q

ilr

arnet

PatrickFitzgerald,
M ar i eM c Cu l l a g ha n dC a r oTl a b or

En gl i shfor

lcT

STUDIES
in H igherE d u c a ti o nS tu d i e s

Course Book
Series
editor:TerryPhillips
arnet

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Introduction
Englishfor ICT Studresis designedfor studentswho plan to take an ICTcourseentirely or partly in English.
The principalaim of Englishfor ICT Studiesis to teach studentsto cope with input texts, i.e., listeningand
reading, in the discipline.However,studentswill be expectedto produce output texts in speechand
writing throughout the course.
The syllabusfocuseson key vocabularyfor the disciplineand on words and phrasescommonlyusedin
academicEnglish.lt coverskey facts and conceptsfrom the discipline,thereby giving studentsa flying start
for when they meet the samepointsagain in their facultywork. lt alsofocuseson the skillsthat will
enable studentsto get the most out of lecturesand written texts. Finally,it presentsthe skillsrequiredto
take part in seminarsand tutorials and to produceessayassignments.
English for ICTStudiescomprises:
o studentCourseBook includingaudio transcriptsand wordlist
o the Teacher'sBook, which providesdetailed guidanceon each lesson,full answer keys,audio
transcriptsand extra photocopiableresources
. audio CDswith lectureand seminarexcerpts
Englishfor ICT Studieshas 12 units, each of which is basedon a different aspectof lCT.Odd-numbered
units are basedon listening(lecture/seminarextracts).Even-numberedunits are basedon reading.
Eachunit is dividedinto four lessons:
Lesson1: vocabularyfor the discipline;vocabularyskillssuchas word-building,useof affixes,useof
synonymsfor paraphrasing
Lesson2: readingoi listeningteit and skillsdevelopment
Lesson3: readingor listeningskillsextension.ln addition,in later units,studentsare introducedto a
writing assignmentwhich is further developedin Lesson4; in later listeningunits, studentsare
introducedto a spokenlanguagepoint (e.9.,making an oral presentationat a seminar)which is
further developedin Lesson4
Lesson4: a parallel listeningor readingtext to that presentedin Lesson2 which studentshave to usetheir
new skills(Lesson3) to decode;in addition, written or spokenwork is further practised
The fasttwo pagesof each unit, Vocabularybank and Skil/sbank, are a usefulsummaryof the unit
content.
Eachunit providesbetween 4 and 5 hours of classroomactivity with the possibilityof a further 2-4 hours
on the suggestedextra activities.The coursewill be suitable,therefore, as the core component of a
faculty-specificpre-sessional
or foundation courseof between 50 and 80 hours.
It is assumedthat prior to usingthis book studentswill alreadyhavecompleteda generalEAP(Englishfor
AcademicPurposes)coursesuchas Skillsin English(GarnetPublishing,up to the end at leastof Level3),
and will have achievedan IELTSlevel of at least5.
For a list of other titles in this series,seewww.garneteducation.com/

Book map
Unit
1 what is lcT?
Lis t ening .Sp e a k i n g

2 ICTin the workplace

Reading' W ri ti n g

3 lntroductionto ICTsystems
Lis t ening . Sp e a k i n g

4 ICTin education
Reading . Writing

5 The historyof ICT

Lis t ening ' Sp e a k i n g

6 The lnternet
Reading . W ri ti n g

Software development
Lis t ening .Sp e a k i n g

8 Efficiencyin computersystems
Reading . W ri ti n g

9 Human-computer
interaction(HCl)
Lis t ening .Sp e a k i n g

1 0 E-commerce
and e-government
Reading . Writing

11 Computingand ethics
Lis t ening ' S p e a k i n g

12 lc'l in the future

Reading . W ri ti n g

Topics
o definingICT
. introductionto differentaspectsof ICT

. impactof ICTon business,includingcommunication,information

managementand productdesign
. impactof ICTon the natureof work, includingtelwvorkingand outsourcing

.
.
.
.
.

embeddedand generalpurposesystems
data storageand management
control systems
communicationsystems
functionsof ICTsystems(datacapture,processingand output)

. useof computersand the Internetin research

and learning
. computer-assisted
learning(CAL),virtuallearningenvironments
(VLEs)
and
theirimpacton teaching

. keystagesIn the development

of the computer(inventions
and innovations)
. developmentof computercomponents(input, output, processingand storage)
. foundationsof the Internet
. Internetprotocolsand data transfer
o Web 2 0 and the future of the Internet
. socialnetworkingservices(SNS)
.
.
o
.

developmentmethodsand processes
waterfall,iterativeand prototypingmodels
planningthe development
process
open sourcesoftware

. efficiencyin computersystems
o reliability,security,speedand cost

.
o
.
.

importanceand scopeof HCI

aspectsof human sciencesand computersciences
differenttypesof interface
hardwareand software

. typesof e-commerce:B2B,S2C,CZC, B2G

. barriersto adoption of e-commerce

. lawsand regulations,
includingcopyright
o principles
and ethics,includingprrvacyand surveillance
. the roleof hacking

o
.
.
.

virtualand mirrorworlds
augmentedreality(AR)
lifelogging
usingtechnologicalgrowth curvesto predictfuture development

Vocabularyfocus

Ski l l sfocus

o wordsfrom generalEnglishwith a speclalmeaningin ICT

. prefixesand suffixes

Listening .
.
.
.
.

Unit

preparingfOra lecture
predictinglecturecontentfrom the tntroductton

understanding
lectureorganization
choosingan appropriate
form of notes
makinglecturenotes

Speaking . Speaking
from notes
. English-English
dictionaries:
headwords definjtions parts
of speech phonemes stressmarKers
countable/uncountable
transitive/intransitive

. stresspatternsin multi-syllable
words
. prefixes

Reading . usingresearch
questions
to focuson relevantinformatjonin a text
. usingtopicsentences
to get an overviewof the text
Writing

o writingtopicsentences
. summanztng
a text

Li s teni ng

.
o
.
.

Speaking

.
.
o
o

computerJargon
abbreviations
and acronyms
discourse
and stancemarkers
verband noun suffixes

. word sets:synonyms,
antonyms,etc
. the languageof trends
. commonlecturelanguage
. synonyms,
replacement
subjects,
etc, for sentence-level
paraphrasing

preparingfor a lecture
predictinglecturecontent
makinglecturenotes
usingdifferentinformationsources

. reportingresearch
findings
. formulatingquestions

Reading . identifyingtopicdevelopment
within a paragraph
. usingthe Interneteffectively
o evaluatingInternetsearchresults
writing

. reportingresearch
findings

Listening . understanding
'signpostlanguage'in lectures
. usingsymbolsand abbreviations
in note-taking
speaking . makingeffectivecontributions
to a seminar
Reading . locatingkeyinformationin complexsentences
writing.

. reportingfindingsfrom othersources:
paraphrasing
. writingcomplexsentences
. understanding
speakeremphasis

o
.
.
.

compoundnouns
fixedphrases
from ICT
fixedphrases
from academicEnglish
commonlecturelanguage

Listening

.
o
.
.

synonyms
nounsfrom verbs
definitions
common'direction'verbs
in essaytitles(discuss,
analyze,

Readipg

. understanding
dependentclauses
with passives

Writing

o paraphrasi ng
. expandingnotesinto complexsentences
o recognizing
differentessaytypeystructures:
descriptiveanalytical
comparison/evaluation
argument
o writingessayplans
. wnttngessays

S peak i ng . askingfor clarification

. responding
to queriesand requests
for clarification

evaluate,etc )

. fixedphrases
from ICT
. fixedphrases
from academicEnglish

A
Z

Listening . usingthe Cornellnote-takingsystem

. recognrzing
digressions
in lectures

speaking . makingeffectivecontributions
to a seminar
. referringto otherpeoplesideasin a seminar
o'n e u t r a l 'a n d ' m a r k e dwo
' rds
. fixedphrases
from ICT
. fixedphrases
from academicEnglish

.
.
.
o

wordVphrasesusedto link ideas(moreovecas a result,etc

stresspatternsin noun phrasesand compounds
fixedphrases
from academicEnglish
wordVphrases
relatedto ethicsin computing

. verbsusedto introduceideasfrom other sources

(X contendslsuggestslasseftsthat,l
o linkingwordVphrasesconveyingcontrast(whereas),result
(consequently),
reasons(due to), etc
. words for quantities(a significantminority)

Reading . recognizing
the writerSstanceand levelof confidence
or tentativeness
. inferringimplicitioeas
writing

10

o writingsituation-problem-solution-evaluation
essays
-. usingdirectquotations
. compilinga bibliography/reference
list

Listening . recognizing
the speaker's
stance
. w fl trngup notesi n ful l
Speak i ng o bui l di ng
an argumenti n a semi nar
. agreeing/disagreeing
Reading

. understanding
how ideasin a text are linked

Writing

o
.
r
o

decidingwhetherto usedirectquotationor paraphrase

incorporating
quotations
writing researchreports
writingeffectiveintroductionVconclusions

11

guessingwords in context . prefixesand suffixes

n""l the text. The red words are probablyfamiliarto you in generalEnglish.But can you think of a
different meaning for each word used in an ICTcontext?Changethe form if necessary(e.9.,change a
noun into a verb).
Anna phonedthe languageschoolto sayshehad a virus and was too ill to work. Shefound a little bit of
chocolatein the fridge, pluggedin her CD player,and sat down to browsethrough her TV magazineand
play with her pet mouse.On the table there was a menu for a local Chineserestaurant.Anna was
choosinglunch when the postmanarrived with a packageaddressedto her. Shesteppedout to get it and
the door closedbehind her.Anna realizedher kevswere insidethe houseand shewas locked out.

B nead these sentencesfrom ICTtexts. Completeeach sentencewith one of the red words
from ExerciseA. Changethe form if necessary.
1 Selectan option from the drop-down

, short for binarydigit.

from infection.
softwareprotectscomputers

2 The smallestunit of data in a computeris a

3 Anti

4 High-levelprogramming
numbersand symbols.

, suchas C and C++,are made up of letters,

5 To view information on the Internet you need a web

6 Clickon the

7 Thissoftware-.-, -.

twice to open the program.

includesa number of programsthat businesses
will find useful.

8 One way to protect data is to encrypt it so that only someonewith the correct
, or password,can open it,
9 Most Internet

begin www.

10 Youmayneedto installa

to playmusicor watchfilmson your computer.

Studythe words in box a.

1 What is the connectionbetween all the words?
2 What is the baseword in each case?
3 What do we call the extra letters?
4 What is the meaningof each prefix?
5 Can you think of another word with each prefix?

Studythe words in box b.

1 What is the connectionbetween all the words?
2 What is the baseword in each case?
3 What do we call the extra letters?
4 What effect do the extra letters have on the baseword?
5 Can you think of another word with each suffix?

antivirus centimetre gigabyte

hyperlink Internet kilobit
microchip millisecond
miscalculateoutput restart
subnetwork superhighway
telecommunicationsundetected

Usewords from this page to label the pictureson the opposite

page. Add labelsfor other items in the pictures.

classify computerize connector

developer digital downloading
electronic instruction management
mobility paperless performance
software technology variable

I
n:

Crii

Anach

Add/ttg

fonti

Colort

gn

Aj

To: rJ flywheelGnetmailcom
C c:
Subject; Hello'
,
HrFolks
All'swsll hergdownon lhg lan Howare youdoing?

?padq

:'.'a--e
D:r

lg,*

G http://www.ny{imes.com/
m

HB .Mac Welcometo

Welcometo Times
Get Started

ffa-

'i

cr"Ci,eaC :::ck
r3.,'.'a:
-i:b
LeaC3:ffe:
is
i!::r.c

E ^ --^ ^ --

ser.de:

I
pr epar ing f or a lec t u r e o p r e d i c t i n g l e c t u r e c o n t e n t o m a k i n g n o t e s

You are a student in the ICTFacultyof HadfordUniversity.

The title of your first lectureis What is ICT?
1 Write a definitionof lCT.
2 How can you preparefor this lecture?
Make some notes.
G titt"n to Part 1 of the talk. What doesthe lecturer
sayabout ICT?Tickthe bestchoice.
a lt is about computers.
b lt is about information.
c lt is about playingcomputergames.
d lt is more than just usinga computer.
ln Part2 of the talk, the lecturermentionsvirus and
driver.
1 What do thesewords mean in the contextof ICT?
2

G Listenand checkyour ideas.

In Part3 of the talk, the lecturerdescribes

different
placeswhere ICThasan impact.
1 How many different placescan you think of?
2 What are someof the technologiesusedin
eachplace?
3

G Listenand checkyour ideas.

4 What will the lecturertalk about next?

6d tn tf'" f inal part of the talk, the lecturertalks about
informationsystemsand communicationsystems.
Listen
and mark eachword in the box E if it is an examoleand
D if it is part of the definition.
communicate
data
e-mail
process
mobile phones
store
usingtechnology
web page

Draw a flowchartto illustratelCT.Usesomeof the words

from Exercise
E in your flowchart.
DescribelCT,usingyour flowchart.
Look backat your notesfrom Exercise
A. Did you predict:
o the main ideas?
. most of the specialvocabulary?

lectureorganizationo choosingthe best form of notes

A Wtratcanyou ...
1 develop?
2 process?
3 connect?

4 assemble?
5 install?
5 launch?

7 program?
8 computerize?
9 monitor?

Howcanyou organizeinformationin a lecture?Match the beginningsand endings.

1 questionand E
a contrast
2 problemand I
b definition
3 classification
and
c disadvantages
4 advantag"r.nOI
d effect
5 comparison
and I
e events
5 causeand I
f supportinginformation
7 sequence
of I
g process
8 stagesof a I
h solution
9 theoriesor opinionsthen I
i answer

C Howcanyou recordinformationduringa lecture?

Matchthe illustrations
with
the wordsand phrases
in the box.
tree diagram flowchart headingsand not'es spidergramtable timeline two columns

T^

\^
\,\J!\,\

v\.^..^S

^\

1.=^-cl

Match each organization of information in ExerciseB with a method of note-taking from ExerciseC.
You can use one method for different types of organization.

6) titt"n to five lecture introductions.Choosea possibleway to take notes from ExerciseC in each case.
Example:
You hear: ln today's session,we're going to look at tCTin business.We wilt be looking at a car
manufacturingcompanyand discussing
four areasof business:administration,finance, researchand
development, and operations,to see what happensin each areaand how tCT supportsworkers in
these areas.
You choose: tree diagram

I
m ak ing n o t e s o s p e a k i n gf r o m n o t e s

Studythe pictures.
1 What do pictures1-5 show?Usewords from the box.
2 What doeseachpictureA-C show?

engine rocket bug

waterfall

e-mail

the oppositepage.Listento the lectureintroductionsfrom Lesson1.3again.

6d Couur.
Make an outline on a separatesheetof paperfor eachintroduction.
Look at your outline for eachlecture.What do you expectthe lecturerto talk about in the lecture?
ln what order?
6d Llrt"n to the next part of each lecture.Completeyour notes.
Uncoverthe oppositepage.Checkyour noteswith the model notes.Are yoursthe sameor different?
Work in pairs.
1 Usethe noteson the oppositepage.Reconstruct
one lecture.
2 Givethe lectureto another oarr.

I W}IATE

ICT in busiress

administraf,on
eg., Inlerrel,
dalabases,wP, DTP,
e-ntil, inlrar-el

e.g., CAD,simuiaiors

eg., CAM

prodtc-trg rcw desgns

les*'rg prololyVs

slock c,onlrol

advelisirg
sla$ ,eco.ds
compary docs

conlrol o{
Voduclion,
envronrY\enT

comftr/'/'ntcaTon

Info syslems li{e cycle

wale,lall rrpdel

Z - sysler#
6oflw ar e de gqrer / ar ch;l ec;l)
- developrrenl

d;ff . pa,4s
program inleraclirg
in unprediclable way
5 -

operalion and
'ns*a/llFion,
ft\anTer]drce

Inlerrpl - how il bgan

1157- Spulnikl,US/Sovie* Space Racr-begirs
Advarr-edResearch Prolecls Agerwy (ARPA)
el up by US Gov.

CMC bomguler - nedialed comm.tnicafior)

l1b1 - ARPANET= sn'all networ*' o{ comwle.s fo,

use dunrg r-t-alea, ali.ack

Eleclr onic nra;l(e-rnail)

ftessagessnl/rernived in dgilal {orm via
,.,6,

using ARPANET
l17Z- US scienfrsis ard academic^s
117
3 -ARPANETu*l ;rier-uliorully
ea{y 80s - Inlenel - *o{d*ide
comV.*ers {or mililary ue. +
x-aiemic / x-ier*;f;c r ey-arch

infrarel
internal

rclwo,*, of

1186- gereral V.^blic begin usirp Inlerrel

eaAv 10s - Tim Bervcrs-Lee invenls HTML
Giplays*ex*+ irnages)+ HTTP lnfonTulion
trans{er)
Zo01 - over lTbn users(dpprox 25% wodd's pop)

l;miled acc.ess
Advar*aqesof e-r',arl

'":tY
o taSt

o rnesSd$escheap lo serd
. can a#ach files, e.g'
docs, pholos,video
. can SeDdI rneSSage
lo rrnny Vople

Al ,

e><terrBl lnlefl1eT
ogn

woddwideaccess
Disadvaniaqes

+. 1
. Sometimes e-marls

geI losl
. *l-up costs higA
bompuler, elc)
. inforrnationovedoad
. SPam/Junkmail
. viuses

Guessing words in context

Using related words
Sometimes
a word in generalEnglish
hasa special
meaningin lCT.
Examples:
virus, bit, language, mouse
lf you recognizea word but don't understandit in context,think:
What is the basicmeaningof the word? Doesthat helpme understandthe
specialmeaning?
Example:
A virus is somethingthat infeds you and makesyou feel ill, so a computer
virus is somethingthat infeds a computerand hasa negativeeffect on
how it works.
Removing prefixes
A prefix = lettersat the start of a word.
A prefixchanges
the meaningof a word.
Examples:
restart- start again
miscalculate
- calculatewrongly
lf you don't recognizea word,think:
ls thereis a prefix?Removeit. Do you recognizethe word now?
What doesthat prefixmean?Add it to the meaningof the word.
Removing suffixes
A suffix = lettersat the end of a word.
A suffixsometimes
changes
the part of speechof the word.
Examples:
develop) developer= vrb ) noun
vary) variable= vrb ) adjective
A suffixsometimes
changes
the meaningin a predictable
way.
Examples:
paper+ /ess- without (paper)
vary+ able- able to (vary)
lf you don't recognizea word,think:
ls therea suffix?Removeit. Do you recognizethe word now?
What doesthat suffixmean?Add it to the meaningof the word.

12

Making the most of lectures

Before a lecture ...
Plan
o Find out the topic of the lecture.
o Researchthe topic.
o Checkthe pronunciationof namesand key words in English.

Prepare
o Getto the lectureroom early.
o Sitwhereyou canseeand hearwell.
o Bringanyequipment
you mayneed.
o Writethe date,topicand nameof the lecturerat the top of a sheet
of paper.
During a lecture ...
Predict
o Listencarefullyto the introduction.Think:What kind of lectureis this?
o Write an outline.Leavespacefor notes.
o Thinkof possible
answers/solutions/effects,
etc.,whilethe lecturer
isspeaking.
Produce
o Write notes/copyfrom the board.
o Recordsources- books/websites/names.
o At the end,askthe lecturer/other
studentsfor missinginformation.

Making perfect lecture notes

Choosethe bestway to recordinformationfrom a lecture.
advantages
and disadvantages t two-columntable
causeand effect
) spidergram
classification
and definition
) tree diagram/spidergram
comparison
and contrast
) table
factsand figures
) table
sequenceof events
) t ime lin e
stagesof a process
) flowchart
questionand answer
t
headings
and notes

Speaking from notes

you haveto givea shorttalk in a seminaron research
Sometimes
you
have done.
o Preparethe listenerswith an introduction.

o Matchthe introductionto the type of information/notes.

13

usingan English-English
dictionary

helpyou understand
dictionarlr
and producespokenandwrittenEnglish?
A Howcanan English-English

Studythe dictionaryextracton the oppositepage.

1 Why arethe two words(top left and top right)important?
2 How manymeaningsdoesinformationhave?
3 Why doesthe word input appeartwice in bold?
4 What do we callsomeonewho providesinformation?
5 What do the lettersICTstandfor?
r
5 Whereisthe mainstresson inform?What aboutinformation?
7 What part of speechis internal?
8 What isthe pronunciation
of o in eachboldword in this extract?
9 Which is correct?Badinformation islareresponsibleformanybusinessfailures.
10 Canwe write: Themanagerspoketo hisstaffand informed.Why (not)?

C took at the boldwordsin the dictionaryextract

on the oppositepage.
1 What orderarethey in?
2 Writethe wordsin box a in the sameorder.

program log communication

system text scan
support notebook device robot
process package servlce

D took at the top of thisdoublepagefrom an English-English

dictionary.
1 Whichword from boxa will
appearon thesepages?
2 Thinkof wordsbeforeand after
someof the otherwordsin box a.
E Lookup the red wordsin boxa.
1 Howmanymeanings
canyou find for eachword?
2 Whichwordsare both a nounand a verb?What kind of verbsarethey?
3 Whatkindof nouniseachone?
4 How arethe wordsusedin ICT?

F Lookup the greenwordsin box a.

1 Whereisthe stressin eachword?
2 What isthe soundof the underlinedletter(s)in eachword?
3 How arethe wordsusedin ICT?

Testeachother on the wordsfrom box a. Givethe dictionarydefinitionof one of the words.Canyour

partnerguesswhichword you aredefining?

Discuss
the pictureson the oppositepageusingwordsfrom this lesson.

1 .1

2ICT 11{THE WORKPLACE

ICT

intranet

ICT iar sir 'ti:/ n lUl abb. for information and

communications technology
inform /rn'fclm/ v [T] give someone facts: He
informed the staff of his decision.
informant /rn'fclment/ n [C] someonewho
gives information to others: We collected
information.for our surys\ from 50
infonnants.
information /lnfe'metJni n [U] 1. facts about
someoneor something: There is a lot of
infonnatiort about lcrptopsin this magazine.
2. data which is processed,stored,or
transmittedby computer or electronic
equipment: The contputer calculates the hours
you work and uses tltis information to w,ork
out how ntuclt to p0)'\,olr.
information and communications technology
/ inf a' m er J n a n k e mj u l n r' k e l J n z te k ' n o l ad3i /
n [U] (the study of) computersand elecrronic
equipment used to handle information or to
communicate with others: He teqc'hesICT et
the universitv.
information superhighway /infe'merJn
s ur pa' ha rw e tln Is i n g .]th e n e tw o rk o f
inf or m at i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a ti o n ss y s te ms,
inc luding s a te l l i tec o mmu n i c a ti o n sa n d the
Internet, used to store and transfer

lrr\

information around the world.

i nput' /' rnput/ rr [C or U ] 1. data or i nformat ion
which is put into a computer: There were
several spelling ntistakesin the input whiclt
causedsomeproblems with our deliveries.
2. the contribution that someone makes: The
tllanoger thctnkedevenone .for tlleir input on
the rtewpro.ject.3. the place where
information entersa computer or electronic
device: The video and DVD inputs are at the
bac'kof the television.
input' I'nptstl u [T] put data into a computer so
that it can be stored or processed:I have to
ittlttrt customer details ittto the computer.
i nput devi ce /' rnput dr,vars/n [C ] anythi ng that
allows data or information to be put into a
computer, e.g., a keyboard.
internal /rn'tslnl/ arlj inside a person,thing, or
organization: We use the companv intranet for
i ttI erna I conttnurti t ctli ons.
Internet /' rntanet/ n Isi ng.]a publ i c netw ork
which links computersaround the world: I did
ntost oJ'tlte research on tlle Internet.
intranet /'rntranet/ n [Cl a private network of
computers,l i ke the Internet,w hi ch can onl y
be used by people in a particular company or
orsanl zatl on.

I
us ing r es ear c hq u e s t i o n s

How do you use ICTin your work or studies?What are the

advantages?
Canyou think of any disadvantages?
Look at the pictureson this page.
1 How is ICTbeing usedin the pictures?
2 Which pictureshowspeopleusingICTto communicate
with other people?
3 Which picturesshow ICTsystemsdoing work that
peopleoncedid?
4 How was this work done before ICTwas introduced?
You are going to read a text. What shouldyou do before
you read a text in detail?
Thistext is about ICTin the workplace.
1 Think of someresearchquestionsbefore you read.
2 Compareyour questionswith those in the Hadford
Universityassignmenton this page.
from the text and answerthe
Studythesetopic sentences
questionsbelow.
today
ICT playsa key role in business

Firstly, ICT is a fasterand more eftlcient way tirr peopleto communicate.

ICT is alsousedto input,storeand manageinfbrnration

AnotherareawhereICT is importantis the retailindustry.
Manufacturers
usenew technologyto designand build products.

New technology,then, offers a rangeof benefits.

However,it is importantto understandthat there are
costsas well as benefits.
Modern technologyis here to stay.

1 What typesof businesses

are discussed?
2 Where might you find the answerto eachquestionin
the HadfordUniversityassignment?
Where possible,
write 1, 2 or 3 next to the topic sentence.
3 What do you expectto find in the other paragraphs?
Readthe text on the oppositepage and checkyour ideas.

* ..HADFORD
..1
Foculty: ICT
Assignment
D o some reseorchi nl o l he use of IC T i n the
w orK P roce.
Moke notes to onsw er these questi ons .
I

H ow i s IC T used i n the w orkpl oc e?

Whot ore the odvontoges for bus i nes s esof

usi ng IC T?

Whot foctorsdo busi nessesho v e fo

consi der before they i nvesti n IC T?

l(nformation and) C(ommunication)T(echnology)at Work

ICT plays a key role in
businesstoday.In fact, its
useis now so widespread
that it is diffrcult to
succeedwithoutit. Rapid
developmentsin the ICT
sectorin the lasttwo
decadeshaveproduceda hugerangeof new
productsand services.Theseinclude products
suchas personalcomputers(PCs),notebooksand
fax machines,and servicessuchas e-mail, intranet
and the Internet.Businessesof all sizesand types
usecomputer-based
systemslike thesebecause
they offer a betterway to work - one which can
savetime and money.
Firstly,ICT is a fasterandmoreefficientway for
peopleto cornmunicate.
Businesses
no longerhaveto
rely on slow postalservices.They can sendand
receiveinformation and documentsby text, e-mail
or fax. Video-conferencingmeanspeopledo not
needto travel long distancesto attendmeetings.
ICT providesa way for peoplewithin an
organizationto contacteachotherquickly and
sharework. It also meansthat they can work with
peoplearoundthe world.
ICT is also usedto input, storeand manage
information.One commonuseof office computers
is to record,frnd and work with information.For
(WP) or
example,businesses
useword-processing
desktoppublishing (DTP) packagesto produce
companydocuments,and databases
to store
customerdetailsand producemailing lists. In the
past,thesetaskstook hours,daysor evenweeks
and produceda lot of paperwork.With ICT they
takelesstime andcostless.Suchelectronic
systemsalso savestoragespace.
Another areawhereICT is importantis the retail
industry.Most items on salein shopshavea small
black and white label called a bar code.Many
shopscombinebar-codingwith electronic
point-of-sale(EPOS)systems.The customertakes
an item to the cashier,who usesa scanningdevice
to readthe bar codeand find out the price of the
item. The EPOSsystemlogs eachsaleand helps
the shopmanagerto decidewhich productsto
reorderfrom the supplier.SomeEPOSsystemsare
evenprograrnmedto do the ordering.

Information and Communication Technology at Work

Manufacturersusenew technologyto designand

build products.At the designstage,they use
computer-aideddesign(CAD) softwareto produce
new ideasand designs.In the productionstage,
many companiesuserobots.Theseare machines
that do the work ofpeople, and are controlledby
computer-assisted
manufacturing(CAM)
programs.Robotscan carry out routine,complex
and dangerousprocedures.They can work24
hoursa day and the standardof their work remains
constantbecausethey do not get tired or bored.As
a result,companiescan improve their production
rateswithout losing quality.
New technology,then,offers a rangeof benehts.
Firstly, it savestime. Tasksthat oncetook a long
time to do by handnow takea fraction of that
time. Secondly,ICT improvescommunication
betweenpeople,speedingup businesstransactions
and decision-making,and openingup new markets
aroundthe world. Thirdly, inexpensiveICT
solutionscan often replaceexpensivepeople.
Consequently,companiescan reducethe size of
their workforce and their wagebills. Finally, ICT
can increasethe quantity and improve the quality
ofgoods produced,which may also increase
profits.
However,it is importantto understandthat there
are costsas well as benefits.ICT systemscan be
very expensive.Companieshaveto choose
systemswhich suit their needsand are costeffectivebeforeinvestingin ICT. They haveto
considerseveralfactors.Firstly, technologyis
constantlydeveloping,which meansthat systems
needto be regularly upgraded.Another issueis
staff training.Thereis no point installing an ICT
systemif workerscannotuseit. Lastly, thereis the
cost of technicalsupport,suchas a helpdesk,to
ensurethat everythingruns well on a daily basis.
Modern technologyis hereto stay.It would be
almostimpossibleto ignore computer-based
systemsor to returnto working without them.
However,successfuluseofICT requires
investmentin both equipmentand skills.
Businessesof all sizesneedto makethe right
choicesbecausetherearerisks. as well as benefrts,
involved.

95

17

. tOpicsentenges
. summarizing

A Studythe words in box a. They are all from the text in

Lesson2.2.
1 Look back at the text on page 17. Find the words
which go together with the words in the box.

key fax publishingstore space

combinelogs routine reduce

2 Do they make noun or verb,phrases?

3 What is the meaning of each phrase?Look at the
context and checkwith your dictionary if necessary.
B StuOythe words in box b. They are all from Lesson2.2.
1 What is the baseword in each case?What part of
speechis the baseword?
2 Doesthe prefix/suffixchangethe part of speech?

lnternet video-conferencing
manager reorder communication
upgrade impossible

3 How does the prefix/suffixchangethe meaning of

the baseword?
C took back at the text on page 17.After each topic sentence,how doesthe writer
continue the
paragraph?Chooseone or more from the following list:
. defining and describing
. giving a list of points
. giving (an) example(s)
. giving more information
r restatingthe topic sentence
. concluding

D write a summary t!" text on page17.Paraphrase

the topicsentences.
Add extrainformationand
9-f
examples.
SeeSkitts hank

6He6lionsf writing topic sentences.summarizing

A Discuss
thesequestions.
1 Canyou rememberhow ICTis usedin
differenttypesof businesses?
2 What arethe benefitsof usingICT?
3 What arethe costs?
B fne lecturerhasaskedyou to do someresearch
into the changingnatureof work.
1 What effecthasICThad on the work that
peopledo?
2 Thinkof good research
questionsbefore
you readthe text on the oppositepage.
3 Lookquicklyat the text on the opposite
page.What isthe bestway to record
informationwhile you are reading?

18

c Studythe text ori the oppositepage.

1 Highlightthe topicsentences.
2 Readeachtopicsentence.
What will you
find in the restof the paragraph?
3 Whichparagraph(s)
will probablyanswer
eachresearch
question?Readthose
paragraphs
and makenotes.
4 Haveyou got allthe information
you need?
lf not, readother paragraphs.

Usethe Internetto find out moreabout how

work is changingbecause
of lCT.Explainhow
thisseemsto fit an organizationor a person
that you know.
1 Makenotes.
2 Write a seriesof topicsentences
which
summarize
yourfindings.
3 Reportbackto the other students.Read
out eachtopicsentence
then add extra
details..

2IC T IN TH E WOR K P LA C E

Chon g i nth
g ew oy w e w ork
job for
the past, nrany people staved irr the sar.rre
Jn
l'
Itheir whole life. When ICT first appeared in the
n'orkplace,manv people feared thev r'r'ouldlose their
jobs to machines.This was true ir-rsome cases For
example, robots have replaced largc numbers of
production line workers in the manufacttrring
industry. Serviceindr"rstries,
strch as banking, also cut
jobs when they brought in automated systems
Howe.",er,while technology has made some jobs
disappear,at the sametime it has creatednew types of
employment. These include jobs in areas such .rs
softw.ue engineeringand website design. Nolarlavs,
peoplehave to preparefor change,possiblvinvolving
letraining more than orrce
The introduction of modern technologyhas not
causedhigh unemployment,but it has meant tl-rat
workers need new skills. Many people have retraine'd
so that they can find nerr, n'ork in customer sen ice
industries,like call centres.Somehave nroved into the
ICT industry to n ork as developersor trainers.Others
have learnt to do theil old jobs in a rrew wav For
example, typists and journalists rrorv r,r,ork n,ith
computers instead of tvpewritc.rs.Sonre pcople find
that new technology has changed tlreir w,ork and
given them increasedresponsibilities.This can nrcan
that their jobs are nor\/much more interesting
ICT is not only changing the nature of rvork, it is
Most
alsostartingto changear/rcrcthat work is dor-re.
office r,r,orkerstravel to and from rvork cvery clar'.Nor'r,
companiesare starting to look at the possibilitiesof
teleworking, or telecommuting, wherc staff r.r'orkat
home or from a telecentre They use computers and
telecommunications
equipmentto stavin contactrvith
their office.
Telework has advantagesior both employers anci
emplovees.Firms save monev becausethev do not
need large offices They can recruit people who live
fr-rrtherawav or n'ho r,r,ouldfinci it clifiicult to n'ork
r-rormal office hours: for example, worncrr with
children. Hower.e1,it does mean that thel' lose dilcct
control over their workers. Employces save time
becausethey do not have to commute long clistances
^-'{
^^"
ru
lrzs
or
r ol r ^-^^^;-^
ur F) o l
their work to suit themselves The
disadvantasefor telervorkersis that they u',rrp o1,rt-r"
or
and may miss-sharingideaswith their collcagues,
Tl-rey
fincl
it
working as part of a team
can also
n'ork
home
lifc
difficultto separate
and

pogexii

t- --.'

-J

The sar.nesystenrsthat allor,r,people kr r,r'orkfronr

homc also allou' enrplovers to outsource r.r,ork to
cheaperareas.h-rBritair-r,
firms have operredteleccntrcs
outsicle tl-rcmajor cities They have optecl for ton'ns
r,r,l-relc
offrce space ancl labour are not so expensivc
Hort'cver, there is no reason rvhv n'ork cannot Lre
r.noveclto cheapcrparts of thc worlcl. Indeecl,ovcl the
last fc.n'\'ears,a number oi nrultirr.rtiorral
conrpanies
have close.tlcall centresand tlata-pmcessingcentrcsirr
Britain autl movecl tlre rr'ork to Inclia, n'here salaries
are klrver. More recentlv however; sonre largc UK
cor.npanies
l-ravebrought their operationsLrackinkr the
UK clue to customersen,iceissues.This is, perlraps,;r
goocl exanrple oi companic.sthinking alrout ICT rn
isolatrorr rvithotrt thinkirrg of r,r'hat'sbest for the
businessor their cLlstonrcrs.
Thc increasirrgtlenrand for goorl ICT skills in thc
workplace has also l-rarlar-rimpact or-rthc worltl of
eclucation.Manv governments have respondcd bt,
invcsting rn ner'r,technologyfor schoolsso that pupils
can leam both n'ith and about cornputer-Lrased
systcrns Universitiesnor'r,offer a whole range of ICTrelatcdcoulses,r.r'hicl-r
nrearrsthat teachershave had to
learnto use ICT to deliverlessonsin the classroomor
teach cntire colu'sesor-rline This kind of chauge is
irrportar.rtlrecausevoung people r.r'hohavc computer
skills r,r'illlrave an advantagert'l-renit conlcs to fiuding
work
How, whcn anci where wc work is cl-rangingancl
n'ill continr-rcto changt' Succcssdcpenclsultinratelv
on whethel we accept or relect this change. People
have to be more f-lexibleaboLrtthe hours they n'ork
and the tvpe of work tl-revdo Nowadays, job securitv
no longer comesfrom finding a job anclstaving rr-rtl-rat
job for lifc It cor.nesfrom having thc. skills ancl
flexilrility to adapt to changc and being preparecltcr
learu nerv things

Chongingthe woy we work

il

Using your English-English dictionary

helpsyou actuallylearnEnglish.
Thiskindof dictionary
Using headwords and parts of speech
1 Findthe correctheadword.
order.Lookat the
Thesebold wordsin a dictionaryare in alphabetical
wordson the top left and top right of the doublepage.Finda word
whichcomesjust beforeand afteryour word.
2 Findthe correctmeaning.
lf thereare differentmeaningsof the word,they appearin a numbered
list.Lookat all the meaningsbeforeyou choosethe correctone in
context.
3 Findthe correctpart of speech.
the sameheadwordappearsmorethan once,followedby a
Sometimes
smallnumber.Thismeansthe word hasmorethan one partof speech,
e.9.,n and v. Work out the part of speechbeforeyou look up a word.
Clues:
o Nounsoften comeafter articles(alanlthe)or adjectives.
o Verbscomeafter nounsor pronouns.
Learning to pronounce words
Thesymbolsafterthe headwordshowyou how to pronouncethe word.
Learnthesesymbols(the key is usuallyat the front or the backof the
dictionary).
the word.
Thelittle line in the symbolsshowsyou how to stress
Example:
I n' b:m I but /mfa'me{4/
Learning to use words correctly in context
Thisinformationis importantfor
Nounscanbe countableor uncountable.
Lookfor the symbol[C]
usingarticfesand verbforms(e.9.,islare)correctly.
or [U].
Someverbsneedan object.Theyaretransitive.Someverbsdon't needan
Thisinformationis importantfor making
object.Theyare intransitive.
good sentences.
Lookfor the symbol[T] or [].
Somewordscanbe speltin BritishEnglish(e.9.,colour centre)or American
Engfish(e.9.,color center).Choosethe correctspellingfor the text you are
workingon.

Doing reading research

Before you start reading ...
o Thinkof research
questions.
In otherwords,askyourself
: What mustI find out from
my research?
o Lookat headings,
sub-headings,
illustrations.
Lookfor patternsor variationsin
presentation,
e.9.,a seriesof dates;wordsin bold or italicscript.Think:what
information do they give me?
o Decidehow to recordinformationfrom your reading.Chooseone or moremethods
of note-taking.See Unit I Skills bank
While you are reading ...
o Highlightthe topicsentences.
o Think:which paragraph(s)will probabtygive me the answerto my research
questions?
o Readtheseparagraph(s)
first.
o Makenotes.
After reading ...
o Think:Did the text answerall my researchquestions?
o lf the ansWeris no, look at other paragraphs
to seeif the informationisthere.

Using topic sentencesto summarize

Thetopicsentences
of a text normallymakea good basisfor a summary.
Followthis
procedure:
o Locatethe topicsentences.
o Paraphrase
them- in otherwords,rewritethem in your own wordssothat the
meaningisthe same.Do not simplycopythem.(Thisisa form of plagiarism.)
o Add supportinginformation- onceagain,in your own words.
Example:
Topicsentence

When ICT first appeared in the workplace, many

people feared they would lose their jobs to
machines.

Paraphrase
of topic sentence

The introduction of ICT in the workplace caused

many employees to fear that they would be
replaced by machines.

Supportinginformationand
examples(summarized)

Many people have had to learn new skillsso that

they can find jobs in computer-related fields ...
t" people now ha.vemore interesting jobs ...

o checkyoursummary.
checkthat the ideasflow rogically.
checkspellingand
grammar:lf your summaryisshort,it maybe just one paragraph,ForJlonger
summary,
divideit into paragraphs.

stresswithin words . prefixes

thesequestions.
A Discuss
1 Whendo you useICTor seeICTbeingusedaroundyou in your everydaylife?
2 What are the benefitsof ICTto your life?
3 Are there any disadvantages?

alarm application automated

biometric control device global
machine monitoring online passport
positioning protocol receiver
remote system teller wireless

Studythe pictureson the opposite page.

1 What aspectsof life do they show?Talk
about eachpictureusingwords from box a.
(Youwill not need allthe words.)
2 How does each item work?

Look at the words in box a.

1 Underlinethe stressed
syllablein eachword.
2 Which of these words hasthe samestresspattern as global?
3 Sort the other words into groups accordingto their stresspatterns.

D Completeeach sentencewith a word from box a. Changethe form if necessary.

1 The

systemwent off when someonetried to break into the house.

2 You need a personalidentification number (PlN)to take money out of the

teller machine.
3 The microchipin a biometric
suchas their fingerprintsor a face scan.

containsinformationabout an individual.

shoppingis a convenientway to buy things,but many peopleworry about

lnternet fraud.

from satellites
systems
usesignals
to triangulate
their position.
This
informationcanthen be displayedin mapform to helpdriverstravelfrom one placeto another.

5 Global

to selectthe channelyou want to watch.

6 Usethe remote

devicesgive information which doctorscan useto treat a

7 Bodyfunction
patient'scondition.
8 WAP phonesusewireless

..

protocol.

E Studythe words in box b. Findthe prefixand try to work out the meaningin eachcase.

automated
automation
automaton

binary
bidirectional
bia n n u a l

embed
encode
enable

output
outsource
outline

Completeeach sentencewith a word from box b. Changethe form if necessary.

1 Manufacturing processes
which are controlled by computersare saidto be

2A

'1'and '0',
system
usesonlytwo numbers,

3 Laserprintersand VDU screensare examplesof

devices.

4 The latest computersare much faster than their

5 Most of today'swashing machineshave
22

predecessor
preformat
preprogram

ICTsystems.

I INTRODUCTION TO ICT SYSTEIUIS

T
I
\:::rvreweasxr I wrsHLrsrI tpr-llrltp-q!1. t,t,p

fi preparingfor a lecture. predictinglecturecontent. making notes

Studythe handout on the right from a lectureabout ICT

systems.
1 What do you expectto hear in the.lecture?Make a list
of points.
2 Write down some key words you expectto hear.

IIADFORD Uniuersity

Foculty: ICT
lecture:IntroductionnoICTsystems

3 Checkthe pronunciationof the key words,with other

studentsor with a dictionary.
t...:t:::

4 How are you going to preparefor this lecture?

6d tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture.

1 What exactlyis the lecturergoing to talk about today?
Tickthe topic(s)you heard.
. how people use ICTsystems
. communicationssystems
. what ICTsystemsare

. mR
a

PrflsH

F133A1"".,,1, o
-:
@

r what ICTsystemsdo
. different types of computers
2 What doesthe lecturergive definitionsof?
3 What is a good way to organizenotesfor this lecture?

6& tirt"n to Part 2 of the lecture.

1 What is the main ideaof this section?
2 What exampleof an information systemdoesthe
lecturergive?
3 What does a control systemdo?
4 What three examplesof communicationchannelsdoes
the lecturermention?
5 What do you expectto hear in the next part of the
lecture?

gl

6d titt"n to Part 3 of the lecture.

1 How could you write notesfor this part?
2 What two componentsof ICTsystemsare discussed
and what are their definitions?

60 tirt"n to Part 4 of the lecture.

1 Checkyour definitionsof the two components.
2 What isthe researchtask?

aretrue or falseaccordingto the lecture.

60 tirt"n and saywhetherthesesentences
1_
2
3
4
5_
Look at the picturesin the HadfordUniversitylecturehandout.
1 What does each picture show?
2 Ask and answerquestionsabout each item.

24
'--

6_

stresswithin words o using information sources. reporting researchfindings

syllables.
ldentifythe word below in eachcase.Numbereachword.
6d titt"n to somestressed
Example:
You hear:

1 lec llekl
application

You write:
database

management
I

automated

electrical

binary

embedded

regulate

communicate

f unction

satellite

component

information

storage

control

instruction

system

process

i4 Where is the stressin eachmulti-syllable

word in
ExerciseA?
1 Mark the stress.
2 Practisesayingeachword.
Work in pairsor groups.Defineone of the words in
Exercise
A. The other student(s)must find and saythe
correctword.
,1

Look at the itemsin the photoson the right.

1 Decidewhether the ICTsystemsshown are input
devices(l), output devices(O) or storagedevices(S).
2 Saywhat each item is usedfor.

3 How many other itemscan you add to eachof the

thlee categories?
Ilem

I/o/S

I Flashdnve

Usei

Portablenenory
Oevt@

Beforeyou attend a lectureyou should do some research.

1 How could you researchthe lecturetopicson the right?

*,
it y
XtY HADFORDI' tti t'crs
Foculty: ICT

2 What informationshouldyou record?

Encodingdoto

3 How could you recordthe information?

Microprocessors:
o brief history

Doto processing

Computersof ihe future:quonlum

computing

You are going to do someresearchon a particularlecture

topic. You must find:
1 a dictionarydefinition
2 an encyclopedia
explanation
3 a usefulInternetsite

StudentA
o Do someresearch
on encodingdata.
o Tellyourpartneraboutyourfindings.

StudentB
o Do someresearch
on data processing.
o Tellyour partneraboutyourfindings.
25

3.2.
A Youare goingto listento a continuationof the lecturein Lesson
1 Makea listof pointsfrom that lecture.
2 What isthe lecturergoingto talk abouttoday?(Clue:Lesson
3.2.research
task)
3 C) Listento the end of the.lastlectureagainand checkyour ideas.
4 Reportyour findingsfrom the research
taskin Lesson
3.3,Exercise
F.

Lookat the slidesfor todayt lectureon the oppositepage.

1 What isshownin Slide1?
2 What isshownin Slides
2 and 3?
3 What doesthe systemin Slides2 and 3 do?
6) titt"n to Part 1 of today'slecture.
1 What arethe threestagesthat datagoesthrough?
2 What isthe differencebetweendata andinformation?
3 What isthe bestway to makenotesfrom this lecture?Preparea pagein your notebook.
askotherstudentsfor information.
6) tirt"n to Part2 of the lecture.Makenotes.lf necessary,

What isthe lecturergoingto talk about next?

1 C) Listento the beginningof Part3 and checkyour ideas.
2 6) Now listento the restof the lecture.Makenotes.lf necessaryaskother studentsfor
information.

Matchthe wordsand definitions.

1 deviceE
2 instructionI
3 decodeI
4 transmitJ
5 control(v)I
5 componentI
7 cycleI
8 system6

moveinformationfrom one placeto another

a setof connecteddevices
whichwork together
one of a numberof partsthat for,msomethingbigger
process
with no beginningor end
a continuous
an orderto do something
regulateor instructsomething
changefrom a codedform to a recognizable
form
h an objectinventedto performa function

a
b
c
d
e
f
g

Drawand labela simplediagramof a controlsystemcycle.Workingwith a partner,explainyour

diagram,usingsomewordsand definitionsfrom Exercise
F.

Thinkof a wordfrom thisunit for eachdefinitionin the bluebox.

i*--io

26

a binarydigit informationwithout a context changeinformationinto data

a smalldevicewhichactson input data

Dolo
informolion

Dolo
sy$em

Sl i d e1

Volve
opened
lo
leloulwoter

Sensor
delecls
woler
levelistoohigh

Volve
opened
to let
woler
in

Sensor
delects
level
isloolow

Sl i d e2

Flood
control
zone

volve
,------FloodOole

Minimum lanel
2Nm-

(onlrol
uolu, I

Slide 3 This diagram shows a control program for a hydroelectric dam.

Stress within words

Nouns,verbs,adjectivesand adverbsare calledcontentwords because
they carrythe meaningin a sentence.
One-syllable words
somecontentwordshaveone syllabteor-sound.
Thisis alwaysstressed.
Exampfes:'screen,'texl'
mouse
Itro-syllable words
somecontentwordshave_twosyltables.Two-syllable
nounsand adjectives
are often stressedon the first syilable.Two-syllibleverbs.r" oft"n stressed
on the secondsyllable.
Examples:
Exceptions:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs

'data,'storage
'modern,'central
in'stall, con'trol

Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs

de'vice,ma' chine,re'sult
u'nique,se'cure
'program,'input

Multi-syllable words
somecontentwordshavethreeor moresyltables.
Multi-syllable
wordsare
normallystressed
threesyllables
from the end.
Example:
Ooo o Ooo
ooOo o
Thisistrue for mostwordsendingin:
-izel-ise
-5lS

-ate

-ifv
-ical
-ity
-ular
-al

-ology
-cy

'authorize,'summarise
a'nalysis
'automate,'regulate
'classify,'specify
'physical,nu'merical
u'tility, a'bility
par'ticular, 'regular
'decimal,con'tinual
metho'dology
e'fficiency

Exceptions:
Multi-syllable
wordsendingin the followinglettersare normallystressed
two syllables
from the end.
-lC

-ton

-ent
-tial

28

auto'matig bio'metric
app Ii' cation, con' versi on
com'ponent,e'fficient
diffe'rential

Getting information from other people

From the lecturer
We cansometimes
aska lecturerquestions
at the end of a lecture.
lntroduceeachquestionin a politeor tentativeway.
Examples:
Couldyou go over the bit aboutdata storageagain?
I didn't quite understandwhat you saidaboutencodingdata.
I wonder if you could repeat the four hardware components,please.
Wouldyou mind giving the definition of an embedded systemagain?
From other students
It isa good ideato askother studentsafter a lecturefor informationto
completeyour notes.
Examples:
What did the lecturersay about applicationssoftware?
Why did shesay that ICTsystemscanbe embeddedor generalpurpose?
I didn't get the bit about the difference between systems
software and
appI icationssoftware.
Be polite!
It sometimes
soundsimpoliteto askpeoplea directquestion.we often add
a politeintroduction.
Examples:
How do computersstoredata?
.) (polite) Do you know how computersstoredata?
Whatdoes'encode'
mean?
) (pofite) Canyou rememberwhat'encode' means?
What is trilateration?
) (polite) Couldyou tell me somethingabout'trilateration'?

Reporting information to other people

we often haveto reportresearch
findingsto a tutor or otherstudentsin a
seminar.
Makesureyou cangive:
. sources
- books,articles,writers,publicationdates
. quotes- in the writer'sown words
. summary
findings- in yourown words

,- ,* -

" ---J

cornputerjargon o abbreviationsand acronyms. verb and noun suffixes

Studythe wordsand phrases

in box a.
1 Whichwordsor phrases
relateto ICT?'
Whichrelateto booksand libraries?
Find
two groupsof words.
2 Findpairsof wordsand phrases
with similar
meanings,
one from eachgroup.
3 Checkyour ideaswith the first part of
TheComputerJargon Busteron the
oppositepage.

Completethe instructions
for usingthe
LearningResource
Centrewith wordsor
phrases
from box a.

and acronyms
c Studythe abbreviations
in boxb.
1 How do you sayeachone?
2 Dividethem into two groups:
o abbreviations
. acronyms
See Vocabularybank
CAL CLI GUI HCI HTML
HTTP IsP RAM ROM URL
USB VLE WIMP V\A/VW

Testeachother on the itemsin Exercise

C.
1 What do the lettersstandfor in eachcase?
2 What do they mean?
3 Checkyour ideaswith the secondpart of
TheComputerJargon Busteron the
oppositepage.
Studythe nounsin boxc.
1 Makea verbfrom eachnoun.
2 Makeanothernounfrom the verb.
class computer digit
identity machine

30
.E

books browse/searchcatalogue
close cross-referencedatabase
electronicresourcesexiVlogoff hyperlink
index library log in/logon look up
menu open page searchengine
table of contents web page World Wide Web

ADFORD Uniuersity
leoming Resourte Cen|rre
lnstructionsfor use:
If you want to accessweb pageson the
, you must first
to the university intranet
with your usernameand password.You
can use anv

but the

defaultis Google.
for web
pagesby typing one or more keywordsin
the searchbox and clicking on Search,or
pressingEnter. When the resultsappear,
(highlightedin
click on a
blue)to jump to the web page.Click on
Back to return to the resultslisting.
You can also usethe universiw
of learningresources.
Click on ICT Resourceson the main

ComputerWeekly

Internatlonrl

Mdgazlne

Ilrc Cornputer
Jargor)
Buster
There are many

books

electronic resources

common words used

index

searchengine

about books and

cross-reference

hyperlink

libraries which are

catalogue

database

library

WorldWideWeb

table of contents

menu

translated into
jargon words when
we talk about using
computers and the
Internet for similar

look up

browse/search

PaSe
oPen

web page

close

exit/log off

log in/log on

functions.

There are many abbreviations and acronyms in computing. Learn some useful ones.

Abbr./Acr. What it stands for

CAL
computerrassisted
learning
CLI
GUI
HCI

command line interface

graphical user interface

What

it means

usingcomputers to help you learn

a way to interact with a computer usinglinesof text
a way to interact with a computer usinga mouse to point
and click on images

HTML

human-computer
the way that a user works with a computer system
interaction
hypertext markup language a way to write documentsso they can be displayed

HTTP

hypertext transfer protocol a set of rules for transfering files on the WVWV, usually

on a website
includedat the beginningof a website address
(e.g.,http://www ...)

ISP
RAM
ROM

URL
USB

lnternet service provider

random-accessmemory
read-only memory

uniform resource locator

universalserial bus

a companythat enablesaccessto the Internet

the memory you can use to store your own information
a type of permanentcomputer or disk memory that
stores informationthat can be read or used but not
changed
a website address,e.g.,http://www.garneteducation.com
a standardway to connect things like printers and scanners
to a comPuter

VLE

virtual learning
environment

a software program for computerized learning

WIMP

windows,icons,menus,
pointers

a way to interact with a computer usingwindows,icons,

menusand pointing devices(see GUI)

WIVIV

WorldWideWeb

a huge collection of documentsthat are connectedby

hypertext link and can be accessedthrough the Interner

ComputerWeekly lntematlonal

Magazlne

preparation for reading research. topic development

Discuss
thesequestions.
1 How are computersusedin educationtoday?
2 What are the advantagesof using
computersfor learning?

administration

learningresources

VLE
Look at the title of the text on the opposite
page.

assessment

communrcauon

1 What does'computer-assisted
learning'
mean?
2 What sort of coursescan CALbe usedin?
Make a list.

Virtuol LeorningEnvironment

3 Write somequestionsthat you would like

the text to answer.
Work in pairs.Look at the diagramon this
pa9e.
1 Describeit.
2 What sort of things do you think each
componentincludes?
One studentwrote someideasabout CAL
before readingthe text on the oppositepage.
Write A (l agree),D (l disagree)or ? (l'm not
sure)next to the ideason the right.
Look carefullyat the topic sentencesin the text
on the oppositepage.
1 ldentifythe topic and commentabout the
topic.
2 What do you think eachparagraphwill be
about?
Readthe text carefully.Were your questions
from ExerciseB answered?
Doesthe writer of the text agreeor disagree
with the ideasin Exercise
D? Which ideasare
not mentioned?
Studythe notesa studentmade in the margin
of the text on the oppositepage.
1 What ideasare in the other paragraphs?
Write some key words.
2 Which words introducenew ideasin each
paragraph?

CALhasalwaysbeen easylo
use.
Teachersdidnl like usirp CAL
so{*ware produo+sa* firs*.
CALis ius* anofhe, add'lionlo
lradilional leachinq me*hods.
CALhas,adically changedlhe way
peo?leleam.
In lhe {u}ure,leache.s will be

.eplacedby CAL.

*"
\"7

HADFORDLn rt'ct'sitj'

Computer-Assisted leorning
- o-?ulers
educ-atio^
:a.\5

in

grobe.

---g.ove-e^l

and

^Ye.tme^t

Computers
havebeenusedin educationsincethe 1960s.Initially,theytendedto only be usedin
computer-related
subjectsbecausethey were, unfortunately,
quite difiicult to use.This was
because
theyhadcommandline interfaces
(CLI). Usershadto typelong linesof textin orderto
getthecomputerto do something.
However,the 1980ssawtheadventof thefirst graphicaluser
interlaces(GUls) which weremuchmoreuser-friendly.
This improvement
in human-computer
interaction(HCI), togetherwith new subject-specific
software,made it viable to employ
computersin moresubjects.
Educationinstitutionsbeganto seethe valueof computer-assisted
learning(CAL). Many investedheavilyin equipmentandtraining,theoutcomeof whichcanbe
seentodayin manyclassrooms
aroundtheworld.
By the endof the 20thcentury,therewasa wholerangeof CAL softwareproductson offer. In
general,the first CAL programswere not terriblyexciting.However,in the late 1980s,CDROMs and other multimediaproductsbecameavailable.Thesemadeit possibleto produce
softwarewith sound and graphicswhich was also easy to distribute.As a result, more
buSinesses
becameinvolved in developingeducationalsoftware.The new productswere
attractiveand many studentsenjoyed using them. Nevertheless,
they were expensive.In
addition,they wereoftenperceivedto be just a differentway of learningor testingthe same
things.Teacherswho dislikedusingcomputerswere largelyable to ignorethem or conflne
themto self-study.
By contrast,it wasdifficult to ignorethe arrivalof the Internet,which heraldeda new phase
in CAL and had a huge impact on education.Although slow links and downloadtimes
characterized
theearlydaysof theIntemet,thedevelopment
of broadband
technologyprovided
much speedieraccess.The Internetprovidesan alternativeto textbook-based
learningand
accessto authentic,up-to-dateonline resources.Furthermore,it offers studentsa way to
communicate
with eachother,andwith theoutsideworld.Theycanevenpublishtheirwork on
the Web for others.Now CAL is morethana 'bolt-on'to traditionalteaching.It requiresnew
skills,suchastheabilityto find information,
evaluatewebsites,
or to collaborate
with othersvia
a network.

:ilecl
of
'roq
dJ

6 e o{i l

of cAu
\earnioq

o\

ULL

oo

CAL not only influences

how andrrftl,tstudentslearn;it alsoaffectswheretheyleam.Many
coursesnow incotporatea virtual learningenvironment(VLE), which is a set of computerbasedteachingand learningtools usedto teachdistance-learning
programmes
or ro suppon
face-to-face
courses.
VLEs aresimilarto websitesin manyways.Like websites,
they run on a
serverandcan be accessed
via an Internetconnection.
VLEs containa numberof components
which, typically, would include the following. Firstly, there is an adminisrrative
elemenr
providingcourseinformation,suchas studenttasksandhow to get help.Secondly,
therearethe
leamingresources
usedto deliverthe course,includingmaterialsdesignedby the teacher,or
links to sourcesof information.Thirdly,thereis a rangeof assessment
toolswhichcanbe used
to chartprogressduringthe course.VLEs alsohavecommunication
tools,suchas e-mail,fbr
students
to contact,or correspond
with, theirteachers
or theirpeers.
Clearly,CAL is setto play an importantrole in educationin the future.Somepeopleeven
believethat it will eventuallyreplacethe needfor teachers
or classrooms.
However,it is more
likely thatVLEs arethe futureof computer-assisted
learning.This meansthat subjectteachers
arefacedwith a newchallenge.
Theywill not only needto be expertsin theirheld,for example
historyor French,but theywill alsohaveto becomeconfidentusersof newtechnology.

Discussthese questions.

Il confains all of my keywords. -

2 What keywordswould yoi.ruseto make this

search?Why?

Il is ;n lle f',rsl len.

Your searchproduces50 results.How can you

selectthe most useful ones without reading all
of them? Look at the list of criteria on the right
and put a tick or'?'.
You want to repearchthe following. Chooseup
to three keywordsor phrasesfor each search.
1 invention of World Wide Web
2 typesof communicationtools found in a VLE
3 where to find online learningactivitiesfor ICT

Caleaa {or choosirp *o read a res.tll

1 You want to find out about computersin

teachingand learning.Where would you
look for the information?Why?

Tle, docw'rcnl cnrres from a iourrral. It has iAis year s dale. Il is a la"ge docuner*. TIe, websile addressends in .org T[e, websile address erds in .edu Tle,websile addresscontains .ac rl

^^tt $ a fut

al

tte. _

Il re{ers lo ICr Il ,e{e.s lo a oersonI doil kno*. Il refers lo an organizal.ion

I know. -

Go to a computer and try out your chosenkeywords.

analypingInternet searchresults. reporting researchfindings

A Wfratinformationiscontainedin the resultslistingof a searchengine?

1 Makea list.
I Cfrect<
with the resultslistingon the oppositepage.

Scanthe resultslistings.Answerthesequestions.
1 What keywordswere entered?
2 Why wasjournalusedasa keyword?Why is it not in inverted commas?

c $nswerthesequestions.
1 Whichresultscontainabbreviations
or
acronyms?

6 Which resultsrefer to educational

institutions?

2 Where is the website addressin each result?

7 Which resultsare commercialsites?

3 Which are PDFdocuments?

8 Which country does result 7 come from?

4 What do the different colouredfonts represent?

5 Which resultsrefer to journals?

9 What doessimilar pagesmean?

10 What does cachedmean?

learningby enteringthe keywordsinto a

Continueyour research
on computer-assisted
searchengineand accessing
threeof the results.
1 Makenotes.
2 Compareyour findingswith otherstudents.

Choosethe mostinterestingresult.Write a paragraphaboutthe informationyou discovered.

markersandstancemarkers.
Developthe topicwithin the paragraphwith discourse

34

Sign in
Wcb

lmages

Groups tlews

Frooole Maps

!E@.

@iffiltr*P
Web

Results 1 - 10 of about 289 for "Gomputer assisted learning" + joqftil

+ "latest technology"

Journalof ComputerAssistedLearning-Vol
26. lssue 5
The Journal of Computer Assisted Learning is a quarterly,peer-reviewed,
internationaljournal
which
coversthe whole rangeof usersof informationand communication
technology to supportlearningand
knowledgeexchange.
^ttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10,11111%28lSSN%291365-2729
- Cached
An evaluationof comouter-assisted
learningin mathematics...
11 Jul 2010 -An evaluationof computer-assistedlearning in mathematics... International
Journalof
MathematicalEducationin Scienceand Technology,Vol 23
.';ww.
informaworld.
com/.. ./content-content=a746
869072 - Cached
JOLT- Journalof OnlineLearningand Teaching
15 Dec 2009 -A USB donglesimilarto a flash driveservesas the wirelessreceiver... , Journalof
ComputerAssisted Learning, 20(2),81-94.doi: 10.11111jJ365-27292004.00074
... Journalof Research
on Technologyin Education,
41(2),161-177.
...
olt.merlot.org/vol5no4/klein_1209.htm
- Cached- Similar
E-Learning
Journals
- Journalswith a focus on EnglishStudiesand Technology ... Publishedthreetimes per year,
30 Jun 2O1O
the magazinecontainsin-deptharticleson the latestlearningtrendsand developmentsas well as ...
Journal of Computer-AssistedLearning ...
,vww.english.heacademy.ac.uk/.../technology/journals.php-Cached-Similar*
IPDFITeachingComouterSciencein HigherEducation:
EnablingLearning...
24 Jun 2010 - More than just the latesttechnologybuzzword,it's a transformativeforce that's ... in
multimediaComputer Aided Learning. Journal (CALJ)...
fie-conference.org/fie201
O/papers/'1
100.pdf- Cached- Similar
Learninginteractionand networkedcommunities
20 Jul 2010 - A currentfocus is on designingtechnologiesthat incorporatelearninginteractionand dialogue
design.Paperin Proceedingsof International
Workshopon LearningInteractionand Learning Technology.
',vww.londonmet.ac.uk/ltri/research/interaction.htm
- Cached- Similar
AJET:AustralasianJournalof EducationalTechnology
15 Mar 2010- articlesin educationaltechnology,educationaldesign,multimedia,computer assisted
learning, and relatedareas.AJET is publishedby the AustralasianSocietyfor Computersin Learningin
TertiaryEducation(ASCILITE)...
wwwascilite.org.au/ajeUabout/about.html
- Cached- Similar
IPDF]LEARNINGAND TEACHINGAWARDS
15 Feb 2010- Technology-enhanced
learning, or computer aidedlearning (e-learning)
can be
institutionally
... assistedteachingsessions.Figure3 explainsthe processof learningfor all three ...
the latest technology and e-learningpackageswhich ... establishingcriteriafor e-learningdevelopment.
www becta.org.uk/page_docu
pdateO2_04
pdf - Similarpages
ments/research/ictres_u
Promotingcomputerassistedlearningfor personswith disabilities...
6 May 2010- The currenttechnologies allowcomputerapplications
...
with a higherdegreeof accessibility
Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)solutionsfor peoplewith visualdisabilities.
A basisof many accessible
toolsfor ...
iinkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877042810007597-Gached-Similar
'CAL'- Past.presentand bevond- Crook- 2010 - Journalof ComouterAssisted
Learning...
...2002) nor to regardthe latesttechnology as a replacementfor more traditional... and distancelearning,
Journal of Gomputer Assisted Learning, Vol. ...
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi|10.11111j.1365-2729.2009.00343.x/full
- Similar oages
*Note that this link refersto an institution that will no longer be
fu nded f r om J uly20 1 1 ,s o l i n k i s l i k e l yto b e c o m ei nacti ve.

35

Understanding abbreviations and acronyms

An abbreviationisa shorterversionof something.Forexample,PC/pi:si:/isan abbrevlation
tor personalcomputer
An acronymissimilarto an abbreviation,
but it is pronouncedasa word. Forexample,CAL
is
for
an
acronym
coniputer-assisted
learning.
/kel/
We normallywrite an abbreviationor acronymwith capitalletters,althoughthe full words
havelower caseletters.However,there are exceptions,suchasvvww which is often written
with lower caseletters.
We pronouncethe vowelletters
We normallypronouncethe vowel
in abbreviqtions
in thisway:
lettersin acronymsin this way:
A

E
I

/eil
litl
latl

lel
lel
ltl

la<tl

lju'^l

lol
/t'l

Common suffixes
Suffixes for verbs
Thereare somecommonverbsuffixes.
Theymakenounsinto verbs.The meaningis basically
make+ noun.
Examples:
-tze

computerize,mechanize,digitize

-(i)ry

classify,specify, mod ify

-ate

navi gate, comm un i cate, i n novate

-en

broaden,lengthen, strengthen

Suffixes for nouns

Manynounsare madeby addinga suffixto a verb.Thismeans:
. Youcanidentifymanynounsfrom a suffix.
. Youcanoften discoverthe verb by removingthe suffix.
you haveto makechanges
Sometimes
to the end of the verb.
Examples:
Verb
produce

Suffix

pertorm

+ nce

+ tion

Noun
production
pertormance

computerize* + tion
computerization
manufacture + tng
manufacturing
coordinate
+ ton
coordination
specify
+ ication
specification
*both
-isel-ize (-isationl-ization)forms are acceptablein
BritishEnglish.
AmericanEnglishusageis -ize (-ization).

rr rcrrlrEDucArrol{

Developing ideas in a paragraph

lntroducing the topic
In a text, a new paragraph indicatesthe start of a new topic.
The topic is given in the topic sentence,which is at or near the beginningof the paragraph.
The topic sentencegivesthe topic, and alsomakesa commentabout the topic.
Example:
By contrast, it was difficult to ignore the arrival of the lnternet, which heralded a new phase
in CAL
The topic is the lnternet.The comment is that this heraldeda new phasein CAL.
The sentences
that follow then expandor explainthe topic sentence.
Examples:
It hashad a huge impact on education ... The lnternet providesan alternative to textbook
learning ... lt offers studentsa way to communicate... Now CALis more than a'bolt on'to
traditional teaching ... lt requiresnew skills...
Developing the topic
A paragraphis normallyabout the samebasictopic (the 'unity'principle).Howeve[ within a
paragraph,ideasoften developbeyondthe initialcomment.Thisdevelopmentis often
shown by
o a discoursemarker: but, howevet etc.
. a stance marker: unfortunately, etc.
Examples:
However, the 1980ssaw the advent of the f irst graphical userinterfaces (GUls).Thesewere
much more user-friendly.
Slow links and download times characterized the early days of the lnternet. Thankfully,
however,broadband technology soon changed this.
Discoursemarkersgenerallymake a connectionbetweenthe previousinformationand what
comesnext.They mainly introducecontrastsor additionalinformation.
Stancemarkersshow the attitude of the writer to the information, i.e.,whether he/sheis
surprised,pleased,unhappy,etc. about the information.

Recordingand reporting findings

When you do your research,recordinformationabout the source.Referto the sourcewhen
you report your findings.
Examples:
(2007)statesthat ...
Tim Berners-Lee
As Aydin, Harmsen,van Slooten& Stegweesuggestin their 2005articlein lhe Journalof
DatabaseManagement,...
Accordingto Brooksin his book The Mythical Man Month and Other Essays
on Software
Engineering(1995),...
As the writer of the article on www.computerweekly.com(March 29,2009)says,...
You shouldgive full informationabout the sourcein your referencelist or bibliography.For
more informationabout this, seeUnit 10 Skills bank.

tf

word sets:rynonyms,antonyms,etc. o describingtrends

Lookat the pictureson the oppositepage.

1 Whatdo theyhavein common?
2 Putthem in the orderof development.
Studythe wordsin box a.
1 Findpairsof wordswith similarmeanings.
2 What part of speechis eachword?
architecture calculate change complex
configure convert create design develop
engine knowledge machine precision
record set up sophisticated stage step
store tolerance understanding work out

c Studythe HadfordUniversityhandouton thispage.

Findpairsof bluewordswith similarmeanings.

Studythe wordsin box b.

1 Findpairsof opposites.
2 Groupwordstogetherto makesets.
3 Tryto givea nameto eachword set.
academic addition analogue civilian
commercial current decode decrypt digital
division pncode encrypt fixed flexible
limited military multiplicationmulti-purpose
obsolete portable specializedsubtraction

Workwith a partner.
1 Choosean imageon the oppositepage.Usewords
from box b to describeit.
2 Yourpartnershouldguesswhichimageyou are
talkingabout.
Lookat Figure1.
1 Howwouldyou describe
the graph?
2 Whatdo eachof the lineson the graphshow?

ADFORDUziuersity

Foculty:ICT
lecturc: Thehisnry ol compuling
In order to fully understondthe currentstote
of the computer,it is essentiolto know obout
the key stogesin its technicolevolution.This
introductorylecturewill look ot thesestoges,
beginningwith the obqcus- firstusedto
colculoietoxesin Bobylonin 2500 sceond continuingup to the present.
The lecturewill exominehow, over time,
new colculotingengineswere developedfor
specificpurposesby inventors.lt will look ot
the woy in which the orchitectureof the
mochineswos limitedby the toleroncewith
which portscouldbe mode,usingthe
technologyot the time.
The lecturewill olso explorehow mochines
becomemorecomplexos inventors'
understonding
of computingdeveloped.This
includesthe kind of mochines
which hod to
be configuredfor eoch tosk,os well os
mochines
whichwere progrommoble.
In
oddition, it will look ot how doto wos stored
ond convertedinto inputtypessuitoblefor
the computer.Finolly,it will exominewhy
computershove becomenecessoryin wor
ond how militoryneedsin the 20thcentury
were responsiblefor so mony new
developments.

Figure 2 shows changes

number and cost of transistors
1.97'1.

1985. Up

to 1.979,there was a
in the number of transistors.
During the same period, prices
. From 1979 to 1985, the cost
of the transistors showed a

G Studythe descriptionof Figure2 on this page. Write

one or two words in each space.
38

. At the same time, the number

of transistors

o
5
E

35,000
20,000
10,0 0 0

o
c

.^
lu

I
g

'g1
o

E
I

r,ooo
1oo
01
0 01
0.001
10

1920

1930

1940

1950

Figur e1

600
500
o
Or

E8

400

9o

E?

300

ct
c

200

fl o

100
0
Figur e2

4r-

Transistors (x 1,OOO)

-+

Cost per transistor USo

lecture organization . 'signpost' language

You are going to hear a lectureabout the development

of computers.Look at the lectureslides.What will the
lecturertalk about? Make a list of points.
6d tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture.How will the lecture
be organized?Numberthesetopics.
o computingin the SecondWorld War
o mechanicalcomputing
o riseof the Internet
O

pre-mechanical
computing

electroniccomputing

S l i de1

B.
Studythe topicsin Exercise
1 Write some key words for eachtopic.
2 Canyou matchthe topicswith Slides1-4?
3 What is a good way to make notes?
4 Make an outline for your notes.
6d tirt"n to Part 2 of the lecture.
1 Add informationto your outline notes.
2 Which of the topicsin Exercise
B are discussed?
ln what order?

S l i de2

3 Why was the JacquardLoom important?

6d tirt"n to Part 3 of the lecture.Make notes.
B are discussed?
1 Which topicsin Exercise
2 Which topic has not been mentioned?
3 What challengehelpedcomputersdevelopin the
late 19tncentury?
4 How did computerdevelopmentduring the Second
World War movetechnologyforward?
The lecturer usedthese words and phrases.Match
synonyms.
1 key concept

a calculating

2 adding

b do

3 important people
4 jump ahead

c machine
d important point

5 perform

e key figures

6 invented

t move forward

7 device

g created

S l i de3

S l i de4

note-taking symbols. stresswithin words . lecture language

Look at the student noteson the right. They are

from the lecturein Lesson5.2.

Mechanical
compulirg

1 What do the symbolsand abbreviations

mean?

0)Hoi/eniA lale Cl7+h,IabulalirE

machir:res
usinggears&,paperiape. useduS
Censusl88oard J +r" by 7 yrs

2 The notescontainsomemistakes.Findand
correctthem.

Company
becaueIBM.
() l13Z- BusAmIT - D'fferenlial
Aruly.". comm.use = elec. molors&

3 Make the correctednotesinto a spidergram.

5) titt"n to the final part of the lecture.

qears, binarv

J'T

1 Completeyour notes.

wwz

2 Why doesthe lecture have to stop?

Gi)WWZ- UK, Tunrg broke Germancode

using Colossus= Ft elecl onic compuler,

3 What is the researchtask?

ayplogue,usedvalves* relays.

syllables.
ldentifythe
f) titt"n to somestressed
word below in eachcase.Numbereachword.

Innovalive,eg., purched c,ard inV.^|,

enory\pw impact on wac

Example:You hear: 1-crypt krrytl

You write:
arithmetic

chip

digital

programmability

addition

computation

magnetic

subtraction

calculation

cryptography

mechanical

transistor

Studythe extract from the lectureon the right.

1 Think of one word for eachspace.
6d Listenand checkyour ideas.
3 Matih words or phrasesfrom the blue box
below with eachword or phrasefrom the
lecture.
2

4 Think of other words or phraseswith

similarmeanings.

The computer is

the most imoortant

pieceof technologyin modern societg but it

has a very long history, in fact going
back almost 5,000 years.It startswith the early
Babylonians,who usedsimple arithmetic to count and
keep a record of their goods.
As their wealth grew and they had more and more

basically by that I mean for example

for instance in fact possibly probably
some people say that is to say
to put it anotherway we can seethat
we won't spendtoo muchtime on this

goods to record,it

that they would

try to developtools to make this work easier.

A good

of one of thesetools is the

abacus,used as a basic calalator - in

uords, a computer. What I
is that, as in a computer,data is

Discuss
the researchtask set by the lecturer.
1 What kind of informationshouldyou find?

input by moving the beads.It is stored by the position

2 What do you-alreadyknow?

of the beadsand the output or answerscan then be

3 Where can you find more information?

read off. Five beadsper line are often used,just as

there are five fingerson a hand.
moutnS

to the early 17th centurS we

find a different type of computer.

ontributionsto a seminar

Studythe graphon the oppositepage.

1 What doesit show?
2 What isthe connectionbetweenthe graphand the development
of the Internet?

5) titt"n to someextractsfrom d seminaraboutthe creationof the Internet.

1 What iswrongwith the contributionof th lastspeaker
in eachcase?Choosefrom the following:
o it is irrelevant
o it is not polite
o the studentinterrupts
o it is relevantbut the studentdoesn'texplain
the relevance
o the studentdoesn'tcontributeanything
to the discussion
2 What exactlydoesthe studentsay,in eachcase?
3 What shouldthe studentsayor do, in eachcase?

6) lirt"n to somemoreextractsfrom the sameseminar.

1 How doesthe secondspeakermakean effectivecontributionin eachcase?
Choosefrom the following:
He/she...
o asksfor clarification
o paraphrasesto checkunderstanding
o bringsthe discussionback to the

o disagrees
politelywith a previousspeaker
o bringsin anotherspeaker
o givesspecificexamples
to helpexplaina point

mainpoint
2 What exactlydoesthe studentsay,in eachcase?
3 What otherwaysdo you know of sayingthe samethings?

Makea tableof Do's(helpfulways)and

Don'ts(unhelpfulways)of contributing
to seminardiscussions.

askpol;lelyfor inforrnlion

E work in groups.
1 Lookat the pictureson the oppositepage.Decidewhichsetsof data in Figure1
the picturesrelateto.
2 Whichof the threeelementsshownin the graphhelpedcontributemostto
speedingup the development
of the Internet?Lookat the graphand makesure
you canjustifyyour decisions.
3 Conducta seminar.
Ohepersonshouldact asobserver.

Reporton your discussion

and presentthe feedbackfrom your group,giving
reasons
for your decisions.

Work in groupsof four. Eachpersonshouldresearch

and discuss
one of the four maintypes
of research.
Theteacherwill giveyou a discussion
taskcardwith moreinstructions.
o studentA: find out aboutsecondaryresearch
(informationon page.|02)
o StudentB:find out aboutprimaryresearch
(informationon page102)
o studentc:find out aboutquantitativeresearch
(informationon page105)
o StudentD: find out aboutqualitativeresearch
(informationon page10G)

42

5 THE HISTORY OF ICT

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41--

Vocabularysets
It is a good idea to learn words which go together. Why?
o lt is easierto rememberthe words.

o Youwill havealternativewordsto usewhen paraphrasing

research
findings.
o lt is not good styleto repeatthe sameword often,sowriters,and sometimes
makeuseof wordsfrom the samesetto avoidrepetition.
speakers,
Youcancreatea vocabulary
setwith:
synonyms
antonyms
hypernyms
linkedwords

words with similar meanings,e.9., engine, machine

wordswith oppositemeanings,
.9.,analogue,digital
a generafword for a set of words, e.9.,arithmetic =
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

e.9.,innovation,invention,advance

Describing trends
Youcanusea varietyof phrases
to discuss
trendsand statistics.
Examples:
Go up
nse
increase
grow
improve
soar

No change

Go down

stay the same

remainat ...
doesn'tchange
is unchanged

fall
decrease
decline
worsen
d16p
plunge
plummet

Adverbs
slightly
gradually
steadily
significantly
sharply
dramatically

Stance
Speakers
often usecertainwordsand phrases
to showhow they feel about
what they are saying.Commonstancewordsare:
adverbs

phrases

arguably
naturally
unfortunately
of course,...
it's essentialtolthat
we might saythat ..

In manycases,
differentstancewordsand phrases
are usedin spokenand
written language.
Spoken
anotherthing
it seems
unfortunately
believe

Written
additionally

evidently
regrettably
contend

Signpost language in a lecture

At the beginningof a lecture,
a speaker
will usuallyoutlinethe talk.To helplisteners
understand
the orderof topics,the speakerwill usephrases
suchas:
To startwith I'll talk about ...
ThenI'lldrscuss...
After that, we'll look at ...
I'll finishby giving a summaryof ...
Duringthe lecture,the speakermay:
indicatea new topic

saythe samething in a
differentway
returnto the mainpoint

Moving on (from this)

WhatI mean is,...
Thatis to say,...
Toput it another way,
Wherewas l? Oh, yes.
Toreturn to the main point ..
As I wassaying...

Seminar language
The discussion
leadermay:

askfor information

askfor opinions
bringin otherspeakers

Whatdid you learnabout ...?

Canyou explain...?
Canyou.tellmea bitmoreabout...?
Whatdo you makeof ...?
Thisis interesting,isn'tit?
What do you think, Majed?
What's your opinion, Evie?

Participantsshould:
be polite when disagreeing

Actually, I don't quite agree .

makerelevantcontributions

Thatremindsme ..

give examplesto explaina point

I can give an example of that.

Participantsmay:

agreewith previousspeaker

I agree, and that's why ...

That's tr.le, so I think ...
You're absolutely right, which is why ..

disagreewith previousspeaker

I don't think I agree with that. ln my opinion ..

I'm not surethat's true. I think ...

linkto a previous
speaker

As Jack said earlier ...

Going back to what Leilasaid a while ago ..

Couldyou saymoreabout...?
paraphrase
to checkunderstanding So what you're sayingis ..
referbackto establishrelevance
Justgoing backto .

askfor clarification

Participants
maynot be sureif a contributionis new or relevant:
I'm sorry.Hasanybodymade the point that ...?
I don't know if thisis relevantbut ...

paraphrasingat sentence level

Studythe words in the blue boi.

browser cache connection

distribution host hypertext
interaction layer link packet
peer request response scale
server spider stream visit

1 Copyand completethe table. Put the words in

one or more boxes,in eachcase.
2 Add affixesto make words for the empty boxes.
(Somewill not be possible.)
3 What is the specialmeaningof eachword in
relationto the lnternet?
4 Finda synonymfor eachword in the blue box.

Noun

Verb

5 Groupthe words in the blue box accordingto

their stresspattern.

visill

visit

StudyFigure'l on the oppositepage.Discuss

these
questionsusingwords from Exercise
A.

StudentA

1 What do the screenshotsshow?

2 What are the similaritiesand differences

between the two images?

Tle propo,},on of PZPlraffic Aas.isen

conside.ably SrcE 2007.

Z By 2,010,
daia usilg VoIP pro*ocols was
decreas,ng rapidly.

StudyFigure2 on the oppositepage.

HTTP usage dec.eaed sAap/y belween

Z0o/ 67f, 7991.

1 What doesthe graph show?

Gamirghas sArunkas a propo#,on of Laffic

overall.

2 What connectionis there between Figure1 and

Figure2?

S#eami1g npre ll'an halvedbelween 200-/

3 What use could be made of the data for each of

the protocols?
StudentA haswritten about changesin data
transfersover the lnternet, but there are some
mistakes.Changethe blue words,so the sentences
are true.
StudentB hasalsowritten about changesin data
transfersover the lnternet. Match each sentence
with a correctedsentencefrom ExerciseD.
Look at Figures3a and 3b on the oppositepage.
1 What do the two diagramsshow?
2 Add the missingwords to the spacesin 3a and
3b, usingwords from the blue box and your
own knowledge.
3 Write a descriptionof what is happeningat
each stage,indicated by the number.
4 ldentifythe similaritiesand differences
betweenthe two diagrams.

Adjective

ATM LUIU.

b PZPceasedtobelle mosfcomnon prolocol

on lle lr*errel in zoto.

Student B
o lfn 4O/O, +Ue ?R
?co+oco\ u:o.s .s*i\\
u.sed sofe *hon on$ o+hec ?io+oco\ on
*he lJn-tecne*.
r" *f+ec
eOO7, *con.sfec.s of doto using
P/P aco+oeo\s dec\ined .si6"ifieo^+tg.
c -ft e co*io of do-to vsin.3 -eomin.f
?co+oco\s ho.s incFeosed ce\o*ive *o
oveco\\ +coffie on -\he T61sa^.*.
d -lue ?coloc*ion
of :r5+4e^s+ do+o
usi^.3 s+ceohin.A ?fo+oco\s n ?OOQ
l.Jo.s ovef +dice os hueh o.s i* hod reen
'
\

a-n1
d vu

/ -

e Fcom ?OOT +o 4OO/, +here lJos o

.3coduo\ dec\ine in *he v.se of +he
\\-fTP aco*oeot.
f

3eginning i 4O/O, *hece oos

.3cod+h in VoT? do+o tcoffic.

coaid

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90"/"
P2P

80%
70%
60"/"

HTTP

50%
40%

Streaming

30%

Vol P

20"/"

Gami ng

t0 %
0%
2007

-Other

2008

2009

20 t 0

20tl

20t2

20t3

2 0t 4

Figure2: Realand projectedchangein data transfer by different protocolsas at 2010

Browser(client)

Server

2 Browsermakes

link
1 User
-t clicks

data.

Figure3a: hyperlink,HTTPserver,HTML

Browser(client)
1

Server

User action
updatesoaoe
usinodata from cabhd
uodates
with data from server

Figure3b: cache,AJAX,XML, HTTP

ident if y ing s ubj e c t - v e r b - o b j e c ti n l o n g s e n t e n c e s. p a r a p h r a s i n g

Discuss
thesequestions.
File data
lnformation on file location

1 What doesFigure1 show?

2 What advantagesdoesthis form of
network havewhen transferringdata
acrossthe Internet?
3 What typesof files might people
transferover this type of network?
4 What reasonsmight there be for the
declinein this type of data as a
proportionof lnternettraffic?
Look at the illustration,the title, the
introductionand the first sentenceof each
paragraphon the oppositepage.
1 What will the text be about?

A and
2 Usingyour ideasfrom Exercises
81, write someresearchquestions.

T,

Readthe text. Doesit answeryour

questions?
in the text.
Studythe highlightedsentences
Findand underlinethe subject,verb and
objector complementin eachsentence.

\J

Figure1
Two studentsparaphrasedpart of the text.
1 Which part of the text are theseparaphrases
of?
2 Which paraphraseis better?Why?
StudentA
rtn
*ho*

S tudent B

im?oc*on*
v.ses.s

direc+\g,

\)at.
cou\d

using

ovoi\os\e

*heic

qs

TI^e ab'l;ly,wilh web 2.0,lo vtew piclures ard video

i-o.ge.s

onlirc, wilhoul havirg lo do*nload f;les,

Q\vg-in

rrdJo.advarc-e.

t.o^

o.s

o fsee\g

oc odd-o^-

Ta
r.rhen o ves'.sion of F\o.sh oq.s
"?OO3t
ce\eo.sed
.s*seomin.3,
o.
ohich inc\vde.d
"ide.o
vec$ hi.$h ?ro?oc*ion
of ,^)es v.s:er.s
do,-r^toqdad
The

+i{-.s+

o ureb-bosed

400.t-

+he
'ideo

?\u-in.
uros

"ideo

a
^ar{.'.ed

o ures-r.o.sed

Flosh

?t-o.gt-o6,
bcorisec

\jos

u)eb bcor.)sec.

i^ /q?6

=^+soduced
onino*ion

4 -O devetophen+
nou: rie,-r vidao o^d

uatooded

shot-in-g

*o

ongirlally inlroduced in 177b,Flashslarled out as a

{ree aninalion ?rogram wh;ch could be run in a web
b.owg,n
when a new ,elease of FlashapVared in 200j, whic,h
vdeo sLeam,rp, lhe plug-in was downloaded
'rr>luded
by a large numbero{ web users.

.$ouTuse,

q??\icqlion,

rn

YouTube,a web-bas.d appl,cal'onwAicAallowedusers

lo upload and view vtdeos,was laurr-hedn 2005.

Work in groups.Write a paraphraseof a different part of the text.

5 THE IIITERI{ET

Web2.02
Reol
chonge
0rhype?

ftoS.Q
arepress

u,-

ry
....,..,
otKno

\round the year 2005, a seriesof radical developments appeared

to be changing the way the Internet was used. Large numbers of

'

;q^ t

I
lt,

dd[blefl F,,sd,our rs

\r,
itrcgn,

\{r

," 'C ,d

$..rK
utwo frr)7'i",

2t

","i,;,.

I
' :;

*'T.flickr

new online services such as video sharing and social networking

rr'ere being developed, and huge numbers of people were signing
up to use them. For some writers the changes were so significant

1p'6.6.rav
vrzu

they used the term 'Web 2.0' to describe them. In software

engineering, when a new version of a software package is a huge

O@
| '.'| .d* -

et

atmondReri

Tagy!

. ,- ;

s l m py

tlrese developments were limited by the need to load cornplete

improvement on the old version, the convention is to add one to

page.seach time nelv data was selecteclfrom the database,which

the number before the decimal, so that 1.0 becomes 2.0, for

made them relativelv sloiv

erample. Where the transition is more gradual, one is added after

It was against this background that Flash and Ajax, the two

the decimal. Other writers, however, felt that the term Web 2.0 was

techrrologiesscen as key kr Web 2 0, emerged A major component

unhelpful and the changes were evolutionary rather than

of Web 2 0 rvas the wav in it'hich users could directly accessvisual

revolutionary. So, which view is correct? The best way to analyze

ancl audio-vistral material rn their browser The first release of

lVeb 2.0 is to identify its key technologies and services. By looking

Flaslr lvas introduced in 1996 as a freely available u'eb-based

at each service in the context of the developments in web

aninration program ivhich rvoultl run in a browser plug-in or

technology which made it possible,we can evaluate the nature of

add-on

the changes.

incremental changes and became increasingly popular When a

-fhe

Tlre softivare strbseqtrently went

through

many

first development we should look at is the creation of sfrzllc

vcrsion rvas rcleased in 2t)03which irrcluded video streaming, a

.. r'l'slfes.Initially, theseconsistedof mainly text-basedvTgbpagcs,

vely high proportion of web browsers had the plug-in installed

rr ith the occasionalimage The pagr-'swere written in HypcrText

Flash fundamentally altered the way in which users could access

\l.rrkup Language (HTML), which allowed the it,riter to vary the

visual and audio-visual material Flickr, the online photo album

'ize, colour ancl emphasis of the text, and to include hypeltext

ljnks to other web pages Some websites contained forms which

sen,ice and YouTube, tlre video slraring service, i'r'hiclr both

. r l l o u ' e d u s e r s t o su b m it th e ir d e ta ils, b tr t o th cr wise the pages

the nen' featuresof the Flash package.By 2010,Flickr was hosting

h orL. fixecl ancl there rvas little rnteractivrtv Over time, static

five billion images and YouTube n,as serving over tu'o billion

rr cbsites bccame bigger, and web pages began to be spidered,

videos per day The other technology associatedwith Web 2.0 was

irrrlexing the pages so thcy could be found bv search e.ngirres

Ajax (Asynchnrnous JavaScriptand XML), a client-side scripting

Thev also began to Llsemore graphrcs, and to lirrk to document

language whiclr allor'ved elements of a page to be refreshed

ancl video files which could be downloaded by users and viewed

without reloading the whole page This allowed web pages to

r r n d e s k t o pa p p l i c atio n s

become almost as interactive as deskkrp applications

latrnched in 2005,were among the first to use and to benefit from

The next stage to corrsider is the. development of dynonric

An important effect of these technolcgies rvas on the use of

;r'cbsifcs These sites used server-side scripting languages to

peer-to-peer technologies for accessingaudio and video corrtent

o\tlact data from databases,which was then used to creatc lveb

Since the late 1990s,users have exchanged music and video files

pages One of the most popular languages was PHI' (Pre-

over these networks, much of it copvright material By making it

flvpertext

possible to listen to music and to watch video online, there was

Processor), an open source product

Fronr 1998

orrrr'ards,PHP was routinely used with three other open sollrce

Iessneed to download files using P2P irr order to share files, and

f.roclucts- the Lintrx operating system, Apache n'eb server and

\lvSQL databasepackages- to power dynarnic websites, giving

so this type of lnternet traffic experienced a drop Howe'",er,the

r i s c t o t h e t e r m LAM P sfr ick. Se r ve r - sid escr ip tin g languages

video, games and other materials,as well as in geographical areas

nrerde it easv to move clata betu'een active web pages and

with lou, bantlwidth. Although not everyone agrees on hon'

tl.rtabases, making bullctir.r boards, blog ser.,'ices ancl early

significant techuologiessuch as P2P will continue to be, there is

rersions of social networking services possible Wikipedia, the

little doubt that the developments associatedwith Web 2 0 have

orrline encyclopedia, also grew fronr this technologv However,

changed the wav rve interact online for good

fall was p;radual and P2P remains popular for higher quality

Tr!

".tfs

u n d e r s t a n d i n gc o m p l e x s e n t e n c e s

Studythe words in box a from the text in Lesson6.2.

radical version transition

evolutionary development static
dynamic extract product

1 What part of speechare they in the text?

2 Finda word in the text with a similarmeaningto
eachword.
Completethe summarywith words from Exercise
A.

The term Web 2.0 comes from a convention

Studythe words in box b.

in numbering new software

1 What is eachbaseword and its ICTmeaning?

If

2 How doesthe affix changethe part of speech?

number after the decimal is changed.If they

3 What is the meaningin the text in Lesson6.2?

are

are

, the

, the number before is

changed.The developmentin which websites

Studysentences
A-E on the oppositepage.
1 Copyand completeTable1. Put the partsof
eachsentencein the correctcolumn.
2 Rewritethe main part of eachsentence,changing
the verb from activeto passiveor viceversa.

changedfrom

to
was very important in the

move to Web 2.0. Particularly important were

such as PHP. which could
createweb pagesby

Look at the 'Other verbs'column in Table1.

1 How are the clauseslinkedto the main part of
the sentence?
2 In sentencesA-C, what does each relative
pronoun refer to?
3 Make the clausesinto completesentences.

d a ta

from databases.

development revolutionary
hypertext interactivity indexing
asynchronous refresh reload

writing complexsentences

Make one sentencefor eachbox on the

right, usingthe method given in red.
Includethe words in blue.Write the
sentences
as one paragraph.
Studythe noteson the oppositepage
which a studentmade about the growth
of socialnetworkingservices.
1 Dividethe notesinto sectionsto
make suitableparagraphs.
2 Decidewhich ideasare suitable
topic sentences
for the paragraphs.
3 Make full sentences
from the notes,
joining ideaswhere possible,to
make one continuoustext.

Open Diarylauncheda servicewhich made it possibleto

createan online diary.
Open Diarymade it freely availableto anybody.
relative,passive In 1998
Userscould commenton other people'sdiary entries.
Userscould decidewhether to make their entriespublic
or private.
Userscould add other usersas their friends.
active,ellipsis Keyfeatures

Open Diarylaid the foundationsof blogging.

Open Diarypioneeredkey featuresof socialnetworking.
participle As a result

By 2010,Web 2.0 serviceswhich supported

online video viewing were causing a drop in
P2PtaI\_r--

Three of the many ways in which data transfer has I

speededup will be describedhere. /-'--)
-

I
)

As well as fully supporting developmentssuch as bulletin

boards, server-sidescripting made possibleservicessuch
as Wikipedia. .Having promoted Flash as an essentialplug-in, by
I
2003its owrlers saw a huge increasein the proportion I
I
of browsers using il
.J---=----

Table l: Bre

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Reporting findings
Youcannotuseanotherwriter'swordsunlessyou directlyquote.Instead,
you mustrestateor paraphrase.
Thereareseveralusefulwaysto do this:
use a synonymof a word or phrase

active ) dynamic
data using VolP protocols ) VolP
traffic

change negativeto positiveand

vice versa

sa/esrose slowly ) sa/esdidn't

increasequickly

subject
usea replacement

VolP traffic was increasing ) there

was an increasein VolP traffic

changefrom activeto passiveor

vice versa

the cache updated the

page, the page was updated
from the cache

changethe order of information

in the introduction phase, HTTP

usage declined gradually ) there
was a gradual decline in HTTP
usage early in the cycle

you shoulduseall the methods

Whenreportingfindingsfrom onesource,
above,asfar aspossible.
Example:
Originaltext
Report

Streaming more than doubled between 2007 and 2010.

The proportion of lnternet data using streaming
protocols in 2010 was over twice as much as it had beei
in 2007.

lmportant
youshouldaimto makesurethat 90%of the words
Whenparaphrasing,
you usearedifferentfrom the original.lt is not enoughto changeonlya
few vocabulary
items:thiswill resultin plagiarism.
Example:
Originaltext

Web 2.0 provided socialnetworking with the tools it

needed to develop fully.

Plagiarism

Web 2.0 gave socialnetworking the tools it needed to

develop fully.

Finding the main information

Sentences
in academic
and technicaltextsare often verylong.
Example:
Following the debate at a conferenceorganizedby Tim o'Reiltyin 2004,a
number of lnternet theoristsagreed that the term web 2.0 was usefulin
explainingthe changesfrom a web where usersonly receiveddata,to one
where they exchangedit.
Youoften don't haveto understandeveryword, but you mustidentify the
subject,the verb and the object,if there is one.
Forexample,in the sentence
above,we find:
subject= the term Web2.0
verb = u/as
compfement=useful
Remember!
phrases
at this point to helpyou
J9u.c9nremoveany leadingprepositional
find the subject,e.g.,Followingthe debate...
Youcanafsoremoveany introductoryphrase,e.g.a numberof tnternet
theoristsagreedthat ...
Youmustthen find the mainwordswhich modifythe subject,the verband
the objectcircomplement.
In the sentence
abovewe find:
What term?- Web2.0
why useful?= to explainthe changefrom usersonryreceivingdata,to
usersexchanging
data

Ellipsis
sometimes,
if the meaningisclear;wordsare impliedratherthan actually
givenin the text.
Examples:
Thereare manyways(in which)data canbe transferred.
The servicehad a numberof key featureswhichallowed usersto comment
on diary entriesfrom other people,(whichallowedusersto) maketheir
entriespublic or private,and (whichallowedusersto) add otherusersas
their friends.

. li' i

,qffiP,'

'

compound nouns o fixed phrases

Studythe words in box a.

12

1 Match nounsin column 1 with nounsin column2

to make compoundnouns.

back client
assurance design
design
end management
2 Which word in each phrasehasthe strongeststress?
programming
development
production project
requirements
Studythe phrasesin box b.
quality system specification tools
1 Completeeach phrasewith one word.

2 ls each phrasefollowed by:

o a noun (includinggerund)?
o subject+ verb?
o an infinitive?

asshown... aswell ... in addition...

in o rd e r. . . in s u c ha w a y . . .
in the case... known...
t h e e n d . . . t h e us e. . .

3 What is each phraseusedfor?

Look at the pictureson the opposite page showing
the production processfor developinga website.
What happensat each stage?
ReadextractsA-F on the right. They are from a
leaflet by a web developmentcompany.
1 Match each extract with a picture on the opposite
page.
2 Completeeach sentencewith one or more phrases
from box b.
Look at the Gantt chart on the opposite page. What
does it show?

tVhen the protorypes are ready, the client meets

the developers

_---

to decide which

*:lgl:P:11
s:i:::llir::*:i:::

of specialsoftwarefor the inidal

layoutand HTML codingmeansthat a number
ofprotorype sitescan be producedvery quickly.
to develop the website, the
company works with the client to produce a
documen!

a statement ot

requirements.
of the development process
takes place when the site is uploaded to the

Readthe text under the Gantt chart. Match the phrases

in box c with the highlightedphrasesin the text. Which
part of the chart is not mentioned?
Look at the web pages 1-3 on the opposite page.
Completethis smallweb developmentcompany
memo usingphrasesfrom boxesb and c.

...:::P..Tr-:
Y.:9.::v-:::
1r1s::li::: .
These requirements are then andyzed using
UML (Unified Modelling Language),
in che diagram, and detailed
specifications are produced outlining the
functiondiry

as the features of

the site.

My recommendationis that the design

in

developers will analyze the specifications

picture 3 should go into full production. My opinion is

-..- personal preference,but also on
other points. Firstly, -' .
maximize traffic to the site, we need to -

younger age groups. The

important for the successof this site.

--,.-,

that they can determine

which technologiesare most suitable.

to
- the

this type of visitor is

of this

desigo the colours are very attractive for younger people.

-,-,-- to this, the design emphasizesthe simple
functionality of the site.

i-

of more complex sites, the

a number of a variety of
at the sametime
bear in mind basedon dealwith
from the point of view of
the beginning of the developmentof

Developing a website

Gantt chart: Developing a new piece of software

Week I

Week 2

Week 3

Week 4

Week 5

Week 6

Week 7

Soecification document created

Usinq UML to decide on desisn
Decision on platform and designtools
Mock-up of front-end design
Demonstrate models to client for decision
Production begins

A Gantt chart is a useful planning tool, especiallyfor project management.The chart makesit easyto handlea
situation where different stagesoverlap. For example, this chart shows some stagesof the evolution of a new piece of
software.The startof the processinvolvesthe creationof a specificationdocument.Then, using the specifications,
UML models of the software are made.The developersuse various criteria to decide on the best platform and design
tools. Simultaneously,mock-upsof the designare createdusing input from severaldesigners,and a numberof models
are preparedfor the client to choosefrom.

makeanewf riend.co m

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aml
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fixedphrases. sequencinginformation in sentences

You are going to hear the lectureon the right.

Write four questionsyou would like answered.
6) tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture.
1 What is the lecturergoing to talk about
today? Write yes,no or not meittioned.
o production of code
o design specification

o working prototype
. costsof production

ADFOR.D Uniuersity

Fotulty:l(I Studiet
(omputerSoftworeDevelopment
(letturell
leclule
ovelview
o Sofmore
process
developmenl
o Terhnicol
issues
o Specifying
feolures
of softwore
o Models
forsofMore
developmenl
o Plonning
production
sofmore
ondscheduling

o production methods
o scheduling

2 What is project management?

6) tirt"n to Part 2 of the lecture.

1 Make notesin an appropriateform.
2 What is another word for software?
3 What activitiesare involved in defining user
requirementsfor software development?
Givesomeexamples.
4 Were your questionsin ExerciseA
answered?

D
E

Match each phrasein the first columnof the

table on the right with the type of information
that can follow.
O tirt"n to Part 3 of the lecture.
1 Makes notes on the information that comes
after the phrasesin ExerciseD.
2 Were your questionsin ExerciseA
answered?

6) tirt"n for sentences1-4 below in Part 4 of

the lecture.Which sentence(a or b) follows in
each case?Why? See Skills bank
1 Modeltype one is the waterfall model.
a In this type of model, each stage directly
follows the other.
b Eachstage directlyfollows the other in
this type of model.
2 The iterative model addsfunctionality in
stagesto software.
a Examplesof this type of software are
things like end-userapplicationsor
operating systemversions.
b End-userapplicationsor operating
systemversionsare examplesof this
type of software.

56

Fixedphrase

Followedbv .

1 An important
concept (is) ...

a different way to think

about the topic

2 What do I mean
by ...?

an imaginary example

3 As vou can see.

a key statement or idea

4 Looking at it
another way,

a concluding comment
giving a result of
something

5 In project
management
terms,...

a new idea or topic that

the lecturer wants to
discuss

5 Say.

a comment about a
diagram, or stage

7 The point is .

an explanation of a word
or phrase

8 In this way .

a general idea put into a

specific context

3 The third model is calledthe prototyping

model.
a In prototyping, the important thing is
that clientshave an opportunity to see a
model before it is fully developed.
b What's important about prototyping is
that clientshave an opportunity to seea
model before it is fully developed.
4 Lastly,there is the spiral model.
a In the spiralmodel,a differenceis that
it combineselementsof both the
waterfall and prototyping models.
b What's different in the spiral model is
that it combineselementsof both the
waterfall and prototyping models.
G fnis lecturer is not very well organized.What
problemsare there in the lecture?

stresswithin words . fixed phrasesr giving sentencesa specialfocus

6) tirt"n to some stressedsyllables,ldentify the word below in each case.Number each word.
Example:
You hear: 1 con lkonl You write:
concept

requirements

dependent

f unctionality increment

documentation

proprietary

specification

features

prototype

spiral

2.
6d tirt"n to the final part of the lecturefrom Lesson
1 Completethe noteson the right by addinga
symbolin eachspace.
2 What research
task(s)areyou askedto do?
Studythe phrases
from the lecturein the bluebox.
Forwhichof the followingpurposes
did the lecturer
useeachphrase?
a
o
o
a

to introducea new topic

to emphasize
a majorpoint
to add points
to finisha list

o to give an example
. to restate
LJ

Rewritethese sentencesto give a specialfocus.

Beginwith the words in brackets.
1 HenryGantt cameup with an ideato help with
scheduling.(/t)

resources
---

So#ware produclion plannirg comPrex _

l. sornefac*o.s -

develory.-

a.*side conLol o{

clien*s-

changesin

req,irenenls
Z. destgn-

developrred rradels

Scledultry -wlral proc.esv.s?when

dnisAi
sfa.f Hervy 6anl* -

6anl* cl',arls barly

1100s)
Usirg wa+er+all
nadel eaAie.tf"g"t

rnl ready used {o, tl-redultrp

lirrc.los* ;f
Ganl* cha#s

2 Gantt invented his chartsin the early 1900s.(/t)

3 The choiceof developmentmethodologyis critical.
(What)
4 Planningsoftware production is complex because
planningdecisionsare basedon a wide varietyof
different factors.(Two sentences.First= /f second=
The reason)
5 Gantt chartsshow what processes
are happening at
any one time. (Ihe advantage)
See Skills hank

Chooseone sectionof the lecture.Referto your notes

and give a spokensummary.Usethe fixed phrasesand
ways of giving specialfocus that you have looked at.

et cetera
In otherwords,...
Let'stake ...
Let me put it anotherway.
I almostforgotto mention...
Not to mentionthe fact that ...
Plusthere'sthe fact that ...
Thefact of the matteris,...
You'veprobablyheardof ...

F Work with a partner.

1 Makea Ganttchartfor an activity,projector process.
your chartto anotherpair.Practise
2 Present
usingfixed phrases
and waysof givingspecialfocus.
See Vocabularybank and Skills bank
57

m ak i n g e f f e c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a s e m i n a r

Lookat the weblog and the pressreleaseheadlineson

the oppositepage.
1 What doesooen sourcemean?
contain?
2 What informationwill the pressreleases
3 What do the graphsshow?
G tirt"n to the first extractfrom a seminarabout
open sourcesoftware.
1 What questionwill the studentsdiscuss?
decisionsurprising?
2 Why was Netscape's

IWhdorr
Home

Er1,\.,,1,

lntrn\Er$o(s, f,
_:,:,,,1

6.ffi*.tt.ilo'r

6ldtitt"n to Extract2 of the seminar.Are these

true or false?
sentences
1 Open sourcemakesprogramcodeavailableto
everyone.
2 Anyone can contributeto open sourceprograms.
3 Open sourcesoftwareis the sameas free software.
4 Open sourceapplicationsoftwareis very user
f riendly.
5 The potentialsocialbenefitsof open source
softwareare considerable.
Studytasksa-d below and the phrasesin the blue box.
I Write a, b, c or d next to each phraseto show its use.
a
b
c
d
2

introducing
askingfor clarification
agreeing/disagreeing
clarifying

G Listento Extract2 againto checkyour answers.

Work in groupsof four to researchthe main benefitsof

open sourceprogramming.Eachpersonshouldchoosea
different aspect.
o StudentA: read about securityissueson page 102.
o StudentB: read about costson page 105.
o StudentC: read about flexibilityon page 105.
o StudentD: read about socialrssues
on page 106.
After readingthe notes,report backorallyto your
group. Usefixed phrasesto askfor and give clarification.
Work in groups.Choosesomeof the itemsshown in the
photographs.

l'd liketo maketwo points.

First,...
Canyou expandon that?
The point is ...
What'syour secondpoint?
My secondpoint isthat ...
Yes,but...
I don't agreewith that
because...
Sorry,but who are we talking
about, exactly?
We need to be clearhere.
l'd just liketo saythat ...
In what way?
What l'm tryingto sayis,...

1 Havea practiceseminarin which you decidewhich

of the itemswould benefitfrom usingopen source
software.

Canyou give me an example?

giving reasons
2 Reportto the classon your discussion,
for your decisions.

Absolutely.

Look at it this way.

7 SOFTWARE DEVELOP'IENT

::/i .r.'..l/urIlI i u.ih I L/uI rJuI l''rurJ.:i

IulJ.uul l
Press Release:
Netscape'sdecisionto go
open source revisited

Press Release:
Does open source'change
the game' for software?

cashmachine
desktop
computer
lottery
machine
ballpicking
phone
mobile
airfield
radarsystem

Recognizing fixed phrases from ICT (1)

Thereare many fixed phrasesin the field of lCT.
Examples:
Phrase

Meaningin the discipline

back end

combinationof databaseand programminglanguage

providingdata for dynamicweb pages

operating system

softwareon which the applicationprogramsrun

development tools

softwarewhich is usedto write other softwareprograms

open source

softwarewhere the sourcecode is freelv available

Keepa list of fixed phrasesusedin ICTand remindyourselfregularlyof the meaning.

Recognizing fixed phrases from academic English (1)

Thereare alsoa large numberof fixed phraseswhich are commonlyusedin academic
and technicalEnglishin general.
Examples:
Phrase

What comes next?

As we have seen

a reminderof previousinformation

An important concept is

one of the basicpointsunderlyingthe topic

As you can see,

a referenceto an illustrationOR
a logicalconclusionfrom previousinformation

As shown in

a referenceto a diagramor table

. in such a way that

ln addition to (X, Y)
As well as (X, Y)

a resultof something
X = reminderof lastpoint, Y = new point

ln the caseof .

a referenceto a particulartopic oL more often, sub topic

At the sametime, .

an actionor idea which must be consideredalonoside

anotheractionor idea

. basedon .

a pieceof research,a theory, an idea

Bear in mind (that) .

key informationwhich helpsto explain(or limit in some

way) previousinformation

The point is .

the basicinformationunderlyingan explanation

in order to (do X, Y)

X = objective,Y = necessary
actions/conditions

ln project management terms,

the importancein relationto projectmanagement,of

somethingpreviouslymentioned

ln other words,
Looking at it another way,

the sameinformationput in a differentway

ln this way .

a resultfrom previousinformation

5ay .

an example

What do I mean by (X)?

an explanationof X

Make sureyou know what kind of informationcomesnext

'Given'and 'new' information in sentences

In English,we can put important informationat the beginningor at the end of a
sentence.There are two types of important information.
1 Information which the listeneror reader already knows, from general knowledge or
from previousinformation in the text. This can be called 'given' information. lt
normallygoesat the beginningof the sentence.
2 Informationwhich is new in this text. Thiscan be called'new' information.lt
normallygoesat the end of a sentence.
Example:
In Lesson2, the lecturer is talking about production methods,so production methods in
general = given information.
Given

New

Modeltype 1

is the waterfall model.

ln this type of model.

eachstage directly follows the other.

Giving sentencesa special focus

We sometimes
changethe normalword orderto emphasize
a particular
point,e.9.,a pgrson,an object,a time.
Examples:
Normalsentence
Focusingon person
Focusingon object
Focusing
on time

Henry Gantt invented the Gantt chart in the 1900s.

It wasHenryGantt who invented..

It was the Gantt chaft which Henry Gantt invented ..
It was in the early 1900sthat Gantt ..

Introducing new information

We canusespecialstructures
to introducea new topic.
Examples:
Softwareproduction methodsare my subjecttoday.
) What I am going to talk about today is software production methods.
Agreeing a statementof requirementswith the client is very important.
) What is very importantis agreeinga statementof requirementswith the client.
Clientchangescan causeproblemsto arise.
) The reasonwhy prohlemscanariseis client changes.
Poorplanningleadsto projectfailure.
il The resultof poor planning is project failure.

Clarifying points
When we are speaking,we often have to clarify points.There are many expressions

whichwe canuse.
Examples:
Letme put' it anotherway ...
Lookat it thisway ...

What I'm trying to sayis ...

Thepointlthing is ...

frorn verbs. paraphrasing

A,pl,rns

Lookat the picturesopposite.

1 MatchpicturesA-G with the appropriatelabels.l-7.
2 What functionsdo the itemsin picturesA-F perform
in the FuTeksystemin diagramG?

Discuss
the followingquestions.
1 What is meantby efficiencyin computersystems?
2 What can be usedto measurethe efficiencyof the
itemsin boxa?

Lookup eachnoun in box b in a dictionary.

1 ls it countable,uncountable
or both?
2 What is its meaningin ICT?
3 What isa goodsynonym?
4 What usefulgrammatical
informationcanyoufind?

Studythe two listsof verbsin box c.

1 Matchthe verbswith similarmeanings.
2 Makenounsfrom the verbsif possible.

Lookat the HadfordUniversity

handout.
1 How doesthe writer restateeachsectionheadingin
the paragraph?
2 Findsynonyms
for the bluewordsand phrases.
Use
a dictionaryif necessary.
3 Rewriteeachsentence
to makeparaphrases
of the
texts.Use:
. synonyms
you havefound yourself
o synonyms
from Exercise
C
o the nounsyou madein Exercise
D
o passives
wherepossible
I anyotherwordsthat are necessary
Example:
Centralizing
data-processing
operationscanplaya
role in developingefficientsystems.
) Thecentralizationof data-processing
operations
can contribute to greater efficiencyin a computer
system.

62

Studythe picturesof the computersystemon the

oppositepageagain.
1 What changesmight improvethe performance
of
the system?
2 What possibleproblemsmight resultfrom these
changes?

interface network processors

software storage support
cost data centre function
migration outage processor
task utilization
1

cluster
consume
convert
disrupt
distribute
drivedown
ensure
incorporate
mask
measure
playa rolein

interrupt
guarantee
contribute(to)
reduce
in c lud e
group
transform
balance,
share
assess
use
hide

AIDFORDUniaersity
Efiiciency

in systems development

A Data centre migration

Moving processingand storage operations
to a centralized location can play a role in
developing efficient systems.For example,
by using multiple serversclustered together
on one site, and softwarg to distribute the
processingload acrossthem, higher
utilization levels can be obtained. This
drives down the cost of hardware, so
systemsusing data centrescan deliver
servicesmore cheaply.
B Gapacity utilization
'Wecan measurehow well a systemis using
its resources(i.e., processor,memory) like
this: actual usagedivided by maximum
potential usagetimes 100. All designerstry
to lower the cost of processingin a system.
One way to do this is to use efficient
sofrware to minimize the amount of spare
capacity.

Parts of a system

esTek
--:WhyUs I Guarantees
Us HelpCentre sign
Up I
| (ontact

rr rqn llt4ct
FF TFft.

bh

,n

;;:.T-"
ld.| t.i<

t-b
rrrtfraa

t gt
o.r.!F

o '9 m
:
t0

Q. Ar.FE

qc r .e- s

User applications

and services

Client selected tools

(e.9., PHP & MySQL & operating

Futek System

p""k.F."ol
I

storage

lv'a.]
I servers

,tr

"o '.* .'

t-r

Client web interface

system)

system(s)

operating

au

aarat,frooa.
-

{.

l:'

I multiple
operating
sysrems
2 dedicated
helplines
3 high-speed
network
connections
4 easy-to-use
panel
control
5 energy-efficient
pr0cess0rs

System administration

Edmin d;tal
| (secured) |

6 low-costdata
storage
7 system
diagram

f.t-.5'qq

sldro$*s:$r!-Err

...,-:ol,:e

E,r*;;rg*P:gfiflIFi:

recognizing essaytypes o understanding complex sentenceswith passiveso defining terms

Look at the different examplesof systemsin

the blue box.

air trafficcontrol e-mail

nuclearpowerplant patientrecord
search
engine socialnetworking

1 What type of systemis each one

(e.9.,e-mail= cofilryrunication
system)?
2 How couldthe performanceof each
systembe improved?

HADFORDT Jnircrsir),

3 What changescould be madeto each

systemto bring about these
improvements?

There are four main essay types in

ICT:

Look at the four essaytypeson the right.

1 What shouldthe writer do in eachtype?
2 Match each essaytype with one of the
questionsbelow the slide(A-D).

o descriptive
o analytical
o comparison/evaluation
o arSument

3 What topicsshouldbe coveredin each

essayquestion?
\fhat are the advantagesand disadvantagesof
virtualization for large commercial organizations?

Readthe title of the text on the opposite

page and the first sentenceof each
paragraph.
1 What will the text be about?

'Virtualization answersall of the questionswhich

systemdesignershave to ask about hardware.'To
what extent do you agreewith this statement?

2 Chooseone of the essayquestionsin

B. Write four researchquestions
Exercise
which will help you to find information
for your essay.

Explain why reducing system energy consumption

is essentialto the successof virtualization.

Readthe text.
1 Usingyour own words,make notesfrom
the text on informationfor your essay
question.
2 Work with another personwho has
chosenthe sameessayquestionas
you. Compareyour notes.
Studythe highlightedsentencesin the
text.
1 Underlineall the subjectsand their
verbs.
2 Which is the main subjectand verb
for eachsentence?

What questionsdo designersneed to ask when

consideringthe efficiencyof their systems?
Describe how two companies have found different
answers to some of these questions.

Word/phrase

2 data i ntegri ty

4 ' hot sw appi ng'

2 Underlinethe words or phrasesin

the text which the writer usesto
give the definitions.

ensuri ngthat devi cesopera t eef f icient ly

w hether they are i dl e,opera t ingat lower
usagel evel s,or at ful l capac it y

3 energy
circuitson the computer'smotherboard
proporti onal i ty provi di ngthe vol tagesrequir edby t he
mi crochi ps

Studythe table on the right.

1 Match eachword or phrasewith its
meanrng.

Meani ng

1 'out-of-the box' where physicalcomponentscan be added or

removedwithout shutting down the system

systemssupplyingpower with built in

storagecapacityso that during a power
outage serverscan keep running

5 uni nterrupti bl e equi pmentprovi dedby the manuf act ur er

pow er suppl i es w i thout modi fi cati on
(U P 5)
6 voltage
regul ator
ci rcui try

ensuri ngthat data i s not cor r upt ed

thehordwore':
'Hiding
Using virtuol mochines to improve system efficiency
Good system design has always kied to balanceperformanceand cost.For designersof generalized
commercial systems,this has meant a careful analysisof the specificationsof component parts, to
ensurethat they can provide the necessaryfunctionatfy and reliability at the least possiblecost.
Where systemsare a key elementof commercial organizations,the level of system efficiency can
mean the difference between successand failure for a company.
Here is a list of questions which have to be considered
by systemsdesigners:
o What can be done to minimize system hardware
costs?
o What is the best balance between the level of
specification of hardware components in a system,
and their cost?
e What are the implications of these changeson the
overall operation of the system?
r How easily will the system architecture'scale up':
that is, increaseproportionally,if it needsto be
expanded?
r How can systemsbe designed to minimize their
effectson the environment?
Some answers to the above questions have been
provided by ttirtualization A key conceptof
virtualization is clustering, which means locating the
hardware elements of the system together in a data
centre or server farm. This makes it easier to orovide an
optimal environment for the hardware to woik in.
System maintenance is also simplified by clustering, as it
makes components easily accessiblefor repair or
replacement.Another concept is masking, wlich
involves rnaking the physical components of the system
appear as one virfual device to system administrators.
This makes it easier for them to manage the system.
Virtualization can be used for servers,storage and
networking. A key benefit of virtualization is that
physical components can be added or removed without
shutting down the system (this is known as'hof
swapping'). This provides great flexibility for system
designers as it means that processing,networking or
storage capacity can be scaledup or down very quickly
in responseto changesin the businessenvironment.
In addition to flexibility in system size, virtualization
allows flexibility in terms of the specification of system
components which can be used, although there are
limitations. The system developer's choice of
components is limited by the level of reliability required
by the system. For example, 'out-of-the-box' servers,
which are those purchased from manufacturers without
modificatio4 are typically both expensive and high
specification. They are ideal for e-commercecompanies
such as Arnazon which require very high levels of
reliability and data integrity (ensuring that data is not

corrupted). For others, such as Google, reliability is less

important than cost becausethe amount of revenue
which they obtain from each searchis so small. For this
reason,they have used enormous numbers of low-cost,
low-specification PCs.These are less reliable, but using
virfualization means that the failure of a component,
such as a motherboard, will not disrupt the service
overall. Any loss of data will only affect transactions
taking place at the time. For searchengine systemssuch
as Google, this may simply mean users not getting the
optimum searchresults. For other types of systems,the
effectsmay be more damaging.
Large amounts of power are required to cool data
centres,which has led to a widespread recognition of the
impact of virtualization on global warming. The size of
this impact can be seenin a 2006US EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency) report. This stated that data centres
accounted for 1,.5% of all US electricity consumption,
and that the technology they used had to be improved if
their rate of growth was to be sustained. For example,
most data centresuse chillers, which are elaborate waterbased cooling systems,to maintaih an appropriate
temperature for the hardware. Howeve4,some
companies,such as Google, have begun an initiative to
avoid the use of chillers and to reduce oower
consumptionby relying on innovative data centre
design. One approach is to use only DC current in the
centres,avoiding conversion lossesfrom standard AC
current. By using higher specification voltage regulator
circuitry - circuits on the computer's motherboard
providing the voltages required by the microchips more power savings can be made. In fac! all server
components are designed to have a property called
energy proportionality, which ensuresthat they operate
efficiently whether they are idle (not doing any active
work), operating at lower usage levels, or at full capacity.
By giving each server its own battery Google avoids
using uninterruptiblepower supplies(UPS),a term used
for giant batteries which ensure that serverskeep
running if there is a power outage. Theseconsume large
amounts of energy.While Google has long been
recognized as a leader in data centre energy efficiency,
Yahoo is catching up. By 2074,Yahoo plans to have data
centreswhich will be more energy efficient than those
currently used by Google, according to a Yahoo
corporate blog en !,QthJune 2009.

F','i

i' -r:'::it{#@fi'::jf.#iei

"'
"i " $f4''i'"r'

r*r "
"i ;T
if?rJ'

passivesin dependent clauses. essayplans

Findthe words in the blue box in the text in Lesson8.2.

1 What part of speechis eachword?
2 Think of another word which could be usedin placeof
the word in the text. Useyour dictionaryif necessary.
A-D which relateto the text in Lesson8.2.
Studysentences

component reliability scaleup

key environment
transactions widespread
impact chillers appropriate
initiative motherboard

1 ldentifythe dependentclause.
2 Copythe table under the sentences
and write the
partsof eachdependentclausein the table.
3 Rewritethe sentenceusingan activeconstruction.
Example:
Here is a list of questions which systemsdesigners
have to consider.
Readthe essayplansand extractson the oppositepage.
1 Match eachplan with an essaytitle in Lesson8.2.

Here is a list of questionswhich have to be

consideredby systemsdesigners.
Google has designed innovative systemsin
which power consumption is reduced.
Energy costs are high when data centres are
cooled by chillers.
Amazon uses thousands of servers which are
orovided bv a number of different manufacturers.

2 Which essayis each extract from?

3 Which part of the plan is eachextractfrom?
havelo be
considered

Work with a partner.

sys+ems
de5grer5

1 Write another paragraphfor one of the plans.

2 Exchangeparagraphswith another pair.Canthey identifywhere it comesfrom?

w r i t i n g c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e so w r i t i n g e s s a yp l a n s . w r i t i n g e s s a y s

Make complete sentencesfrom these notes.Add words as necessary.

sggested - vi4ual'zal'on answer - all key qye.slor$ sys+err6 desgrers - ask sys+ems|ardware

eas - n.t,inlerarca - abl;Iy sysiem - respord - cl^arEe - answered ,W.t*ions

"Try

addressurgWslion - key *ask delerrnire - g.res*;ons

virlualizalion answers - wlelLe.
qnslions - doesnl dnswer

qrest;ons - vitlualizaf'on rpl

answer - corvern svr;{;ca*;on co^porcnls - rel'ab,l;ly- rssres
,elalirg - erergy cons.mglion

vrtualzalon

The sentencesin Exercise

A are topic sentences
for paragraphsin essayB in Lesson8.2.
Put them in the bestorder for the essay.
What is the main topic for eachparagraph?
Look at the essayquestionon the right.

Essayquestion

1 What kind of essayis this?

2 Do someresearchand make a plan.
3 Write the essay.

Yahoo aims to overtake Google in energyefficiency

in its data centres.Describethe stepsthat Yahoo will
needto take in order to make this happen.

Essayplans

t Jntroduction:
syslem

efficienc-yi

Z Define
J

imgor[anc.e

eyete-

So-e

oS

queelione

[o be c-oneidere.dl

imporlarc-e o{ erwgy savilg

giye essdyaims.

aims oS eeeag.

e$Sicienc-g,

lrirodw-lion:

Def,n;,lton o{ virlualizalion.

3 widesyead recogni+ion o{ tle impaol of

ha.doare

c-oet v. need tor

virlual,zalion on global warmirp: Ierels o{

re\iabi\ilg,

minimi3in3 e$Tec-t on

ercrgy uv-,,c;lus+enE o{ lrardwarein daia

ertlres, use of cAille.sfo, coolirE.

enYrronment,
r-f Exa-y\eel
?Ce

lo

A-a3on

Goo3\e u,in3 \o!c-?ec-,

minimi3e ha.Joa.e
hi3h-pec,,

to

c-o|,

eneu.e

daLa

Inrpvalive lechniqyes Io improve

efficercy:

use of bal*e;es lo ,eplac-e

UPS,AgAer-sfi.. comporer*s {or erargy

inte3ri[5,

tc,onomic- im?\ic.aLio^s in

savirgt use o{ DC pow* as s*andard.

ter-g

L.angac-lione,

Ircreasilg

of

5 Conc-\ueionl different
recluiremente
qnglcerg to

oi\\
3o-e

c-omyany

diqgerenL
-ean
oT [he.ee

queelione,

impor*arr.e o{ globalwarmilg as

polilical iss.re.Need {o, ere*gy sayings

wlere possible.
Corrclusion: wilhoul ergr gy savirp, likely
limifafiors on qro,,ih of virlualizalion.

Essayextracts
It is importantto acknowledge
that therehasbeenwidespread
recognition
of the impactof
global
pointed
virtualization
on
warming.As a 2006US EPAreport
out,at the time,data
centreswereusing15% of the electricityproducedin the UnitedStates.Thereportalso
recommended
thatthe technologyusedby the datacentresneededto be improvedif their
growthwasto continueat the samepace.However,
becausevirtualization
requireslarge
amountsof hardware
to be clusteredtogether,it wouldappearthat somemeansof coolingis
necessary.
Currently,
a highproportionof datacentresusechillers- elaboratewater-based
coolingsystems- to maintainan appropriate
temperature
for the hardware.
Theevidence
suggeststhatthesearenot alwaysrequired,as the exampleof Googlehasshown.

In considering
thesequestions,
it is worth lookingat the way in which Googlehas
minimizedhardwarecostsby usinglow-costPCsratherthan'out-of-the-box'
servers. Becauseof the low revenueper searchreceivedby Google,it is essential
that the cost of eachtransactionis kept as low as possible.The effectof a lossof
datafrom componentfailureis relativelylimited. At worst, it may meanthat the
userhasto re-runa search.
67

Understanding new words: using definitions

You will often find new words in academictexts. Sometimesyou will not be
able to understandthe text unlessyou look the word up in a dictionary,but
often a technicalterm will be defined or explainedimmediatelyor later in
the text.
Look for these indicators:
ts or are

brackets
or
which

'Virtualization'is basicallyabout ..
.. itsdata centre(serverfarms).
... most data centres usechillers,or water-basedcooling
systems,to ...
... 'out-of-the-box' servers,which are those purchased
from manufacturers without modification ...

a commaor
... uninterruptible power supplies(UPS)- giant
a dash(-)
batteries which ...
immediately
after the word
or phrase
phrases
such
... component load rates:that is, the work performed
as that is,in
by each system component. ln other words, how often
other words
the components...
Remember!
When you write assignments,you may want to define words yourself.
Learnto usethe methodsabove to give variety to your written work.

Understanding direction verbs in essay titles

verbscalleddirectionverbsare usedin essaytitles.Eachdirection
Special
verb indicates
a type of essay.
Youmustunderstand
the meaningof these
wordssoyou canchoosethe correctwriting plan.
Kind of essay
Descriptive

Directionverbs
State... Say... Outline ...
What islare...?

Describe... Summarize..

Analyze... Explain... Commenton... Examine..

Givereasons
for ... Why...? How ...?
Comparison/ Compare(and contrast)... Distinguishbetween.
Evaluation
Evaluate... What are the advantagesandlor
disadvantages
of ...?
Argument
Discuss... Consider... (Critically)evaluate .
Analytical

To what extent...? How far ...?

Choosing the correct writing plan

you mustdecideon the bestwriting planbefore
Whenyou are givena written assignment,
you beginto write the outline.Usekeywordsin the essaytitle to helpyou choose- see
Vocabularybank.
Type of writing assignment- content

Possiblestructure

Descriptivewriting
Listthe most important points of something:e.g.,a list of
key eventsin chronologicalorder; historyof a computer
system;a descriptionof a process,detailing eachstep and
what the outcomeof eachstep might be.
Summarizepoints in a logicalorder.
Example:
What are the key featuresof virtualization?
Describethe impact of innovative systemdesign on reducing
data centre power consumption.

. introduction
o description of process/system
o point/step 1/outcome
o point/step 2/outcome
. point/step 3/outcome
o conclusion

Analyticalwriting
Listthe important points which in your opinion explainthe
situation.
Justifyyour opinion in eachcase.
Look behind the factsat the how and why, not just
what/who/when.
Look for and questionacceptedideasand assumptions.
Example:
Explain the appeal of virtualization to systemsdesigners.

o introduction
o definitions
o most important point:
1,
example/evidence/reason
2,
example/evidence/reason
etc.
. next point:
3,
example/evidence/reason
4,
example/evidence/reason
etc.
o conclusion

Comparison/evaluation(may incorporate casestudies)

Decideon and define the aspectsto comparetwo subjects.
You may usetheseaspectsasthe basisfor paragraphing.
Evaluatewhich aspect(s)is/arebetter or preferableand give
reasons/criteria
for your judgement.
Example:
Compare the use of high- and low-spec componentswhen
designing a system.
Compare how Amazon and Google may have approached
the design of their systemsto ensure user satisfaction.

o introduction
o state and define aspects
Eithen
o aspect 1: subjectA v. B
. aspect2: subjectA v. B
Or:
o subjectA:aspect1,2, etc.
o subject B: aspect '1,2, etc.
o conclusion/evaluation

Argumentwriting (may incorporatecasestudies)

Analyzeand/orevaluate,then giveyour opinionin a
statementat the beginningor the end.
by
Showawareness
of difficultiesand disagreements
mentioning
counter-arguments.
Supportyouropinionwith evidence.
Example:
'Virtualizationcanprovide significantflexibility in systems
design'.Drscuss
this with referenceto two companies.

o introduction: statement of
issue
o statement giving opinion
o define terms
o point 1: explain+ evidence
o point 2: explain+ evidence,
etc.
o conclusionimplications,etc.
Alternativelll,
o introduction: statement of
issue
o define terms
o for: point 1, 2, etc.
o against:point 1, 2, etc.
o conclusion:statement of
opinion

69

understandingfixed phrasesand HCIwords

Match the words to make fixed phrases.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

developmentI
hardwareI
project I
qua lityI
systemI
userI
visu a lI
i nput E

a assurance

b development
c device

to

d display

the

e interface

some

management

many
r,_._
thrs

g method
h specifications

that

Studythe words and phrasesin the blue box.

1 Completeeach phrasein column2 with
a word from column 1.

... start with

... peoplethink
on ... other hand
to... extent
on ... one hand
... real questionis
on ... groundsthat
... would be great,except
in ... caselike this
in ... sort of situation

HADFORDUziuersity

2 Which phrase(s)can you useto:

.

agreeonly partlywith a point?

o begintalking about severalpoints?

o talk about a particularexample?
o introducethe first of two ideas?
o introducethe secondof two ideas?
o focuson the most important point?
o give a reasonfor a point?
o talk about certaincircumstances?
o mention a problemwith someone'sidea?
On the oppositepage are somepeoplewho have
an interestin a new productbeing developed.

HCI drawson psychologyand computersciencein order

to provide user-friendlyinterfacesfor computers.For
example:
o Cognitivepsychologyprovidesmodelsof perceptual,
motor andcognitivesystemsby which humansinteract
with the world.
. An engineeringapproachto the sensesseesvisual,
aural and haptic dataas channelsfor input or output.
o Designersofinput devicesneedto considertheir
responsiveness,
usabilityandergonomics.
o Heuristicevaluationcanidentifyproblemswith the
designof a userinterface.
o Familiar metaphorsin interfacedesignhelp users
creatementalmodelsof systemobjectsquickly.
o User input which completesone or more tasksin an
action sequence,to achievea specihcgoal within the
domainthey are working in.

1 Match each personwith the correctjob title.

2 What aspectsof human-computerinteraction
(HCl)is eachpersoninterestedin? Why?
3 Match each personwith the correctquote (A-F).
4 Replacethe words in italicswith a phrasefrom
Exercise
B.

Baseform
constrain
evaluation
intuition
manipulate

Readthe extractfrom the Hadford Universityhandout

about human-computerinteraction.
1 Match the blue words in this extractwith the
definitionsA-L on the oppositepage.
2 Useyour dictionaryto checkwords you do not know.
Completethe table on the right.

measure
navigate
observe
response
sequence
u5e

Otherrelatedforms
Contraint

contrained

9 HUIVIAN.COMPUTERINTERACTION (HCI)

:--l#

\'{

1
c0mpany
executive
hardwear
desrgner
syslem
Iesler
interface
desrgner
psychologist
pr0lecr
manager

'Usuollyprototypeconsolesare not very intuitive,but I

was ableto find rnostof the functionson this one really
quickly.'
'There are severalthin-9sI have to consider Furstlr',
what resonrces
do I haveto deliverthis product?'
'We have increasedthe alnountof r.nemoly.brrtthe size
of the processor
is the same.'

'Theysut'thatwe jr.rsthaveto havebetteltechnolo-uy

profits.I clou'tugree
thanthe competitionto increarse
toutplelelt',but it is clearthat improvedsystenr
perfblmanceis a urajorfactorin sellin-elots of units'
'We havelots of new functionson the console.but
tlte itttportuttttltirtgis whetherLlselscan accessthelr
easily'
'l clidson'retestswith usersto evaluatevarious
metzrphors
the designerswant to use in the iuterface
'
ltetousethesecould help irnproveintuitiveness

www

8oo

Definitions
A a numberof actionswhichfolloweach other.
usuallyin orderto attaina specificgoal

H this carriesinformation
fromthe individual's
to the cognitiveand motorsystems
environment

B a specificareawithinwhicha goal is to be
achieved

this is the partof the humansystemwhichis

responsible
for controlling
movement

C an objectivewhichan individualor systemis

tryingto achieve

this systemprocessesinformation
to perform
work suchas knowing,understanding,
deciding
and problemsolving

D data inputintoa computersystemby a user

E datawhichis generatedby or relatedto touch
F designof equipmentto reduceuserfatigue,
discomfortand injury
G designingthe interactions
betweenend users
and computersystems

K where a softwareobject representsa real-world

object,or objectused in othersoftware
(e.9.,scissorsiconto representcutting)
L a methodfor findingthe usabilityproblemsin a
userinterfacedesion

r '[,
i!

' Wn

Fr=s1tili

i::,.'ffiffi"

1W ffi r

using the Cornell note-taking system

Studythe slideon the right. What questionsdo

you think the lecturerwill answer?

*.

\'-v

L It t t t','rsi t t'

HADFORD

Humon-compufer

G tirt"n to Part 1 of the lecture.

interoction

o Humonsciences
sociol
- psychology,
disciplines,
orgonizotionol
knowledge

1 Completethe Notessectionbelow.
2 What is the lecturer'sstory about? Why is it not
given in the notes?

o Computersciences
- hordwore,softwore,
devices

3 Completethe Summarysection.

o Computer-bosed
usobilityevoluotionmethods

4 Answerthe Reviewquestions.

1 Researchhasshown

1 Completethe Notes section.

2 It coul d be arguedthat ...

3 A s w e shal lsee...
4 Fromthe point of view

3 Completethe Summarysection.
4 Were your questionsin Exercise
A
answered?

of ...
Increasi ngl y,
w e f i nd that

6'dStuOythe phrasesin column 1 of the

blue box. Listento somesentences
from
the lecture.Which type of information
in column2 follows eachphrase?

information about a point

the speakerw ill m ake lat er
an aspectof a topic the
speakerwants to focus on
a statementthe speaker
agreeswith

6 It'strue to saythat
l l n terms of ...
8 S o i t shoul dbe cl earthat

a concl usi on
an i deathe speakerm ay
not agree with

tlotzs
HCf : 2..l*4uan sei (H5) and co,r.rpqtr sci. (C5)

HCz is
4

H5
I lrhin pqrpose * H5 ..?
Systztt d"siEtfrs drour on ---?
Ait.ase H5?
(5 speofic oir.rs)

a devel opi ngtrend

that...

2 Write someReviewquestions.

Reviat:
? cu'tpowttts ol HCZ te?
flupcr+fiIcz o+ HCf r'tcans --7

G cr".t" a blank Cornelldiagram.

Listento Part2 of the lecture.

syst

H5
t_

4
vorio..ls
desigt:rlrsdroto on H5 .

lr,or.r qSerS i*gact

- rtrorld Ond Cotr'rp:

o cog. p7rch., soc. disciplincs, cr.g. kt:cr^:l.

o olr.r to l*lp rystznd"siEtfrs
(l) decide on oppnooch to
d"siEn
(2) uodel hqttlon inp'qc o/rd dn-y'1t
(e.g., vistal
44e1,

(3) )elp evaluatz,

(f)

proyide

(5) idet'ti+y likelT point-s of

G.g,fol del -.)

tools - ya,itv

2 lrhin u&el?

2 t4ain r.roctef = lrlodel Hquan ftocessor

(perq&al,
infonrcciorr

3 Design I yalitv teclt\hi14es

(oCvontoges. r'-*y,+sr:d?
by r^-*.clu?)

3 fugroves

Srarqry.qrt

r'adellitg hq^aon
F.rotot-J cqnitMe)

qsabilit/, q*T exp6iet@.'.

o erqpiricat+
o gdcularly

(nHn

qre h*d

qse&4, q

crn dqf,o

d"stgtrt5

\
4

*'i.@recognizingdigressionso understandingspokensourcereferences

Studythe words and phrasesin box a.

'l visual,input,design,haptic,output

1 Mark the stressedsyllables.

2 mentalmodel,userinput,visualdisplay,

z O tisten and checkyour answers.

input device,actionsequence
generally,
actually,
ideally,
usually,
crucially

3 Which word or phrasein eachgroup hasa

different stresspattern?

Studythe phrasesin box b.

1 Do you think the phrasesshow a digression
(start or end) or a relevant point?
Write D or R.
2 Look at the D phrases.Do they start or end
the digression?

Now, where was l?

It'sthe first of these points that l'm
going to focuson now...
By the way, ...
Soto get backto the main part ...
I have a little story to tell you ...

O tirt"n to the final part of the lecturefrom

Lesson9.2.

lf we move on now to ...

You don't needto take noteson this ...

1 Take notes using the Cornellsystem.Leave

spacesif you missinformation.

The point of that story is ...

2 What topic doesthe lecturermentionthat

is different from the main subject?

lf we turn now to ...

When we look at tools from the computer
sciences,
we'll find ...

3 Why doesthe lecturermentionthis topic?

4 What is the researchtask?

5 Compareyour notesin pairs.Fill in any blank spaces.

6 Compfetethe Revietarand Summarysections.

D f) What informationdoesthe lecturerprovideaboutsources?

Listento the extractsand completethe table below.
Extract1

Extract2

Extract3

Extract4

Name of writer
Title and date of source
Location

Typeof reference
Relevantto ...?

lntroducingphrase
E Useyour notes to write 75-1OOwords about methodsof evaluating interfaceusability,
drawing on the human sciences.
F Work in groups.Studythe four methodsof usabilitytesting
linkedto the human sciences
in box c. Chooseone type you
would like to find out more about and then discuss
these
questions.
1 What kind of informationwill you needto find?
2 What ideasdo you havealready?

task,userand environment
analysis
focusgroup
cognitive
walkthrough
t h in k in ga lo u d

3 Where can you go to find more information?

7i

making effective contributions to a seminar

Look at the words in the blue box. ldentify

their stresspatterns.

acceleration approach constraint

evaluation innovation interaction
interface limitation

Work in pairs.
Student A: Think of good ways to take part in
a seminar.
StudentB: Think of bad waysto take part in a
seminar.
You are going to hear somestudentsin a
seminar.They have been askedto discuss
the
question:'What can computer-based
methods
contributeto usabilitytesting?'
1 Cd Listento the four seminarextracts.
Decidewhether eachcontributionis good
or poor.
2 Givereasonsfor your opinion.
3 Think of somemore informationto add to
the good contributions.
Work in groups of three or four.
your informationfor the topicsin
1 Discuss
Lesson9.3, ExerciseF.Agree on the best
definition.
2 Discusshow best to presentthis
information.
3 Presenta definitionand descriptionof
your topic to the whole class.
StudyFigure1 and Figure2.
1 What do the picturesin Figure1 show?
2 Studythe informationin Figure2 on the
oppositepage.In pairsor groups,discuss
the following:
a What doesthe informationshow about
InteractivityUn Iim ited?
b What other evaluationmethodscould
InteractivityUnlimitedhave used?
c Look at the usercomments.What
problemswith the web interfacedesign
could havecausedthese?
d Which interfacesdo you think E-Tail
shouldconcentrateon improving?Tell
the classabout your decision,saying
what it is basedon.

Fi gure1

metaphor

Interactivity Unlimited (IU) is a consultancywhich helps clientsget

the best possible results from their websites and digital system
interfaces.Our usability consultantsemploy a wide rangeof tools to
find out what userswant from their interactions.and to ensurethat
the interfacescan provide these in a user-friendly way. We also

"It took agesbefore

the graphics
appeared when I
loaded a new page"
smart phone user

considerthe ergonomicsof devices.

E-Tail Ltd providesfour different versionsof its websitefor usersto
access:
computerInternet browser,conventionalmobile,smart phone
and TV. IU recentlyconductedan evaluationof the usability of the
E-Thil site. Our report highlights some of the important issuesto
considerin websitedesign,particularly in relation to mobile devices.

"It was really text

heavy and I had to
read everything
twice"
mobile phone user

Our researchused a combination of computer-basedand human

sciences-based
methodologies.To begin with, a focus group of
volunteersused the different interfaceson a regular basis.This was
followed by an heuristic evaluation, using sets of five evaluators
working independently.
Theseare our suggestionsfor improving the usability of the smart

"I wasn't sure what

to do to get onto
the next page"
TV user

phonesite:
a

Useauto-completeto speedup filling in forms.

o
o

Limit the sizeof the site,so that it fits on the screenmore easily.
Keepthe number of clicksneededto getto information to a
minimum.
Ensurethat clickableitems areseparatedby enoughwhite space
so the userdoesnot click on the wrong link.

PC

-TV

Mobile

Figure:Actual and projected changesin websitetraffic by device

Figure 2: HCI report on E-TailLtd website by lnteractivity Unlimited

Smart phone

"Ir took me a long

time to find what I
was looking for"
PC user

Recognizingfixed phrases from HCI

Makesureyou understand
thesephrases
from HCl.
action sequence
motor system
aural data
output device
perceptualsystem
cognitive psychology
cognitive systems
systemlogging
cognitive walkthrough
taskanalysis
eye tracking
thinking aloud
focus group
usability testing
haptic data
useranalysis
heuristicevaluation
userinput
input device
visualdata
interface design

Recognizingfixed phrases from academic English (2)

Make sure you understandthese fixed phrasesfrom general spoken
academicEnglish.
As we shallsee,...
But the real question is ...
From the point of view of ...
ln a caselike this, ...
ln terms of ...
ln the sensethat...
ln this sort of situation, ...
That's the reasonwhy ...
lncreasinglywe find that ...
It could be argued that ...

ir i

It'strue to saythat ...

Many peoplethink that ...
On the groundsthat ...
On the onehand,...
On the other hand,...
Research
hasshownthat ...
Soit shouldbe clearthat ...
Thatwould be great, except...
To someextent...
To startwith, ...

Using the Cornell note-taking system

There are many ways to take notes from a lecture.One method was developed
by Walter Paukat CornellUniversity,
USA.
The systeminvolvesFive Rs.
record

Take notes during the lecture.

reduce

After the lectureturn the notes into one- or two-word questionsor

'cues'whichwill help you rememberthe key information.

recite

Saythe questionsand answersaloud.

reflect

Decideon the best way to summarizethe key information in the

lecture.

review

Look again at the key words and the summary(and do this regularly).

Recognizingdi gressions
Lecturerssometimesmove
away from the main point in
a lectureto tell a story or an
anecdote.Thisis calleda
digression.You must be able
to recognizethe start and end
of digressions
in a lecture.
Sometimesa digressionis
directlyrelevantto the
content of the lecture,
sometimesit has some
relevancea nd sometimes,
with a poor lecturer;it may
be completely irrelevant.
Sometimesthe lecturerpoints
out the relevance.
Don't worry if you get lost in
a digression.
Justleavea
spacein your notesand ask
people afterwards.

Recognizingthe start

That remindsme ..
I remember once ..

By the way, .
Recognizingthe end

Anyway, where was l?

Back to the point.
So,as I was saying ..

Understanding Of course,the pointof that storyis .

the relevance
I'm sureyou can all seethat the story
shows...

Whydid ltellthat story?Well,

Askingabout What was the point of the story about the
digressions interface for a manufacturing system?
Why did the lecturer start talking about
note-taking?
I didn't get the bit about ..

Referring to other people's ideas

We often needto talk aboutthe
ideasof other peoplein a lectureor
a tutorial.We normallygivethe
nameof the writerandthe name
of the source.
We usuallyintroduce
the reference
with a phrase;we
mayquoted'irectly,
or we may
paraphrase
an idea.

Nameand
As Dix pointsout
introducing
phrase
Toquote Dix .
Where

in human-computer interaction .

What

we can think of feedback as .

10
' neut r al' a n d 'm a r k e d ' w o r d s . e x p r e s sni g c o n f i d e n c e / t e n t a t l v e n e s s

Studythe words in box a.

1 Useyour dictionaryto f ind out the meanings'
2 What part of sPeechis eachword?
Readthe HadfordUniversityhandout'
1 Useyour dictionaryor anothersourceto check
the meaningsof the highlightedphrases'
syllablesin each phrase?
2 Which are the stressed
Which two phraseshavethe samestresspattern?
Look at the pictureson the oppositepage'
1 What doeseachPictureshow?
how e-commercenas
2 Foreachpicture,discuss
or
transactions
which
changedthe ways in
the
Use
conducted'
be
procedurescan now
'f,igl'ttigt'tt"O
B and words
phrasesfrom Exercise
A.
from Exercise
Studythe words in box b.
brilliant collaPse enormous
huge insignificant massive minimal
outstanding Plummet Plunge
rocket significant slumP
soar suPerb tremendous
1 Checkthe meanings,partsof speechand stress
Patterns.
2 Put the words into the correctbox in the table
beloW as in the example.
Neutral

Marked

rise,increase

rockel, soar

fall, decrease
big, large
gooo
small
Readthe scriptfrom a news programmeon
e-commerce.
1 Usea markedword in placeof eachof the blue
(neutral)words.
2 Look at the red phrases'How strongare they?

adopt bandwidth barrrer billing

encrypt infrastructure legislation
penetration procurement regulatory
securitY transaction trust

*
'.| " HnoPoRDi ,rrrr,'irr
E-commerce

ond e-governmenl

E -commerceor el ectroni ccommerce des c ri bes

commerci oltronsocti onsw hi ch toke pl oc e us i ng
el eci roni ccommuni coti onmethodssuch os the Internet
It tokes mony di fferentforms, such os th e s ol e of
goods ond servi cesbetw een busi nesses(B 2B )' or from
Lrr'n.rr", l o consumers(B2C ) For mony retoi l
componi es,'bri cks ond mortor' shops o re bei ng
repl oced by vi ri uol storefrontson the In i ernet,
cfrol l engi ngthe stotusquo. C onsumersc on ol s o s el l to
other consumers(C 2C ) usi ng onl i ne ouc ti on s i tess uc h
os eBoy Thesesi tesdi spl oy the goods for s ol e, offer
di soute resol uti onservi cesi n the event of di s ogreement
ond ol so foci l i totePoymentcol l ecti on Gov ernmentsus e
ei enderi ng for procurement(B2G) ond i nc reos i ngl ythey
ore usi ng the some technol ogi esfor no n< ommerc i ol
tronsocti ons,such os provi di ng govern menti nformoti on
ond submi tti nggovernneni l orms

. lt's clearth.rtthe failureof Boo.comin the late 1990s l

lt's gener'rlly
:
] was largelydue to its technology'
could
and
large
pages
were
web
that
their
' acceptecl
:
I not be easilydownloadedby userswith small
thatmorethana ]
lt's Lrrrlrl'ely
] amountsof bandwidth.
' smallnumberof potentialcustomerswereableto
:
. uaa"r, the site.As a result,the company'sshare
losinga largeamountof
. pricefelldramatically,
($
million)'
130
' investors'money
owedmuch of its '
' lt s fairto s.rythat lastminute.com
. survivalto its goodwebsitedesign.Theirpageswere '
I easilynavigabieand weresmallenoughto downloadI
providinga good userexperience, ich
:
] Ouickly,
. ;,rclorrlrtecllv
to the risingnum of
contributed
:
. sales.The differentproductssoldby the two
'
online
While
tn.tyalsohavebeenafactor'
' companies
] salesof travelproductsgrewfrom the beginning, '
:
] onlineclothingsalestook longerto grow'

10 E-coMitERcE AtfD E-6ovERNtvtEt{T

...r.-l

.f-

d,

identifying stance and level of confidence . inferring implicit ideas

Studythe sentenceon the right. Eachphrasein

box a could go in the space.What effect would
eachone haveon the basemeaning?Mark from
*** = Veryconfident to * = very tentative.

The redesign of our virtual shopfront

the increasein sales.

(
I
I
i

Surveythe text on the opposite page.

1 What will the text be about?

probably caused

2 Write three researchquestions.

may havecontributedto
was possiblyone of the factorswhich
contributed to _--

Readthe text. Doesit answeryour questions?

could have been a factor which led to

Answer these q uestions.

1 Accordingto what criteriacan we group factors
affecting e-commercepenetration?

caused-- . seemsto have caused.-

2 Underwhat headingcould we categorize

consumers'perceptionof quality?
3 What can localgovernmentdo to contributeto
the developmentof e-commerce?

The evidenceindicatesthat

4 ls the levelof physicalinfrastructure

developmentin a country likelyto affect
equally?
e-commercein goodsand services

A recent surveyhasfound

5 What legislationmight improvee-commerce

penetration,accordingto the article?

Many writersseemto agree ...

It is obvious...
Most writers agree
The evidencesuggeststhat ... -

6 What benefitscan e-governmentdeliver;

accordingto the article?
Findthe phrasesin box b in the text. ls the writer
confident (C)or tentative (T) about the information
which follows?

Theirsurveyfound ...
Example:
Theavailabilityof browserencryptionI and I secure
webserversI areusuallythoughtof I asgtobal
factors,I while I nationalfactors I include I both I
thelevelof Intemetpenetration
andits speed...

Look at the writer's descriptionof the government's

role in the developmentof e-commercein
Singapore(paragraph5).
1 Underlinethe markedwords.
2 What doesthe choiceof thesewords tell you
about the writer'sopinion of the government's
actions?
3 Find neutralwords to use in their place,

A
Developments
in technicalinfrastructurecanoften
be carriedout quickly,whereasotherinfrastructure
which requirepoliticalinterventiory
developments,
take place over much longer timescales.

',;s Studythe examplesentenceon the right, and then

A and B.
sentences
1 Dividesentences
A and B into smallparts,as in
the examplesentence.
2 Underlineany linkingwords (e.9.,conjunctions).
3 Find the subjects,verbs,objects/complements
and adverbialphraseswhich go together.
which
4 Make severalshort,simplesentences
show the meaning.

B
This data shows how, by implementing a technical
infrastructure to put Singapore'sregulatory
frameworks online, the government could directly
influence the take-up of e-commerceby businesses.

Overcomingbarriersto e-commerce
E-commercehas tremendouspotential to speedup, simplify and reduce the cost of all kinds of
commercial and non-commercialtransactions,and to provide easyaccessto global markets.
Howevel, the evidenceindicates that there are significant barriers to e-commerce,resulting in huge
variations between regions and countries.It is obvious, therefore,that by identifying thesebarriers
and devising ways to overcomethem, significant benefits can be delivered.
Bajajand Leonard [1] have suggestedthat factors affecting e-commercepenetration can be grouped
under three headings:culture, technology and policy. Thesefactors can be further grouped in terms
of whether they are global or local. A recentsurvey has found that the most important global cultural
factor for international companiesis ensuring that their e-commerceweb interfacesappeal to
different nationalities. Most writers agreethat key local cultural factors include the level of trust
between individuals, and also between individuals and their institutions. Technicalfactors can aiso
be global and local. The availability of browser encryption and secureweb serversare usually
thought of as global factors,while national factors include the level of Intemet penetration and its
speed which are both very low in many developing countries.
Many writers seemto agreethat government legislatiory such as setting targets for Internet
connectivity and bandwidth, can have a significant effect on e-commercepenetration.In addition,
government has a role to play at all levels.As Haag, Cummings and McCubbrey [2] point out
"Loaal, regional, and national govemments can play a key role in promoting the adoption of
e-commerce".Local and regional government can identify savingswhich e-commercecan provide in
the delivery of public services,and highlight the benefits it can bring to businesses.Developmentsin
technicalinfrastructure can often be carried out quickly, whereasother infrastructure developments,
which require political intervention, take place over much longer timescales.
The evidence suggeststhat, in addition to the technical infrastructure, the legal, financial and
physical aspectsof a country's infrastructure also need to be considered.Roubiah, Hassanienand
Khalil [3] assertthat "well-developed legal and regulatory frameworks" are an important factor in
the rapid adoption of e-commerce.Consumer protection legislation ensuresthat goods sold are good
quality. The state of the physical infrastructure determineshow far and at what cost goods can be
delivered. Similarly, the stateof the financial inJrastructurewill determine whether payments can be
made quickly and securely.As Ou, Sia and Banerjee[4] point out, if trust in the quality of goods and
servicesis low, there is likely to be less demand for online payment methods, as buyers may want to
checktheir purchasesbefore paying. The evidencefrom a BBC report [5] on China's e-commerce
supports this position.
Lefs look at an example of government intervention to improve in-frastructure.In 2004 Teo and
Ranganathan[6] examined e-commerceuptake among companiesin Singapore,which already had a
huge level of Internet penetration.Their survey found an astonishinglevel of e-commerceuptake
among traditional 'bricks and mortar' companies.Much of this was due to the tremendouswork by
Singapore'sgovemment in promoting the benefits of e-commerceto thesecompanies.During the
1990s,the govemment funded a gigantic e-commercesystem for non-commercialtransactions,
allowing companiesto submit import and export data. The system slashedtransactiontimes
dramatically from four days to around two minutes, demonstrating to businessmanagersthat
e-conunercecould be what Teo and Ranganathan[5] term a "strategicbusinessdecision and not just
a technology decision." This data shows how, by implementing a technicalinJrastructureto bring
'e-corunerceto Singapore'sregulatory frameworks, the government could directly inlluence the
take-up of e-commerceby businesses.

ii1

essaytypes . situation-problem-solution-evaluation essays

Readthe three essayquestions.What

types of essayare they?

Compare the merhodswhich can be used by governments

to support the developmentof e-commerce.

Look at text A on the opposite page.

Copyand completeTable1.

Explain, with examples, how a company can use

e-commerceto achieve a competitive advantage in its
marketplace.

Look at text B on the oppositepage.

Copyand completeTable2.

Describe,with some actual examples,the additional

barriers which developing countries face on the uptake of
Consider how governments can best solve
e-commerce.
B
Look again at the solutionsin Exercise
these
difficulties.
(Table1).What are their possibleadvantages

for consumers?
and disadvantages
Tabl e1

Situation
Problem
Solutions

Readthe title of essay3 again.

1 Make a plan for this essay.
2 Write a topic sentencefor each
paragraphin the body of the essay.

Tabl e2

3 Write a concludingparagraph.

Solution
Argument for
Argument against

writing complex sentences. referenceso quotations

Add extra information.Usethe ideasin Lesson10.3.

Expandthesesimplesentences.
1 E-commerce
hasbrought many benefits.
2 Penetrationof e-commercehas been very uneven.
3 Technicalinfrastructurecan be upgradedquickly.
4 Developedcountrieshavestrong legalframeworks.
were quick to take advantageof the benefitsof e-tickets.
5 'No-frills'airlines
Look at text C on the oppositepage.Copyand
completeTables1-3.

Table 1: Referencingbooks

Author(s) Place

Publisher

Date

Pages

Volume

What do the abbreviations

in the blue box mean?
Table 2: Referencingjournals

Look backat the text on page 81 (Lesson10.2).

1 Findall the directquotations(e.9.,Haag,
Cummingsand McCubbrey).
What punctuationand formatting is used
beforeand within eachdirectquote?Why?
What phrasesare usedto introduceeach
directquote?Why doesthe writer choose
eachphrase?

Nameof journal

Table 3: Referencingwebsites

@ cf. ed. Ed(s). et al. ibid. n.d. no.

op. cit. p. pp. rev. suppl. vol.A/ol.

CaseStudy I
Up to the early 1990s, travel agents sold
airline tickets and passengerbooking details
were stored on computers shared between
airlines. Older companies dominated the
industry, and it was very difficult for new
companies to compete. The growth of the
Internet made the e-ticket possible.Details of
bookings could be stored on an airline's
computers and printed off the Internet by
customers.Ryanair, a 'no-frills airline', used
this as an opportunityto gain market share.By

2002, around 9l7o of its passengershad

purchasede-ticketsfrom its website,which it
used as a marketing and promotion tool. It
also increasedprofits by offering additional
servicessuch as car hire and accommodation.
This innovative use of Internet technologies
enabledthe 'no-frills'airlines to increasesales
while cutting costs.Ryanair'sgrowth has been
so spectacularthat it has overtakenthe older,
larger airlines and is now the largestairline in
Europein termsof passengernumberscarried.
(Source:Oz, E ManagementInformation SystemsCenqageLearning,2008)

I t i s g e n e ro l l y o g re e d th o t for e-commerce
to grow qui ckl y i n o country,
c o n s u me rsn e e d s e c u re m e th o d sfor moki ng pqymentsonl i ne.
I n C h i n o , re l o ti v e ty fe w c o n sumershove credi t or debi t cords. D espi te the
f o c t th o t e -c o mme rc tro
e n s o c t i ons ore the qui ckest w oy to poy, evi dence from
0u, Sio ond Bonerjee (2005) suggests thot monyconsumersdo not wont to poy
on l i n e . T h e y h o v e c o n c e rn so bout the quoti ty of the goods they ore orderi ng
on d w h e th e r th e y w i tl o rri v e . B y poyi ng on del i very, they con check thot the
goods ore os described ond hqve not been donogedduring tronsportotion.

References
[]

A. Bajaj and L. N. K. Leonard, "The CPT framework: understanding the roles of culture,
policy and technology in promoting ecommercereadiness,"in ProblnnsandPerspectiaes
in
Managanail,vol. 3, 2004, pp.242-252.

t2l

S. Haag, M. Cummings, and D.J. McCubbrey, ManaganmtlrlformationSltstansforthe

I4formation
Age.New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002,p.214

t3l

K. Rouibah, A. E. Hassanien,and O. l{hali, Ernerging

MarketsandE-Commuce
in Deueloping
Econombs.
Hershey,PA, USA: Idea Group Inc. (IGI), 2009.

t4l

C. X.J. Ou, C. L. Sia, and P K. Banerjee, "What is hampering online shopping in

Managanmt,vol. lB, 2007, pp. 16-32.
China?," nJournal of l4formationTichnohglt

t5l

"China'yet to embracee-commerce',"BBC, Nov. 2005. [Online]. Available:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/business/4446278.stm.[Accessed:
Dec. 3, 2009].

t6l

T S. H. Teo and C. Ranganathan, 'Adopters and non-adopters of business-to-business

-electroniccommerce in Singapore," tn l4formatiutI Managanmt,vol.42, Dec. 2004,
pp. 89-102.

(
I
-J

Recognizing fixed phrases from e-commerce

from lCT.
Makesureyou understand
thesekey phrases
'bricksand mortar'
electronic commerce
goods and services
commercialtransactions
government legislation
consumerto consumer
non-commercial transactions
disputeresolution
e-commercepenetration

payment collection
regulatory framework
technical infrastructure
virtual storefronts

online payment methods

Recognizingfixed phrases from academic English (3)

from generalacademic
Makesureyou understand
thesekey phrases
English.
One of the ...
ln some circumstances,...
Evenso, ...
... , ds follows: ...
The write rs assertl mai nta i n I concl udel
assumelstatelagreelsuggestthat ...

ln this sort of situation ...

It is obviouslclear that ...
It appearsto be the casethat ...
The researchlAsurvey found that ...
Researchhasshown ...
The evidencedoes not support this idea.

Recognizing levels of confidence in researchor information

In an academiccontext,writerswill usuallyindicatethe levelof confidencein information
they are giving. There is a strong tendency alsofor writers to be tentative when statirig facts.
Examples:

Beingtentative

It appearsto be the casethat ..

This suggeststhat ...

Beingdefinite/confident

The evidenceshows that ..

It is clear that ...

Recognizing'marked' words
Manycommonwordsin English
are'neutral',i.e.,theydo not implyanyviewon the partof
However,
whichare'marked'.They
the writer or speaker.
thereare often apparentsynonyms
showattitude,or stance.
Examples:
Neutral
Onlineclothingsa/esroseby 10%.

Marked
Online clothing salessoared by 10%.

Soaredimpliesthat the writer thinksthis isa particularly

big or fast increase.
When you reada sentence,think: ls thisa neutral word, or is it a markedword?lf it is
marked,what doesthis tell me about the writer'sattitude to the information?
When you write a sentence,think: HaveI usedneutral wordsor markedwords?lf I haveused
marked words,do they show my realattitudelthe attitude of the original writer?
Extendyour vocabulary
by learningmarkedwordsand their exacteffect.
Examples:
Neutral
go up, nse, tncrease

84

Marked

go down, fall, decrease

soa?rocket
slump,plummet

say, state

assert,maintain, claim,argue, allege

IO E-COIIiIERCEATIDE-GOVERI{MENT

ldentifying the parts of a long sentence

Long sentences
containmany separateparts.You must be able to recognizethesepartsto
understandthe sentenceas a whole. Mark up a long sentenceas follows:
. Locatethe subjects,
verbsand objects/complements
by underliningthe relevantnouns,
verbsand adjectives.
o Put a dividingline:
r at the end of a phrasewhich beginsa sentence
r before a phraseat the end of the sentence
r betweenclauses
o Put bracketsround extra piecesof information.
Example:
ln recent years, many writers have claimed that there is a significant need for lnternet
third-party payment systemsin developing countries. but the evidence sugqeststhat
demand for these systemsis low and will remain so for a significant period of time.
In recentyears,I many writers haveclaimeaI tfrat there is a significant need I for Internet
third-partypaymentsystemsI in developingcountries,I but lthe evidencesuggestslthat
demandfor thesesystemsI is low I and will remainso | (tor a significantperiod of time).

Constructing a long sentence

Beginwith a very simpleSV(OXC)(A)
sentenceand then add extra information.
Example:
national
governments
As many recent case
studies have shown,

national
governments

can
help
in every part
of the world

can
help

promote
tn many
e-commerce different ways.

Writing a bibliography/reference list

The IEEE*styleisthe most common in computerscienceand informationtechnology.
Informationshouldbe given as shown in the following sourcereferences
for a book, an
Internetarticleand a journal article.The final listshouldbe precededby a numberindicating
the order in which the itemsappearin the text. Seethe referenceliston page83 for a model.
Author

Title of book

J. Close E-Com m erce Esse

nti a ls.

Author

Title of lnternet
article

BBC.

"PayPalto block 2007.

unsafebrowsers"

Author

Title of article

Placeof publication

Publisher

London:

Allan & Unwin, 1999.

Date
(or'n.d.')

Date

Full URL

Date of retrieval

http ://news.bbc.co.u k/1/

hi/7354539.stm

Available:[Accessed:
June20081

Title of journal

Volumeand page numbers

A. Molla
" E-government
Journal of
vol. 52,61-69,
and
and e-commerce, lnternational
P.5. Licker partnersor rivals?" ElectronicCommerce

Date

2008.

*lnstituteof Electrical
and Electronics
Engineers
More informationon referencing(includingother systemssuchas APA and MLA) can be
found at: http://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/IEEE
or http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2

link ing i d e a s

Look at the pictureson the opposite page.

1 Match each picture A-D to a label.What does
each item do?
2 What benefitscan it deliver?

anotherpoint is asa result because

finally firstly for example in addition
moreover one resultof this is
secondly since so

3 How might it be harmful?

Look at the words at the bottom of the spidergramon

the oppositepage.Put the words in the correctspaces.
Studythe linkingwords and phrasesin box a.
1 Put them into two groups for:
a discussingreasonsand results
b buildingan argument
2 ls each linkingword usedto join ideas:
a within a sentence?
b between sentences?
3 Canyou think of similarlinkingwords?
4 Put the linkingwords in 1b in a suitableorder
to list points in support of an argument.

2 What is the stresspattern of each word?

3 What other words or phraseshave the same
meaning?

F
86

Computer ethics
Computers play an increasingly important role in our
is that decisions made by computer

society.

professionalshave an
people. -,

on a growing number of

IT contractors need to balance their

clients' demands with their obligations to society.

to ethical reasonsfor this. there are also
practical reasons why this is necessary.

Studythe words in box b.

1 Are the words nouns,verbsor adjectives?

beneficial censorship conflict ethical

faulty harmful impact implication
justify negligenceobligation
reputation responsiblesurveillance

6) titt"n to a recordingabout computer ethics.

Checkwhat you have heard againstthe text on the
right.

errors in the design or construction of IT

-,
systemscan have profound economic or human
consequences.

, Bynum, 2004, refers to a

chemical company, Chemco, where faulty computer
system design was

for an explosion which

resulted in significant loss of life and widespread

environmental contamination. Becausethe system design
was flawed, the designer'sprofessional -

was at

1 Completeeachspacewith a word or phrasefrom

box a or box b. Changethe form if necessary.

risk. -,
if found responsible for the death and
destruction becauseof negligence,he faced a large fine

2 Can you think of other words or phraseswith

the samemeaningasthe underlinedwords?

or imprisonment. This example of a failure in standards

3 Match the phrasesbelow from the text on the

right with a later phrasethat refersbackto them.

sound principles which can be lustified.

illustrates the importance of making decisions based on

1 computer professionalsI

a death

a conflict of opinion can arise between a

-,
computer professional and his or her employer. The

2 lossof life E

b employee

employee may have a disagreementabout whether his or

3 environmentalE
contamination

c failure in
standards

her work is being put to beneficial or uses.

one of this could be the construction,

4 negligencel

d destruction

maintenance or operation of systemsfor surveillance or

5 conflict of opinion I

e disagreement

5 computerprofessional!

f ficontractors

Do the generalknowledgequiz on the opposite

pa9e.

censorship.

it is important that professionals

understand the ethical issues before entering into

conuacts.
Source: Adapted from T. \J7.Byntm, Computer Ethics and Professional
Responsibility. Blackwell, 2004, pp. 60-86.

11 COilPUTING AT{D ETHICS

B odys c ann e r

D N A te s ti n gs y s te m

system
5urvei l l ance

C redi tcard reader

Leqislalion

Rules and requid+ions

Prirlc,iple

Companypol'cy,Inlernalional lrealie.s,Naliona/laws,Pe.sonalbelie{s,Professionalcode o{ conducl, Relig,on

*
'..,:r' HADFORD1 ;rir,';,rI
Generol Knowlege Gluiz
I

Who or what are these?

2 What do theseterms mean?

Di-citalMillenniurnCopyri-uht
Act TDMCA)

it

cybel cri me

EulopeanUnion Copyri_eht
Directive
( E UCD )

ernailfbrgely

keylog-uer'

CtlrxputerMisuseAct

rnalware

Hacker'sManif'esto

tr

UK DataPlotectionAct (DPA)

World IntellectualPropertyOrganization

(' colxputerll'itud

( w l Po)
(DRM) sofiware
Digital rightsrnanagement

hacker'
Trojan

identitytheft

phi shi ng

botnet

recognizing the speaker'spoint of view . making notes o writing up notes

;,11'1:;'

You are going to listento a lecture by a guest

Look
speakerin the ICTFacultyat HadfordUniversity.
at the posteron the right.

*,
\:'/

HADFORD

1 What is the lecturegoing to be about?

['it i t.u' t tt,

VisilingSpeoker:Dr W Mifthell
l5th Februory5.00 p.m.

2 Decideon how you are going to make notes.

Preparea page in your notebook.

'Ethicsond computers:
decision-moking
for the computingprofessionol'
Dr Mitchellwill explorekey foctorsin
ethicoldecision-moking
in todoy's
ropidlychongingenvironment.

6d titt"n to Part 1 of the lectureand make notes.

1 What is the focusof the lecturer'stalk?
2 What are the two main aspectsthat the
lecturerwill discuss?
3 What examplesof these aspectsdoes he give?
4 To which aspectdoeseachexamplebelong?

1 Why were many Americans worried about

the effects of computers in the 1950s?

6d tirt"n to Part2 of the lectureand make notes.

Usingyour notes,answerthe questionsin the

handout on the right.
Referto the model Cornellnoteson page 104.
1 Checkyour answerswith the model.
2 Completethe Review and Summarysections
of the Cornellnotes.

'What

evidencewas there to suggestthat

their fear was justified?

3 \What examples of US government sources

of data does the lecturermention?
4 \fhy was the 1974 Privacy Act criticized?
5 How did the UK Data Protection Act
addressthesecriticisms?
5 Who was the Council of Europe
Convention on Cybercrime aimed at?

6d ffr" lecturertalksabout the Digital Millennium

CopyrightAct. Listenagain to part of the lecture.
Which words tell us whether the informationis
fact or opinion?

7 Why was it criticized?

b0 Studythe phrasesin the blue box. Which type

of informationbelow follows eachphrasein the
blue box? Listento somesentences
from the
lecture.
o restatement
o definite point
o summaryof a source
o example
. statementof a topic
o another point
o tentativepoint
o clarification
. purposefor speaking

9 What types of contract does the speaker

identify as relevant to computer
professionals?

Write out one sectionof your notes in

completesentences.

8 What example is given of possible

problems wirh legislationarising from the
Convention?

D on' t mi sunderstand me ...

To some degree...

l t i s fai r to say that ...

i n an attempt to ...

5 That is to say ...

6 To the extent that ...
7

Not only that, but ...

... givesa good descriptionof ... in ...

Briefly,(he)explainshow ...

10 (He)hasno doubt that ...

11 With respectto ...
12 ... is a casein point ...

s t r es sin p h r a s e s . b u i l d i n g a n a r g u m e n t

Studythe phrasesin box a.

disciplinary
action
blackhat
identity theft
denialof service
software exploit
socialengineering
illegalactivities
bulletin board

1 Mark the stressed

syllablesin each phrase.
2

6d Listenand checkyour answers.

3 Which phraseshaveadjective+ noun?Which word
hasthe strongerstressin thesephrases?
Look at the topicsbelow.
o companiesand the law
o justifyingillegalactivities
o ethicalhacking
1 What would you like to know about these
topics?

*,
\'- v HADFORD Utti ucrsi r.v

2 Preparea page in your notebookto make

somenotes.
3

6d Listento the final part of the lecture

(Part3) and make notes.lf there is
informationwhich you miss,leavea space.

4 Compareyour noteswith someoneelse.Fill

in any blankspaces.

'What

does the lecturer seeas the

purpose of company regulations?
1 What should Logistep employees
L
have been able to do?
3 How did the BBC appear to break
the law in 2009?

Answerthe questionson the Hadford University

handout,usingyour notes.

4 \fhy did the BBC avoid prosecution?

Studythe stagesof buildingan argument(a-f)

in box b.

5 How does the lecturer describe

ethical hacking?

1 Put the stagesin an appropriateorder.

6 \7hat is your researchtask?

2 Match eachstagewith a phrasefrom box c.

Look at box b again.
1 6d Listento a sectionfrom the lecture.
Make noteson what the lecturersaysfor
eachstageof the argument(a-f).
2 Checkyour answersto Exercises
D and E1.
Useyour notesto write 75-100words about the
main pointsin the final part of the lecture.

a
b
c
d
e
f

giving a counter-argument
givingyour opinion
statingthe issue
supportingthe reasonwith evidence
rejectinga counter-argument
giving a reasonfor your opinion

In groups,discuss
the researchtask set by the
lecturer.Talkabout thesequestions:
1 What are the three pointsin relationto
hackingthat you will need to consider?
2 Which one will you choose?
3 What ideasdo you alreadyhave?
4 What kind of informationwill you need to find?
5 Where can you go to find more information?
Reportbackto the classon your discussion.
In Lesson11.4you will take part in a seminaron this topic.

It'squite clearthat ...

But the questionis ...
Research
hasshown that ...
l'm afraidthat just isn'ttrue.
Somecomputerprofessionals
claim ...
Evidenceto supportthis ...

s t r e s si n p h r a s e s. m a k i n g e f f e c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a s e m i n a r

Studythe terms in box a.

1 Explainthe meaningof the terms.
2 Mark the main stressin eachterm.
Studythe words in box b. Match the words
in columns1 and 2 to make phrases.
Studythe InnerWebSecurityConsultants
intranetweb page on the oppositepage.
1 What is the purposeof the page?
2 Which guidelinesor policiesare shown in
the pictures1-3? Choosefrom the services
listed.
Studythe phrasesin box c.
1 When would you usethesephrasesin a
seminarand for what purpose?
2 Which phrasescan you usefor linkingyour
new point to a contributionby another
speaker?
6d lirt"n to somestudentstaking part in a
seminar.They have been askedto discuss
ethicalhackingand someof the new
techniques.While you listen,make a note of:

blackhat hacker
known softwareexploit
technicallegal breach
passwordprotection policy
Internet safetyg uidance
secureequipmentdisposal

1
client
data
legal
penetration
pnvacy
reverse
root
I
successfu
target
unpatched

testing
system
access
protection
outcome
legislation
exploit
engrneenn9
consent
situation

l'd like to start by explaining...

1 the main topic of eachextract

To carry on from this first point,

I want secondlyto look at ...

2 further detailsof eachtopic

I don't think that is the main reason.

Studythe control panelfor InnerWebSecurity

Consultants
on the oppositepage and discuss
thesequestions.
1 What is the purposeof this panel?

That seemslike a very good point X

is making.
l'm going to expandthe topic by
mentioning...

2 What beneficialand harmful purposes

could it be usedfor?

On the other hand,you might want

to saythat ...

3 What is the purposeof the screenshot

control?

As well as this issue,we can also look

at a very different issue.

4 Which controlshavethe leastethical

implications?

Soto sum up, we can saythat ...

your researchf indingson ethical

Discuss
hackingwith your group. One personfrom the
group shouldreport the conclusions
of the
discussion
to the class.

Doesanybodyhaveany opinionsor
anythingthey would like to add?
I think we need a different viewpoint.
OK,to continuethen ...
Followingon from what X hassaid ...

II COiIPUTIIIGATIDETHTCS

I n n er W e S
b e c u r i tyG on su l tan ts
Latest guidance and information on:

Internetuse

Networksecurity

Generalsecurity

EmploveeInternetsafew ouidance

Passwordorotectionoolicv

Buildinoentrvsecuritv

Procedurefor emoloyeesubmissionof unsafesitesfor blockino

Securitvaudit checklist

Technicalouidanceon blockingunsafesites

Guidelinesfor memorystick
use

Secureeouipmentdisoosal

Guidanceon web monitorinoof emplovees

Networksecurityguidelines

Guidanceon emoloveee-mailmonitorino

Anti-virussoftware

Proceduresfor disciolinarvactionfor inaoorooriatelnternetuse

Emptoyee
Monitor

Logs

lile

,.iP

eontrols

Options

Help

ProsramsUsed
+ Pr-ogram(s)
Logged

Options
General
StartupandAccess
Settings

WebsitesVisited
0 Website(s)
Logged
N*vt

KeystrokesTyped
Keystroke(s)
Logged

i:-. ,,Screenshots

l&'

zscreensnot(s)

Block Programs
program
!;nti0ure

LoggingSettings
Logging
Configure
Options

, E-mailLogDelivery
Remote
Contigure
-=f
Delivery

Linking words
We use linkingwords and phrasesto join ideastogether in a sequence,
to show how
the ideasare related.
Somelinkingwords can be usedto join independentand dependentclausesin a sentence:
Examples:
The decisionsmade by computer professionals
Eecausecomputers play an increasingly
have an impact on large numbers of people
important role in society,the decisions
OR
becausecomputers play an increasingly
made by computer professionals
have
important role in society.
an impact on large numbers of people.
Other linkingwordsjoin sentences
in a text.
Example:
Computersplay an increasinglyimportant role in society.As a result. the decisionsmade by
computer professionals
have an impact on large numbersof people.
when buildingan argument,it is a good idea to use linkingwords to add points:
Examples:
Firstly,...
ln addition, ...
For example, ...
Moreove4...
Another point is ...
... whereas...
Secondly,...
Finally,...

Using words with similar meanings to refer back in a text

It is a good ideato learnseveralwords with similaror relatedmeanings.We often build
cohesionin a text by usingdifferent words to refer backto somethingpreviouslymentioned.
Examples:

Firstmention

Secondmention

Third mention

Fourthmention

lT workers

computer
professionals

those working in the

lT industry

people in ICT

more .

rising numbers of ..

growing ..

increased..

Recognizingfixed phrasesfrom academicEnglish (3)

In Units7 and 9, we learntsomekey fixed phrasesfrom generalacademicEnglish.
Hereare somemore to usewhen speaking.
Don't misunderstand me.
I'm afraid that just isn't true.
ln an attempt to ...
... rsa casein point ...
Not only that, but ...
Somepeople say ...
The effect of ...

The history of ...

The presenceof ...
Thereis a correlationbetween ... and ...
To somedegree ...
To the extent that ...
What'smore ...
With respectto ...

Writing out notes in full

when makingnoteswe useasfew wordsaspossibre.
Thismeansthat when
we cometo write up the notes,we needto payattentionto:
. the useof numbers
and symbols
for wordsand ideas,e.g.,
Notes: Ca) 'i3 rother'
c-ommerc-ia\ eqete-<

Tear<, +

?riva.J

Ac-t rar4, 3ovt, on\g _ no

A result of thlse 'Big Brother' fearswas the privacy Act of 1974,which apptied
to government only and did not cover commercial systems...
o makingsurethe grammaticalwords are put back in, e.g.,
Notes:

-)

\eqie\ation

copied

bq dk

Laten this legisiation was iopiedby the IJK.

o makingthe impliedmeaningsclea4e.g.,
Notes: unauthori3ed ac-cee<,Q cri-e 4
uls Co-puter r-1ieueeAcl, t44o
Concernsabout "unauthorizedaccessand crime gave' riseto the L)KComputer
MisuseAct, 1990.

Building an argument
A commonway to build an argument is:
1 First,statq the issue:
Doesgrey hat hacking help improve the levelsof securityin company systems?
2 Next, give a counter-argument:
ldeally, there should be no reasonto break the raw by accessingcomputer
systemswithout their owners' permission.
3 Then give your opinion:
ln fact, even white hat hackerscan break the law at times.
4 Then give evidencefor your opinion:
The example of how grey hat hackershetped improve Apache securityin 2000
provides evidence to suppott this position.

Linking to a previous point when your contribution is new

when you want to movethe discussion
in a new direction,introduceyour
commentswith phrases
suchas:
Followingon from what X said,I'd liketo talk about ...
I'm going to expandthe topic by mentioning...
As well as (penetrationtesting),we can alsolookat a verydifferent sortof issue.

Summarizing a source
When we talk about the ideasof other people in a lectureor a semina4we often
give a summaryof the sourcein a sentenceor two.
Examples:A book by (name of writer) called (name of book) publishedrn (year)
gives an explanation of how ...
Briefly,(name of writer) explainshow ...
An introduction to (topic) can be found rn (name of writer).

referringbackr introducingquotations/paraphrases

Studythe words in box a.

1 Findeight pairsof words connectedin meaning.They
can be different parts of speech.
2 Someof the words can be changedfrom noun to
verb or verb to noun. Changethe forms.
3 Checkthe stressand pronunciation.
Readthe headingsof the textson the oppositepage.

anticipate archive
augmentation contingency
create demonstrate doubling
eventuality geospatial locate
mirror prediction produce
propose reflect revolutionize
show stable storage
suggest transmit

1 What theme linksthe four textstogether?

2 Readtext A and look at the highlightedwords.
Connecteach word to the noun it refersto.
Example:
They refersto previouslymentioned noun virtual
worlds.
Studythe verbsin box b. They can be usedto introduce
quotations or paraphrases/summaries.
1 Checkthe meaningsof any words you don't know.

accept agree argue assert

cite claim concede
consider contend describe
disagree dispute emphasize
illustrate indicate insist note
observe point out
report show state suggest

2 Which verbshavesimilarmeanings?
3 Which verbsare not followed by that?
4 When can you use each verb?
Example:
accept= the writer (reluctantly)thinks this idea
from someoneelseis true
Readtext B on the opposite page. Look at the
highIighted sentences.
1 What is the purposeof eachsentence?
Example:
Mirror worlds model the world ... = statement of fact
2 In an assignment,
shouldyou refer to the highlighted
sentencesby quoting directly or paraphrasing?
3 Choosean appropriate introductory verb and
write out each sentenceas a direct quotation or
a paraphrase.Add the sourcereferencewhere
necessary.
Readeach of the texts on the opposite page.
1 ldentify services(suchas Google Earth)which you use
or know about, in each of the four categoriescovered
by texts A-D.
2 Discuss
which technologyyou find most usefuland
write a short summaryof your conclusions.

Virtuol worlds
Virtual

norlds

offer an alternative realitl;

distinct lrom

even'da1'life.

They

began as text-based

role-playing games, whose plavers rvere mainlv those u'itl-r lots of timc and a vivid imagination. As
computer graphics improvt'd. thev rnadc it possible to create detailed visual representations of the virtual
rvorlds in r'ririch thc sames or rolc-plavs take placc. A conrnon figure in almost all of these is the avatar.
This can be a human or fantasy figure and represents a plaver n'ithin the rirtual l.orld. Tivo visions exist
for the future development of virtual worlds. In the first vision all the activities of the real world can be
carried out. Such a world can act as a platform lor the provision of training and education, and for the
delivery of scn'ices and customer assistance. The second is more limited. It is simply somewhere
individuals can have fun inte racting n itl-r other plavers in a varien' of role -plav acti\-ities.
S. Green and T. Ashley,"Exploring the future of virtual worlds," Journal of Computer lnteraction,vol. 42, pp. 24-32, May 2OOa.

Predictive knowledge management using data from rnirror worlds

page 429

Mirror worlds model the world around us, mirroring the geospatial reality that we experiencein our everyday lives.
They createan infrastructurewhich can capture,store,analyzeand managedata which is spatiallyreferencedto the
Earth Other data,such as the locationof specificservicesor resources,can then be mappedonto thesemapsand
images.An importantrole which has beenproposedfor mirror worlds is as a tool for managersto manageassetsin
the real world. It is clear that mirror worlds can play a key role in helping managerswith contingencyplanning,so
they can anticipateevents,ratherthan reactingwhen they occur.However,it appearsthat the successfuluse of
mirror worlds for contingencyplanningis very dependenton the quality of the data used.As Ding' (2009) states,it
will be some time before it is possible to "look into a computer screenand see reality". Relatively low-cost GPS and
camera technology, such as that used for Google Streetview, show how it is possible to capture large quantities of
high-qualityvisual data quickly.
W. C h e n , " P r e d i c tive kn o wle d g e m a n a g e m e n tu sin g d atafrommi rrorw orl ds,"FutureD esi gnTechnol og,es,vol
14,pp.429-450,Jan.2010.

Explo rin g augme n ted realit y

While mirror worlds make it possible for people to browse various types of information in a
representation ofthe real world, augmented reality (AR) can bring that information to users in the real
world. It doesthis by using a combinationof GPS(GlobalPositioningSystems),and varioushand-held
or body-worn interfaces. Using GPS,relevant information can be found and displayed to the user.
Existing mobile visual interfaces,such as touch phones,are alreadyusedto provideAR. By combining
data from the built-in GPSand compass,they can map information onto imagesof a location,
generatedby the built-in camera.It is still too early to predict the full rangeof developmentswhich AR
is likely to generate.
B.A. Skelly,"Exploring
Computing,
augmentedrcality,"Journalof Mobileand Pervasive
vol.24,pp.239-245,
Jan.2009.

The growth of lifelogging

Lifeloggingis the term used to describethe processwhere informationon the locationand status
of peopleand obiects is captured,stored and distributedautomatically.By makinginformation
availablein this way, it is possiblefor individualsto update otherson their currentstatus,to share
news of unusualeventswith them and to preservememoriesfor themselves.
The drop in the cost of storage,processingand networkconnectivity,and the availabilityof
ubiquitouscomputingdevicessuch as touch phones,with the capacityto gatherand storethis
information,has made lifeloggingpossiblefor a wide rangeof individuals.The type of information
gatheredcan rangefrom text notes,to streamedvideo footagefrom a mobilecamera.
M.Richards,"ThegroMhof
lifelogging,"
lnternational
of UbiquitousComputing,vol.32,pp.349-387,
Mar.2010.
Journal

link ing id e a s i n a t e x t . q u o t i n g a n d p a r a p h r a s i n g

Discuss
the following questions.
1 Why is the issueof growth ratesfor technical
componentsparticularlyimportantfor the
future of computing?
2 What factors other than componentsare
importantwhen consideringthe success
of
new developments?
Surveythe text on the oppositepage.What will
the text be about?Write three questionsto which
you would like answers.
Readthe text. Doesit answeryour questions?
Numberthe sentences
on the right 1-8 to show
the order in which they happened.

Twitterservicebegins.
Googlelaunches1Gbe-mail
SteveMann begins'lifecasting'.
Gordon BellstartsMyLifeBits.
Gordon Moore predictsa doubling of
processingcapacityeverytwo years.
Smartet al. make their predictionsfor
the future of computing.
SteveMann createsthe first wearable
computer.
Facebookextendsits serviceto anybody
over the age of 13.

For eachparagraph:
1 ldentifythe topic sentence.
2 Think of a suitabletitle.
Look at the underlinedwords in the text. What
do they refer backto?
Studythe highlightedwords and phrases.
1 What do they have in common?
2 What linkingwords or phrasescan you useto
show:
. contrast?
o concession?
o result?
o reason?
with the highlighted
3 Write the sentences
itemsagain,usingother linkingwords or
phraseswith similarmeani ngs.

As O'Brien and Ching' (2010)explainthat

the growth of lifelogging bestreflectsthe
increasein processingand storagecapacity.
For example,when SteveMann createdthe
first wearablecomputerin the early 1980s,it
was extremelycumbersomep 59. According
to O'Brien and Ching, they say that he was
able to reducethe systemto the size of a pair
of sunglasses
and was able to useit for
'lifecasting'detailsof his everydaylife for
othersto access.This clearly showsthe way
in which hardwarecapacity growth
"revolutionizedthe way in which datacan be

Readthe text on the right. A studenthaswritten

about some of the issuesassociatedwith
lifelogging,but someof the quotationsand
paraphrases
have not been correctlydone. Can
you spot the mistakesand correctthem?
Usingthe informationin the text on the right,
write a paragraphfor a universitylecturer,
summarizinghow hardwaregrowth has made it
easierto captureand storedata. Decidewhether
you shouldquote or paraphrasethe materialfrom
the text.

captured"p 59. When Gordon Bell startedthe

MylifeBits project in 1999,he aimed to
capture and store as much data about him and
his life as possible.He capturedand stored
e-mails,web pages,documents,recordingsof
meetingsand photosshot at 60-second
intervals.

Future C omputi n g

growlhcurves
terhnologicol
Using
to predktlhefuturedevelopment
of servires
By M. O'Brien qnd T. Ching
THt nrrr oF GRowrHin the processingpower ond copocityof
compufinghordworehos remoinedrelolivelystobleoverthe post
30 yeors.Populorlyknownos Moore'sLow,the prediclionmode
by Gordon Moore in 1965 thot the numberof tronsistors
on o
single chip would double every yeor hos proved remorkobly
resilient.For exomple,the numberof honsislorson o stondord
chip in 1980 wos 30,000, ond by 2000, fiis hod grownfo 42
million.In reol lerms,thol represented
o doublingof processing
power every l8 months Another low, Kryder's[ow, predicts
thot the copocityof hordworefo slore doto will double every
two yeors,ond the growlh curve hos lorgelybeen in line with
this. Memory copocitytoo hos followed o similorexponentiol
growthcurve,os hos the growth in bondwidth,both wired ond
wireless.Tokentogelher,these growth curves odd up fo on
exponentiolincreosein the overollperformonce
ond copocityof
computersystems.
A numberof intereslingpredicfionsfor woys in which this
increosed performonce ond copocity will be used ore
highlightedin o 20Q7 reporf by Smortet ol [1]. Drowing
togethercurrenttrends in exisling Inlernetlechnologies,they
idenfifiedthosewhich could be used fo creote shored sociol
spoces.Thesespoceswould providetoolsto ollow individuolsto
interoctwith eoch other, ond with the world oround lhem, in
woys which hove not been possiblebefore.Thev put forword
lhreekey developments
os cenlrolto thisfuture.Thefirstwos lhe

'lifecosting',lronsmitlingimoges of his everydoy life to the

Infernetfor otherslo occess Thisgrophicollydemonshotes
how
lhe growth in hordwore copocity revolutionizedthe woy in
,l999,
which doto could be coptured. In
Gordon Bell, o
computer engineer ond reseorcher,storted fie MylifeBits
proiect,which oimed to coplureond sloreos much informolion
obouthimond hislifeos possible.
Initiolly,
he storedemoil,web
poges ond sconneddocuments,buf os storogebecome more
offordoble,he begon lo record his conversolions
ond orchive
fhem He then begon to sfore photogrophstoken every 60
seconds,usingo speciollydevelopedcomerowhich hunground
his neck. Althoughhe storesvisuol ond oudio doto of oll his
encounfers,
thisextremelifeloggingonly tokesup opproximotely
lGb of storogespoceper monlh.
While exhemelifeloggingis relotivelyrore, Sellen[2] orgues
convincinglythoi sociol networkingsites ore in focf "fhe
emerging populorisotion"of lifelogging.Sociol networking
ollowsusersfo shoredoto obout their lives,usingpholos,musrc
ond video,os well os fheirthoughts
ond commenfs
in textform
The growlh of the sociol networkingservicesoppeors to be
linkedcloselywith the foll in the costof dofo sforoge.Therofeof
the foll con be seen in the londmorkdecisionby Google in

2OO4 to provide lGb of storoge os port of its free emoil

service.By 2006, this copocity hod reoched 2.7Gb, ot the
somelime thotthe Focebooksociolnetworkingserviceextended
develoomentof mirrorworlds.which would use online doto fo its free service to onybody over the oge of 13. Sociol
mirrorthe physicolond spotiolreolitythot we experiencein our networkinglinkedto video begonto tokeshopeoroundlhis lime
everydoylives.The secondwos ougmentedreolity,in which this olso,with the lounchof YouTube
in lote 2005.
However,not oll new developments
doto would be mopped fo the geogrophicollocofion of on
will dependon the some
individuol.Thethird wos lifelogging,the coptureond storogeof technologicolgrowth. The Twitter service, which slorted in
doto on eventswhich reloteto on individuol'slife
2006, hos been describedos o form of sociolnetworkingond
Of the threekey futuredevelopments
identifiedby Smortet ol. microblogging.As it usesvery shorttextmessoges,
in conkostto
it
is
perhops
the
growth
in
lifelogging
which
reflects
the
other
sociol
networking
services,
Twitter
requires
relotively
little
best
[],
increose in processing power ond storoge copocity of processingpower or storoge copocity As the key feoture of
hordwore In the eorly 1980s, SteveMonn creoted the first Twitleris immediocy,it is possibleto suggestthot the rote of
weoroble computer(WeorComp)io record detoils of his life. growlh of servicemirrorsfhe numberof individuolswith mobile
However, os lhe size ond weight of WeorComp mode it web occess.The specloculorgrowlh of Twitter,with up to 100
extremelycumbersome,
its functionolity
wos very limited.So to million usersby the end ol 2009, shows thot while growth
increoselhisfunctionolity,
he begono processof developmenf
to curvescon be shownlo influencenew services,
theyore nol very
moke il smollerond more powerful.Althoughlhis took some helpful in predicting them. While Moore's Low is likely to
lime, eventuollythe weoroblecomputerwos reducedin size to confinueto remointrue for somelime to come, in one form or
where it resembledo_poirof ordinorysunglosses.
Consequently, onother,the shopeof the serviceswhichwill be developedin the
in 1994. Monn wos oble lo use the weoroble comoulerfor neorfulureore stillto be reveoled.

Future Computing

page 59

Future Computing, vol. 22(7), p. 59, 2010

)"

researchreports: introduction, method, conclusion

Studythe words in box a.

1 Checkthe pronunciationand grammar.
2 What are their meaningsin a research
report?
Readthe two Method paragraphson the
right.
1 Copythem into your notebook.Put the
verbs in bracketsin the correctform.

conduct data discussion

findings implication interview
interviewee interviewer limitation
method questionnaire random
recommendation researchquestion
respondent results sample
survey undertake

2 ldentifythe original researchquestions,

the researchmethodsand other important
information.

ReportA: Method
A written questionnaire(design) to measurehow
younger and older adults differ in their attitudes to new
computer technologies.Six hundred questionnaires
(send)to a random sampleselectedfrom eachof the
two subjectgroups,of which 250(return).In addition,
25 young people(interaiew)in universitiesand
libraries. Over 65%of the sample (be) male.

What are the sectionsof a researchreport?

What order shouldthey go in?
Readthe lntroduction and Conclusionto
ReportA on the oppositepage.
1 Why was the report undertaken?
2 What are the elementsof a good
introductionand conclusion?

ReportB: Method
Growthin the performance
of processors
is sti[[ in line with
Moore's
Law.In orderto find out whetherthis rateof growth
cancontinue,a literaturesearch(undeftoke)
usingthe Science
Directdatabase
andthe Googte
search
engine.
Thesearch
terms
which(use)weregrowthcurue,computingandprocessing.

r es e a r c hr e p o r t s : q u e s t i o n n a i r e s f, i n d i n g s , d i s c u s s i o n

Describethe data in Figures1 and 2 from

ReportA.
Look at the first paragraphfrom the Findings
sectionof the report.
1 Completethe spaceswith quantity phrases.
Put the verbsin the correcttense.
2 Write another paragraph,usingdata from
Figure2.
Look at the /iterature searchnotes on the
oppositepage.What issuesdo you think are
the most important in encouragingolder
adultsto seethe benefitsof new
developmentsin computing?Discuss.

Findings
(20%)ofolderrespondents
Firstly,a-, -,
(state)that they felt that new developmentsin
computing would not be generally beneficial.tn
(70%)(say) that they
addition, the
-felt the developmentswould be generally beneficial
(L1%)hadno opinion. The
and a
results from the sample of younger people were
(80%)(indicate)that they
similar.A
felt that new developmentsin computing would be
(20%)
generally beneficial,while a
-_-(feel)
of younger respondents
the developmentscould
be more harmful than beneficial.

Coverthe Conclusionsectionon the opposite page.

1 What should the report writer say in the Conclusion?
Make somenotes.
2 Readthe Conclusionagain and compare.

Report A: Inhoduction

Report A: Conclusion

Therehas been much debateabout the extent to

which older people are excluded from the benefits of
developments in computing technology. ln order that
all age groups can benefit equally from these
improvementg it is important that older people feel
positive about new developments and how they can
benefit from them. This report will describe a survey
undertaken to examine the differences in the
perception of new computer technologies between
younger and older adults. Recommendations will be
made on how older adults can be encouragedto feel
more positive about new technological
developments.

To conclude, it is clear that there are a number of

differencesbetween the younger and older adults in
terms of their perceptions of the benefits of new
developments in computing. The evidence suggeststhat
the issues idenffied should be taken into account when
designing new computer devices and services. Older
adults should be included in the groups used to test new
prototypes, so that designscan take their requirements
into account. In particulaq, these relate to the speed with
which they can familiarize themselves with the product
or serviceand the extent to which they feel control over
it. More attention should also be given to publicizing the
beneficial effectsof new computer developmentsfor
older people. Unless theserecommendationsare put
into practice, older adults will not fully realize the
benefits of new developments in computing.

Report A
90
80
70
60
50
40
30

90
80
t0
60
50
40
30
20
l0
0

20
t0
0

%yes

% no

()Uer
= 45-65
oduhs

= 18-25 f
Youngw
odults

Figarc7: Perceptionof new deaelopmentsin computingas being

beneficialto societygenerally

e,

@elqry!*En

wWAtgAArcals4ryq

! fauiliqiqzwitLts';
l lvilicLziry}ercfits

%yes

l{oopinion

Younguoduhs=
18-25 I

l{oopinion

0lderoduhs=45-65

atuc/|@ a+.4r1-s

rrcr.e+cD//iciVfor 0,{6 edqhs Ught,Su^g tletufrts

fiEr,ttzclwlcgus
r,stld de ic easit ta ord?r ocl{tts to qse c.,t'f'.ttl st
t"gc *e. troang w*s
older o{qltS tess tikel/ ta <oo.jnfclrrtstiorr arrt yl} icit/ rde tiry;rcrtzttiat
oF wut orulp.ltt

tedtdniesi

OifuzaCry

oder edc,ts ed
J6zMtEf-a,Di

tD lci'lvoMe{in e @ig
in +sirgcorgrter prodrct

Ltvclrecairitgfclr
oklcr qdqtCs

%n o

Figure2: Perceptionof new deaelopmentsin computingas being

beneficial to respondents' p articular age rc nge

of eor'4rldjtg

gEe!44

rl

oF i@zst
lgjbs sgs

via': Wqs

to qrhrcL$gy uLattc,elr.putos fuvqcD/llt

]qve difiF('.et* t1g-43
di8fug'c rygW
iD t6t"s oF esiEn intg.faesl
f,cr oldcr odvltg3
intr.focrlsrqv
rctlqafut'rtktue
glovjding rqcirscetailad advice t{.fiuatrrrcl'ogitg declroaLc Wiczs ryr lelg
or4r o@tts *>z&r.tr,oe
4ketjvelyl
qz-si$x,
d@
&enlde
Wq
'c<lpte

Introductory verbs
Choosingthe right introductoryverb is important.Your choiceof introductoryverb shows
what kind of statementthe writer is making.
Example:
As Chen linsert ref no. in square brackets]argues,the quality of the data used is very
important when using mirror worlds for contingency planning.
Your choiceof introductoryverb alsoshowswhat you think of anotherwriter'sideas.Thisis an
important part of academicwork.
Example:
SkellyIinsert ref no. in square brackets]claimsthat the first commercialusesfor AR will be
found in tourist locations.
Verb

The writer .

agree

thinksthis idea from someoneelseis true

accept, concede

reluctantlythinksthis idea from someoneelseis true

consider emphasize,note, observe,

point out, state,suggest*

is giving his/heropinion

argue, assert,claim, contend, insist

is giving an opinion that othersmay not agreewith

cite

is referringto someoneelse'sideas

disagree, dispute

thinks an idea is wrong

suggest*

is giving his/herrecommendation

describe

is giving a definition/description

il lustrate, i nd icate,show

is explaining,possiblywith an example

report

is giving researchfindings

*suggestcan havetwo meanings

Linking ideas in a text

Linkingwords,whichjoin ideaswithin a sentenceor betweensentences,
conveydifferentmeanings:

Contrast

Within sentences

Between sentences

but, whereas, while

However, lnlBy contrast, On the other hand

Concession although, despitel

in spiteof the fact that

However,At the sametime, Nevertheless,

Despite/lnspiteof + noun, Yet

Result

so,so that

So,As a result, Consequently,Therefore

Reason

because,since,as

Eecauseof + noun, Owing to + noun, Due to + noun

Referring to quantities and group sizesin a report

AlAn

overwhelming
significant
slight
insignificant

Over
More

Less

than

majority
minority
number
half
a quarter
a third
x %o

(of + noun)

12 ICT IT{THE FUTURE

Structuring a researchreport
A researchreport is an accountof some researchwhich has been undertakento f ind out
about a situationor a phenomenon,e.9.,What do older age groups think about social
networking sitesT
o Introduction
o Methods

introducetopic; backgroundinformation;reasonsfor research

researchquestions;how researchwas carriedout

o Findings/results answersto researchquestions

o Discussion
issuesarisingfrom findings;limitationsof research
o Conclusion
summaryof main findings;implications;
possibi
recommendations;
lities
for f urther research

Writing introductions and conclusions

Introduction
o Introducethe topic of the report.
. Saywhy the topic is important.
o Givebackgroundinformation.
o Givean outline of the report plan.
Note: No substantialinformation;
this belongsin the body of the report.

Conclusion
o Summarizethe main pointsin the report
without repeatingunnecessarily.
o Make someconcludingcommentssuchas likely
implicationsor recommendations.
Note: No new information;all the main points
shouldbe in the body of the report.

Deciding when to quote and when to paraphrase

you will need to decidewhether to quote directlyor to
When referringto sources,
paraphrase/su
m marize.
o Quote when the writer'swords are specialor show a particularlycleveruseof language.
This is often the casewith strongly stated definitions or opinions.
o Paraphrase/summarize
descriptions
and factual information.

Incorporating quotations
o Usean introductoryverb.

o Copythe originalwords exactly.

o Don't forget the quotation marks.

o Add emphasiswith italicsand write'[emphasis

addedl'.

o Make the quote fit the grammarof

the sentence.
o Show any missingwords with '...'.

o Add words which are not in the originalbut are

necessary
to fully understandthe quotation out
of context.Put the extra word(s)in brackets.

Do not quote more than one sentencewithin the body of a paragraph.lf you want to quote
put in a colon and write the quote as indentedtext, so that it clearly
two or three sentences,
standsout from the body of your essay.
However,think very carefullybeforeyou includea long quote. lt is usuallybetter to
paraphrasein this case.

Additionalmaterial
5.4
StudentA

\ Sec-ondaru

= inSo Sro".. gourc-eg t e,1,t booKe,

Jnternet,

l.ade

rna$3,2

re.porLe., eLc., Li,e,, a\.eady exiele)

+

c-heapl 3ood ovrv6

oS lec-hno\o3ie.3 and

re.\alive.\y Sael
de.ve.\og"".ent<1
-

journa\

poss, oul

7. 4
StudentA

Security

5.4
StudentB

Z -Prinnarj_

--> orntinne.e diSfic-u\l to \oc-ate.;

oS dale

arlic-\ee

Because
sourcecodeis availableto anyone,it is easierto quickly
identifybugsand vulnerabilities
in the softwareand to rectify
them. lt is alsoeasierfor hackers
to identifyweaknesses
in the
software.
Because
upgradesto new versionsof the softwareare free, it is
morelikelythat opensourcesystems
will be kept up to date.
Because
of its wider communityof users,securityissues
are more
likelyto be identifiedquicklywith opensourceprogramming.
Fewercomputervirusestargetopensourceprograms.

= nevo inSol Sro... Ct) ye.og\e.., e,1., indiy,dua\c uin$ an

infe.rfac-e; LZ) experi"..ent,

e,1,, r3areh

ne.loorK <ye.ed< u"'de. ne.o \oade

+
-

inSo = re.c-enll syec-iSic- to ohat

Jou
gan be e.xpeniVel li",.e.-c,onunnin$

need

on

5.3 Symbolsand abbreviations

for notes
Symbols
&,*

and,plus
less,minus
plusor minus
is,equals,isthe sameas
is approximatelyequivalentto
is not, is not the sameas,doesn'tmean,doesnot equal,is differentfrom
is greaterthan, is morethan, is over
is lessthan
gives,produces,leadsto, resultsin
is given by, is producedbv resultsfrom, comesfrom
grows
rises,increases,
falls,decreases,
declines
ditto (repeatstext immediatelyabove)
therefore,so
because,
as,since
at:
century,as in 20'hC
paragraph
number,as in #1
this is doubtful

Abbreviations
e. q.

for example
approximately,
as in c.1900
compare
chapter
companv
editor(s)
and the other people(usedwhen referringto a book with more than two authors)
and all the rest
and the followingasin p.10ff.
figure (usedwhen giving a title to a drawingor table)
that is,that means,in other words
in the sameplacein the sourcealreadymentioned
important
no date qiven

op. cit

in the sourcealreadymentioned

pp.

paqes,as in pp.1-10
concernrng
with referenceto
namely

re.
ref.

103

11.2 ModelCornellnotes
R*iet^:

fl6tes
Legol f,octors:

e.9., intr'{]t:tiornt

civil & controct

o) ftivacl

teaties,

govmnuet.tt legislatiut,

lo..r

legisladut

in U5

ftivacrv Act 1171, 9rcivx orrtt -)

rb corr4r4ercial systzta
.osp*r*.
to increosl'ng p&E oF anq.rcts
b/ p|id-l?6os
8r.otJ.ra^'fcors

+'Big
4

& U5 qVeru^ert
4

legisladon copied by UK

-)
4

qnarrthorized

taX, railitary, C?jr1r5q6,

e+r..

datat4*s..

Octn Fl^otectiorr Act, t18a

occess K. csiue 4

UX Cri$'P'tct

ntsqx

Ac:-, l91o

Criuital & copyight/ fl

C-a.tcil o Ewop. C-onver'tiq, on Clfuqiue.
cottrrtta- lar.xsfu.nen ccxtnllies
ies to inveslogate qiuc in odvl^ ccrtnties

U.".*tize

.or.,t

dif+*""t

categtia

of cor"ro.ftln aiue

l'.)el:td Ztltellectual ft ogty

4

ir"pt"r*tt"d

p.*"nts

inpletventea in EU a

a ganizaticr.r tr:eqties

in U5 os D,gito, Irlillerniuu C-op2ri!,t

soFUoce

C-atzgties

o.F qtuc:iue,

data cr:irzes 4
tffilcirk

DRM yroteeticvl, - antovrarsial,

ayoidi

totevewy

rye"s
Etropean C-o?2right DirectNe
eg,

OnX or rrrodiftcqtjon of coto

csirqes 4

occe.Ss c'r:itulrzs4

Vrevendtg occess or solotoging

occz,ss ta s/stzh,
Eainiryq6tftfuized

introdvcing Vint*s,
relqtlzd qiues 4

trrorrqs or other ualtuare

+o.ro, fcEry,
ec, qsin

crlr'v.tt6

lor., 4
covel' etuplo2uent ord --' t lat
profossionot5 ob,\?d to do
controct
4

obo coritrocts

disgreenent u
cMil tar': -4
*Sbed
cMit lat^t 4

104

/vc.:t.(.o.lr:f,,A)

cst"rr'tt('.

W4nen

couporties/proftSSionols
ytality o'F product q Wie.

u:jse

inOV,CL,olscon &e f,on breoch of rights G.g'

ou delectNe
aryrAs

prodqct,
dt cd,4t1t/

inyosion ol Vrivacn)

dauages

7.4

| Cost

Student B | . Development
costsof softwarecanbe lowerbecause
of codereuse.
. Old versions
of softwarecanbe supportedindefinitelyso there is
no forcedupgradeto new versions
to ensuresupport.
. Opensourcesoftwaretypicallyrequireslowerspecification
hardware.
. Higherlevelsof technical
maybe requiredto maintain
expertise
opensourcesystems.
. A wide rangeof free applications
can be obtainedfor opensource
operatingsystems,
althoughthey may not be assophisticated
as
proprietarysoftware.

5.4
StudentC

Quanlilalive
= etalielic-a\

inSo, ofte.n b5 c,arryin3 out xfrirnenls

lhrou3h
+

o.

que.etionnair

'.' \ar3e
3ood Sor fac-Lua\ info) overve"c of tre.nde
no3.

iS \ooKinq

at

hu"..an-Cornpuler

nnu<l be bi3l reeu\te

raLe

7.4

| Flexibility

nna$ *

interac-lion

annp\

re.\iab\e.) \oo re<yon

Sor que.Gtionnaireg

Student C | . openlyavailable
sourcecodemeansit is mucheasierto transferor
'port' the codeto new platforms,i..,convertit so it canbe used
on a differentoperatingsystem.
. Existingcodecan be 'forked'to developdifferentversions,
.9.,
less
both a stablereleasewith basicfeaturesand a multi-featured,
for others.
stable,release
. Newfeaturescan be addedby userswithout havingto consult
with softwareowners.
I
. Opensourceoperatingsystems
are moremodularand provide
morecontroloverwhichfeaturesare installed.

5.4
StudentD

4 Quo\itatiye

nu",^berel ueua\\y verbq\ infol uee.J lo Sind oul

altiluJee, be\ie$e, etc-. \-1e[hods inc-, intervre.oe,
Soc-ue 3roups, e.tc-,

7.4
StudentD

106

rva\ unKnoon grob<; boeie for {uanl, me.thods

in 3rou?e, oyinione eaei\y \ed by one pe.rson) on\y e"",a\\

nu".^.be.rs
difsic-u\l to 3e.nera\i3e.

Social
o Because
sourcecodecan be reused,there is lesswasteof effort and the
benefitsof the softwarecanbe sharedby manywithout further cost.
o Greaterdemocracy
in termsof whichfeaturesaredevelopedin future
versions.
o code istransparent,not 'blackbox',so it can be easilytestedto ensure
that softwaredoeswhat it is supposedto.
o cost is not a barrierto usingopensourcesoftware,bringingcomputing
to a wider userbase.
o No limitson the distributionof opensourcesoftwaremeanthat good
softwareisquicklyrecognized
and widelyused.

9.3 Humansciences-based
usabilitytestingmethods
Task,userand environmentanalysis
In taskanalysis,
the objectiveisto focuson the users'goals- what theywant to
achieveby usingthe interface,for exampleusinga web interfaceto locatea
particularservicelocalto them.In orderto understandhow they approachthis,it is
necessary
to understand
the personal,
social,and culturalcharacteristics
the users
bringto the goal.Taskanalysis
alsoinvolvesworkingout the specifictasksthat users
mustcompletein orderto achieve
theirgoalwhileusingthe interface.
Depending
on the resultsof the useranalysis,
the interfacemayneedto be modifiedto take
usercharacteristics
into account,for exampleby usinglargerfontsfor thosewith
poorvision.A third type of analysis,
whichisoften (but not always)carriedout
whichinvolvesunderstanding
alongsidethe othertwo, is environmentanalysis,
users'physical,
social,
culturalandtechnological
environments.
Forexample,
one
aspectof this might be examiningthe physicallocationin whicha systemisto be
placed,
to determine
for the visualdisplay.
the typeof light levelsavailable
Focusgroups
Althoughthe focusgrouphasits originsin marketing,it hasbecomea usefultool
for obtainingfeedbackon an interfaceat an earlystageof development.
a
Usually,
smallgroupof aroundsixusersisaskedto work with an interface.Underthe
guidanceof a trairiedfacilitatonthey givetheir reactions
to the interface.
Dependingon the stageof development
of the interface,this maybe a mock-upor
a paperprototype(wherethe prototypehasnot beenbuilt,but existson paper
for example
only).Occasionally,
focusgroupsare usedwith workingprototypes,
wherea deviceisveryhigh profileand isexpectedto havea verywide appeal.Video
recordings
of the discussions
are usuallymadesothat exactquotationscanbe
put togetherto providea summaryof the
obtained,and keyclipsare sometimes
session.
Cognitivewalkthrough
Cognitivewalkthroughis a methodof testingthe designof an interfaceat a
relativelyearlystageof development.
Expertevaluators
usethe specification
of a
prototypeto createscenarios
Theythen
for varioustasksand goalson the system.
role-playthe part of a user,'walkingthrough'the differenttasksto determine
whetherthereare any blockswhichpreventthe userfrom reachingtheir goal.lf the
it canindicate
sequence
requiredto achievea goal isverylong and complicated,
and replaceit with a simpler
that there is a needto reviewthe actionsequence
approach.
Thinkingaloud
Thinkingaloudisway of obtainingfeedback
from the useroverthe courseof their
interactionwith an interface.A userisgivenvarioustasksto performusingthe
systeminterface.Theyare instructed
to talk out loud asthey performthe task,
Thetype
explainingwhat they arethinkingaboutand the problemsthey encounter.
of data gatheredfrom this type of testcaninclude:
o the users'feelingsgenerallyaboutthe look and feel of the interface
o whetherthey likethe colours
o how easytheyfind it to carryout the taskthey havebeenassigned
o what problemsthey encounter
Thiscanprovideverydetailedin-depthdata,but it is not alwaysclearwhat usersare
talkingabout.Bycombiningsystemloggingand a recordof the user'scomments,
this difficultycanbe overcome.
107

Wordlist
Note: where a word has.more.thanone part of speech,this is indicated
in brackets.The part of speech
given is that of the word as it is used in the unit. 'so,for
example, advanceis listedas advance(n),
although it can alsobe a verb.

Unit
A
acceleration
access(n and v)
actionsequence
active
adding machine
addition
adopt

9
4
9
5
5
5
10

advance(n)

Ajax (AsynchronousJavascript
and XML)
6

Unit

U ni t

billing

10

binary

component

biometric

complex(adj)

computer-assisted
(or -aided)

black hat (hacker)

1'l

blog

botnet

11

breakdown

'bricksand mortar'

computerize

1,5
3,4,9

1,4

concept

confidentiality

11

10

conflict

11

connect

broadband
browse

communication

1,4

connectivity

browser

connector

10
,|

consume

analogue

analytical

bug (n)

analyze

bulletin board

11

consumerprotection

business
(B2B)
to business

10

consumer
to consumer
(C2C) 10

business
to consumer(B2C)

10

contingencyplanning

't2

control (n, v and adj)

control unit (CU)

3
6

annotationtools

12

antivirus

1
"l

application

10

applicationssoftware

approach

cache

convention

calculate

convert

call centre

3
't2

copyright

capability

core

capacity

cost

CPUboard

centralprocessing
unit (CpU) 3

creator

change

criminallaw

chip (microchip)

cryptography

current

arithmetic
arithmeticlogic unit (ALU)
archive
assessment
asynchronous
augmentation
augmentedreality

4
6
12
12

censorship

aural data

automated

chiller

civil law

avatar

12

client
client consent

cluster

backend

balance

code

cog

bandwidth
barrier
behaviour
beneficial
'Big Brother'
108

10
10
9
11
't1

11

8
"t1
6

cybercrime
cycle(n)

8
't 'l

11

11
3

11
8
5,7

D
data

data centre

cognitive psychology

data integrity

cognitive systems

data processing

cognitivewalkthrough

data protection

11

commercial
common

5,10
8

database
decirnal

2,4
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decode
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12

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10

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11

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export

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designer

heuristicevaluation

desktoppublishing(DTP)

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(XML)
6

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5,6

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9
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10

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11

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features

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(HTTP)

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disciplinary
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3
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10,12

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11
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5, 9
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interaction

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4,8,9
109

interfacedesign
Internet
intranet
invention
inventor
iterative
iterativemodel
I
job
joystick
junction
K
key (adj)
keyboard
keylogger
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kilobit
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LAMP(Linux,Apache,
PHP)
MySQL,
laserprinter
launch(v)
layout
leadto (v)
legalinfrastructure
legalsituation
legislation
lifelogging
limited
limitation
link( n andv)
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local
log (n and v)
log in/on
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110

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2
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machine(n)
magnetic
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men u
metaphor
microchip
microprocessor
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military
mirror
mirrorworlds
mock-up
monitor(n andv)
monitoringdevice
Moore'slaw
motherboard
motor
motor system
mouse
multiplication
multi-purpose
N
negligence
network(n and v)
neuralnetworks
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numerical

operatingsystem
optimal
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output (n and v)
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release
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requirements
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resultin (v)
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select
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10
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share
skills
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software
softwareengineer
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8
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specific
specificationdocument

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spider(n andv)

spiralmodel
stable
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technological
technology
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text (n and v)
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tolerance
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transform
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t ra n s mit
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112

3
5
5
2

Transcripts
Unit 1, Lesson 2, Exercise g 6) t.t
Part 1
Good morning, everyone,and welcome to the ICT
faculty. I want to start by asking a simple question.
What do the letters l-C-Tstand for? That'sa very
simplequestion,isn't it? We all know the answel
don't we? Informationand Communication
Technology.But what is ICTabout?
Well, if you ask most peopleto explainICTto
you, they will probablysay it means'computers'.
So if I use my computerto play a game of Solitaire,
is that ICT?Not really.lt usesa computel certainly,
and computersare often found in an ICT
environment, but a computer is a component
rather than the whole system.lt's an important
component, as it's the part that processes
data. But
ICTis more than just using computers.
Perhapsif we look at the intrinsicmeaningof the
three words that make up Informationand
CommunicationTechnology- three words that are
used separatelyand together on an everydaybasis
- we might get closerto understanding.

Unit 1, Lesson2, Exercise

C fi t.Z
Part2
Many words have an intrinsic,or basic,meaning.
We might usethe sameword in different
situationswith different surfacemeanings,but the
intrinsicmeaningremainsthe same.Let'i take an
exampfe,the word virus.lt comesfrom the Latin
word for poisonand meansa smallorganismthat
causesdisease,and sometimesdeath, in living
things. ls there any connectionbetween that
definition and the way that the word is used in
ICT?Well, yes,there is. A computer virus is a
program or a piece of code that stops a computer
working normally.So we can easilyseethe link
here.
As we learn our first language,we alsoacquirea
feeling for the basicmeaningof words.Thishelps
us to understandthe sameword when it's used in
a new context.So when we're learninganother
language,we have to rememberto look for the
basicmeaning of a woid becausethe direct
translation in one context may not be the correct
translation in another. For example,can you use
the word in your language for driver in the
context of printer driver, meaning the program
routine which enablesa computerto usea
printer?The abilityto look for the basicmeaning

of words is especiallyimportant in the field of ICL

which is evolvingon a daily basisand needsnew
words to describenew concepts,methods and
applications.
Knowingthe intrinsicmeaningof a word might
not help you to understandthe exact meaning
when you come acrossthe word in a new context,
but it can be a good guide. Let'shave another
fook at the word virus.You may know the word
becauseyou were ill and the doctor told you that
you had a virus. Howeve4even someonewho
doesn'tusecomputers,or knows nothing at all
about computerprograms,can guessthat when
someonesays'My computer'sgot a virus,' it isn't a
positivething.

Unit 1, Lesson2, Exercise

O C) t.f
Part3
Let me go backto my originalquestion:What is
ICT?Well, let'stake some time to think about how
and when we use lCT.ICTplaysa huge part in all
aspectsof our lives.We use it at home, in schools
and universities,
and in hospitals.Most modernday business
and commercecouldn'tfunction
without some form of lCL and industry is
becomingincreasingly
dependenton information
and communicationtechnology to produce goods.
So what is the connectionbetween a car
assemblyline, an accountancysoftware package,a
computer game, or using the Internet to research
an essayyou have to write for me, or sending a
text messageto your friend to arrange a game of
football? How do we use these examplesto define

rcT?

g 6) t.+
Unit 1, Lesson2, Exercise
Part4
Let'slook at the intrinsicmeaningof our original
three words: information,communicationand
technology.OK. Iechnology meansthe tools and
machineswe useto solveproblemsor do things
efficiently. lnformation refers to facts about
someoneor something.In the contextof ICL
information is data that is input, stored, processed
or transmitted.That informationcan be
representedin different forms, for example as a
list, a text document, a spreadsheet,a picture, or
an audio or video file. So what sort of information
are we talking about?Well, examplesinclude
patient recordson a hospital database,a web
113

page advertisinga new product,or the

information that is stored in your car'sGPSsystem
that givesyou directionsand tells you when you've
gone the wrong way.
Now, let'sturn to communication.
Communicationmeanssharing information with
others.So how does ICThelp us do this?Well,
there'sa whole range of waysthat many of us
take for granted now. Somemethodsinvolve
'real-time'communicationsuchas telephones,
mobile phones,teleconferencing,
and Internet
programs.
Non
real-time
communication
chat
methodsincludefax, e-mailor voicemail.
So ICTis about usingtechnologyto input, store,
processand produceinformation,and about
communicatingthis informationto others.

g fi t.S
Unit 1, Lesson
3, Exercise
Introduction 1
In today'ssession,
we're going to look at ICTin
business.
We will be looking at a car
manufacturingcompanyand discussing
four areas
of business:
administration,finance,researchand
development,and operations,to seewhat
happensin eacharea and how ICTsupports
workersin theseareas.
Introduction 2
In this lecture,we're going to look at computer
bugs.In generalEnglish,a bug is a very small
insect,and there'sa popularstorythat the first
time the term was usedin connectionwith
computerswas in 1945,when a smallinsect
crawledinto a computeLcausingit to fail. Today,
when we talk about computerbugs,we don't
mean insects;we mean a flaw or fault in a
computerprogram.I'm going to look at the causes
of computerbugs and the effects.
lntroduction 3
OK. Are we all ready?Right,l'll begin.Today's
topic is the informationsystemslife cycle.Systems
developmentprojectsusuallyinvolvea number of
people,often working in different locations.For a
project to succeed,the goals and the procedures
needed to achievethose goals need to be
understood.Thereare many different
developmentprocesses.
Todaywe're going to look
at the five stagesthat make up the waterfall
model.

1\ 4

lntroduction 4
The Internet,as we know it today, is a global
computernetwork which connectsmillionsof
peoplearound the world. Thisweek, I'm going to
talk about the originsof the Internet.Who were
the pioneers?When did it all begin?We could say
that it reallybegan in the early 1990s,when Tim
Berners-Lee
developedthe conceptof the world
wide web. But, in reality,it startedin 1957,with
the launchof Sputnik1.
Introduction 5
The subjectof today's lecture is CMC,computermediatedcommunication.We'll begin by looking
at one particularform of CMC,electronicmail, or
e-mailasit is more commonlycalled.In next
week'ssession,
we'll see how e-mailworks, but
today we'll look at what we mean by e-mailand
discuss
the advantagesand disadvantages
of
e-mailas a form of communication.

Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise

D
Lecture
1 6d 1.6
By administration,we mean the arrangementsand
tasksthat securethe day-to-dayrunning of the
company.Thismay includehiring and firing
people,drawing up contractsfor workers,making
surethat the companyfollows health and safety
regulations,arrangingmeetings,and organizing
training courses.So,what role does ICTplay in
this?Well, companiesmay usethe Internetto
advertisefor new staff, databasesto store staff
records,word-processing
and desktoppublishing
packagesto draw up companydocumentation,
e-mailto communicatewith employees,or an
intranetto set up online training.
ICTis also usedto managethe company's
finances.There are software packagesto deal with
paymentsand ensurethat staff and suppliersget
paid on time. These,combinedwith computerized
banking,are a much fasterway of handling
paymentsthan writing individualcheques.
Specialized
softwareis also usedto monitor money
coming in and going out and to analyzedata that
helpswith decision-making.
In order for a car companyto succeed,it must be
able to keep providingproductsthat customers
want to buy,which meansinvestingin researching
and developingnew ideas.Computer-assisted
design- CAD - packagesare usedto produce new
ideasand draw up plansfor production.In some
industries,
simulatorsmay be usedto try out new
ideasor to test a prototype product.

On the operationsside of things,ICTis usedin

stock control, recordingstock coming into the
companyand trackingthat stockthrough the
productionprocessuntil the finishedproduct is
sent to the customer.lt can also be usedto reorder
stock.Computer-assisted
manufacturing- CAM - is
a feature of many of today's car manufacturing
companies,where someor all of the machines
usedin the productionline are computerized.In
some cases,a computer systemwill also control the
productionenvironment,for examplewhere a
product needsto be kept at a certain temperature.

specification.This is the stage when a systems

analystlooksat an existingsystem,either manual
or computerized,to see how things can be
improved.At this point, the systemsanalystwill
watch people using the system,collect information
from users,and look at documentation.Thiswill
help him or her to identifythe shortcomingsof an
existingsystemand produce a descriptionof what
the new systemshould do. The secondstage is
systemsand software design. lt is the responsibility
of a software designe4or architect,to study the
systemsspecifications
and turn these into design
documentsfor programmersto work from.

Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise

D

In the third stage,the developmentstage,a team

of programmerscreatesthe new software. Each
programmer is allocateda part of the software to
produce,so, althoughthey are a team, they will be
doing different things and progressingat different
rates.For this reason,it isn't possibleto test the
systemas a whole, so developerswill test their
own work as stand-aloneunits.

Lecture
z 6) t.Z
5o what are the causesof computer bugs?Well,
bugs can occur in either a software program's
sourcecode or in its design,and they are usuallya
result of errors made by developers.For example,
a programmermay have made a mistakewhen
writing the sourcecode, or the different parts of a
program may interact in a way that wasn't
predicted at the design stage.
The effectsof a computer bug can be mildly
inconvenientor they can be catastrophic.
In some
cases,you might not even realize a software
program has a bug - this is becausethe bug has no
effect, or a very minimal effect, on the program's
functionality. ln other cases,a bug may cause
programsto crash- that is, stop working
altogether.In suchcases,the bug will resultin
considerableinconvenience
to the user.Evenmore
seriousthan this is the fact that bugscan cause
securityproblems,laying a systemopen to viruses.
There have been a number of caseswhere
computerbugs have had extremelyserious
consequences.
In some cases,these have been
financial.For example,a computerbug resultedin
the lossof the billion-dollarAriane 5 rocket in
1995.Fortunately,
this didn't resultin the lossof
life. However,a software bug in the Therac-25,a
radiationtherapy machine,is thought to have led
to a number of cancerpatientsbeing given
overdosesof radiation between 1985and 1987.

Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise

D
Lecture
3 O 1.8
The term 'waterfall model' was coined bv Winston
Royce,a software engineering researcher,in 1970.
The waterfall model can be broken down into
five basicunits. The first stage is requirements

The fourth stage is integration and systems

testing. When all of the separateparts of the
systemhave been finished,it should be possibleto
integrate them - that means,fit them together,
and test the systemto see if everything works.
The final stageof the waterfall model is
installation,operationand maintenance.At this
point, the new systemis installedand staff are
trained to use it. From then on, the day-to-day
running of the new systemis the responsibility
of
the systemsadministrator.

Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise

D
Lecture
4 6i 1.9
Sputnik1, the world'sfirst artificialsatellite,was
launchedby the SovietUnion in 1957and marked
the beginningof the 'SpaceRace'betweenthe
United Statesand the Soviet Union. Facedwith
losingthe lead in militaryscienceand technology,
the USgovernment set up the AdvancedResearch
ProjectsAgency,ARPA,in 1957.By 1969,ARPAhad
createdARPANELa small network of computersin
different citieswhich could communicatewith
eachother.The technologybehind ARPANET
gave
the US Department of Defensea method of
communicatingin the event of a nuclearattack,
when normal methodsof communicationmight
not be feasible.
It rapidlybecameapparentthat ARPANET
could
have other peace-timeuses,and by 1972,scientists
and academics
around the U5 were usingthe
systemto exchangeideasand information.In

r15

was extendedto includethe

1973,ARPANET
internationalcommunity.The network continued
to developand by the early 1980s,the 'lnternet'
had grown to becomea worldwide network of
military,academic,and scientificresearch
computers.
By 1986,the Internetwas opening up to the
generalpublic.However,the real breakthrough
that led to the Internetas we know it camewhen
a scientistworking at CERN,a
Tim Berners-Lee,
nuclearresearchfacility,inventedHTML,a
computerlanguagewhich made it easierto display
text and images.He also invented HTTP,a reliable
way of transferringinformationfrom computerto
computer.
Sincethose early days,the Internethascontinued
to grow and grow. By September2009,according
there were over 1.7
to Internetusagestatistics,
bilfion people usingthe Internet,just over 25o/oof
the world'spopulation.

D
Unit 1, Lesson4, Exercise
Lecture
5 601.10
Electronicmail, or e-mail,is a way of sendingand
in digital form via a computer.
receivingmessages
E-mailscan be sentthrough an organization's
network, known as an
internalcommunications
intranet,to which only membersof the
organization have access,or they can be sent
through the Internetto anyone,anywherein the
world.
So what are the advantagesof e-mailto the
user?Well, firstly,comparedto writing a letter; it's
very easy.You simply type a message,add the
e-mailaddressof the recipient,and press'send'.
And you can do all of this from your desk,or on
the move usingyour laptop or mobile phone.
e-mail is a very fast way to communicate:
Secondly,
will arrivewithin minutes
in most cases,messages
or sometimessecondsof being sent, whilst a letter
may take severaldaysto arrive. lt's also
comparativelycheap.You can attach large files
with different formats such as documents,photos
or video clipsto an e-mail.Finally,by setting up an
e-mailgroup, or typing multiple e-mailaddresses
into the addressbox, it's possibleto send the same
messageto severalpeopleat the sametime.
But of course,as with most things, there is a
downside.Yes,e-mail is usuallyfast, but it's
possiblefor an e-mailto get lost in the systemand
not arrive.Sendingindividuale-mailsis cheap,but
the set-up costscan be expensive:you need a

116

computerand an Internetconnection.There'salso
the problem of informationoverload- some
receiveso many e-mailseachday
businesspeople
that they hardly havetime to respondto them all
- this may resultin important e'mailsgoing
unnoticed.Another problem is'spam'or'junk
e-mail'.This is e-mailthat you haven'taskedfor
but which is sent out to advertiseproductsor
services.However,possiblythe biggest
disadvantageof e-mail is that it can be usedto
introducevirusesto a computer- the viruscan be
sent as an e-mail attachment which activatesitself
when the attachmentis opened,or it can be sent
within the e-mail itself.

g Cl t.t t
Unit 3, Lesson2, Exercise
Part1
OK. ls everyonehere?Good,then let'sbegin.
We've seen how ICTis used in pretty much all
areasof modern life - it helpsus learn,do our
work, communicatewith other people,spendour
leisuretime, stay healthyand manageour day-today lives.We appreciatebeing able to watch
satelliteTV,buy groceriesonline and communicate
with friendsand family around the world.
However,most people don't think about the
technologythat enablesus to do thesethings. In
today's lecture,we're going to look at ICTsystems,
specificallythe different typesof ICTsystems,the
componentsthat make up an ICTsystem,and the
functionsthat ICTsystemsperform.
There are basicallytwo types of ICTsystems:
embedded and general purpose.We'll start with
embedded systems.An embedded systemis one
which is fixed insidethe devicethat it controls.l'll
repeatthat: embeddedsystemsare found in all
sorts of everydaydevices,from the automated
teller machineoutsideyour bank,to the washing
machinein your kitchenand the car in your
garage.Embeddedsystemsare special-purpose
systemsthat are pre-programmedto perform
specifictasks.There is a big advantageto these
They are relativelyinexpensive
embeddedsystems.
to producebecause,unlike a PCor a laptop,they
are designedto perform a limited set of tasks.In
other words,embeddedsystemscan only do one
task or set of tasks.
Now let'shave a look at generalpurposesystems.
Theseare systemsthat can be set up to perform
different tasks.They includesupercomputers,
Think
mainframecomputersand microcomputers.
about your own laptop or PC.What are the
different things you useyour computerfor? Well,

you could use it to play games,produce

assignments,
watch films, listento the radio or
make phone calls.The list of things you can do
with a general purposecomputer is pretty
extensive.This is because,unlike embedded
systems,general purposesystemscan be used for a
whole range of things.Userscan extendthe range
in a number of ways.They can reprogramthem,
upgradethem, add on new hardware,or install
new software to increasethe capabilitiesof the
system.
OK, we've talked about types of systemsthat
exist.Now let'sthink about the functionsof ICT
systems.

Unit 3, Lesson
2, Exercise
c fi t.tz

preferto do our shoppingonline becauseit's more

convenientand also becausethere's often more
choice.A retail websitelistsinformationabout
what productsare availablefor us to choosefrom.
When an online order is placed,the systemdoesa
number of things. Firstly,this may be generating
an instructionto prepare the productsfor
dispatch;secondly,requestingpayment from a
credit card companyor a bank;thirdly,sendingan
e-mailto the purchaserto confirm their order and,
lastly,reordering new stock for the future. In this
case,the systemcombinesinformation
managementand communications.
So we have three types of function that can be
carried out by ICTsystems.In the next part of the
lecture,we will considerthe componentsof an ICT
system.

Part2
In the first part of this lecture, I defined ICT
systemsas two different types:embedded systems
and general purposesystems.But they can also be
defined in terms of what they do. Broadly
speaking,ICTsystemsperform three functions.The
first is information storage and management. For
example,doctors often use information systemsto
store informationabout their patients.When a
patient comesinto the surgery,the doctor can call
up their record from a databaseand see what
problemsand treatmentsthe patient has had in
the past.
The secondfunction is control. What do control
systemsdo? Well, an ICTcontrol systemis an
electronicsystemwhich usesdata to manage or
regulatesomething;this could be a deviceor
another system.An example of a control systemis
the one found in your washingmachine.lt'sthe
systemthat allows you to wash clothesat different
temperaturesor use different programsby simply
pressinga button.
Finalfy,we have communicationssystems,which
transmitdata from one placeto another usinga
range of communicationchannelsincluding
telephonelines,cablesand satellite.All kindsof
data can be transmitted: not simply text
documents,but also pictures,sound and video
files.lf you have a mobile phone,the chancesare
that not only can you speakto your friendson it
you can also take and
and send text messages,
send picturesand short videos,pick up e-mailsand
listento the radio.
Of course,nothing is straightforward, particularly
in the world of lCT,and many ICTsystemsdon't
slot comfortably into just one category because
they perform one or more functions. Many of us

Unit 3, Lesson2, Exercise

O Q t.tg
Part3
ICTsystemsare composedof hardware,software,
data and users.In this section,we're going to
focus on hardware and software.
First,fet'sdefine what we mean by hardware.The
word hardware refersto the physicalcomponents
of an ICTsystem.ICTsystemshave four basic
hardwarecomponentsand theseare input devices,
processors,
storage devicesand output devices.
Input devicesare the devicesusedto capture
data. They includekeyboards,microphones,
digital
cameras,scannersand devicessuchas mice,
joysticksor touch screens.Next, we have the
processor.
This is the part of the systemthat
controlsthe computer hardware and acts on the
data that is put into the system.lt's called a
microprocessoror CPU- central processingunit.
Storagedevicesare usedto keep data that has
been processedor will be processedat a later date.
They includeinternalstoragedevices,suchas RAM
- random accessmemory - and hard drives,and
external devices,such as flash drivesor CDs.Finally,
we have output devicessuch as printersor VDUsvisualdisplayunits- which are usedto displayor
produce the -resultsof processing.
Now fet's have a look at software. Software can
be defined as the instructionsor programsthat tell
the hardware what to do with data. Software can
be divided into two categories:systemssoftware
and applicationssoftware.
Systemssoftware is the software that enablesa
systemto work. lt tells the systemwhat to do and
when to do it. Systemssoftware includesoperating
117

systems,compilers,networking systems,
performancemonitoring software and utility
programs.Applicationssoftwareis what enablesa
userto do something specificwith an ICTsystem,
i.e.,it allowsyou to do the things you want to do,
whether that is designinga new product,
organizingthe day-to-dayrunning of a company,
or playinga computergame.

8 infor'mation
9 em'bedded
10 'process
11 'database
12 'satellite
13'automated
14'function

g Cl t.t+
Unit 3, Lesson2, Exercise
Part4
So, to summarize,we can say that there are two
types of ICTsystem:embedded and general
purpose.ICTsystemscan also be defined by what
they do, for exampleinformationstorageand
managementsystems,control systemsand
communicationssystems.Systemsare composedof
hardware and software. The hardware refersto
the physicalcomponentsof the system,while the
software is the instructionswhich control what the
computer does.
OK, that's it for today. Next time we'll look at
how ICTsystemswork. Don't forget to do a bit of
researchon that before you come. Thanks.Seeyou
soon.

2, Exercise
f 6) t.ts
Unit 3, Lesson
1 Embeddedsystemsare not expensiveto
produce.
2 You can add new hardware and software
onto an embedded system.
3 ICTsystemscan perform more than one
function.
4 A personalcomputeris an exampleof an
embedded system.
5 ICTsystemshave two basichardware
components.
6 Operating systemsare examplesof
applicationssoftware.

15 'regulate
16 appli'cation
17 in'struction
18'system

4, Exercise
C 6) t.tZ
Unit 3, Lesson
Part1
OK. In the last lecture,we talked about different
types of ICTsystems,the functions of ICTsystems,
and the different partsthat make up an ICT
system,i.e.,software and hardware.
Todaywe're going to concentrateon what ICT
systemsdo, and we can break this down into
three stages:data capture,data processingand
data output. But before we think about the
different stages,it's important that you
understandthe difference between data and
information.Data is informationthat has no
meaningor context.For example,if you seethe
numbers281204written in a line, what do they
mean?Well, it could be an important date, a
price or a product code. We have no idea unless
we have a context. This is data. lf I tell you that
281207is your coursenumbel you have a
context, and the numbers become information.
Alternatively,if there was a small spacebetween
each pair of numbers,this could be a date - the
28thDecemben2007.And if there was another
set of numbers in bracketsin front of this string,
we might assumethat it is a telephonenumber.
5o we can saythat data + context = information.
Informationis data which has meaning,
somethingwe can use.

e 6) t.tO
3, Exercise
Unit 3, Lesson
1 e'lectrical
2 'management
3 co'mmunicate
4 com'ponent
5 'storage
6 'binary
7 con'trol
1it"

o 6) t.tA
Unit 3, Lesson4, Exercise
Part2
Right, let's have a look at the first stage now data capture.We can also call data capture data
input. /nput simplymeansputting data into a
system.5o how do we do this? Well, data can exist
in a number of forms, but all data that is input

into a system,whatever its original form, hasto be

encoded.That meansconverted into a form that
the systemcan store or process.Data, whether it is
in the form of text, movement or sound, is stored
as electricalsignalswhich have one of two states,
either on or off. The figure 1 is on, while the
figure 0 is off. Eachof these binarydigits is called
a bit.
Data that is input is then stored for later use,or
processed.This is done by the microprocessor,
also known as a CPU,or central processingunit.
There are three parts to the CPU.Theseare the
CU,or control unit, the ALU,which standsfor
arithmeticand logic unit, and the lAS,or
immediate accessstore.The IAS holds data and
programswhich are needed for processing.The
ALU performscalculations
on data and the CU
usesthe resultsof these calculations,together
with instructionsheld in its own data and
programs,to make decisionsabout what to do
with the calculations.
For example,the
calculationsmay be usedto work out how much
to pay employeesin a company,or they may be
usedto switch on a systemsuch as a central
heating system.
Unit 3, Lesson 4, Exercise e f) t.tg
Part 3
Let'smove on to output now. Output is what you
get when a systemhas finished the processing
stage. lt is the result of data processing,which is
then transmitted, or communicated,to the user.
Output is the stagewhen data is decodedand
onc'eagain becomesinformationwhich can be
used by a personor another device.lt might be a
soundthat alertsthe policethat someoneis
breakinginto your house,a pictureyou can print
out and display,or informationabout product
salesthat you can useto make decisionsabout the
future of your company.
Some ICTsystemsoperate as a cycle.A cycleis a
continuouscirclewith no beginningand no end,
although it can be broken if the systemis switched
off, or if there's a problem. In a cycle,the output
produced is used as feedbackto input more data
into the system,which is then processed.One such
systemis the cruisecontrol systemfound in many
of today's cars.The systemkeepsthe car travelling
at a steadyspeedby increasingor decreasingthe
amount of fuel being fed into the car engine,
dependingon the input it receives.

Unit 5, Lesson 2, Exercise g f) t.ZO

Part 1
Good morning,everyone.This morning we're
going to learn about the earlydevelopmentof
computing.In this first talk, l'm just going to give
you an overview of the history of the computer up
to the late 20tncentury,and then other key
conceptswill be dealt with in the next few
lectures.Also, in your seminarsand assignments,
you'll be able to coverall the important points in
more detail. So ... er ... let's see- yes- to start
with, we need to look back to the early days of
pre-mechanical
computing.In other words,we'll
examinethe early inventionswhich led eventually
to our modern computer.Thesewere 'manual
computers',that is to say computerswhich were
worked by hand.The first manualcomputerwas
the abacus,which was in fact an extensionof the
fingerson the hand.The ten fingersare the basis
of the decimal system,of course.Another
important pre-mechanical
inventionwas known as
Napier'sBones.Thiswas a seriesof rodswhich
simplifiedand speededup multiplicationand
division.Usingthe rods,it was possibleto multiply
numbersby usingaddition and to divide numbers
using subtraction.Secondly,I'll look atthe
transformationto mechanicalcomputing,whereby
computersused gearsand cogsto carry out
calculations.
Theseincludethe Pascaline,
which
was inventedby BlaisePascalin Francein 1645to
calculatetaxes,and the DifferenceEngine,which
was devisedby Babbageand is seenby many as
the birth of modern computing.By the end of the
1gthcentury,many of these principleswere still
being used in the tabulating machine,which used
punchedcardsto processdata from the USCensus.
The companymakingthese machineslater became
lBM, which all of you will have heard ot. After
that, l'lltalk about computingduring the Second
World War, particularlyabout the work of Alan
Turing,an Englishscientistwho deviseda machine
which could break Germancodesso that the
Englishcould read Germanmilitarymessages.
The
machine,known as Colossus,
named after the
noun 'colossus',
which meansa personor thing of
great size,was built usingelectronicvalvesand
relays.lt worked very well and it was the world's
first efectroniccomputer. Then I'll discussthe
developmentof electroniccomputers.Theseused
transistorsinsteadof valves,which greatly
increasedtheir performanceand which would
ultimately have a revolutionaryeffect on the
speedand cost of computing. I'llfinish by
mentioning some of the factors which led to the
growth of the Internet. Theseincludethe speed of
119

developmentof different componentsusedin the

Internetand the particularrequirementsof
communicationin the Cold War.

2, Exercise
O 6&t.Zt
Unit 5, Lesson
Part 2
The computer is arguablythe most important
piece of technology in modern society,but it
actuallyhasa very long history,in fact going back
almost 5,000years.lt startswith the early
Babylonians,
who usedsimplearithmeticto count
and keep a recordof their goods.As their wealth
grew and they had more and more goodsto
record,it follows that they would try to develop
tools to make this work easier.A good exampleof
one of thesetools is the abacus,usedas a basic
calculator- in other words, a computer.What I
mean is that, as in a computer,data is input by
moving the beads.lt is stored by the position of
the beadsand the output or answerscan then be
read off. Five beadsper line are often used,just as
there are five fingerson a hand.Anyway,moving
aheadto the early 17thcentury,we find a different
type of computer.While the abacuswas developed
to speedup addition,Napier'sBoneswere created
to speedup multiplication.The Boneswere a
seriesof numberswritten on narrow stripsof
material,originallybone,which allowed large
numbersto be multipliedor dividedusingsimple
arithmetic.While they worked well, they appearto
have initiallybeen developedfor academicrather
than commercialuse.
Commercialrequirementswere the reasonfor
the developmentof one of the first mechanical
in
calculatorsby BlaisePascal,that's P-A-S-C-A-L,
France,in 1645.Calledthe Pascaline,
it was a
hand-poweredadding machinewhich could add
numbersup to eight figureslong. lt usedgears
and cogsto transferthe resultsof one wheel to
another,a very simpleand cleverprinciple,which
incidentallyis still usedtoday in electricityand
gas meters.
Therewere quite a few more calculators
invented after that, which I won't discusshere,
becauseI want to look at another type of
machinewhich was linkedto the developmentof
the computer.In 1801,Joseph-Marie
Jacquard,
that's J-A-C-Q-U-A-R-D,
developeda very special
type of weaving machineor loom, which was
controlledby a set of cardswith holesin them.
Usingthesepunch cards,the JacquardLoom
could producefabricswith very intricatedesigns
much more quicklyand efficientlythan by using
120

traditional hand-weavingtechniques.Thesecards
introducedthe principleof programmability,
which meant changingthe processby changing
the input. Thiswas very importantto the
developmentof modern computingand the
punchedcard was to remain in usefor well over
150 years.
By the early 19thcentury,more and more
calculationwas requiredto conductgovernment,
commerceand engineeringefficiently.
Logarithmictables,which allowed large numbers
to be multipliedand dividedusingaddition and
subtraction,were increasingly
usedto speedup
calculations.
CharlesBabbage,an English
mathematicianand philosopher;discoveredmany
errorsin existingtablesand felt that the
calculations
should be carriedout by machinefor
greater accuracy.He was given money by the
Britishgovernmentto designsucha machine.
Unfortunately,the designfor this machine,
which was calledthe DifferenceEnginewas very
complexand the engineersmaking the parts
were unableto manufacturethem with enough
precisionto make it work. In addition,the
governmentrefusedto continueprovidingthe
funds to allow him to overcomethesebarriers
and as a result,his DifferenceEnginewas never
fully built as he designedit.
lf the DifferenceEnginehad been built as
designedby Babbage,it would haveworked
perfectly.In 1991,a perfectlyfunctioning
DifferenceEnginewas constructedfrom
Babbage'soriginal plans.As a resultof his
design,Babbagehas been creditedwith
inventingthe first machinerecognizedas a
modern computeLand so he is calledthe father
of the computerby some people.In additionto
the DifferenceEngine,he alsodesignedan
AnalyticalEngine,a much more complicatedtype
of mechanicalcomputerwhich would use
punchedcardsto input programsto the machine
and which would be powered by steam.Despite
the fact that the AnalyticalEnginewas never
built, it had programswritten for it - by a
woman calledAda Lovelace.She is currently
recognizedas the world'sfirst programmerand
was honouredby havinga programming
language,Ada - that's A-D-A,named after her in
1983.
Incidentally,
in additionto his work with
computers,Babbagewas also a cryptographerwho
worked for the Britishgovernment.He broke - or
decoded- a number of codeswhich had been
consideredunbreakableup until then, giving the
Britishgovernmentconsiderable
advantagesin

diplomacyand war. While this is the first time we

find a link between computersand codes,it is not
the last.
Unit 5, Lesson 2, Exercise g 60 t.ZZ
Part 3
Anyway,er ... to return to our story of the
computer - we are now almost at the start of the
20thcentury,and the next important invention
camefrom HermanHollerithin the USA.He
developedthe TabulatingMachineto speedup the
processing
of informationfrom the USCensus,or
populationcount. lt useda combinationof
punchedcardsand mechanicalgears,and it was
very successful,
reducingthe time neededfor data
processing
from eight yearsfor the 1880Census,
to
one year for the 1890Census.Hollerithwent on to
developmore complexmachinesand startedhis
own companywhich leasedmachinesto
governmentsand commercialorganizationsall
around the world. The companywhich he founded
eventuallywent on to becomelBM, International
Business
Machines,which playeda major role in
the developmentof the modern computer.
Other developmentswere alsotaking place,
which were more academicthan commercial.
Machinesfor calculatingdifferentialequationshad
been in usefor sometime. Howeve1the
Differential Analyzer,built in 1932by a scientist
called Bushfrom the Massachusetts
Institute of
Technologyin the United States,was much more
powerful and could perform large numbersof
calculationsmuch more quickly.The calculations
were carried out using different setsof gears,
making it an analoguedevice,similarto those
designedby Babbage.Howeve; it usedelectrical
motorsand, unlike Babbage'sengines,it was not
programmableand neededto be 'hard wired',
that is,set up specifically
for each new differential
equation.The machinewas successfully
used
during the SecondWorld War to calculatethe
pathsof missiles.
The SecondWorld War also saw the creation of a
machinewhich can be truly saidto mark the start
of the modern era of computing.Thiswas a device
calledColossus,
developedby a British
mathematician,
Alan Turing,or T-U-R-|-N-G,
in
order to break Germancodes.lt usedelectrical
relaysor valvesto perform calculations
and alsoto
store someof the data while it was being
processed.lt was the first computer to do so, and
becauseof this, it is regardedas the first electronic
computer.Punchedtape was usedto input data

and was a very fast way of doing so.

Unfortunately,the whole project was kept
completelysecretuntil the 1970s,which meant
that many peoplewere not properlyrecognized
for their discoveries
during their lifetimes,which
was a great pity. Er...Where was l? Oh yes.Once
the first Colossusproved successful,
a number of
othersfollowed, and by the end of the wa[ ten
were in operation.By modern standards,Colossus
machineswere very large and slow,but by
allowing the Britishto read Germanmilitary
communications,
the impactwhich they had on
the war was enormous.

g f0 l.Zf
Unit 5, Lesson
3, Exercise
Part 4
Now, we have seen how important the role of
computerswas during the SecondWorld War; but
it was not long after the end of the war that the
power of computingwas turned towards business
and administrativeproblems.The UNIVACwas the
first Americancommercialcomputer.ln addition, it
was the first computerto be specifically
designed
for businessratherthan scientificpurposes.lts
calculations
were performedusingvacuumtubes
and readingfrom magnetictapes,a new
technologywhich had been introducedfor storing
data. UNIVACI used5,200vacuumtubes and
weighed about 13 metrictons. lt could perform
around 2,000operationsper second.While
vacuumtubes offered a significantadvantageover
mechanicalcomputers,the technologywas limited
by cost,sizeand energyconsumptionin terms of
how big computerscould get. The developmentof
the transistorby the AmericanTelephoneand
TelegraphCorporation in 1947showed a way
around those limitations.Transistors
could be
made much more quicklyand cheaplyusinga very
simpleand widely availableingredient,sand.In
fact silicon,which is obtainedfrom sand,is the
materialfrom which all modern electronic
componentsare made.Transistors
alsoconsumed
very little power and were very smallcomparedto
vacuumtubes.Computerswhich contained
transistorsinsteadof vacuumtubes could be
smallerand still deliveras much,or more,
processingpower. With the arrival of the
transistor-basedcomputer,the modern era of
computinghad truly arrived.However... oh, dear
... sadly,I seethat we've run out of time. This
meansthat l'll haveto talk about the development
of the Internetnext time. In the meantime,l'd like
you to do some researchon what made it possible
for the Internetto developin the way it did. And
121

before you get started with your researchI want

you to find out about primary,secondary,
qualitativeor quantitativeresearch,
and how each
can help you with this task.We have looked at the
developmentof computersup to the mid-2Otn
century,so what I would like you to look at is the
speedof developmentof the different components
of computers,and the networkswhich link them
together to make the Internet. We'll discusswhat
you'vefound out the next time I seeyou.

Unit 5, Lesson 4, Exercise g 6i t.Ze

Extract 1
Lecrunrn:
Right,Leilaand Majed,what did you find
out about the factorsinfluentingthe development
of the Internet?
Lern:Well, first of all, we talked to one of the
computertechniciansin the library.
Mnrro:lt's reallycold in the library.
Extract 2

Unit 5, Lesson3, Exercise

C fi t.Za
1 crypt'ography
2 'digital
3 compu'tation
4 programma'bility
5 a'rithmetic
6 a'ddition
7 calcu'lation
8 me'chanical
9 tran'sistor
10 mag'netic
11 sub'traction
12'chip

Unit 5, Lesson3, Exercise

O f) t.ZS
Thecomputer
isarguably
the mostimportant
piece of technology in modern society,but it
actuallyhasa very long history,in fact going back
almost 5,000years.
It startswith the early Babylonians,who used
simplearithmeticto count and keep a recordof
their goods.
As their wealth grew and they had more and more
goods to record, it follows that they would try to
developtools to make this work easier.

LrcruRrR:
And what elsedid you do?
Lrrm:We talked to the librarian.Shewas quite
helpful and showed us some bookswhich we used
to get some data.
Mereo:That'srubbish.Shewas obviouslyreally
bored and didn't want to talk to us,
Extract 3
LrcruRen:
Leila,can you give us an explanationof
your graph?
Lerm:Well, yes,it hasa verticaland a horizontal
axis:the horizontalaxisrepresentstime and the
vertical axisspeedand capacity.As you can see,
we've put some of the different elementsof
computercomponentson it.
LecrunrR:
What do the rest of you make of this?
Evie,what about you?
Evre:
Well, erm ... l'm not sure really.
Extract 4
Lrcrunrn:
Majed,can you explainhow you decided
which componentsto includeon your graph?
Mruro:Well, yes, it's basedon information the
techniciantold us.
Jncr: 5o it's secondary.
Extract 5
LecrunEn:
What do you mean by'secondary',Jack?

A good exampleof one of thesetools is the

abacusas a basiccalculator- in other words a
computer.

Jncr:I mean it's an exampleof secondaryresearch.

They did two things - they askedsomeonefor
informationand ...

What I mean is that, as in a computer;data is input

by moving the beads.

Evrr:[interrupting]Actually,that's primary.

It is stored by the position of the beadsand the

output or answerscan then be read off.
Five beadsare often usedjust as there are five
fingerson a hand.

Unit 5, Lesson4, Exercise

C f) t.ZZ

Anyway, moving ahead to the early 17thcentury,

we find a different type of computer.
122

Extract6
Lrcrunen:
Let'sgo back to this graph for the
moment to see how it can help with
understandingthe groMh of the Internet. Firstof
all, tell us about the tomponentsyou chose.

have been other falls which are not represented

on the graph becausethe data is not detailed
enough ...

Lerm:Well, the technicianexplainedthat

componentsget faster or cheaperover time, or
have more storagecapacity.5o we put speed and
storagesize on the samescalebecausewe felt
they were equallyimportant.lsn'tthat correct
Majed?

Lrrn: I don't think I agree with that. In my opinion

there is enough data on the graph to supportour
conclusion.

Mnreo:Absolutely.There are other factorswhich

are important too, but we felt that speed and
capacitywere the most important.

Unit 7, Lesson2, Exercise

A C0t.Zg

Extract 7

Part 1

Mrueo:The technicianexplainedthat, at first, hard

diskswere a specializedform of storage,so they
were very expensive.Later diskswere cheaper,
eventhough they had lesscapacityto begin with.

Good morning,everyone.What l'm going to talk

about today is a key aspectof what makes
computingpossible- that is,the productionof the
software which makescomputerswork. In other
words, how is the productionof code managed?
There are many different stagesin the
developmentof software,beginningwith defining
the problem.This includesrequirementsanalysis,
agreeingdesignspecifications
and systemdesign.
Of course,this can also involvebuilding working
prototypesfor the client.The next stage is actually
producingthe software.This involveschoosinga
model for development,allocatingresources
such
as programmersand computingfacilities,and
controllingthe quality of what is produced.The
final stageis documentingthe programand
troubleshootingany problemswith it. Managing
this whole processis also known as 'project
management'.What I mean is ... it covers
everything relating to how the software is actually
produced by programmers,and it can affect
everythingfrom what tools are used,how long the
production takes,to the quality of the software.
Anyway,we will look at project management later
on.

Jncr: Sorry,I don't follow. Could you possibly

explainwhy that's important?
Mrro: Well, basicallythe cost of the product often
dependson how many of them are being made at
the time.
Extract 8
Evte:I don't understandwhy the sizeof a hard
drive shouldget smaller.Everythingelsegets faster
or bigger.
Leru:Well, as Majed explained,they were
specialized.
Thosedriveswere usedfor the IBM
3340 and the number of drives manufacturedwas
so smallthat they didn't haveto worry so much
about cost. Later,when cost becamemore
important,it was cheaperto make driveswith less
capacityto begin with.
Extract 9
Mn.lro:Yes,especiallywhen computer companies
beganto make smallercomputers,for example
PCs.
Jncr: lf I understandyou correctly,you're saying
that to begin with, the new desktop computers
were much lesspowerful than the older
computers.
Mrueo:Yes,that's right.
Extract 10
Lecrunen:
This is all very interesting,isn't it?
Evrr:Yes,but if we just go back to the graph, we
can seethat apart fr-omone fall in hard drive
capacity,each of the componentsgets faster and
larger.
Lerm:Correct!
Extract 11
Mereo:l'm not surethat'strue. I think there may

So,er... in later lectures,we'll alsogo on to

considerhow developersapproachthe issueof
balancingthe costsof software and hardware
when designingsystems.Today,howeveL we will
deal with general software production processes
and methods.

C f) t.Zg
Unit 7, Lesson2, Exercise
Part2
As we haveseen in earliersessions,
the computing
processcan be thought of as the input of data to
the system,its processingby the computer
hardware and its output. As we knory the speed
or rate of processingis largely determined by the
processor
and memoryavailable.Now, another
term for the processorand memory is system
resources,
and a well-written piece of software
makesthe best possibleuse of the system
123

resources.Computer software is also known as

code,becauseit is written in specializedlanguages
by trained programmers.Of course,as well as
knowing how to write code,programmershaveto
know what they are writing it for; in other words
of the program.Once
the functionalspecification
this is known, decisionson systemdesigncan be
made. In this case,systemdesignconsiderations
will includethe choiceof operatingsystemor
platform it will run on, the type of backend or
databasetechnologywhich will be used,and what
technicalstandardswill be usedby the front end.
And then, finally,as we saw previously,
once the
systemdesign decisionshave been made, resource
and schedulingissueswill need to be considered.

e fd t.f O
Unit 7, Lesson2, Exercise
Part3
Now, an important concept in software
developmentis defining userrequirements- the
need to ensurethat a statementof requirementsis
agreed with the client before any work starts.
What do I mean by client requirements?
Well, to
help you understandthis idea clearly,can you look
for a moment at the leaflet I havegiven you from
the SmallWeb DevelopmentCompany?As you can
see,the first stage is agreeing a statement of
requirements,after which there are severalstages
before a decisionis made on what web designwill
be produced.Lookingat it anotherway, it is only
when agreementhas been reachedwith the client
on the functionalityof the softwarethat the
developerscan begin to work. lt is also important
that the agreementon functionalityis clearly
documented,as otherwiseproblemscan occur
when more and more functionalityis addedto the
project at the requestof the client. In project
managementterms,this is called'feature creep',
where the projectgets bigger and bigger as the
client asksfor more and more functionsto be
added to the software. When a web development
companyproducesa number of mock-upsfor a
client,they are loweringthe riskthat the site
which is put into productionwill not meet the
client'srequirements.Let'slook at an exampleof
this. Saythe developersgo aheadand build a
websitewithout taking into accountall of the
They show it to the client
client'srequirements.
and he doesn'tlike it. The differencebetweenthe
costof the total developmentand the cost of
developinga prototype is likelyto be quite
significant.Why is agreeingclient requirementsso
important?Well, the point is that unlessthe

124

developersknow exactlywhat they have to do,

then they can't choosethe best development
technologiesor decideon a timescalewhich will
deliverthe projecton time. In this way, resources
can be allocatedto enable the project to be
deliveredon time.

Unit 7, Lesson
2, Exercise
f Cdt.gt
Part4
Now... er... let'ssee... oh deal lsee we're
running short of time ... but perhapsI shouldjust
saysomethingabout modelsusedfor developing
software.
Thereare four main modelswhich I will outline.
To start with, model one is the waterfall model.ln
this type of model,eachstagedirectlyfollows the
other. lt is calleda waterfall model becauseeach
stageis dependenton the resultswhich flow on
from the previousstage.lt is particularlyusefulfor
simpleproblemswhich can be clearlydefined.The
iterative model adds functionality in stagesto
software. Examplesof this type of software are
things like end-userapplicationsor operating
systemversions.The first iterationusuallyprovides
the core functionalityfor the program,and each
successive
incrementadds new functionalityand
fixesanythingthat hasn'tworked properlyin the
previousiteration.
So the third model is called the prototyping
model. What's important about prototyping is that
clientshave an opportunityto seea model before
it is fully developed.lt sometimeshappensthat
clientsare not totally surewhat they want the
software to do, but they feel they will recognizeit
when they see it. lt is suitablefor projectswhich
are relativelysmall,suchas websitedevelopment.
The web developmentcompanywhose brochure
we looked at usesthis model. lt meansthat full
developmentonly goesaheadwhen the client can
seewhat the outcomewill be. At the sametime,
I think, of this systemis that the
the disadvantage,
designprocesscan take much longerthan with
other models.
Lastly,there is the spiral model. What's different
in the spiralmodel is that it combineselementsof
the waterfall and prototypingmodels.This means
that the overall project is broken down into
stages,as in the waterfall model. However,within
each of these stages,the prototyping model is
usedto produce prototype software. The spiral
model is particularlygood for large,expensiveand
complicatedprojects.

Now ... oh deal I was going to mention the

advantagesand disadvantages
of these models,
but ... ah ... I seethat time is moving on. 5o
instead,l'm going to ...

basedon the waterfall model,for example,work

which is not ready in time can causea delay in
the start of the next phase.So,although it was in
the early 1900sthat Gantt inventedhis charts,
they are still very much usedtoday.

Unit 7, Lesson3, Exercise

n fd Z.t

To sum up, then, productionmust be carefully

planned.Let me put it anotherway ... Planning
must take into accountthe necessaryprocesses
and variablesif the companyis to succeed.
Remembelpoor planningcausesprojectfailure.

1 'concept
2 de'pendent
3 'spiral
4 'increment
5 documen'tation
6 'prototype
7 re'quirements
8 'features
9 re'sources
10 pro'prietary
11 specifi'cation
12 f unctio'nality

g fd Z.Z
Unit 7, Lesson3, Exercise
Part 5
l'm going to finish with somecommentson the
planningof softwareproduction- in other words,
schedulingas a part of projectmanagement.
Now the fact of the matter is, it's a highly
complextask to plan softwareproduction.The
reasonfor this is that planningdecisionsare based
on a wide variety of different factors- not to
mention the fact that some of these factors are
totally outside the control of the developer.Let's
take clients:a changein the client'scompanycan
causea change in the software requirements,
which of coursethe developercan't control.Plus
there's the fact that the development model used
for the software affectsthe way in which
production can proceed,as we've just seen.
OK. Where was l? Oh, yes ... So scheduling
meansworking out what the different processes
are, when they start, when they finish, et cetera,
in relation to other processes.
You've probably
heard about Gantt charts?lt was HenryGantt
who came up with a very simpleidea to help
with scheduling- the Gantt chart. Many
organizationsuse Gantt chartsto help with
organizingand planningthesetypesof software
development projects.The advantageof Gantt
charts is that they show what processes
are
happeningat any one time. In a projectwhich is

Oh, I almostforgot to mention your research

topics.OK, what's very important in software
development is the issueof whether software is
open or closedsource.So l'd like you to find out
what are the main advantagesand disadvantages
of open sourcesoftware.

g fd Z.E
Unit 7, Lesson4, Exercise
Extract1
Now, as we know the decisionto make the
sourcecode of their productsopenly availableis
one of the most important decisionsthat
softwarecompanieshaveto make. I askedyou to
look at the caseof Netscape,
a companywhich
made the first successfulInternet browser.Why
did they do this?The productwas very
successful,
and though it was free to individual
users,it was generatinga large amount of
money from corporate customers.Also, there
were many risksrelatedto the decision.So, let's
have some views.

Unit 7, Lesson4, Exercise

C 6i Z.+
Extract2
Jncr:Well. I'd like to make two points.First,
moving to open sourcewas a move to defend their
product.
Lrrn: Can you expandon that, Jack?
Jncr:Sure,Leila.Netscapewas beginningto lose
market shareto Internet Explorer;at least partly
becauseit was losingits technicaladvantage.
Lrrln:So?
Jacr:So the point is that by making their product
open source,Netscapecould includecode which
had been written for other open sourceprojects.
Thiswould improvethe producttechnicallyand
would help them regaintheir technicaladvantage.
5o the point is that Netscapegained a huge
advantageby makingtheir productopen source.
Usingcode alreadywritten for other open source
125

projectssavedthem time and money, becausethey

didn't haveto write everythingthemselves.
And
becausethe quality of the existing code was
technicallyexcellent,they improvedtheir product
very quickly.
LecrunEn:
OK. 5o, what's your secondpoint, Jack?
Jncr:I was comingto that! My secondpoint is that'
Netscapewanted to provide the opportunity for
developersoutsidetheir companyto contribute
code to the product.
Lrrn: Yes,but there's no evidencethat that would
happen.lf anything,programmersfrom Netscape
were more likelyto be involvedin other open
sourceprojects.
Mrueo:Well, I don't agreewith that, Leila,because
from what l've read, lots of people contribute to
open sourcedevelopmentprograms.
Evrr:Sorry but who are we talking about, exactly?
Peoplewith good programmingskillsworking in
their bedrooms,or peopleemployedby large
software companieswho work on these projectsas
part of their employment?
Lrrn: Yes,we need to be clear here. lt must be a
mixture of both. Anyway, l'd just like to saythat
accordingto what l've read, open sourceproducts
important for
are becomingincreasingly
commercialcompanies.
Evre:In what way?
Leila:Well, if you make your basicproductopen
source,you can then providea premiumversion
which customerspay for. Also, you can charge
usersfor support serviceswhich they may want to
use if they don't have good in-housetechnical
support.
Eur: I don't get that. How can you chargefor
somethingif you are giving it away?
Lrrm:What l'm trying to say is, some usersmay be
happy with a basicproductwhich they get for
free. Others may want a more advancedproduct
or they may need to buy in expertisefor this
particularsoftware.
Mereo:I still don't understand.Can you give me an
example,Leila?
LErm:OK. Look at it this way. Companieswhich use
a proprietary operating systemfor their servers,
for exampleWindows, have to pay a fee for the
software. lf they use an open sourceoperating
system,such as Linux,they can get it for free. But
their technicalsupport may not be trained in using
Linux,so they may need to buy in technicalhelp
while they are learning.So on the one hand,they
may have to pay for support, but on the other,

they get the operating systemfree. And support is

a lot cheaperthan the systemsoftware.
Mnleo:So the software developersmake money by
savingtheir customersmoney?
Lecrunen:
Absolutely.But it's not just about cost. In
making a decisionon which type of softwareto
use,companieshaveto think about other issues
such as security,how quickly the software becomes
obsolete and how easyit is to modify it to their
own needs.
Mruro:Yes,and l'd just like to saysomethingelse.
As I mentioned before, lots of people help to write
open sourceprogramsbecausethey want to help
other people.Open sourcecan do a lot of good
things for societyin generaltoo.

g 6i Z.S
Unit 9, Lesson2, Exercise
Part 1
Good morning,everyone.l'm going to talk to you
this morning about human-computerinteraction,
usuallyreferredto as HCl.The purposeof HCIas a
field of study is to optimizethe performanceof
humansand computerstogether as a system.In
particular,l'm going to talk about the two
different componentsof HCI- namely,the human
sciences
and the computersciences.
l'm going to
talk first about the human sciences,
and I will
outline someof the issuesin psychologyrelevant
to HCl.After l've describedthese,I will go on and
do the samefor the computingscience
components.I will alsogive you a summaryof how
they link together.
But before we begin I have a little story to tell
you ... I once spent six monthsworking on a
project, designingan interfacefor a new
manufacturingsystem.lt used state-of-the-art
technologyand made good useof colour graphics
to show the operatorwhat was happeningwith
eachof the machineson the productionline. Sadly,
when we cameto rolling it out, we hit a major
problem.On the factoryfloot the operator had to
wear protectiveclothing,with a specialface mask
which turned everythingto blackand white. He
wanted to be able to usethe interfacewithout
taking off the mask,which meant that he couldn't
seethe colour.Consequently,a lot of my six
months' work was wasted.The point of the story is
that it is reallyvery importantto considerall the
human aspectswhen designinga userinterfacein this case,the work environment.So ... to get
backto the main part of my lecture...
NoW it's pretty clear that in order to be
successful,
systemdesignersneed to pay attention

to the way in which usersaccessinformation from

a system.They also need to considerhow they can
enter data or give instructionsto the system.In
doing this, they can make useof a number of
different tools and techniques.In fact, as we will
see,systemdesignerscan adopt a number of
methodsto ensurehigh-qualityinteraction
between usersand the system.But I supposethe
first point to note is that some of these tools are
basedon the human sciences
and othersare based
on the computer sciences.lt's the first of these that
l'm going to focuson nory but I think it's
important to point out that both types of tools are
essentialfor good HCIdesign.
OK, so to start with let'stake a few moments to
considerthe role of human sciences.
What do we
mean when we talk about the human sciences
in
relationto HCI?Well, researchhasshown that
there are three important areaswhere human
sciences
can contributeto HCl.lt could be argued
that these three aspectsalso exist for the
computersciences.
But as we shallsee,they tend
to have a different emphasis- l'll come back in a
little while and tell you how they fit together.
The first important point to note here is that the
human sciences
can be usedto build modelsof the
ways in which humansinteractwith their
environment,that is to say how an individual
interactswith the world in generaland with
computersin particular.lts aim is to help system
designersin developingthe most effective
interactionsbetween usersand systems.In
additionto cognitivepsychology,
human sciences
alsodrawson socialdisciplines
suchas sociology
and organizationalknowledge.Fromthe point of
view of systemdesigners,it is fair to saythat it is
cognitivepsychologywhich providestools for
detailedapproachesto interfacedesign.One
exampleof this is the modellingof human input
and output channels,a conceptwhich is similarto
input and output in computersystems.Examples
of the human input channelsare the visual
channelwhich corresponds
to the senseof seeing,
the aural channelwhich corresponds
to the sense
of hearing,and the hapticchannelwhich
correspondsto the senseof touch.
Another area that modellingcan help with is the
type of metaphorswhich designerscan usewhen
designingan interface.One exampleof a
metaphorcommonlyusedis the folder icon to
representa storage area for files. The main aim of
the metaphorii to help cut down the amount of
time neededfor the userto build a mental model
of the systemobjectsin their mind. By usingtools
suchas cognitivewalkthroughs,modellingcan also

help identify likely pointsof failure for userswhen

they are trying to navigatethe system.
Increasingly,
we find that modellingis usedto
provideevaluativetools to measurethe quality of
systeminteractionsfrom the point of view of the
user.lt's true to saythat measuringuser
satisfactionin this way is a very important aspect
of modelling.So,as we can see,modellinghas
been usedto developtools which can help with
interfacedevelopmentand the evaluationof the
userexperience.
The secondmajor point in relationto the role of
cognitive psychologyin HCI is its contribution to a
simplemodel of how individualsinteractwith their
environment.In terms of understandinghow
human cognitionworks,the Model Human
Processor,
or MHP,identifiesthree separate
systems,namely,perceptual,cognitive and motor
systems.
The perceptualsystemsendsinformation to the
cognitive systemwhich is responsiblefor
processing
that informationto enablepeopleto
know and understandtheir environment.The
motor systemis responsiblefor movement.This
enablespeopleto interactwith the environmentin
responseto their understandingof what is
happening,basedon the informationthey receive
from the perceptualand cognitive systems.A
simpleexamplefrom everydaylife, suchas picking
up an object,requiresmany complexinteractions
within and between the systems.For example,as
part of the cognitive system,physicalreactionsin
the eye which detectthe colour and shapeof
objects.Thesethen need to interact with the
perceptualsystem,in order to make senseof what
the object represents.In addition, each of these
systemshas limits to its capacity.George Miller; a
cognitivepsychologist,
argued in his famous 1956
paper that working, or short-term memory is
limited to holding betweenfive and nine itemsof
informationat any one time. Miller referredto it
as 'the magic number sevenplus or minustwo'. An
understandingof these limitsis crucialwhen
designing user-friendly interfaces.
Thirdly,modelsof human interactioncan provide
very effective ways of approachingthe design of
interfaces,and of ensuringtheir quality.Usedin an
appropriateway, they can improvethe usabilityof
systemsand considerably
enhancethe user
experience.Crucially,
they can be usedto optimize
the representationof taskswithin the interface
becausethey can help designersto understand
how usersview the world. By modellingthe
limitationsof the varioushuman systems,it is
possibleto ensurethat the representationsof the
127

taskswill requirethe minimum amount of

cognitiveprocessingin order to interactwith
them.
A good exampleof this is helping usersto
rememberoptions by grouping them together.As
we haveseen,sevenplus or minustwo puts a limit
on what can be held in the short-termmemory.
Good userinterfacedesignincorporates
this
knowledge.Sayan interfacehas25 different icons.
It is not possiblefor the userto rememberall of
theseat the sametime. Howevel the designercan
group the iconsby function to make - say- five
different groups,eachof which has a different
function,suchas formatting.The userthen needs
to remember in two stages- the first, to
rememberwhich group the icon is likelyto be in,
and the secondto decidewhich icon is required.
Bad design,on the other hand, ignoresthis types
of knowledge.By arrangingthe 25 iconsin no
particularordel the useris likelyto be confused
and find it very difficult to rememberwhere each
one rs.
Usingthesemodelswill ensurethat decisionsare
empirical,which is to saythat they come from data
obtained usingtechniquesbasedon these models.
5o it should be clearthat tools and techniques
which draw on the human sciences
are essential
for systemdesigners,
and in particularfor interface
designers.On the other hand, it is also essential
that tools which draw on the computersciences
are usedand it is to thosethat we now turn.

Unit 9, Lesson2, Exercise

C fd Z.O
Part2
Let'sturn now to the contributionwhich the
computersciences,
as opposedto the human
sciences,
can make to tools and processes
in HCl.
The main focusof HCIis on ways in which data
input and output can be optimized,within the
limits of systemprocessingcapacity.As we have
seen in other lectures,systemcapacitydependson
the specifications
of the hardwareand the
efficiencyof the software.Togethe4these will
determinehow much data can be input, processed
and output at the sametime. As we saw earlier,
there is a significantoverlapin the modellingof
inputs,outputs and processing
betweenthe
human sciences,
and the way in which computer
systemsoperate.The systemlimitationsin a
computerare similarto those in humanswhich are
representedin the Model Human Processor.
The
most significantdifferenceis that processing
capacityand speedsin computersystemscan be
128

improvedby increasingthe specification

of the
hardwareor enhancingthe efficiencyof the
software, whereasof course,improvementsin the
human processor
are difficult if not impossible.
The main focusof the computersciences
models
of HCIis on how the systemcan becomemore
effectivewithin existingsystemconstraints.
Choosingthe best combinationof hardwareand
softwarefor input and output devicesis important
if designersare to achievethis.
The speedwith which feedbacktakes placeis also
very important, as it can affect the user's
perceptionof the responsiveness
of the device,
and the easeof interactivitywith the system.
Again, choiceson the specification
of the input
and output devicescan affectthis. For example,if
displayscreenswith a very high levelresolution
are used,high levelsof systemresourceswill be
requiredto updatethis in responseto useractions.
Output deviceswhich havea much lower
resolution,on the other hand,will requiremuch
power and can be updated more
lessprocessing
quickly,making them appearmuch more
responsiveto users.Becauseof the limits on
processingpower overall,the right choiceof input
and output devicescan have an enormousimpact
on the quality of the userexperience.
A good exampleof this is the NintendoWii and
the innovativeinterfacewhich it introducedto
gaming consoles.
Priorto the Wii, almostall
consolesusedcontrollerswhich were broadly
similar.They were held in two handsand players
usedtheir thumbs to control actionswithin the
game, using buttonsor joysticks,and usedtheir
indexfingersto pull triggers.lt's tempting to
assumethat the designersfelt that this designwas
ergonomicallyperfectand that no further
innovationwas possible.
Howeve4in their approachto the Wii controller;
Nintendocompletelyrevolutionizedthe
interactivitywhich was possiblebetween usersand
the computersystem.While it lookslike a TV
remote,the Wii controllercan senseits position
relativeto the userand to the TV on which the
game is played.Thisallowsit to registerspeedand
acceleration,
as well as changesin direction,which
makesit an ideal user-inputdevicefor gamessuch
as golf. Usingthe controller;the movementsthe
playermakesare convertedinto speedand
movementdata, which inputs into the game.
Becauseof the intuitivenessand easeof use of its
interface,the Wii becameone of the most
successfulconsolesever,and expandedthe market
beyondtraditionalgame players,to include

familiesand older generations.So the real

question is, why have other consolemakers
remainedwith the traditional interfacesand what
will be the effects of this?
NoW where was l? Oh yes,right, I was talking
about how a systemcan become more effective
within existingsystemconstraints... So what
exactlyhavewe looked at this morning?Well, to
sum up, we can group the ways in which the
human and computersciences
help us understand
HCIunder three main headings.Firstly,by
providingmodelsof an engineeringapproachto
human behavioui the human sciences
can help us
to understandthe interactionbetween human and
systemin a way which can be usedfor planning
and quality assurance.
Howevel the human
sciencesapproachgoes furthel taking into account
the broader context of the interactionbetween the
individualand the system.Secondly,
by modelling
human systemsas channels,for examplethe visual
channel,it is possibleto determine the effect of
changesin the input and output of a system.The
third major point is the need to considerthe effect
of limitationson availableprocessingin both
human and computersystems.
Thesedifferences
and similaritiesbetweenthe two approachesare
reflected in the different ways in which the
usabilityof a systemcan be evaluated...

Unit 9, Lesson2, Exercise

o 6i Z.z

systems,namely,perceptual,cognitive and
motor systems.
8 So it should be clearthat tools and
techniqueswhich draw on the human
sciencesare essentialfor systemdesigners,
and in particularfor interfacedesigners.

Unit 9, Lesson3, Exercise

e f) Z.g
1 'visual,'input, de'sign,'haptic,'output
2 mental 'model,'userinput, visualdi'splay,
'input device,'actionsequence
3 'actually,'generally,'usually,i'deally,
'crucially

Unit 9, Lesson3, Exercise

C f) Z.g
Part3
OK, so moving oh, ... Now, let'sconsidera
question. How can we measurethe effectiveness
of the designtools?To do this, we need methods
to test the usabilityof systeminterfaces.Just like
the tools,the methodscan be divided into two
types- those which draw on the human sciences
and those which draw on the computersciences.
Todayl'm going to focuson three main evaluation
tools which usethe computeras a meansof
obtaining data on usability.These are heuristic
evaluation, systemlogging, and eye tracking.

6 lt's true to saythat measuringuser

satisfactionin this way is a very important
aspectof modelling.

Let'sbegin then with heuristicevaluationwhich is

perhapsthe most commonlyusedmethod.A
website called useit.comdefines heuristic
evaluationas "a method for finding the usability
problemsin a userinterfacedesign... by judging
its compliancewith recognizedusabilityprinciples,
in other words,the heuristics."In practice,this
involvesa smallgroup of evaluators,usually
around six,each usinga standardchecklistto
inspectthe interface.They note down how each
feature matchesthe items on the checklist.lt's
importantthat the evaluatorswork independently,
so that they don't influence each other when
makingtheir judgements.Howevel their reports
can be put together to provideone overall
usability.rating for the interface.This is a very
simplemethod, but it can be a very powerful one.
Qne possibledrawbackis that the method doesn't
involvethe use of the interface in the way it
would be used in 'real life', so some aspectsmay
be missedout.

7 In terms of understandinghow human

cognitionworks,the Model Human
Processo6
or MHP,identifiesthree separate

By the way, I see that some of you are using the

Cornell note-taking system.That'svery good. Do
you all know about this? No? Right,well, if you

1 Well, researchhas shown that there are

three important areaswhere human sciences
can contributeto HCl.
2 lt could be argued that these three aspects
also exist for the computer sciences.
3 But as we shall see,they tend to have a
different emphasis- l'll come back in a little
while and tell you how they fit together.
4 From the point of view of systemdesigners,
it's fair to saythat it is cognitive psychology
which providestools for detailedapproaches
to interfacedesign.
5 Increasingly,
we find that modellingis used
to provide evaluativetools to measurethe
quality of systeminteractionsfrom the point
of view of the user.

129

want to know more about it, I suggestyou look at

How to study in college by Walter Pauk,the 9tn
edition, publishedin 2007.lt's very good, and it
should be in the universitylibrary.l'm surethat
you all know the importanceof taking good notes
- and this systemis particularlyuseful.
The secondcomputer-based
method of testing
the usabilityof an interfaceis systemlogging.
Now, we already know that it's important to be
able to identify exactlywhere problemsoccurin
carryingout a task.Systemlogging is particularly
usefulfor this becauseit can provideactualdata
on the user'sinteractionswith the interface.This
meansit can indicatewhether or not an action
sequencehas led to the achievementof a goal.
Systemlogging can alsoshow any taskswhich the
userwas unableto complete.Howevel basic
systemlogging does not identifythe reasonfor
failure.In fact, as Dix pointsout in Human
computer interaction,one of your core texts - the
3'd edition,which was publishedin 2006,we can
only rely on systemlogsto tell us what has
why it has happened.A
happened,not necessarily
more advancedform of systemlogging is video
logging. This createsa video of users'interactions
with the interface,showingthe actionsof the user
and how they tried to completethe task.While it
can show how the userfailed, it still doesn't
providethe reasonwhy - which could be two very
similaricons,a confusinglabel or a hiddentab, for
example.
The third method is eye tracking.Thiscan be
usedalong with a systemlogging method. lt can
provideeven more detailedinformationon the
user'sbehaviouras they interactwith the
interface.In eye tracking,the useris providedwith
a headsetwhich can measurethe point of gaze.
Thissimplymeanswhere the individualis looking.
We can usethis deviceto gather data that can be
collectedon the point of gaze,which can show the
choicesa userconsideredbefore decidingon a
particularaction.This in turn givesa better
understandingof the user'smental processes.
Eye
trackingcan also be usedseparatelyfrom system
logging,for exampleto determinehow a user's
attention is drawn to variouspartsof an interface.
Thiscan be usedto identify distractingelementsof
interfacedesign.Eyetrackingcan help bring us
closerto what the useris thinking, as opposedto
simplymeasuringtheir behaviour.
OK, so now we can see that these three different
testing methodsgather data on the usabilityof an
interface,without actuallyaskingusersfor
information.In the first method, heuristic
evaluation,the likelyviewsof a userare
13C

representedby a checklistwhich an evaluatorthen

usesto test the interface.In the secondmethod,
systemlogging,actualdata on the user's
behaviouras they interactwith the interfaceis
gathered.However,there iSno data on what the
useris thinking or how they feel as they are
interactingwith the interface.The data collected
by the third method, eye tracking,coversthe
whole period of time the useris interactingwith
the interface,not just while they are trying to
completea task.This meansthat it can be usedto
give some indicationof what the useris thinking
during the interaction.However;while
behaviour-based
data is valuable,it must not be
the only way of gatheringusabilityinformation.To
quote Dix from the sametext as before, "analytic
and informaltechniquescan and shouldbe used".
Now I think that's all l'm going to sayfor the
moment on the computer-based
methodsof
usabilityevaluation.Are there any questionsso
far? (Pause)No, good. Now when I see you in
tutorials,we'll look in more detail at the human
sciences
componentof HCl.In the meantime,l'm
going to set you a researchtask. Right,now listen
carefully... your task is to find out more about the
methodsof evaluatingthe usabilityof interfaces
which draw on the human sciences.
l'd like you to
work in groupsof four. Eachgroup shouldfind out
about the variousmethodsthat are usedand
report back on your findings.

Unit 9, Lesson
3, Exercise
O 6dZ.tO
Extract1
Let'sbegin then with heuristicevaluation,which is
perhapsthe most commonlyusedmethod. A
website called useit.comdefines heuristic
evaluationas "a method for finding the usability
problemsin a userinterfacedesign... by judging
its compliancewith recognizedusabilityprinciples
in other words,the heuristics."
Extract 2
By the way, I seethat someof you are usingthe
Cornellnote-takingsystem.That'svery good. Do
you all know about this? No? Right,well, if you
want to know more about it, I suggestyou look at
How to Study in College by Walter Pauk, the 9tn
edition, publishedin 2007.lt's very good, and it
should be in the universitylibrary.
Extract 3
Systemlogging can alsoshow any tasksthat the
userwas unableto complete.However,basic
systemlogging does not identifythe reasonfor

failure. In fact, as Dix points out in Human

computer interaction, one of your core texts - the
3rdedition,which was publishedin 2006,we can
only rely on systemlogs to tell us what has
happened,not necessarily
why it has happened.
Extract 4
OK, so now we can seethat these three different
testing methodsgather data on the usabilityof an
interface,without actuallyasking usersfor
information... Howevel while behaviour-based
data is valuable,it must not be the only way of
gatheringusabilityinformation.To quote Dix,
from the sametext as before, "analytic and
informaltechniquescan and shouldbe used".
Unit 9, Lesson 4, Exercise C fd Z.t t
Extract 1
It seemsquite clear that computer-basedmethods
can contributea lot when evaluatingthe usability
of an interface.From the point of view of system
logging for example,there are three key points:
firstly, it recordsusers'actual behavioul,rather
than what they think happened;secondlyit can be
used with many usersat very little extra cost;and
thirdly, pretty importantthis ...
Extract 2
Erm,I think one big differenceis the human
sciencesapproach.This is very important. lt is
possible,we can see,how this is very important. 5o
let'slook at the slideand ... oh sorry,that'sthe
wrong slide,just a minute ... right, so here is a
differencebetweencomputerand human ... er
you can see I think, this difference... do you have
any questionsabout this slide?...
Extract 3
We could askthe question:why would we want to
use a psychologist?Usuallythis is very expensive,
but it's necessarybecausea psychologistcan help
to provide a view of how the userwill use the
interface.In addition, a psychologistis also very
important becausethey can show where the
attention of a userwill be directedin the
interface.
Extract 4
So the main difference between the methods is
the data. The human sciences-based
methods
provide us with data which is basedon what the
userthinks is happening.The computer-based
methodscan provideus with actualdataon
how the useris interactingwith the system.This

differenceshows us one of the main advantages

of computer-basedmethods,although they are
not enough on their own. In fact, if we look at
the chart l've prepared here, we can see how
the various methods relate to each other. For
example,we can seethat systemlogging can be
usedalong with thinking aloud. Thisprovides
data on what the useris actuallydoing with the
system...

Unit 11,Lesson1, Exercise

e O Z.tZ
Computer
ethics
Computersplay an increasingly
important role in
our society.One result of this is that decisions
made by computerprofessionals
have an impact
on a growing number of people.Moreover,lT
contractorsneed to balancetheir clients'demands
with their obligationsto society.In addition to
ethicalreasonsfor this, there are also practical
reasonswhy this is necessary.
Firstly,errors in the design or constructionof lT
systemscan have profound economicor human
consequences.
For example,Bynum,2004, refersto
a chemicalcompany,Chemco,where faulty
computersystemdesignwas responsible
for an
explosionwhich resultedin significantlossof life
and widespreadenvironmentalcontamination.
Because
the systemdesignwas flawed, the
designer'sprofessionalreputation was at risk.
Furthermore,if found responsible
for the death
and destructionbecauseof negligence,he faced a
largefine or imprisonment.Thisexampleof a
failure in standardsillustratesthe importanceof
making decisionsbasedon sound principleswhich
can be justified.
Secondly,a conflict of opinion can arise between
a computerprofessionaland his or her employer.
The employeemay have a disagreementabout
whether his or her work is being put to beneficial
or harmful uses.One exampleof this could be the
construction,maintenanceor operation of systems
for surveillance
or censorship.
So it is important
that professionals
understandthe ethicalissues
before entering into contracts.

g 60Z.tg
Unit 11,Lesson
2, Exercise
Part1
Good morning.My name is Dr William Mitchell
and much of my work relatesto computer ethics
and professionalresponsibility.
I am here today
to give you an overview of issuesyou need to be
aware of when making decisionsin a
131

professionalcapacity.That is to say,l'm going to

look at ways in which you can justify your
professiona
I decisions.
me, I don't want you to
Don't misunderstand
assumethat ethicsare relevantonly when making
decisionsin the workplace.As we all know, to
will form a
some degree,ethicalconsiderations
part of everydecisionyou make in your life.
However,it is fair to saythat, in the workplace,
haveto be carefulthat
computerprofessionals
they can't be accusedof negligencewhen
designingor operatingsystemswhich have an
effect on human life or property.Or, when
developingsoftware,that they aren't producinga
productwhich is not up to professionalstandards
or which infringesthe legal rightsof copyright
holders.
on
So in an attempt to keep the discussion
professionalresponsibility
reasonablysimple,l'm
going to summarizea few of the more interesting
pointsto do with the legal and regulatoryaspects
in a work context.
of professionaldecision-making

n E xe rci se
C G Z .t+
U n i t 1 1 ,L e s so 2,
Part 2
To start with, then, let's look at the different
need
typesof law which computerprofessionals
to be aware of. Thesefall into two main
categories- national lawsand international
laws.lt is particularlyimportant for computer
professionals
to have a good knowledgeof
which lawsare relevant,becausethey can then
be clearabout when they are within the law or
when they are at riskof breakingit. lf their
activitiescan be seenas breakingthe law, then
they will need to be in a positionto justify their
actions.They may defend themselvesby using
the principleof the 'greatestgood' - statingthat
more peoplewill benefit from their actionsthan
will sufferfrom them. Or they may want to rely
on their personalbeliefsand principlesof what
is right or wrong. Eitherway, it is importantthat
they have a knowledgeof the different
categoriesof law which can affect their decisionmaking.
Well, first let'slook at national legislation,passed
by countriesin responseto aspectsof computing
which were seenas harmful or problematic.The
passingof privacylaws in the US is a good
exampleof this. By the 1960s,computershad
becomesufficientlypowerful for many UScitizens
to begin to seethem as a potentialdanger.The
greatestfear initiallywas of a 'Big Brother'society,
that is to saya societyin which the government

would know everythingabout its citizensand

could exercisetotal control over them. By the early
1960s- and this may surprisemany of you - the US
governmenthad alreadycreateda number of
large databasescontainingdata from the US
census,from tax payments,from militaryservice
recordsand a range of other sources.By
combiningall this information,the government
could createa very detailedpictureof every
individual'sactivities,giving the government
unprecedentedpower over its citizens.
Publicconcernregardinggovernmentuse of
informationfrom citizensgrew to the extent that
the PrivacyAct was passedin 1974.The Act was
criticized,however,becauseit was difficult to
enforceand, not only that, but becauseit excluded
the collectionof data by companiesand
organizationsother than government.Daniel
Solovegivesa good descriptionof the issues
around this in his 2004 book on technologyand
privacyin the informationage. Briefly,in his
chapteron informationprivacylaw, he explains
how the many exemptionsand loopholesin the
Act meant that it did not fully addressthe
concernswhich had led to it being passed.
However,it is fair to saythat legislationin other
countries,suchas the UK Data ProtectionAct
passedin 1984,addressedmany of thesecriticisms.
The Act placeda responsibility
on all organizations
involvedin the processing
of data relatingto
identifiableindividuals,
to meet the requirements
of the Act by appointinga data controllerand
registeringtheir databaseswith an information
With the growth in networked
commissioner.
computers,the focusof concernbroadenedto
includeunauthorizedaccessby hackers.An
exampleof this type of legislationis the Computer
MisuseAct, passedin 1990,which makesit an
offence in the UK to access
another person's
computer,or alter data on their computer,without
The growth of the Internet
the owner'spermission.
has given riseto the term cybercrime- the use of a
computerto carryout criminalactivity- and
increasingly,
nationallawsare being passedto
preventthis.
This bringsus to another sourceof computerrelatedlegislation,namelyinternationaltreaties
and conventions.A very good exampleis an
internationalagreementcalledthe Councilof
EuropeConventionon Cybercrime.
Thistreaty was
aimed particularlyat countrieswhich have not yet
updatedtheir legalframeworkto reflectthe
complexitiesof the Internet.The crimesare
dividedinto a number of different categories:
these are data crimes,network crimes,access

crimesand other related crimes.Data crimesrelate

to the theft or deliberatemodificationof data.
Network crimesinvolve interfering with a network
to prevent accessor sabotaginga network. Access
crimesincludegaining unauthorizedaccess
to
systemsand the introductionof viruses,Trojans,
worms or other types of malware.The Other
related crimescategory includesforgery, fraud,
and other existingcrimeswhich are carriedout
with the assistance
of a computer.Thiscan include
phishingattempts,where forged e-mailsare sent
to trick usersinto logging on to fake websites
which then stealtheir usernames
and passwords.

Furnelland others,called"Dissecting
the 'Hacker
Manifesto',"givesan extremelygood insightinto
what actuallymotivatesthese individuals.

Another area where internationaltreaty-based

law is being createdis in relationto copyrightor
intellectualproperty,which has been a
controversial
area for sometime. The World
IntellectualPropertyOrganization- or WIPOfor
short - is a UN organizationbasedin Switzerland
and is responsible
for a number of treatieswhich
addresscopyright issues.However,some people
saythat when these treaties have been passedinto
law by governments,they have ended up
protectingonly the rightsof the copyrightholders
and ignoringthe rightsof those who purchase
material protected by copyright. Of course,
copyrightholdersmust be protected,but their
rights need to be balancedagainstthe rightsof
others.The evidenceshowsthat this is especially
true with respectto the US.In my view,the Digital
MillenniumCopyrightAct, or DMCA,which was
passedin the USin 1998,is a casein point. By
making it a criminaloffenceto produceor
disseminate
technologyto help usersavoid digital
rights managementprotection,it hasdamaged
innovation.lt has alsoactedas a directchallenge
to those who believethat there shouldbe no
restrictionson the copying of content, as a matter
of principle.A very interestingarticleby Steven

the design,developmentor maintenanceof a

computersystem.The employmentcontract
determineswhat is expectedof employees,and if
they don't meet theseexpectations,
then they will
be in breachof contractand can be sacked.Where
two companieshave a contractfor the
developmentof a system,there may be
disagreements
in terms of whether the quality of
Where
the systemwas in line with expectations.
suchdisputesoccuLcontract law is what
determineshow the agreement is interpreted. Civil
Iaw canalso be usedin other ways.For example,
individualsmay claimfor damagesunder civil law
if they feel that they have been harmed by a
productor service.They can also usethe civil
courtsif they feel that their rights have been
infringed,for examplein the caseof a breachof
their privacy.An important point to note is that
betweencountries,
civil law variesconsiderably
are
and it's essentialthat computerprofessionals
aware of the generalprovisionsof civil law in the
countriesin which they are working.

In addition,there are those who believethat the

legislationunfairlyinfringesthe individual'sright
to back up materialwhich they have already
purchased.
Thishas been the subjectof a
considerable
number of legalchallenges.
In the
EU,the sametreatieshave been implementedin
the EuropeanCopyrightDirective,or EUCD.This
on
directivealso imposesconsiderablerestrictions
the rightsof individualsto copy digital content,
and is seenby some peopleas infringing
The Councilof EuropeConventionon Cybercrime considerably
on personalfreedoms.Perhaps
requirescountriesto respondto requestsfrom
becauseof this,there was a considerable
delay in
other countriesto investigatebreachesof the law.
implementingthe directiveinto the national law
Howeve4this requirementhascausedconsiderable of individualcountries.
controversyas there is no requirementthat the
Thereare alsoa number of other pointsfor
law in the investigatingcountry has been broken.
computerprofessionals
to take into account
A spokesperson
for the US-based
Electronic
regardingnon-criminalor civil law which I am
FrontierFoundation,or EFl,gave the exampleof
only going to touch on here.lf you want to look
the Frenchgovernmentrequestingthe
more closelyat these, a very good resourceis
investigationof a UScitizenoffering Nazi
Lloyd'slnformation Law - l'll give you the
memorabiliafor saleover the Internet,which is
referencelater.A key issuehere is contract law.
legal in the US but illegalin France.The EFF
Different types of contract which are relevant
spokesperson
went on to say,in an articleon a
includean employmentcontract,which setsout an
newswebsitecalledZDNetnews,that he has no
agreementbetween a computerprofessionaland
doubt that a countrywhich signsup to the treaty
the companythat employshim or her,or a salesor
is being asked,and lquote, "to spy on its citizens." maintenancecontractbetweentwo companiesfor

,:l

Now l'm going to pauseat this point and ...

133

Unit 11,Lesson
2, Exercise
f 6) Z.tS

Extract 6

Howeve4some people saythat when these

treaties have been passedinto law by
governments,they have ended up protecting only
the rightsof the copyrightholdersand ignoring
the rightsof those who purchasecopyrighted
material. Of course,copyright holders must be
protected, but their rights need to be balanced
againstthe rights of others.The evidenceshows
that this is especiallytrue with respectto the US.
In my view,the Digital MillenniumCopyrightAct,
or DMCA,which was passedin the US in 1998,is a
casein point. By making it a criminaloffenceto
produceor disseminate
technologyto help users
avoid digital rights managementprotection,it has
damagedinnovation.lt hasalso actedas a direct
challengeto those who believethat there should
be no restrictionson the copying of content, as a
matter of principle.A very interestingarticle by
StevenFurnelland others,called"Dissecting
the
'Hacker Manifesto'," givesan extremelygood
insightinto what actuallymotivatesthese
individuals.

Publicconcernregardinggovernmentuse of
information from citizensgrew to the extent that
the PrivacyAct was passedin 1974.

Unit 11, Lesson2, ExerciseC 6i Z.tO

Extract1
Don'tmisunderstand
me,I don'twant you to
assume
that ethicsare relevantonlywhen making
in the workplace.
decisions
Extract2
As we all know to somedegree,ethical
considerations
will form a part of everydecision
you makein your life.
Extract3
Howevelit is fair to saythat, in the workplace,
haveto be carefulthat
computerprofessionals
they can'tbe accused
of negligence
when
whichhavean
designing
or operatingsystems
effecton humanlife or property.
Extract4
So in an attemptto keepthe discussion
on
professional
responsibility
reasonably
simple,I'm
goingto ...
Extract5
Thegreatestfear initiallywasof a 'BigBrother'
society,
that isto saya societyin whichthe
governmentwould know everythingabout its
citizens
and couldexercise
total controloverthem.

134

Extract 7
The Act was criticized,howevel becauseit was
difficult to enforce and, not only that, but because
it excludedthe collectionof data by companies
and organizationsother than government.
Extract 8
Daniel Solovegivesa good descriptionof the
issuesaround this in his 2004 book on technology
and privacyin the informationage.
Extract 9
Briefly,in his chapteron information privacylaw, he
explainshow the many exemptionsand loopholes
in the Act meant that it did not fully addressthe
concernswhich had led to it being passed.
Extract 10
The EFFspokespersonwent on to say,in an article
on a news website called ZDNet news,that he has
no doubt that a countrywhich signsup to the
treaty is being asked,and I quote, "to spy on its
citizens".
Extract 11
The evidenceshowsthat this is especially
true with
respectto the US.
Extract 12
In my view,the Digital MillenniumCopyrightAct,
or DMCA,which was passedin the U5 in 1998,is a
casein point.

Unit 11,Lesson
3, Exercise
e 6) Z.tZ
'action
,disciplinary
'black,hat
i'dentity ,theft
de,nialof 'service
'software ex,ploit
,socialengi'neering
i,llegalac'tivities
'bulletin ,board

g 6dZ.tA
Unit 11,Lesson
3, Exercise
Part 3
Let'sturn now to the ways in which regulations,
as opposedto law can be usedto help in
As you will be aware,most
decision-making.
companieswill have a wide range of regulations.
Theseare designedto provideguidancein
decision-making
in areaswhere there may be
differencesof opinion.5o, how important is
complyingwith companyregulations?Firstof all,
there is no questionthat this is a good idea if
you want to keep your job. We have to accept,as
employees,that there are certainthings which
computerprofessionals
can and cannot do. But
the questionis, is it enough to follow company
rulesin order to ensurethat decisionsare
ethical?Somecomputerprofessionals
claimthat
they don't haveto worry about breaking
nationaland internationallaws if they follow an
employer'sinstructions.
But l'm afraid that just
quite
isn'ttrue. lt's
clearthat companiescan and
do do thingswhich are illegal.Research
into lT
companiesand the law hasshown that there are
instances
where companies'actionscan be seen
as breakingthe law. Evidenceto supportthis
comesfrom actuallegal cases.A companycalled
Logistep,for example,was found to have
infringedprivacylaws.Employeesposedas users
of a peer-to-peerservicein order to gather
evidenceof copyrightmaterialbeing
downloaded. A peer-to-peerservice- if you're
not familiar with this term - is a network of
computersfor sharingmaterialsuchas music,
film and computerprograms,without the need
for a central server.When the Logistep
employeesdemandedthe users'namesand
addresses
from their lSP,the judge found that the
companyhad breachedthe privacyto which
individualswere entitled.You can see,therefore,
why it was importantfor computerprofessionals
at Logistepto be able to show that their
decisionswere reasonable,
and within the law as
they understoodit.
A different aspectof this type of situation can
be seenin the purchaseof a'botnet'for a BBC
programmeon computersecurityin 2009.
Botnets,a shortenedversionof robot networks,
are groupsof computerson which hackershave
managedto installsoftwarewithout their
owners'consent.The computerscan then be used
by the hackersfor illegalactivities.Theseusescan
includespamming,denial of serviceattacksor as
a basefor further attackson other computers.
Apparently,botnetsare sometimesmade

availableto other hackersfor a fee. In this case,

the BBCpurchaseda botnet and usedit to show
how it could be usedfor spammingand denial of
services.
When they had finished,they left a
messageon the computerswhich were part of
the botnet, alertingthem to the fact that their
computershad been hacked.However,as a
number of expertspointed out, the BBChad
clearlybroken the law by doing this. In the words
of one securityexpert, "the Computer MisuseAct,
passedin 1990,makesit an offence in the UK to
access
another person'scomputer,or alter data
on their computer,without the owner's
permission."Clearly,computerprofessionals
employedby the BBCin relationto this project
could try to avoid disciplinaryaction by arguing
that they were following their employer's
instructions.
However,as a criminalprosecution
was a possibility,
they shouldalso be able to show
that they had fully consideredthe implicationsof
their decision.In the event,the BBCwas not
prosecutedas it was felt that the useof real
botnetsin the programmehad helped more
home computeruserstake their online security
more seriously.
5o, if employers'rulesare not enough,then what
other typesof rulescan be used?Well, almostall
havetheir own
the main orofessional
associations
ethicalguidelines,and thesecan help in checking
decision-making.
Someexamplesof theseare the
BritishComputerSocietyand the Instituteof
Electrical
Although
and Electronics
Engineers.
some people may claimthat guidelinesare often
ignored by their members,they offer a good way
for computerprofessionals
to evaluatehow ethical
their decisionsare, regardless
of their specific
employmentcontext.
A very good exampleof a situationwhere
decisionshaveto be constantlyevaluatedis where
computersecuritycompaniesengage in ethical
hacking.This is where securitycompanyemployees
with high-levelcomputerskillsare given the job of
trying to break into their clients'systemsin order
to test their security.Sometimesthis is done using
socialengineering,pretendingto be somebodyin
to usernames
the companyin order to get access
But sometimesit is technical,
and passwords.
where hackersmake use of known software
exploits- that is,flaws in the softwarewhich allow
them to take control of a system.
The employeeswho participatein this sort of
penetrationtesting are often known as 'white
hat' hackers,like the good guys in the old
cowboy movies.The hackerswho try to gain
unauthorizedaccess
to systemsin order to

13s

commit crimesare known as 'black hats',the bad

guys.Blackhats routinelybreakthe law and
engage in behaviourwhich is very questionable,
ethicallyspeaking.Howeve[ there are times
when some of a white hat hacker'sbehaviour
crossesover the line and laws are broken. Hackers
who find themselvesin this situationare called
'grey hat' hackers,and while they may break the
law, researchhas concludedthat they provide a
very valuable role. The evidencelies in the fact
that'grey hat' hackerscontinueto be usedby
large companiesin order to identifythe flaws in
their own computer security.
Now l'm going to set you a task which will
involve investigatingsome of the points I've raised.
I want you to do some researchinto the issues
related to ethical hacking. I want you to focus,
firstly,on someof the legal implicationsof ethical
hacking,with respectto the legislationwe've
I'd like you to think about
discussed.
Secondly,
whether company rules and regulationscan cover
when employeesare
all of the possibilities
engaged in ethical hacking,and if not, what
companiescan do to make surethey are covered.
Finally,I would like you to look at justificationsput
forward by hackersfor their illegal activity.

Unit 11, Lesson3, Exerciseg 6) Z.tg

Butthe questionis,is it enoughto follow
companyrulesin orderto ensurethat decisions
areethical?Somecomputerprofessionals
claim
that they don't haveto worry about breaking
nationaland international
lawsif theyfollowan
instructions.
But l'm afraidthat just
employer's
isn'ttrue.lt'squiteclearthat companies
canand
into lT
do do thingswhichare illegal.Research
companies
andthe law hasshownthat thereare
instances
wherecompanies'
actionscanbe seen
to supportthis
as breakingthe law. Evidence
A companycalled
comesfrom actuallegalcases.
Logistep,
for example,wasfound to have
posedas users
infringedprivacylaws.Employees
of a peer-to-peer
servicein orderto gather
evidence
of copyrightmaterialbeing
downloaded.A peer-to-peer
service- if you're
not familiarwith thisterm- is a networkof
computersfor sharingmaterialsuchas music,
film and computerprograms,
withoutthe need
for a centralserver.
Whenthe Logistep
the users'namesand
employees
demanded
from their lSP,the judge found that the
addresses
companyhad breachedthe privacyto which
individuals
were entitled.Youcansee,therefore,
why it was importantfor computerprofessionals
136

at Logistepto be able to show that their

decisionswere reasonable,
and within the law as
they understood it.

Unit 11, Lesson4, Exercisee 6) Z.ZO

Extract1
Mrueo:The lecturerwe listenedto lastweek
introduced
a numberof interesting
issues.
In my
partof the seminanl'd liketo startby explaining
somerelevantlegalissues
regardingethicalor
white hat hackingtechniques.
Youmightthink
a clienthasgiventheir consentfor
that because
then it will be considered
the hacking,
a legalact.
Forexample,
when an ethicalhackerhacksa
target systemin the UK,with clientconsent,they
couldnot be prosecuted
underthe Computer
MisuseAct because
they havethe owner's
permission.
Howeve[there are other waysin
whichthe hackercanbreakthe law.Forexample,
if the hackers
installa keylogger
on a computerto
gain access
to passwords
and accidentally
collect
somepersonal
informationbelongingto a
companyemployee,
they may be in breachof data
protectionor privacylegislation.
Soto sumup, we
cansaythat it'sveryimportantthat there are
guidelines
in placeto makesurethat thereare no
legalbreaches
when carryingout penetration
testing.
Extract2
Evre:
OK,Majedmadeit clearthat havinga
isn'tenoughto ensurethat all
client'spermission
of an ethicalhacker's
actionsare legal.Basically,
what this meansisthat therewill be situations
wherea white hat hackermaycrossthe line and
temporarily
becomea greyhat.ldeally,
this
shouldn'tbe the case,but there may be
situationswhereit's necessary.
lf this isthe case,
then the hackershouldbe awareof the relevant
legislation
and the extentto whichtheir actions
breachit. Sowhat this meansin practiceisthat a
computersecurity
companywill not only needto
providetheir employees
with guidance
on the
legalimplications
of their actions,
theywill also
needto provideguidance
on ethicaljustifications
if employees
do breakthe law.Thecomputer
professional's
codeof conductcanalsoprovide
someguidance
on what isand is not acceptable.
Extract3
Jncr:OK,to continuethen,l'm goingto expand
Thisis
the topicby mentioninganotheraspect.
the role of hackerswho are not directly
Thesehackers
employedby a company.

sometimesmake useof an opportunityto hack

an unsecuredsystemin order to bring the lack of
securityto its owner's attention. Let me give an
example.ln 2000,some hackersgained access
to
the systemsowned by Apache and replacedthe
Apache logo with a Microsoft one. This was very
embarrassing
for Apache,as a very large
proportion of the websiteson the Internet use
their software. However,even though the
hackershad broken the law by accessing
the
Apache computers,Apache were happy that the
hackershad made them take their systemsecurity
more seriously.In fact, they even set up a
meeting with some of the hackers,so that they
could improvetheir securityfurther.Clearly,the
principlesof the hackers,in not wanting to do
any damage,were key to the successful
outcome
in this case.Doesanybodyhave any opinionsor
anythingthey would like to add?
Extract 4
Lrrm:Followingon from what Jackhassaidabout
grey hats hackingsystemsto highlight security,
we can also look at a related type of situation.
Here,l'm going to explainthe ethicalissues
around the discoveryof an exploit in a pieceof
software. Many grey hat hackersreverse
engineer software in order to discoverexploits.
For a lot of software,this is technicallyillegal.
Howeve[ they justify breaking the law because
they saythat when they discoverexploits,they
make them public.Oncethey are made public,
the manufacturersthen have to provide patches
for them to make sure the software is safe for
peopleto use.lf blackhat hackersare the only
people to discoverexploits by reverse
engineering,they will not make them public,but
will instead usethem to hack into systems.So
even though they are technicallybreakingthe
law by reverseengineering,grey hat hackers
argue that they are doing good.

137

rsBN928-1-859 64-51
9-2

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