedes in Japan and Singapore will usually
avoid the use of local icons to stay sufficiently aspirational.
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3. Super-mrcile sunt disponibile pentru toi, la fel ca i mrcile fundamentale. Spre

deosebire de acestea, super-mrcile se definesc mai degrab prin categoria din care
fac parte, dect prin imaginea mitic sau firul narativ. ntre exemple se includ Gillette,
Pepsi, McDonalds, Shell, Philips i American Express (cardul obinuit). Ca atare, un
super-brand poate avea destul succes i poate fi la fel de bun ca oricare altul din categoria
sa, fr s se diferenieze pe baza unui mit sau fir narativ distinctiv pe care s-l dein.
n loc de asta, super-mrcile ncearc s devin reprezentative printr-un oarecare grad
de adaptare local (de exemplu, McDonalds adapteaz versiuni ale mncrurilor locale
la sistemul de servire rapid) i rmn relevante prin inovaii constante ale produsului
i serviciilor (de exemplu, evoluia sistemelor de ras Gillette).
4. Mrci global-locale de tipul Dove, Nestle i Danone sunt disponibile la nivel
global dar se distribuie local, adesea sub o ntreag varietate de nume de produs locale
sau regionale (sub-mrci ). Chiar i acolo unde consumatorii sunt contieni de aceast
distribuie global, brandul global-local rmne apropiat, fiind considerat unul
de-al nostru i tocmai aceast trstur i crete valoarea, n mai mare msur dect
faptul c poate fi gsit pretutindeni. Aceste mrci pretind i permit cel mai mare grad de
specificitate local, aflndu-se, de obicei, dei nu ntotdeauna, n categorii cu valoare
de reprezentativitate mic, de exemplu alimente, produse gospodreti i de ngrijire
personal. (Ca atare, aceste mrci au pragul cel mai sczut pentru determinarea reaciilor
negative, atunci cnd consumatorii simt c sntatea sau sigurana lor sau a familiilor
lor sunt puse n pericol vezi mai jos). De notat i faptul c valoarea potenial de
aspiraie fa de un produs dat depinde decondiiile economice locale; n multe ri
mai puin dezvoltate i n societile de consum mai noi, aceast caracteristic este
proprie bunurilor de consum n continu micare.
Mrcile fundamentale, de prestigiu, super-mrcile i mrcile global-locale mai
pot fi caracterizate i din punctul de vedere al aspectelor specifice de afinitate evideniate
de fiecare dintre ele pentru crearea echitii de marc. Modelul Equity EngineSM al
companiei de cercetri Research International consider c echitatea de marc este
reprezentat de performana mrcii (beneficiile sale funcionale) la care se adaug
afinitatea perceput fa de marc (beneficii emoionale): Dei aceast definiie acoper
toate categoriile de produse i servicii, de obicei jumtate, sau chiar mai mult din
echitatea de marc decurge din afinitate, n mai mare msur dect din performan.
Afinitatea are trei dimensiuni de baz, fiecare dintre acestea avnd, la rndul su, cte
trei coordonate.
1. Autoritatea reprezint poziia mrcii ntre alte mrci, pe coordonatele motenirii,
ncrederii i inovrii.
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3. Super brands are universally available like Master brands. Unlike Master brands,
Super brands are defined more by their category than by a myth or narrative. Examples
include Gillette, Pepsi, McDonalds, Shell, Philips and American Express (regular card).
As such, a Super brand may be quite successful and as good as any other in the category
without being differentiated on the basis of a distinctive myth or narrative that it owns.
Instead, Super brands try to become relevant by localizing somewhat (e.g., McDonalds
adapting versions of local foods to a quick service environment) and remain relevant by
constant product or service innovation (e.g., the evolution of Gillettes shaving systems).
4. GloCal brands such as Dove, Nestle and Danone are available globally, but
marketed locally, often under a variety of local or regional product names (sub-brands).
Even where consumers are aware of this global distribution, a GloCal brand may feel
close and be seen as one of ours - and it is this, rather than its universal availability,
that enhances its equity. These brands thus require and permit the greatest degree of
localization and are usually, though not always, in categories with weak display value
such as food, household products and personal care. (As such they are brands with the
lowest threshold for triggering negative reactions if consumers perceive that their own
or their families health or safety are threatened - see below.) We should also note that
the potential aspirational value of a given product is relative to local economic conditions;
in many less-developed countries and newer consumer societies, a variety of fast moving
consumer goods can take on this character.
We can further characterize Master, Prestige, Super and GloCal brands in terms of
the specific aspects of affinity that each leverages to create brand equity. Research
Internationals Equity EngineSM model of brand equity views brand equity as the sum
of perceived brand performance (functional benefits) and perceived brand affinity
(emotional benefits). While this ranges widely across product and service categories,
typically half or more of brand equity derives from affinity rather than performance.
Affinity has three basic dimensions, each of which in turn has three dimensions.
1. Authority is the brands standing among other brands on the dimensions of
heritage, trust and innovation.
2. Identification is the relationship of consumer and brand in terms of bonding (how
the consumer currently views the brand), caring (what the consumer believes the
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2. Identificarea reprezint relaia, mai precis apropierea dintre consumator i marc

(cum privete consumatorul brandul respectiv), grija (ce crede consumatorul c
simte marca despre el sau ea) i nostalgia (relaiile cu marca din trecut).
3. Aprobarea reprezint evaluarea de ctre consumator a mrcii prin prisma societii
n general i a unor grupuri specifice de referin, pe coordonatele de prestigiu,
acceptabilitate i susinere.
Mrcile fundamentale sunt n general puternice n privina a cel puin unul dintre
cele trei coordonate de baz ale afinitii. Dei nu toate mrcile fundamentale se
mic repede, ele sunt puternice n zona autoritii i mai ales a inovaiei i gradului
de ncredere.
Fora super-mrcilor st, la fel ca i n cazul mrci lor fundamentale, n ncredere i
inovare. Cum ncrederea este un element esenial al tuturor tipurilor de marc,
super-mrcile ncearc s se diferenieze n principal n domeniul inovrii element
definitoriu, n mare msur, pentru categoria n cauz (ca i super-mrcile nsele). Cum
nu relev elemente mitice sau narative, aa cum se ntmpl n cazul mrci lor
fundamentale, super-mrcile sunt mai puin puternice, totui, n ceea ce privete
coordonatele de baz ale identificrii i aprobrii.
n concordan cu atracia elitist pe care o exercit, mrcile de prestigiu arat o
relaie amical cu consumatorii i permit s fie iubite dar dau foarte puin n schimb.
De fapt, mrcile de prestigiu fac apel, selectiv, la consumatorii care i imagineaz c
sunt deasupra cerinelor comune i care sunt siguri de identitatea i valoarea proprie,
demonstrate prin alegerea rafinat a acestor mrci.
n contrast cu celelalte trei tipuri de marc (i mai ales cu mrcile de prestigiu),
mrcile global-locale sunt exemplul tipic de identificare puternic. Ele arat grij i
preocupare fa de consumatorii pe care i tiu foarte bine i, n schimb, le trezesc
nostalgia despre ceea ce au nsemnat aceste mrci cu care, la propriu, au crescut
mpreun. Ca i mrcile de prestigiu, mrcile global-locale sunt puternice pe baza
motenirii i ncrederii, dar negociaz aprobarea pentru identificare.
Nemaifiind (doar) o problem de relaie direct personal, aprobarea social este
din ce n ce mai mult mediat prin intermediul comunitilor virtuale definite, parial,
prin experiene mprtite de marc (Upshaw i Taylor, 2000).
Aa cum s-a artat mai sus, ncrederea este condiia esenial pentru ca un brand s
aib succes, dar fiecare tip de marc poate ctiga (sau pierde) aceast ncredere n
moduri oarecum diferite. Aa cum Naomi Klein afirm spre finalul teoriei despre mrcile
fr forme de identificare, mrcile care sunt cele mai vizibile pentru consumatori i
care se mndresc cu nalte valori morale au ansele cele mai mari s eueze (Klein,
2000).
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brand currently feels about him or her) and nostalgia (past relationships with the
brand).
3. Approval is the consumers evaluation of the brand through the lens of society at
large and specific reference groups in terms of prestige, acceptability and
endorsement.
Master brands tend to be strong on at least one aspect of each of the three basic
dimensions of affinity. While not all Master brands are in fact first movers, they tend to
be strong on authority, particularly innovation and trust.
Super brands share with Master brands strengths in trust and innovation. Since trust
is an essential element of all types of brands, Super brands attempt to differentiate
primarily on innovation - which is largely defined (like Super brands themselves) by the
category. Because they do not engage a universal myth or narrative in the way that
Master brands do, however, Super brands typically show less strength on the basic
dimensions of identification and approval.
In keeping with their elitest appeal, Prestige brands exhibit the coolest relationship
with consumers - allowing themselves to be loved, but reciprocating very little. In fact,
Prestige brands may selectively appeal precisely to consumers who fancy themselves
to be above such common demands and who are secure in their own identity and selfworth, displayed through their refined choice of such brands.
By contrast to the three other types of brands (particularly Prestige brands), GloCal
brands typically demonstrate the strongest identification. They project concern and
caring for the consumers they know so well and elicit in return nostalgia about what
these brands have meant to them as they literally grow old together. Like Prestige
brands, GloCal brands thus tend to be strong on heritage and trust, but they trade approval
for identification.
No longer (only) a matter of direct personal relationships, social approval is
increasingly mediated through virtual communities defined in part by shared brand
experiences (Upshaw and Taylor, 2000).
As noted earlier, trust is the bedrock precondition of all successful brands, but each
type can gain (or lose) this trust in somewhat different ways. As Naomi Klein herself
suggests toward the end of No Logo, brands that are the most visible to consumers and
pride themselves on their high moral ground, may be setting themselves up for the
biggest fall (Klein, 2000).
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Folosind tipologia personalitii de marc conceput de aceasta, Jennifer Aaker i S.

Adam Brasel, de la Universitatea Stanford i Susan Fournier de la Harvard Business
School au fcut publice, de curnd, rezultatele unor cercetri care ar putea lmuri
diferenele ntre capacitatea mrci lor de prestigiu i a celor global-locale de a rezista
n ciuda efectelor de recul ale lipsei semnelor distinctive i transparenei (Aaker, Fournier
i Brasel, 2003). Experimentele arat c un brand considerat sincer de ctre
consumatori poate avea dificulti mai mari n a se redresa dup euarea unor servicii,
dect un brand considerat a fi interesant. Printr-o analogie exact cu relaiile
interpersonale, s-ar prea c se pune mai mult pre i se ateapt mai mult de la o
relaie sincer, de lung durat (Aaker 1997).
Strategii n managementul de marc

Prea des se ntmpl c specialitii de pia ncearc s acopere strategia imitativ,
care se bazeaz pe beneficiile de categorie, solicitnd ageniilor lor de publicitate s
creeze reclame unice. Problema este c o strategie obosit blocheaz orice ncercare
de originalitate, n orice aspect al execuiei. Aceast criz de difereniere nu e o problem
de execuie (Tait, 2004). Per total, specialitii de pia par s-i fi pierdut capacitatea de
gndire creatoare atunci cnd dezvolt strategii de marc. Sau poate c suntem constrni
de un sistem de gndire care lucreaz mpotriva gndirii originale. Pentru ca mrcile s
aib succes, ele trebuie s se bazeze pe strategii difereniate, necunoscute. Din pcate,
tocmai acestea sunt ideile care nu plac, cel puin la nceput, nimnui. Acesta este
motivul pentru care verificarea cantitativ a ideilor alternative de poziionare are toate
ansele s omoare n fa, sistematic, ideile mai originale, iar oamenii le prefer pe
cele care sunt mai apropiate de ceea ce cunosc deja.
Firmele i dezvolt strategia de marc pentru a realiza o analogie ntre identitatea
de marc i imaginea de marc. Aaker i Joachismsthaler (2000) definesc identitatea de
marc drept un set de asocieri mentale pe care strategul de marc sper s le formeze,
sau s le pstreze n mintea consumatorilor. Aceste asocieri mentale pe care consumatorii
le fac cu marca au drept rezultat imaginea de marc. Din punctul de vedere al
consumatorului, asocierile mentale joac un rol important n evaluarea de ctre
consumator a produsului, sau n alegerea acestuia, fiind eseniale pentru echitatea de
marc (Keller 1993, Brown i Dacin 1997, Keller 1998, Berens et al. 2005). Elementul
esenial n toate aceste lucrri este ipoteza conform creia consumatorii folosesc
asocierile mentale ca semnale de recunoatere, atunci cnd se informeaz despre marc.
Astfel, scopul strategic al firmei este acela de a forma legturi afective puternice i
semnificative ntre brandul su i consumatori, pentru ca astfel marca s li se imprime
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Using the brand personality typology she developed, Jennifer Aaker and S. Adam
Brasel of Stanford University and Susan Fournier of the Harvard Business School have
recently reported research which may shed light on the differences between Prestige
and GloCal brands ability to resist transparency and no logo backlash (Aaker, Fournier
and Brasel, 2003). Her experiments indicate that a brand seen by consumers to be
sincere may actually have a harder time recovering from a service failure than a brand
seen to be exciting. By precise analogy to interpersonal relationships, it appears that
consumers put more into - and expect more out of - a sincere, long-standing relationship.
(Aaker 1997).
Brand Management Strategies

Too often marketers try to cover up a me-too strategy based on the category benefit
by asking their ad agencies to make unique ads. The problem is that a tired strategy
anchors down everyone trying to be original in any aspect of execution. This
differentiation crisis is not a problem of execution (Tait, 2004). Overall, marketers seem
to have lost the ability to think creatively when developing their brand strategies. Or
perhaps we are being constrained by a belief system that works against original thinking.
If brands are to succeed they need to be based on differentiated, unfamiliar brand
strategies. Unfortunately, these are the exact same ideas that people initially dislike.
Thats why quantitative testing of alternative positioning ideas will likely systematically
kill the more original ideas, and people will prefer the ones that are closest to what they
already know.
Firms develop their brand strategy in order to achieve congruence between brand
identity and brand image. Aaker and Joachismsthaler (2000) define brand identity as a
set of brand associations that the brand strategist aspires to create or maintain in
consumers minds. These brand associations in consumers minds result in a brand
image. From the consumers perspective, associations play an important role in
consumers product evaluations and choices and are fundamental to brand equity (Keller
1993, Brown and Dacin, 1997; Keller, 1998; Berens et al. 2005). Essential to this literature
is the assumption that consumers use brand associations as retrieval cues for information
about brand. Thus, the strategic aim of the firm is to form strong and meaningful affective
bonds between its brand and consumers and, in so doing, become part of their memories
and an important link in their social networks (Thompson et al., 2006; Atkin 2004;
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acestora n memorie, devenind o legtur important n reelele lor sociale (Thompson

et al., 2006; Atkin 2004; Roberts 2004). Aadar, cu ct brandul este mai puternic, cu
att este mai simplu pentru consumatori s-i reaminteasc asociaiile mentale respective.
Acest set determin creterea valorii generale a mrcii (Rust et al., 2004).
Ca punct de plecare al ntregii strategii, este extrem de important stabilirea i
meninerea mrcii. Astfel, se recomand adoptarea unei abordri holistice, sau a unei
strategii generale de marc . O astfel de strategie general de marc trebuie
implementat acceptndu-se ideea c marca ar putea traversa numeroase linii de
producie i regiuni geografice diferite. Adoptarea unei strategii generale de marc mai
necesit i recunoaterea faptului c mrcile sunt importante att pentru comerul
tradiional, cu amnuntul, ct i pentru pieele online.
Decizia cu privire la strategia de poziionare a mrcii este esenial pentru succesului
unui brand (vezi, de exemplu, Pham & Muthukrishnan, 2002), deoarece are o influen
puternic asupra percepiilor i a preferinelor ulterioare (Carpenter, Glazer & Nakamoto,
1994). Cum orice companie i poate poziiona, teoretic, marca pe coordonate n numr
infinit, strategiile de poziionare sunt comentate, n literatura de specialitate, cu ajutorul
tipologiilor de poziionare (vezi, de exemplu, Aaker & Shansby, 1982; Crawford 1985;
Kotler et al., 2005; Wind 1982).
Realizarea unei strategii generale de marc necesit o strns coordonare ntre firma
liceniatoare i cei care cumpr licena pe diferite piee. Trebuie s existe un program
solid de protejare a mrci lor i de monitorizare a modului n care se folosesc acestea.
Trebuie s se acorde atenie i unor moduri poteniale de utilizare a mrci lor. Aici s-ar
putea include identificarea mrci lor ce ar putea fi utilizate n viitor, ca i identificarea
noilor produse i servicii mpreun cu care s-ar putea folosi noul brand.
Strategiile eficiente de management al mrcii implic i o atenie sporit la asigurarea
armoniei ntre strategia de acordare a licenei de marc i scopurile generale ale
ntreprinderii (Keller 1998). Sunt necesare eforturi pentru ca firma s fie sigur c marca
se reflect pozitiv asupra sa, c nu scade din valoarea celorlalte linii de producie i c
rmne profitabil pentru alte pri ale companiei.
Importana stabilitii trebuie reflectat i n selectarea partenerilor care primesc
licena. Se pune accent pe partenerii de licen care iubesc afacerile sntoase i care
ofer produse inovatoare. n acelai timp, totui, se pune accentul i pe partenerii de
licen cu culturi i scopuri de afaceri similare, deoarece astfel de poate ajunge la
reducerea timpului petrecut pentru ajungerea la un acord. Companiile trebuie s
creioneze un profil al partenerului ideal pentru licen, dar s fie contiente c, dei
muli liceniatori i firme deintoare de licene pstreaz relaii de afaceri de lung
durat, puine dintre acestea sunt de fapt permanente (Craig i Douglas 1996).
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Roberts 2004). Therefore, the more powerful the brand, the easier consumers recalled
the set of associations. This set increases the brands overall value (Rust et al., 2004).
As a threshold issue, it will be extremely important to establish and maintain the
brand. When doing so, the adoption of a holistic approach, or an overall brand strategy
is recommended. Such overall brand strategy should be implemented with full
recognition that the brand may traverse numerous different product lines and geographic
regions. Adopting an overall brand strategy also requires recognition that brands are
significant to both the traditional retail and the online market.
The decision about a brands positioning strategy is central to the success of a brand
(e.g., Pham & Muthukrishnan, 2002), because it has a strong influence on consumers
brand perceptions and subsequent preferences (Carpenter, Glazer, & Nakamoto, 1994).
Since a company can theoretically position its brand on an infinite number of different
dimensions, positioning strategies are discussed in the marketing literature with the
help of positioning typologies (e.g., Aaker & Shansby, 1982; Crawford, 1985; Kotler et
al., 2005; Wind 1982).
Accomplishing an overall brand strategy requires close coordination between the
licensor and licensees in different markets. There must be a consistent program for
protecting brands and monitoring the usage of brands. Focus should also be placed
upon prospective uses of brands. This may include identifying brands that might be
used in the future and identifying new products and services with which existing brands
might be used.
Effective brand management strategies also necessitate emphasis on ensuring
consistency between the brand licensing strategy and the enterprises overall business
goals (Keller 1998). Efforts should be undertaken to ensure that the brand reflects
positively on the company, does not detract from other product lines and remains
profitable with other parts of company.
The importance of consistency should also be reflected in the selection of license
partners. Focus should surely be placed upon license partners that enjoy healthy
businesses and that offer innovative products. At the same time, however, emphasis
should also be placed upon licensee partners with similar cultures and business goals
since doing so may help to reduce the amount of time that is expended on reaching the
basis business terms. Companies should develop a profile of the ideal license partner
but recognize that while many licensors and licensees may enjoy long-term relationships,
few of such relationships will be permanent (Craig and Douglas 1996).
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Un management de marc de succes implic neaprat atenia pentru creterea la

maximum a influenei mrcii respectiv. Desigur, asta poate s nsemne lucruri diferite
n contexte diferite. Totui, n orice circumstan, o judecat raional cu privire la
plasarea mrcii este esenial.
Exclusivitatea contractului de licen este un factor cheie n managementul de marc.
Faptul c un contract de licen este exclusiv sau nu are implicaii importante asupra
ntregii afaceri. Atunci cnd se are n vedere exclusivitatea pentru oferta de licen, nu
trebuie uitat faptul c licena exclusiv se garanteaz o singur dat. Ca atare, trebuie
s se acorde o atenie deosebit strategiilor i scopurilor n afaceri ale partenerilor de
licen potenial exclusivi.
Pe lng nelegerea intereselor i a strategiilor deintorilor poteniali de licen
exclusiv, licena trebuie astfel structurat nct s se pstreze angajamentul deintorului
de licen fa de marc. Desigur, este n interesul firmei mam s se asigure c interesul
fa de marc al deintorului de licen este maxim i c va rmne n continuare
astfel. Exist multe soluii n acest sens, de exemplu, solicitarea unor pli adiionale
sau a unei alte forme de compensare, pe durata licenei, pentru meninerea exclusivitii
convenite.
Dac, la acordarea licenei pe baz de exclusivitate, este extrem de important s se
stabileasc anumite norme, s ne amintim c i licenele fr exclusivitate pot juca un
rol important n afaceri. Aadar trebuie acordat mare atenie, cu toate resursele existente,
structurrii contractelor fr exclusivitate, pentru ca ele s devin profitabile (Laforet i
Saunders 1994).
Toate contractele de licen trebuie s includ reguli de aplicare obligatorii.
Majoritatea contractelor de licen se refer la probleme importante, cum sunt
standardele de control de calitate i standardele de raportare. Totui, aceste standarde
i cerine nu sunt de prea mare folos dac nu exist mecanismele potrivite pentru
aplicarea lor. Mecanismele de aplicare potrivite depind de specificul fiecrui contract
de licen. Ca exemplu, totui, la contractele de licen cu exclusivitate, terminarea
acestei exclusiviti poate reprezenta un remediu eficient n caz de nclcare a anumitor
prevederi contractuale.
Firma mam nu trebuie s adopte o atitudine de indiferen, lsndu-l pe deintorul
de licen s se descurce singur cu produsele i serviciile. n fapt, trebuie depuse eforturi
pentru a garanta c produsele deintorului licenei sunt apreciate i moderne. Clar,
este n interesul liceniatorului s se asigure c brandul su este legat de cele mai
populare produse i servicii (Berry 1998). Desigur, interesul consumatorului se poate
schimba n timp, aa c este esenial ca, periodic, s se verifice schimbrile ce pot
aprea la cererea de produse i servicii pe licen.
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Successful brand management will involve focus on the maximizing the leverage of
the brand. Of course, this may mean different things in different context. However, in
all circumstances, a considered judgment regarding brand placement will be crucial.
The exclusivity of the license agreement will be a key factor in brand management.
Whether the license agreement will be exclusive or nonexclusive will have important
implications for all of the business. When considering the exclusivity of a license grant,
it must be recalled that the license can only be granted once as an exclusive license.
Accordingly, particular scrutiny must be directed towards the strategies and business
goals of potential exclusive licensees.
In addition to understanding the current interests and strategies of the prospective
exclusive licensee, it is advisable to construct the license in such a way so as to maintain
the licensees commitment licensee to the brand. Clearly, it will be in the interest of the
licensor to ensure that the licensees interest in the brand is and will stay as high as
possible. This can be done in a number of ways including, for example, by requiring
additional payments or some other form of compensation during the license term in
order to maintain the exclusivity of the arrangement.
While exclusive licensing arrangements will be extremely important, it must be
recalled that non-exclusive licenses can also play a role in the business. Accordingly,
proper attention and resources should also be devoted to constructing such non-exclusive
arrangements and ensuring that they are profitable (Lafort and Saunders 1994).
All license agreements should include effective means of enforcement. Most license
agreements will address extremely important issues including quality control standards
and reporting standards. However, such standards and requirements will not be of much
use without effective enforcement mechanisms to back them up. The precise enforcement
mechanisms that should be used will depend on the particulars of the licensing
arrangement. As an example, however, in an exclusive licensing arrangement, the
termination of exclusivity may be an effective remedy for the breach of certain contractual
requirements.
Licensors should be not adopt a hands off approach when dealing with the licensees
products and services. Rather, efforts should be undertaken to ensure that the licensees
products are desirable and up-to-date. Clearly, it will be in the licensors interest to
ensure that its brand will be affixed to the most popular products and services (Berry
1998). Of course, consumer interest can change over time so it will be essential to
periodically monitor changes in demand for the licensees product and services.
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Atunci cnd se stabilete o relaie de licen pentru un anumit brand, este important
i alocarea echitabil a proprietii i controlului asupra bunurilor comune. Acesta este
un element important n orice tip de relaie, dar cu att mai mult n cazul unei relaii pe
termen lung. n toate cazurile, liceniatorul este cel mai interesat n meninerea mrcii,
astfel c el i va pstra cea mai mare parte a controlului asupra acestuia (Caller 1996).
Totui, anumite elemente ale afacerii pot avea un impact important, n cele din urm,
n mprire. Aici ar trebui s se in seama de afacerea fiecrei pri i de impactul pe
care aceasta l-ar putea avea asupra mrcii. La alocare ar trebui s se in seama i de
faptul c asocierea numelui cu anumite produse i servicii reprezint cheia ntregii
afaceri.
Angajaii ntreprinderii joac un rol extrem de important n toate iniiativele de
liceniere a mrcii. Selectarea echipei care se ocup de licen trebuie s porneasc de
la ideea c membrii ei sunt chemai s organizeze controlul i coordonarea tuturor
activitilor deintorilor de licen. Alturi de angajaii cu un rol cheie n realizarea
licenei, trebuie pregtii i ali angajai care s joace un rol activ n eforturile de liceniere
n plan general.
Companiile trebuie s fie active i nu statice i s depun toate eforturile pentru
integrarea strategiei de marc n dezvoltarea produsului i lansarea unor activiti. O
strategie clar i pro-activ are cele mai mari anse de a-i primi rsplata cuvenit.
Dezvoltarea structurilor internaionale de branding

Dei multe cercetri de pn acum se refer la problematica factorilor de succes n
extinderea de marc (Vlckner & Sattler, 2006; Echambadi, Arroniz, Reinartz & Lee,
2006; Czellar, 2003; Bhat & Reddy, 2001; Park, Milberg & Lawson, 1991; Aaker &
Keller, 1990) nu se cunosc totui prea multe despre resursele pe care companiile trebuie
s le dein n momentul n care ncepe extinderea de marc.
Majoritatea dezbaterilor i a cercetrilor despre branding, fie ele locale sau
internaionale, se concentreaz pe echitatea sau valoarea asociat cu un nume de marc
i pe factorii care creeaz sau reprezint sursa de baz a valorii (Aaker 1996, Kapferer
1997, Keller 1998). S-a acordat o deosebit atenie, de exemplu, cercetrii modului n
care valoarea personificat de marc i posibilitii extinderii echitii valabile pentru
marc, la alte produse, fr ca aceast aciune s aib drept rezultat scderea de valoare
(Aaker i Keller 1990). Acest interes a fost stimulat, n parte, de creterea puterii pieei
i valorii asociate cu un brand puternic, iar pe de alt parte cu costurile prohibitive ale
lansrii unui brand nou de succes.
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When undertaking a brand licensing relationship, it will also be important to allocate

equitably ownership and control of the IP assets. While this will be an important issue
in all relationships, it will be particularly important when a long-term relationship is
contemplated. In all instances, the licensor will have the stronger interest in the brand
and will likely desire to retain the maximum amount of control (Caller 1996). However,
particular business issues may impact the ultimate allocation. Such allocation should
include consideration of each partys business that impact power of the brand. The
allocation should also be conducted with recognition of the fact that the association of
the name with particular products or services will be the key.
The enterprises staff will play an extremely important role in the companys overall
brand licensing initiatives. Selection of licensing staff should be undertaken with the
recognition that such staff members will be required to organize control and coordinate
all the activities of the licensees. In addition to focusing on the key licensing staff, other
relevant staff members should be trained and encouraged to take an active role in the
efforts overall brand licensing efforts.
Companies should be active and not static when undertaking efforts to integrate
the brand strategy into product development and launch activities. A clear and proactive
strategy is likely to generate the most reward.
Development of International Branding Structures

Although there is an extensive amount of research concerning the question of success
factors of brand extensions (Vlckner & Sattler, 2006; Echambadi, Arroniz, Reinartz &
Lee, 2006; Czellar, 2003; Bhat & Reddy, 2001; Park, Milberg & Lawson, 1991; Aaker &
Keller, 1990) there is yet little knowledge concerning the underlying resources companies
must have to succeed with brand extension.
Most discussion and research on branding, whether domestic or international, focuses
on the equity or value associated with a brand name and the factors which create or are
the underlying source of value (Aaker 1996, Kapferer 1997, Keller 1998). Considerable
attention has, for example, been devoted to examining how the value embodied in a
brand and its equity can be extended to other products without resulting in dilution of
value (Aaker and Keller 1990). This interest has been stimulated in part by the increasing
market power and value associated with a strong brand and in part by the prohibitive
costs of launching a successful new brand.
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Asemenea subiecte sunt cu deosebire incitante pe pieele dinafara Statelor Unite,

acolo unde conceptul de putere asociat cu branding-ul este relativ nou (Court et al.,
1997). Pieele sunt adeseori fragmentate, caracterizndu-se printr-o distribuie la scar
redus i lipsa potenialului, sa a dimensiunilor necesare pentru a garanta utilizarea
ampl a reclamelor n mass-media, att de necesare pentru dezvoltarea mrci lor
puternice (Barwise i Robertson 1992). Pe msur ce aceste piee devin tot mai strns
legate i integrate, companiile care opereaz pe pieele internaionale trebuie s identifice
oportuniti de ntrire a structurii de marc, printr-o coordonare i armonizare mai
bun a mrci lor dincolo de graniele culturale.
Pe msur ce firma se extinde pe piaa internaional, problemele legate de
arhitectura sau structura de marc devin din ce n ce mai complexe. Pe lng numrul
nivelelor ierarhice, de care trebuie s se in seama, este necesar determinarea unei
alte dimensiuni, i anume gradul de coordonare i standardizare a mrcii dincolo de
graniele dintre ri.
Un numr restrns dintre companiile studiate au o structur de marc foarte simpl,
bazat pe numele corporaiei, aa cum se ntmpl, de exemplu, cu Shell, Philips,
Apple, Nike etc. n general, acestea erau organizaii care desfurau afaceri direct
(companie-la-companie) care puneau un puternic accent pe branding-ul corporatist,
sau pe o linie de producie relativ restrns i coerent. Alte cazuri se refer la companiile
de bunuri de consum orientate spre segmentul global, cum sunt Nike sau Bennetton.
Principalul lor obiectiv era acela de a stabili, pentru marc, o identitate global puternic
i, abia n al doilea rnd, de a rspunde condiiilor de pia locale (Piercy 1997). n
unele cazuri, emblema corporatist i identificarea vizual (Apple i Nike) a jucat un
rol fundamental n identificarea mrcii i n definirea imaginii acestuia n ntreaga lume.
Alte companii, ca de exemplu P&G sau Best Foods, au folosit strategia unui produs
dominant. Aceast strategie a reprezentat ceva obinuit la firmele americane care s-au
extins n strintate, prin accentuarea mrci lor puternice, aa cum a fcut, de exemplu,
P&G cu Camay sau Pampers. Firmele cu structuri naionale centrate dominant pe
produse, i care s-au extins prin achiziia unor companii naionale, au preluat astfel un
mare numr de mrci locale i naionale, pe lng produsele proprii de brand global i
regional. Best Foods, de exemplu, are mai multe mrci de produse internaionale, cum
sunt Hellmans, Knorr etc., alturi de mrci ale unor produse din rile respective, cum
sunt cartofii Pfanni.
Unele companii aveau structuri de marc hibride, reprezentnd o combinaie de mrci
corporatiste i de produse. Coca-Cola, de exemplu, folosete numele Coca-Cola pe brandul
su de cola din lumea ntreag, cu variante de produs cum sunt Cherry Coke, Coke Lite
sau Diet Coke, ori Coca fr cafein n unele cazuri, dar nu n toate rile. n plus, CocaCola are un numr de mrci pentru buturi rcoritoare locale sau regionale, cum sunt Lilt
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Such issues are particularly salient in markets outside the US, where the concept of
power branding is relatively unknown (Court et al 1997). Markets are often fragmented,
characterized by small-scale distribution, and lack the potential or size to warrant the
use of heavy mass-media advertising needed to develop strong brands (Barwise and
Robertson 1992). As these markets become more interlinked and integrated, companies
operating in international markets need to identify opportunities for strengthening brand
architecture by improved co-ordination and harmonization of brands across countries.
As the firm expands in international market, issues relating to brand architecture or
brand structure become even more complex. In addition to considering the number of
levels in the hierarchy, another dimension, namely the degree of brand coordination or
standardization across countries, needs to be determined.
A few of the companies studied had a very simple brand structure based on the
corporate name, as for example, Shell, Philips, Apple, Nike, etc. In general, these were
business-to-business organizations with a heavy emphasis on corporate branding, or a
relatively narrow and coherent product line. Other cases included consumer goods
companies focused on a global target segment such as Nike or Benneton. Their prime
objective was to establish a strong global identity for the brand rather than respond to
local market conditions (Piercy 1997). In some instances, the corporate logo and visual
identification (Apple and Nike) played a major role in identifying the brand and defining
brand image worldwide.
Other companies as, for example, P&G, or Best Foods used a product dominant
strategy. This strategy was common among U.S. firms who had expanded internationally
by leveraging power brands, as, for example, P&G with brands such as Camay, or
Pampers. Firms with domestic product dominant structures that had expanded by
acquiring national companies often acquired a substantial number of national and local
product brands, in addition to their own global and regional product brands. Best Foods,
for example, has several international product brands such as Hellmans, Knorr, etc., as
well as national product brands such as Pfanni potatoes.
A number of companies had hybrid brand structures with a combination of corporate
and product brands. Coca-Cola, for example uses the Coca-Cola name on its cola brand
worldwide, with product variants such as Cherry Coke, Coke Lite or Diet Coke or caffeine
free Coke in some, but not all countries. In addition, Coca-Cola has a number of local
or regional soft drink brands, such as Lilt in various fruit flavors in the U.K., TabXtra, a
sugar-free cola drink in Scandinavia, and Cappy, a fruit drink in East Europe and Turkey.
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cu diferite arome de fructe n Marea Britanie, TabXtra o butur rcoritoare fr cola n

Scandinavia i Cappy, o butur rcoritoare n Europa de Est i Turcia.
Alte companii i structureaz diferit arhitectura de marc pentru divizii de produse
diferite. De exemplu, Unilever are o arhitectur global de marc pentru propria divizie
de produse. Sectorul de produse din grsimi animale const mai ales din mrci naionale,
dovedind o oarecare armonie n poziionare sau numele mrcii n diferite ri, n vreme
ce sectorul de ngheat constituie o combinaie ntre mrci de produse locale i globale,
cum sunt Magnum, Cornetto i Solero. Acestea sunt susinute de mrci regionale, sau
aparinnd rii respective, ca de exemplu Walls i Algida, toate avnd o etichet comun
n ntreaga lume.
Multi-branding
Multi-brandingul este de departe cea mai popular strategie de marc, fiind folosit
de multe companii n multe tipuri de afaceri (Van Sister, 2004). Este n general recunoscut
pentru c ofer excelente oportuniti de deschidere a unei afaceri, pur i simplu pentru
c un singur brand nu poate cu adevrat s acopere toate nevoile consumatorilor n
toate segmentele pieei. Multi-brandingul poate fi considerat, de fapt, una dintre cele
mai eficiente strategii de marc, dar necesit capaciti profesionale i preocupri
constante din partea companiilor, n management i marketing.
Strategiile de marc sunt ntotdeauna de cea mai mare importan pentru companii,
deoarece mrcile sunt considerate o for motrice fundamental n business. Astzi,
toat lumea este de acord c mrcile determin rezultate mai bune, sustenabile, fiind o
surs intern, dar i extern de inspiraie care determin recunoaterea i stabilete
relaii. Aadar, multi-brandingul este strategia de marc cea mai des folosit de multe
companii, specific pentru multe categorii. Dac studiem diferite portofolii multi-brand,
mrcile sunt adesea poziionate cu roluri specifice, adic marc de prestigiu, marc de
flanc sau marc de lupt. Cum multe piee sunt puternic fragmentate, e logic s se
introduc mrci suplimentare pentru a participa eficient la competiie ntr-o anumit
categorie. ntre alte motive strategice pentru multi-branding se numr i acoperirea
diferitelor canale de distribuie, atunci cnd preul pentru o anumit categorie crete
prea mult, sau pur i simplu pentru mprirea diminuarea riscurilor pentru brandulpilon.
Majoritatea pieelor justific apariia operaiunilor de multi-branding dar, desigur,
mono-mrcile sau mrcile globale sunt n continuare foarte puternice; toate sunt active
i au succes la penetrarea pe diferite piee i segmente. Un factor important care
influeneaz strategia de marc n direcia constituirii multi-brandingului este situaia
economic actual din Europa. Cum dezvoltarea economic din majoritatea rilor
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Other companies had different brand architecture for different product divisions.
For example, Unilever has a global brand architecture in its personal products division.
The yellow fats division consists mostly of local brands with some harmonization in
positioning or brand name across countries, while the ice-cream division had a
combination of local and global product brands such as Magnum, Cornetto and Solero.
These are endorsed by a country or regional house brands such as Walls and Algida,
and all shared a common logo worldwide.
The Multi-Branding
Multi-branding is by far the most popular brand strategy, and is used by many
companies in all types of business (Van Sister, 2004). It is generally recognized that
multibranding offers a fine opportunity to grow a business, simply because one brand
cannot really cover all customer needs in all the various segments of a market. Multibranding can, in fact, be considered as one of the most effective brand strategies, but it
requires professional skills and ongoing management and marketing focus from
companies.
Branding strategies are always highly important for companies, as brands are regarded
as the ultimate business driver. Brands today are acknowledged as the driver for better,
more sustainable results and as an internal as well as external source of inspiration,
which creates both high recognition and relationships. So, multi-branding is the most
frequently used brand strategy within many companies and categories. Looking at the
various multi-brand portfolios, brands are often positioned with specific roles such as
prestige brand, flanker brand or fighter brand. Since many markets are strongly
fragmented, it makes sense to introduce extra brands in order to compete effectively
across a category. Other strategic reasons for multi-branding are the coverage of various
distribution channels, when the price range within a category becomes too wide, or
simply in order to spread risks for the bastion brand.
Most markets provide scope for multibranding operations but, of course, monobrands
or global brands are vividly alive as well; all are active and successful in penetrating
different markets and segments. One important factor influencing brand strategy towards
multi-branding is the current economic situation in Europe. As economic growth in
most countries is negative or stable, we see in very many consumer markets a
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este negativ sau stabil, se observ pe multe piee o dezvoltare, sau evoluie ctre
segmentele de valoare ridicat sau reducere. Multe dintre mrcile existente nu i pot
permite, sub nicio form, din cauza poziionrii (deci a preului) s ptrund n aceste
segmente, aa c asistm la apariia unui numr mai mare de mrci noi, aparinnd
juctorilor existeni pe pia, care ptrund pe aceste segmente.
Cele mai importante motive pentru apariia multi-brandingului sunt:
-
brandul unic nu poate acoperi toate segmentele
pieele sunt puternic fragmentate
oferte de dezvoltare a unui brand mai bine definit pentru nevoile mai clar
fdifereniate ale consumatorilor
creterea diversitii canalelor de distribuie
gama de preuri este prea larg la anumite categorii
rspndirea companiei i riscurile implicate de portofoliul de marc
Mai exist i alte avantaje pe care le poate oferi o strategie de multi-branding:

oportuniti mai mari pentru managementul relaiei cu consumatorii (CRM), care
le permite productorilor s ndeplineasc mult mai exact nevoile consumatorilor
(la nivel individual)
ansa de poziionare mai clar a mrci lor, pentru construirea unor valori de
marc care sunt, n acelai timp, puternic identificate
capacitatea de utilizare a strategiei pe pieele segmentate n funcie de pre
n cazul n care apare o problem legat de un anumit brand, care duce la
retragerea unui mare numr de produse de acel tip de pe pia, aceast situaie
nu are un impact direct prea mare asupra celorlalte mrci din portofoliu
Rolul central al branding-ului n stabilirea identitii firmei i n construirea poziiei
acesteia pe piaa global, legat de prerea consumatorilor, distribuitorilor cu amnuntul
sau altor participani la activitile de pe pia determin creterea importanei stabilirii,
de ctre companii, a unei strategii de marc foarte exacte (Schmitt i Simenson 1997).
Un element cheie al succesului este structurarea unei arhitecturi de marc armonioase
i consistente dincolo de graniele naionale i de liniile de producie, una care s
defineasc numrul de nivele, dar i de mrci la fiecare nivel. Deosebit de important
este accentul relativ pur pe mrcile corporatiste, comparativ cu mrcile de la nivelul de
producie, ca i gradul de integrare pe piee diferite. Aceste elemente trebuie bine nelese
i mprtite la toate nivelele organizaiei, fapt care determin consolidarea unei culturi/
mentaliti care promoveaz dezvoltarea unor mrci internaionale puternice, care si pstreze fora netirbit de utilizarea exagerat sau de contradicii.
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development or evolution into value or discount segments. Many of the existing brands
really cannot allow themselves, because of their (price) positioning, to enter these
segments, and so we see more new brands from existing market players entering these
segments.
The most important reasons for multi-branding are:
-
a mono brand cannot cover all segments
markets are strongly fragmented
development of more defined brand offers to more differentiated consumer needs
increase in variety of distribution channels
price ranges within categories are often too wide
spread company and brand portfolio risks.
There is a further range of advantages that a multi-branding strategy can offer:

enhanced opportunities for customer relationship management (CRM), enabling
manufacturers to fulfill (individual) consumer needs more precisely.
the opportunity to position brands more clearly and build strongly identified brand
values at the same time.
the ability to handle strategy in price segmented markets.
given a brand problem requiring serious product recalls, this does not have too
much direct impact on the other brands in the portfolio.
The central role of branding in establishing the firms identity and building its position
in the global marketplace among customers, retailers and other market participants,
makes it increasingly imperative for firms to establish a clear-cut international branding
strategy (Schmitt and Simenson 1997). A key element of success is the framing of a
harmonious and consistent brand architecture across countries and product lines, defining
the number of levels and brands at each level. Of particular importance is the relative
emphasis placed on corporate brands as opposed to product level brands and the degree
of integration across markets. These should be clearly understood and shared throughout
all level of the organization, leading to a culture/mentality that promotes the growth of
strong international brands without diluting their strength by over-use or inconsistencies.
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Concluzie
Rolul central al brandingului n stabilirea identitii unei firme i construirea poziiei sale
pe piaa global, n rndul consumatorilor, distribuitorilor cu amnuntul i altor participani
la activitile de pe pia determin importana stabilirii unei strategii internaionale de
marc clare de ctre firme. Un element cheie pentru succes este structurarea unei arhitecturi
de marc armonioase, de ncredere, n ri diferite i pe linii de producie diferite, care s
defineasc numrul de nivele i mrcile existente la fiecare nivel. Este foarte important ca
firmele s pun accentul pe mrcile corporatiste, n comparaie cu mrcile de la nivelul de
producie, ca i pe gradul de integrare pe diferite piee. De exemplu, atunci cnd firma Nike
a fost acuzat (pe drept sau pe nedrept) de folosirea minii de lucru ilegale pentru fabricarea
produselor sale, brandul respectiv a avut de suferit din cauza unei decizii de fabricaie.
Acest exemplu ilustreaz necesitatea ca misiunea unei companii s fie n perfect armonie
cu poziionarea dorit pe pia. Marca are nevoie s se bazeze pe principii de organizare
general valabile, deciziile luate n toate aspectele afacerii fiind verificate din punct de
vedere strategic. Aceste decizii trebuie s fie clar nelese i acceptate la toate nivelele
organizaiei, ceea ce duce la structurarea unei culturi/mentaliti care s promoveze
dezvoltarea unor mrci internaionale puternice, fr ca fora lor s aib de suferit din
cauz c sunt folosite excesiv sau contradictorii.
Bibliografie
Aaker, D. (1996), Building Strong Brands, New York: The Free Press.
Aaker, D. A. (1996), Measuring Brand Equity Across Products and Markets, California
Management Review, 39 (3), 102-120.
Aaker, D. A (1997), Should You Take Your Brand to Where the Action Is?, Harvard
Business Review, September-October, 135-143.
Aaker, D. A. & Keller, K. L. (1990). Consumer evaluations of brand extensions. Journal
of Marketing, 54 (1), 27-41.
Aaker, D. A. and Keller, K. L. (1990), Consumer Evaluations of Brand Extensions, Journal
of Marketing, 54 (January), 27-41.
Aaker, D.A.& Joachimsthaler, E. (2000), Brand Leadership. New York: The Free Press
Aaker, D. A., & Shansby, G. J. (1982). Positioning your product. Business Horizons, 25
(3), 56-62.
Aaker, J. (1996), Dimensions of Brand Personality, Journal of Marketing Research, 34
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Aaker, J., Fournier, S. and Brasel. S. A. (2003). When Good Brands Do Bad. Paper
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D.C., March 6, 2003.
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Conclusion
The central role of branding in establishing the firms identity and building its position
in the global marketplace among customers, retailers and other market participants
makes it increasingly imperative for firms to establish a clear-cut international branding
strategy. A key element of success is the framing of harmonious and consistent brand
architecture across countries and product lines, defining the number of levels and brands
at each level. Of particular importance is the relative emphasis placed on corporate
brands as opposed to product level brands and the degree of integration across markets.
For instance, when Nike was accused (fairly or unfairly) of using sweatshop labour to
make its products, the brand suffered because of a manufacturing decision. This example
illustrates the necessity that a companys mission be in complete lockstep with the
positioning desired in the marketplace. The brand needs to be an over-arching organising
principle and strategic filter for decision-making in all aspects of the business. These
should be clearly understood and shared throughout all level of the organization, leading
to a culture/mentality that promotes the growth of strong international brands without
diluting their strength by over-use or inconsistencies.
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Aaker, D. A. & Keller, K. L. (1990). Consumer evaluations of brand extensions. Journal
of Marketing, 54 (1), 27-41.
Aaker, D. A. and Keller, K. L. (1990), Consumer Evaluations of Brand Extensions, Journal
of Marketing, 54 (January), 27-41.
Aaker, D.A.& Joachimsthaler, E. (2000), Brand Leadership. New York: The Free Press
Aaker, D. A., & Shansby, G. J. (1982). Positioning your product. Business Horizons, 25
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Aaker, J. (1996), Dimensions of Brand Personality, Journal of Marketing Research, 34
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Aaker, J., Fournier, S. and Brasel. S. A. (2003). When Good Brands Do Bad. Paper
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Barwise, P. and Robertson, T. (1992), Brand Portfolios, European Management Journal,
10, 3 (September), 277-285.
Belk, R. W. (1990), The Role of Possessions in Constructing and Maintaining a Sense of
Past, in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 17, ed. Marvin E. Goldberg et al.,
Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 669-676.
Berens, van Riel C.B.M., van Bruggen G.H. (2005), Corporate Associations and consumer
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Berry, N. (1998), Revitalising brands. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 5(3), 15-20
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Bousch, D. (1993), Brands as catagories. In (ed) D.Aaker and A. Biel (1993) Brand
Equity and Advertising, Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Bousch, D. M. and Loken B(1991), A Process-Tracing Study of Brand Extension
Evaluation, Journal of Marketing Research, 28, (February), 16-28.
Broniarczyk, S. M. and. Alba J. W (1994), The Importance of the Brand in Brand Extension,
Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (May), 214-228.
Brown T.J., Dacin P.A. (1997), The Company and the Product: Corporate Association
and Consumer Product Responses, Journal of Marketing, 61
Brown, M. (1992), How it all began, Otley, Smith Settle
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Carpenter, G. S., Glazer, R., & Nakamoto, K. (1994). Meaningful brands from meaningless
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Copeland, M. (1923), Relation of consumers buying habits to marketing methods,
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Why Cant We, McKinsey Quarterly, No. 3, 25-34.
Craig, C. S. and Douglas S. P. (1996), Responding to the Challenges of Global Markets:
Change, Complexity, Competition and Conscience, Columbia Journal of World
Business, 31, 6-18.
Crawford, M.C. (1985). A new positioning typology. Journal of Product Innovation
Management, 2 (4), 243-253.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Rochberg-Halton E(1981), The Meaning of Things: Domestic
Symbols and the Self, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Czellar, S. (2003). Consumer attitude toward brand extensions: An integrative model
and research propositions. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 20 (1),
97-115.
Dacin P. A. and Smith D. C (1994), The Effect of Brand Portfolio Characteristics on
Consumer Evaluations of Brand Extensions, Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (May),
229-242.
de Chernatony, L. (1989), Understanding Consumers Perceptionsof Competitive Tiers
Can Perceived Risk Help?, Journal of Marketing Management, 4 (3), 288-299.
de Chernatony, L. (1993), Categorizing Brands: Evolutionary Processes Underpinned
by Two Key Dimensions, Journal of Marketing Management, 9, 173-188.
de Chernatony, L. (1998), Developing on effective brand strategy. In C. Egan and M.
Thomas (ed), The Chartered Institute of Marketing Handbook of Strategic Marketing,
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5(1), 77-95
Echambadi, R., Arroniz, I., Reinartz, W. & Lee, J. (2006). Empirical generalizations
from brand extension research: How sure are we? International Journal of Research
in Marketing, 23 (3), 253-261.
Fogg, J. (1998), Brands as intellectual property. In S. Hart and J. Murphy (ed), Brands:
the new wealth creators, Basingstoke, Macmillan
Furby, L. (1978), Possessions: Toward a theory of their meaning and function throughout
the life cycle. In P. B. Baltes (ed.), Life Span Development and Behavior, Vol. 1, pp.
297-336. New York: Academic Press.
Gardner, B B. and Levy S J. (1955), The Product and the Brand. Harvard Business Review,
33, (March-April), 33-9.
Goffman, E (1959), The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday and Co., Inc.
Goodyear, M (1996), Divided by a common language: diversity and deception in the
world of global marketing, Journal of the Market Research Society, 38 (2), 105-122.
Gordon, W (1991), Assessing the brand through research. In D. Cowley (ed)
Understanding brands. London, Kogan Page
Grubb, E L. and Hupp, G (1968), Perception of Self, Generalized Stereotypes, and
Brand Selection, Journal of Marketing Research, 5 (February), 58-63.
Hirschman, El and LaBarbera P (1990), Dimensions of Possession Importance, Psychology
and Marketing, 7 (Fall), 215-233.
Hoyer, W and Brown S (1990), Effects of brand awareness on choice for a common
repeat purchase product. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(2), 141-148
Irons, K (1996), The Marketing of Services: A Total Approach to Achieving Competitive
Advantage, McGraw Hill Companies, London.
Jones, J (1986), Whats in a name? Lexington, Lexington Books
Kapferer, JN (1997), Strategic Brand Management: Creating and Sustaining Brand Equity
Long Term, Kogan Page, London.
Kapferer, JN. (2004). The New Strategic Brand Management: Creating and Sustaining
Brand Equity Long Term, Kogan Page.
Keller, K.L. (1993) Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand
equity, Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 117.
Keller, K.L. (1998) Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring, and Managing
Brand Equity, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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of product feature similarity and brand concept consistency. Journal of Consumer
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implications for brand positioning. Journal of Marketing Research, 39 (1), 18-30.
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of Consumer Research, 29 (March), 595-601.
Keller, K L and. Aaker D A (1992), The Effects of Sequential Introduction of Brand
Extensions, Journal of Marketing Research, 29 (February), 35-50.
King, St (1991), Brand-building in the 1990s, Journal of Marketing Management, 7, 3- 13.
Klein, N (2000). No Logo. St, Martins Press.
Kotler, P., Wong, V., Saunders, J., & Armstrong, G. (2005). Principles of marketing. (4th
European ed.) Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Kotler, Ph and Armstrong G (1996), Principles of Marketing, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, USA.
Krishnan, H.S. (1996), Characteristics of memory associations: A consumer-based brand
equity perspective, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 13, 389-405.
Lafort, S and Saunders J (1994), Managing Brand Portfolios: How the Leaders Do It,
Journal of Advertising Research, September/October, 64-76.
Lambin, J-L (1997), Strategic Marketing Management, Maidenhead, McGraw Hill
Lanon, J (1993), What do people do with advertising?,
Leahy, T (1994), The emergence of retail brand power. In P. Stobart. Brand Power,
Basingstoke, Macmillan.
Levitt, T. (1983). The Globalization of Markets. Harvard Business Review.
Low, G S. and Fullerton R A. (1994), Brand, Brand Management, and the Brand Manager
System: A Critical-Historical Evaluation, Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (May)
173-190.
Malhotra, N (1988), Self concept and product choice: an integrated perspective, Journal
of Economic Psychology, 9, 1-28.
Mehta, R and. Belk R W (1991), Artifacts, Identity, and Transition: Favorite Possessions
of Indians and Indian Immigrants to the United State, Journal of Consumer Research,
17 (March), 398-411.
Mervis, C and Rosch E (1981), Categorization of natural objects, Annual Review of
Psychology, 32, 89-115
Michell, A, (1997) Brand strategies in the information age, London, FT Management Report.
Park, C. W., Milberg, S. & Lawson, R. (1991). Evaluation of brand extensions: The role
of product feature similarity and brand concept consistency. Journal of Consumer
Research, 18 (2), 185-193.
Pham, M. T., & Muthukrishnan, A. V. (2002). Search and alignment in judgment revisions:
implications for brand positioning. Journal of Marketing Research, 39 (1), 18-30.
Piercy, N (1997) Market Led Strategic Change, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann
Plummer, J T. (1985), How Personality Makes a Difference, Journal of Advertising
Research, 24 (6), 27-31.
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Advertising Research, 24, (February-March), 27-38.
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York, N.Y.
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Books.
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Marketing Productivity: Current Knowledge and Future Directions, Journal of
Marketing, 68 (October). 7689
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Harvard Business Review 82 (9), 110-118.
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of Brands, Identity and Image. New York: The Free Press.
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Consumption Values, Journal of Business Research, 22, 159-70.
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Smothers, N. (1993), Can products and brands have charisma?. In D. Aaker and A. Biel
(ed) Brand equity and advertising. Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Solomon, M R. (1983), The Role of Products as Social Stimili A Symbolic Interactionism
Perspective, Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (December), 319-329.
Southgate, P (1994), Total branding by design, London, Kogan
Tait, B (2004), How Marketing Science Undermines Brands, Admap Magazie, Issue
454 (October)
Thompson C.J., Rindfleisch A., & Arsel Z. ( 2006), Emotional Branding and the Strategic
Value of the Doppelgnger Brand Image, Journal of Marketing, 70 (January), 5064
Upshaw, L and Taylor. E (2000). The Masterbrand Mandate. John Wiley & Sons.
Van Sister, L (2004), The Secret of Multi-Branding, Admap Magazine, Issue 455
(November)
Vlckner, F. & Sattler, H. (2006). Drivers of Brand Extension Success. Journal of
Marketing, 70 (2), 18-34.
Wind, Y. (1982). Product policy: concepts, methods and strategy. Reading: Addison
Wesley.
122
1-RRM 4-2007.pmd
Daniel ERBNIC
122
3/14/2008, 9:00 AM
Quelch, J, Holt D and Taylor. E (2003). Managing the Transnational Brand: How Global
Perceptions Drive Value. Paper presented at the Harvard Business Schools
Globalization of Markets Colloquium (May 28-30, 2003).
Reddy, K., Holak S L. and Bhat S (1994), To Extend or Not to Extend: Success
Determinants of Line Extensions, Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (May), 243-262
Reynolds, T J. and Gutman J (1984), Advertising as Image Management, Journal of
Advertising Research, 24, (February-March), 27-38.
Ries, Al and Trout J (1981), Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind, McGraw-Hill, New
York, N.Y.
Roberts, K. (2004), Lovemarks: The Future Beyond Brands. New York: Powerhouse
Books.
Rust R.T., Ambler T., Carpenter G.S., Kumar V. & Srivastava R.K., (2004), Measuring
Marketing Productivity: Current Knowledge and Future Directions, Journal of
Marketing, 68 (October). 7689
Rust, R.T, Zeithaml, V.A. & Lemon, K.N. (2004). Customer-centered Brand Management.
Harvard Business Review 82 (9), 110-118.
Schiffman, L. G. and Leslie Kanuk (1996), Consumer Behavior, Prentice-Hall.
Schmitt, B H. and Simenson A (1997), Marketing Aesthetics: The Strategic Management
of Brands, Identity and Image. New York: The Free Press.
Sheth, J, Newman, B I. and Gross B L. (1991), Why We Buy What We Buy: A Theory of
Consumption Values, Journal of Business Research, 22, 159-70.
Shields, R. (ed) 1992, Lifestyle shopping: the subject of consumption, London, Routledge
Smothers, N. (1993), Can products and brands have charisma?. In D. Aaker and A. Biel
(ed) Brand equity and advertising. Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Solomon, M R. (1983), The Role of Products as Social Stimili A Symbolic Interactionism
Perspective, Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (December), 319-329.
Southgate, P (1994), Total branding by design, London, Kogan
Tait, B (2004), How Marketing Science Undermines Brands, Admap Magazie, Issue
454 (October)
Thompson C.J., Rindfleisch A., & Arsel Z. ( 2006), Emotional Branding and the Strategic
Value of the Doppelgnger Brand Image, Journal of Marketing, 70 (January), 5064
Upshaw, L and Taylor. E (2000). The Masterbrand Mandate. John Wiley & Sons.
Van Sister, L (2004), The Secret of Multi-Branding, Admap Magazine, Issue 455
(November)
Vlckner, F. & Sattler, H. (2006). Drivers of Brand Extension Success. Journal of
Marketing, 70 (2), 18-34.
Wind, Y. (1982). Product policy: concepts, methods and strategy. Reading: Addison
Wesley.
123
RRM 4-2007
1-RRM 4-2007.pmd
123
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