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OF
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SECONDARY
IN
LIFE
STUDENTS
FOR
AGRICULTURE
DAILY
SCHOOLS
BY
KAHLENBERG
LOUIS
PROFESSOR
OF
CHEMISTRY
IN
AND
DIRECTOR
OF
UNIVERSITY
THE
OF
THE
COURSE
IN
CHEMISTRY
WISCONSIN
AND
EDWIN
PROFESSOR
OF
AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT
HART
B.
CHEMISTRY
STATION
IN
AND
CHEMIST
UNIVERSITY
THE
TO
OF
gorfe
THE
MACMILLAN
COMPANY
1913
All
rights
reserved
THE
WISCONSIN
AGRICULTURAL
1913,
COPYRIGHT,
THE
BY
Set
and
up
COMPANY.
MACMILLAN
June,
Published
electrotyped.
1913.
Noroiooti
J.
S.
Gushing
Norwood,
Co.
Berwick
"
"
-Mass.,
U.S.A.
Smith
Co.
PREFACE
THIS
book
students
of
schools.
The
is intended
to
home
agricultureand
aim
has
represent
been
At
it.
the
simple
make
to
work
in
placed
the
no
While
extent, but
some
the
theories
have
aid
to
book
is not
doubtless
have
training which
the pursuit of
have
will compare
of
each
by the student
are
be needed.
in
given lists
Addresses
Atomic
troduced
in-
and
not
are
advancement.
for
course
sound
scientific
in preparatory
in
teacher
At
of apparatus
a
few
the
and
well-known
265529
with
the
should
of
chemicals
firms
are
study
vise
super-
keep neat,
to
end
in
schools.
Chapter XXI
in connection
notebook.
of
been
successfullywill
records
accurate
been
this work
of
it
and
be performed
tinuous
con-
expressing
preparatory
completed
usually taken
courses
have
form.
stage
information
gained
to
XXII
who
as
on
naturally been
presented,for they
this
intended
made
aid in
an
convenient
at
grasp
theory has
as
an
accomplish
to
formulas
merely
been
not
students
colleges,yet those
The
and
may
been
have
more
Chemical
necessary.
simple,compact,
calculated
student
matter
it in
present
foreground, and
secondary
subject
has
for
facts
to
molecular
the
intelligently.Useful
presented than
facts in
it will
the
applicationon
the
to
same
sound
the
and
that
so
way
in
economics
year's work
Chapter
that
from
will
whom
vi
PREFACE
supplies
such
of
convenience
the
questions
The
of
will,
While
be
used
there
teacher,
helpful
and
as
study.
in
is
in
pupils
by
of
are
that
schools
especially
teacher
which
upon
in
help
questions,
Any
corrections
future
many
in
special
or
others
who
for
that
suggestions
will
be
WISCONSIN,
1913.
textbook
to
of
supervision
information
general
editions
as
the
under
doubtless
of
20,
will
The
gratefully
THE
February
for
chapter.
intended
primarily
volume
preparing
MADISON,
furnished
chapter
exercises,
laboratory
book
this
been
laid.
be
should
each
of
additional
many
the
with
end
points
raise
connection
stress
the
salient
course,
also
teacher.
the
at
the
reviewing
have
obtained
be
may
will
home
find
it
reading
may
be
received.
AUTHORS.
ful
use-
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
I.
II.
III.
CONSIDERATIONS
FUNDAMENTAL
GENERAL
COMPOSITION
THE
USES
AND
WATER
OF
HYDROGEN
OXYGEN,
HYDROGEN,
PEROXIDE,
AND
OZONE
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
22
AIR,
THE
NITROGEN,
SALTS,
ACIDS,
NITRIC
BASES,
ACID,
CHEMICAL
AND
AMMONIA
AND
30
FORMULAS
41
.
HALOGENS
THE
52
PHOSPHORUS,
SULPHUR,
ARSENIC,
ANTIMONY,
AND
BISMUTH
VIII.
IX.
X.
59
BORON
CARBON
THE
SILICON
AND
74
.
COMPOUNDS
ITS
AND
METALS
OF
81
ALKALIES
THE
AND
THE
ALKALINE
EARTHS
XI.
118
ALUMINUM,
HEAVY
THE
METALS,
AND
THEIR
ALLOYS
XII.
OILS,
PAINTS,
XIII.
LEATHER,
XIV.
THE
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
COTTON,
AND
RUBBER
FERTILIZERS
214
229
AND
PRACTICAL
IT
PRODUCES
238
FEED
255
FOODS
269
.....
ITS
FOR
ITS
ANIMAL
AND
AND
WHAT
AND
ANIMAL
POISONS
179
191
LIFE
HUMAN
MILK
WOOL,
171
.....
MANURE
PLANT
THE
VARNISHES
SOIL
COMMERCIAL
FARM
140
AND
SILK,
PORTANT
IM-
291
PRODUCTS
FARM
ORCHARD
AND
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
INDEX
PESTS
307
321
381
vii
ITS
AND
CHEMISTRY
LIFE
DAILY
TO
RELATIONS
CHAPTER
make
that
been
have
plants, water,
ANIMALS,
things
CONSIDERATIONS
FUNDAMENTAL
GENERAL
the
considerable
earth
the
up
subject
of
study
earth's
of
means
experience
the
water,
All of this
crust.
by
and
to
has
of
results
of
recorded
Science.
in view.
as
result
of
are
commonly
that these
words,
part
recorded
opinions
may
opinions that
of science, and
with
if not
to
with
indeed
warrant
or
drawing
and
such
tions,
observa-
such
opinions
observations
enough
formed
have
men
it is clear
sometimes
made
made
made
differ somewhat,
care,
edge
knowl-
systematized
Now
the
been
is
over
been
manuscripts.
in scientific books.
have
and
observation
differ
insufficient
turies
cen-
many
gradually
science
reflection,that is,thinking
also form
taste, touch,
For
have
in books
careful
The
of observation
result
systematicallyarranged
In other
knowledge resultingfrom
definitepurpose
is the
observations
such
been
of temperature.
changes
animals, and
sight,hearing, smell,
senses,
our
These
consequently
the
knowledge
the
are
atmosphere.
air
since
knowledge
of
amount
its
and
the
have
they
been
observations
CHEMISTRY
AND
from
opinionsthen change
The
and
of them
more
accumulate.
water, air,earth,and
fire are
thingsare composed,and
centuries.
be
may
improved and
Even
in
now
"
and
conflagrations,
storms,
the
we
like,
now
Greeks
of science,though, to
plied,
multi-
Greek
of the
theoretical views,are
alreadystated.
as
The
too
better observations
as
Consequently the
or
the
LIFE
time to time
opinions,that is to
are
DAILY
Such
all other
was
the
of
descriptions
sometimes stillspeak
to be sure,
allusions,
all the
elementaryconstituents of which
thingsare composed. In fact a careful study of all of the
available materials on the earth,includingthe atmosphere
has shown
that there are about eightysubstances that cannot
be made from other substances and cannot
themselves be resolved
into anything else. For example,iron is one
of these eighty
not
are
substances.
other
at
No
one
substances
has
ever
that do
not
been
able to make
iron from
it; neither
already contain
has it been
This
substance
and
graphite,
In
Table
chemical
we
have
the better
1
given on
elements
and
in almost pure
form
gradesof charcoal.
the oppositepage
the
abbreviations
in the diamond,
is
list of the
symbols by
of which they are
often designated.
means
very
In the list there are many
commonly known substances.
These
have
been designatedby means
of heavy type.
These more
elements
number
common
only about twentyfive,and indeed the most important elements are scarcely
or
GENERAL
FUNDAMENTAL
TABLE
THE
CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS
CONSIDERATIONS
1
AND
THEIR
SYMBOLS
AND
CHEMISTRY
than
more
whether
"
All known
dozen.
they exist
indeed
one
or
LIFE
substances,natural
in the
DAILY
as
"
of the
more
ficial,
arti-
as
or
are
composed of
in Table 1.
It
stances,
is the task of the chemist to study the compositionof sub-
build up
to
substances
new
from
given
ones,
and
new
entirely
formed
are
again,when
new
chemist,however, studies
productsthat
new
produced from
are
with
whether
all
or
only part
The
transformed.
with which
other
examples of
not
only the
substances,but
employed to cause
change to take place. Then again he studies
also
which the change proceeds,ascertaining
the chemical
the rate
are
iron rusts,a
the
of the
various
change
takes
means
has
substance
conditions
that
place,and
the
finallybeen
affect the
rate
accompaniments
life,for wherever
wherever
or
smell,we
In fact
about
us.
The
by
oxygen
oxidized into
can
touch,hear,see, taste,
cerned.
objectwith which chemistry is conchemical
changes are continuallygoing on
an
food
we
is
chemicallytransformed
we
eat
our
bodies,and these in
derived from
simplersubstances
turn
are
into
acted
the air
we
which
are
in turn
eliminated
FUNDAMENTAL
GENERAL
by
means
Thus
skin.
our
lives
very
depend upon
series
of chemical
plantsdepend
chemical transformations
the
as
changesare continuallyin
Thus
water
from
rocks
are
these
of the material
products of such
finallyeliminated
or
solutions
being acted
are
by
and used in
changes being
upon
atmosphere, new
taken
are
by
up
as
of the
Materials
natural waters
are
are
drunk
absorbed
new
industrial processes
household
and on the farm
Many
chemical
ing,
products result-
buildingup
But
also.
things,
continually
by
the membranes
in inanimate
progress
by animals,some
chemical
organism lives.
of the
more
CONSIDERATIONS
tissues.
and
common
depend
of this book
to
upon
operationsin the
chemical
study some
changes,
of the
more
accompanied by increase
or
CHEMISTRY
stillother forms
or
in the
is burned
AND
of energy.
LIFE
So when
air,a white
DAILY
pieceof magnesium
powder, magnesium
bulky
than
the
original
magnesium
glanceat Table
into these
exhibit
propertieswhich
as
phosphorus
for
also
of
some
nevertheless
nature
to
be easy
to
the
class
zinc,and
the metals
the
Thus
compound.
chemical
behavior
Such
non-metals.
the metals
They
in
are
also
elements
and non-metals
are
realitya transition
it is formed
and
like arsenic
elements
their
of both
called metalloids.
that
of both
nature
it would
But
in
brittle and
partakeof the
When
elements
some
closelyrelated
sometimes
roughly
the non-metals.
silver,iron,gold,mercury,
copper,
non-metals.
as
antimony,
otherwise
are
Thus
be
as
placesuch
between
lightand
sharp division
perfectly
partake of the
the non-metal.
such elements
as
to make
possible
classes,for there
two
and
1 shows
It is,however, not
sodium
both
evolved.
are
metal
oxide, is
oxide
by the union
of
or
more
magnesium
of oxygen
and
elements,it is called
is
compound,
magnesium.
for
Lime
is a
the earth,and
as
the elements
that compose
it are
also of vast
CONSIDERATIONS
FUNDAMENTAL
GENERAL
QUESTIONS
1.
What
is
science?
2.
What
is
fact?
3.
What
is
theory?
4.
Mention
5.
What
6.
About
7.
What
8.
What
element
chemical
how
the
regarded
as
chemical
many
Greeks
ancient
elements
called
at
are
elements.
present?
there,
and
how
may
is
is
Give
compound?
a
physical
examples.
three
Give
change?
three
of
illustrations
changes.
physical
9.
is
which
things
classified?
be
they
the
What
is
chemical
change
Give
chemical
of
examples
four
change.
10.
Do
physical
illustration.
chemical
changes?
changes
Explain
occur
your
with
answer
or
without
by
means
accompanying
of
specific
CHAPTER
THE
COMPOSITION
AND
OF
WATER
is
an
1,
oxygen
plate ;
the
and
are
as
is
That
the
that
is to
and
formed.
Now
weighs
very
much
as
equal
an
of
volume
of
By
ture
times
taking
much
as
of
drogen
hy-
volumes
two
and
ume
vol-
one
oxygen,
and
igniting the
a
in
water
of
with
ume
vol-
liberated.
are
hydrogen
them,
of water.
the
volumes
two
that
electrolysis
gen;
hydro-
electrolysis of
the
of
times
produced
weighs eight
as
gen
oxy-
sixteen
nearly
the
The
water
volume
volume
one
the
of hydrogen
of oxygen
1."
of
when
say,
consequently
FIG.
negative
that
volumes
two
Fig.
positive
decomposed by electrolysis,
one
oxygen
water
the volume
half
one
an
in
the
on
it is found
oxygen
shown
on
hydrogen
hydrogen.
of
like that
ments
ele-
When
passed through
is evolved
and
the
of
hydrogen.
is
apparatus
plate
is
compound
and
electric current
in
USES
WATER
oxygen
of
II
flame
mixing
or
an
mix-
elec-
COMPOSITION
THE
AND
USES
OF
WATER
FIG.
2.
Though
Explosion
"
water
is
of
mixture
of
hydrogen and
extremelyabundant, it
more
or
such
evaporating
behind
as
placedin
those of
is found
never
of the
while in contact
has
been
of
well water
residue.
Thus
dish and
sea
of
springsand wells,always
when
and
oceans
as
oxygen.
water
or
is
slowlyat
10
CHEMISTRY
ordinary temperature
or
AND
DAILY
upon
boiling,there
that
it and
analysisof
thus
analyzed.
by
in many
water
which
over
the wind
its exact
determined
are
dust
cient
suffi-
chemical
Thus
nature.
have
been
by
the character
of
The purestnatural
no
down
by the descendingdrops.
compounds
By
as
ters
of the saline mat-
has coursed.
contains
obtain
make
to
the amounts
It contains
of
quantities
may
terrestrialwaters
and
the water
is rain water.
such small
one
determine
the nature
contained in
water
water
amount
remains
was
evaporatingseveral gallonsof
the rocks
LIFE
purer
infrequently
nitrogenous
not
nitrates of ammonium,
which
are
as
the
apparatus consists of
In
Fig.3
The
these
retort,a condenser,and
indicated by A, B, and
are
heat of the
causes
sun
water
from
This
moisture
is then
to
receiver.
C, respectively.
evaporate continually
condensed
on
reachingcooler layers
rain.
The
rain water
evaporationagaingoes
on
from
the needed
Thus
of water, condensation
energy.
derived
really
from
the
sun.
not
power
is
is thus
12
CHEMISTRY
example,
when
grass,
gentlyheated
in
test
AND
DAILY
LIFE
piece of carrot,
tube, water
or
lean
is
meat
is readilyformed
in
drops
of
an
or
crete
con-
higher temperature.
it would
be
to
necessary
The amount
deed,
In-
dull
to
of water
ness.
red-
contained
in
substance
-Testing^
quantitiesof water,
of which
the
is commonly
amount
found
by
it has
been found
content.
and
water;
contain
as
as
55 per cent
less.
Dry
15 per
residue of the
plant substance
there
the
remains
plant.
The
ash, which
combustible
is the so-called
oxidized and
may
cent
be
grass
water.
water, and
seed, for
The
portion,which
largelyvolatilized
ample,
ex-
dried
burned, whereupon
representsthe mineral
organic matter
even
hand, wood
44 to
in the
the other
On
98 per cent.
commonly
many
much
of
the
in the process
has
matter
been
plant.
of
stroyed,
de-
It is
burning
USES
AND
COMPOSITION
THE
OF
13
WATER
plantsubstances
of ash found in different
amount
Computed
considerably.
wood
per
cent, rye
grain2.09
material,for example,
cent ash, rye straw 4.46
the dried
on
contains about
oak
also varies
0.48 per
per
cent, tobacco
cent, potato leaves 8.58 per cent, potatoes 3.79 per cent.
ash than the other
the leaves ofplantscontain more
In general
ash of different plantshas different composition,
parts. The
which
The
few
considered
of the
common
considerably.
of water
TART
2
CONTENT
WATER
ox
Fat calf
pig
Lean pig
Fat sheep
Lean sheep
Fat
Chicken
Goose
contained
ANIMAL
Fat
also varies
of animals
content
table
following
The
in
water
later.
fully
more
flesh
41
per
cent
55
per
cent
43
per cent
51
per cent
74
per
.42
flesh
cent
per cent
Turkey flesh
55
per cent
Brook
trout
78
per
cent
White
fish
70
per
cent
79
per
cent
81
per
cent
(exclusiveof shell)
Oyster (exclusiveof shell)
Lobster
an
ox.
CONTENT
80 per cent
63 per cent
Brain
Heart
of the loin
Muscle
Kidney
Liver
Lungs
of various parts of
WATER
PART
Sweet
content
breads
'
'
62 per cent
76 per cent
71 per cent
71 per cent
80 per cent
14
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
From
of the
AND
weight of
animal
LIFE
over
considerably
be borne
is
half
It should
more
or
less
from
considerable amount
of the water
for drinking
water
This, however, is not sufficient,
in addition.
Chemically
pure
water is not
by
it needs.
is required
gooddrinkingwater.
careful
distillation of
For the
same
water
reason
then cooled
without
sufficient
opportunityto become thoroughlyaerated
again has a flattaste. Many natural springwaters and well
excellent drinkingwaters, though theyalways conwaters
are
tain
solid matter
soils
over
mineral
which
matter
in solution that
the water
varies very
from
comes
has flowed.
The
greatlywith
it has
been
the nature
in contact.
of this
of the
So, for
instance,water
in contact
over
(seeair).
Table 4 givesthe amount
few
typicalnatural
waters
of mineral matter
in grams
per
1000
contained
in
liters. These
THE
COMPOSITION
obtained
figuresare
AND
USES
amount
then
taken.
4
MINERAL
GRAMS
PER
FROM
CONTENT
IN
1000 LITERS
Atlantic Ocean
Indian
White
35,664
35,525
Ocean
Sea
Dead
Sea
Great
Salt Lake
water
computing the
TABLE
WATER
15
WATER
to
OF
33,118
253,016
302,122
Lake
Michigan
Vichy Springs
Karlsbad Springs
145
6,798
6,091
Petersburg
3,891
834
Artesian well at
371
Spring near
Rhine
Madison, Wis
Wausau,
Wis
64
River
Nile River
231
'
.
142
It is to be borne in mind
matter
to
oftenvaries materially
according
in river waters
placeoftakingthe sample.
lakes and
The
mineral content
dissolved
of
depth and
locality.The figuresin Table 4 are consequentlyto be
regarded as subjectto certain* fluctuations. They serve,
of mineral
however, to give a generalidea of the amount
found
matter
The
seas
oceans
course,
in natural waters.
mineral
consists
not
of oceanic water
content
of
chiefly
common
fit to drink.
considerable amounts
salts)in solution
quitegood
with the
for
are
salt,and
Spring and
of calcium
salts
called hard
well waters
is,of
that contain
(alsooftencalled lime
waters.
but
such water
They
may
be
good for
for in the boilers they
purposes,
scale,like that commonly found in
drinkingpurposes,
they
are
not
16
an
no
CHEMISTRY
AND
LIFE
calcium
soap
be used for
can
which
soluble
Before
must
This
of the fuel
the
be done
can
the water,
(1) by distilling
ways
account
on
decompositionof the
the calcium
employed, by
one
the
from
resulting
soap
such water
in
DAILY
process
so
with- them
lime salts and form precipitates
of
cleansers
water
as
in
commonly
use
are
sodium
or
construct
a
cement
often
for washingand
cheapest
stored
(which see) it is
now
an
in clean
By
easy
cost.
Such
cistern water
when
the
matter
clean and
mineral
those
moderate
drink
spoken
(alsocalled washing
phosphate. Of all of the natural
aerated is
to
the
on
carbonate
cisterns to which
of Portland
are
act
purifiers.Among
boiler purposes.
tanks
water
or
thus
the cement-lined
springwater
because
of
content
use
to
at
well
is
of material
well water
of the poisonous
or
is found
otherwise
to
be unfit
injurious
to be
more
AND
COMPOSITION
THE
USES
OF
WATER
17
The
kind
of
FIG. 5
(6).
An
FIG. 5 (a).
"
bacteria,or
other
decaying animal
abound, and
"
water
example
of how
surface
water
pollution
may
occur.
18
AND
CHEMISTRY
to health.
as
drinkingwater
to
its content
chemical
to
tests
cesspools,barnyards, and
mind
which
water
up
from
the
does not
course,
being pronounced
wells
from
the
well is
human
near
like.
the
pump
prevent the
or
water
borne
in
ground into
drain.
Mounding
opening of the well,of
of the soil in the neighborhood
to
be
hole in the
mound
from
openingof
outhouses,
It is to
merely a
safe for
habitations
from
seepage
surroundingstends
earth around
the
before
contaminated
become
LIFE
Surface
drinkingpurposes.
soon
of
DAILY
the water
the
on
ground
the
that
surface of the
from
running
mouth
the
at
of
the
Typhoidfeveris one
and
commonest
into
well.
of the
gerous
dan-
most
sult
re-
from drinkingpolluted
This disease is due
water.
to
bacillus
the
which
typhosus,
infrequently
is not
contaminated
present
in
water.
Dysentery
and
6.
"Typhoid
bacillus
greatly
disturbances
may
magnified.
from
organisms. //
known
to be
no
alternativebut to
use
water
of other
that is
it should
contaminated fordrinkingpurposes,
first
be boiled.
water
there is
the presence
result
This
known
as
the Pasteur
20
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
AND
LIFE
from
a
potable water
removing organic contamination
of purification
be adopted.
supply, chemical means
may
chemical substance
This always involves introducing
some
such
purposes
solution
of sodium
the
of
case
mains
avoid
It is best to
drinkingwater,
shows
are
germs
the introduction
actuallypresent
which
It is only when
in the water
into
destroy bacteria
the disease
treatment
hypo-
chemicals
of such
are
calcium
or
employed,
infrequently
supplywhere the water
high bacterial content.
citywater
it contains.
far
are
more
of the antiseptics
small amounts
dangerous than the relatively
An
is a chemical
requiredto kill them.
antiseptic
that destroys
germs, or preventsor retards their growth,without
the livingbody.
exertinga materially
harmful effect
upon
are
Antiseptics
therefore
frequently
germicides.These will be
referred to again.
QUESTIONS
1. How
and
hydrogen
2. In
3.
that water
is
In
Why
proportionsby weight do
what proportion by volume ?
natural
are
are
waters
4. Draw
5. Make
compound
of oxygen
what
water
it be shown
may
not
?
these
elements
chemically pure?
In well water
occur
What
in
purities
im-
important ways
in which
water
is found
in
nature.
6. How
water
one
may
Give
determine
specific
example.
whether
substance
contains
COMPOSITION
THE
7.
In
dahlia
8.
drinking
9.
10.
and
yet
are
in
there
animal
an
21
WATER
like
cat
the
of
some
characteristics
important
of
good
water
What
is
How
would
must
is
water
OF
USES
root
What
much
how
About
AND
be
by
meant
treat
you
used
the
for
hard
term
drinking
water
water
that
purposes
is
?
known
Why
to
be
polluted
III
CHAPTER
HYDROGEN,
AND
PEROXIDE,
HYDROGEN
OXYGEN,
OZONE
WHILE
both
electric
is
current
is necessary
it
methods.
these
of
occurrence
obtained
are
oxygen
these
other
prepared by
be
and
hydrogen
in
elements
may
also
gases
of the
account
frequent
substances,
common
many
the
properties somewhat
their
study
to
On
when
more
closely.
is
Hydrogen
like hydrochloric
zinc
which
being
0" C. and
weighs 0.08987
colorless, but
and
oxygen
taken
flame
not
or
hydrogen,
to
liquifiedat atmospheric
and
colorless, that
only
0.07
forming
but
in
animals
hydrogen,
heavy
white
and
is
jet.
Mixtures
mixtures
or
to
as
crystals.
plants would
because
they
in
water
At
259"
"
from
require
22
level
sea
inflammable
The
gas.
is almost
flame
hydrogen,
great
253"
"
C.
C. it may
to
be
is clear
hydrogen
suffocation
be
with
but
is not
or
must
care
ignite them
gas
oxygen
dry
pure
at
appearance,
Hydrogen
die
gases,
Liquid hydrogen
pressure.
water.
to
of
pressure
air and
of
explosive, and
is, like
like
metals,
liter
an
By cooling hydrogen
spark.
as
from
are
such
heat
One
air.
Hydrogen
hot.
acid,
an
atmospheric
be burned
very
certain
on
of
fact
under
gram.
it may
pure
lighter than
times
at
It is
light,in
is very
14.388
hydrogen
When
sulphuric acid,
or
or
gas,
commonly
it
is
ifies,
solid-
poisonous,
when
breathe.
kept
Be-
of its
cause
Though the
as
When
and
is formed
black
oxide
"
Making
hydrogen
and in
water.
even
at
room
vigorouslythan
touch.
coal gas,
the
as
taneously
black, is simul-
of iron, hammer
the iron
high temperature
by passing
in the water
temperature.
sodium.
paper
of
steam
and
over
red-hot
iron.
thus the
hydrogen
free. Magnesium will similarlyliberate hydrogen,
that metal in boiling
this case
it sufficesto immerse
will liberate hydrogen from water
Sodium
rapidly
at
of water
are
used
expensive.
too
the constituents
of
used
fuels.When
in the air or in oxygen, the product
formed is
red-hot iron, hydrogen
is passed over
steam
obtained, for
FIG. 8.
balloons.
filling
hydrogen burns
for
water.
used
hydrogen is
lightness
gas burns with quitea
23
PEROXIDE
HYDROGEN
OXYGEN,
HYDROGEN,
In
Potassium
the
pass
case
acts
of sodium
Strongersolutions
the flesh.
of
and
blue,are
more
even
lye are
tassium,
po-
excess
red litmus
feel slippery
to the
caustic and
disintegrate
24
CHEMISTRY
AND
While hydrogenpractically
does
DAILY
not
LIFE
occur
in nature
it is exceedingly
abundant
free,i.e.uncombined,condition,
constituent
of many
also found
in many
in the
as
occurs
rocks.
in the freestate in the air.
In fact it forms
very
the most
widely distributed
abundant
over
of all of the
the earth.
In
fact it is
elements,which is readily
oxides of mercury
cent
and
decompose
on
pressure
of 760
under
(i.e.
mm.
and
of temperature
water.
"
pressure
melt at
"
soluble,1 volume
under
which
Liquid oxygen
grams.
is
It is attracted
by
227"
C.
25
PEROXIDE
ditions
con-
gases
are
pale blue
as
heavy
By chilling
liquid
be obtained,
crystalsmay
magnet.
snow-white
sufficiently,
oxygen
which
HYDROGEN
OXYGEN,
HYDROGEN,
In water
oxygen
is but
slightly
substances oxygen
stands at the head of the entire list of the
In fact,it will unite with all of the
chemical elements.
elements
the
members
of the
so-called
group,
26
CHEMISTRY
in oxygen
gas, and
even
AND
DAILY
the steelof
LIFE
watch
springburns
with
to
patientswho experience
in
difficulty
breathing
and
get
so
oxygen
cient
insuffi-
an
supplywhen
breathingair.
It is inadvisab
however, for
normal
to breathe
person
oxygen,
the
processes
in the system go
too
on
rapidly.
oxides
The
of carbon,
sulphur,and
phosphorus,
other
certain
elements
readilydissolve in water
and form solutions that
are
FIG.
9.
Burning
"
phosphorus
blue
turn
Such
solutions
are
and
to the taste
sour
in oxygen.
It
was
litmus
at
red.
time
one
acid generator.
do not
contain
It has been
oxygen.
The
The
word oxygen
retained,even
not
of
means
tain
con-
28
CHEMISTRY
AND
Thus
in water
while
LIFE
This is a
contains
of oxygen,
8 grams
DAILY
in
compound
of oxygen
as
to
of
article of
common
frequently
being sold
This
the
commerce,
under
solution is valuable
the trade
3 per
of
name
solutions
cent
"
dioxygen."
mild
bleachingagent and
as
an
antiseptic.Its power as a germicide depends upon
the fact that it readilydecomposes into oxygen
and water.
The
set free destroys the organisms. Hydrogen
oxygen
peroxideis commonly preparedby the action of cold dilute
sulphuricacid upon barium peroxide,thus :
Barium
as
The
latter substance
contains
may
be filtered off.
The
sulphate.
clear filtrate
the hydrogen
are
may
3. In what
4. What
shown
the
hydrogen be prepared ?
compounds is hydrogen found
is formed
when
in nature
hydrogen burns?
How
?
may
this be
HYDROGEN,
5.
How
6.
How
7.
How
pounds
does
9.
What
10.
pounds
chlorate
and
How
What
11.
What
12.
Mention
the
is
be
is
ozone
could
be
prepared
from
83
properties
of
oxygen.
oxides
may
of
phosphorus,
carbon,
formed
Mention
its
important
ties.
proper-
hydrogen
the
be
ozone
may
is
formed
made
oxygen
How
important
oxide
an
iron
of
29
PEROXIDE
nature
be
oxygen
potassium
Mention
in
occur
pure
many
8.
sulphur,
oxygen
may
of
HYDROGEN
OXYGEN,
uses
peroxide
of
hydrogen
How
may
peroxide.
it
be
prepared
CHAPTER
THE
AIR,
THE
main
These
the
former
and
of the
argon
it is found
as
water
in the
100
volumes
OF
contain
as
volumes
Besides
of
these
carbon
two
dioxide,
helium,
namely
the
oxygen.
neon,
of
composition
country
or
the
over
sea.
OF
COUNTRY
NORMAL
AIR
Nitrogen
77.42
volumes
Oxygen
20.77
volumes
Argon, helium,
Water
krypton, and
neon,
xenon
.
0.93
volume
0.85
volume
0.03
volume
vapor
dioxide
Carbon
volumes
100.00
The
amount
ably from
and
time
proximity
various
to
all of these
of
the
0.9
per
argon
cent
are
group
Minor
of water.
nitric
ammonia,
varies
consider-
temperature
quantities of sulphur
acid, particles of dust,
also present
in air.
The
amounts
While
the
members
microbes
of
air contains
moisture
dioxide, hydrogen,
and
which
of
to bodies
are
present
are
by volume,
practicalimportance
and
SAMPLE
follows
and
of 78
vapor,
gives
TABLE
COMPOSITION
latter.
group,
Table
xenon.
of air
sample
the
of
AMMONIA
nitrogen
are
proportions
present, however,
are
elements
krypton,
air
the
volumes
AND
ACID,
of the
in about
21
to
there
the
NITRIC
constituents
present
are
gases
and
NITROGEN,
IV
these
hence
30
in air to
gases
are
the
extent
of
nevertheless
will receive
no
further
over
of
no
con-
sideration here.
or
the
over
sea
in cities where
double
as
to about
amounts
much
and
even
by volume,
fuel is consumed
the carbon
rooms
six to
31
AMMONIA
ACID,
that amount
audience
NITRIC
NITROGEN,
AIR,
more,
but
while in
dioxide content
denselycrowded
run
as
high
may
follows :
Carbon
dioxide
green
The
water
in
(inthe sunlight
leaf of the
plant)yields starch
constant
The
mixture.
In
TABLE
TEMPERATURE
OF
SATURATION
-5"
15" C
nearly
6
AMOUNT
1 Cu.
OF
METER
WATER
OF
VAPOR
SATURATED
4.0 grams
5.4 grams
0"C
10" C
are
argon
in Table 6.
+5" C
chemically
which
oxygen.
and
nitrogen,
atmosphere everywhere.
of moisture
not
are
of oxygen,
highestamounts
the
;
.
7.3 grams
9.7 grams
20" C
13.0 grams
17.1 grams
22" C
22.5 grams
30" C.
30.0 grams
IN
AIR
32
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
hold,
capacityof
maximum
of the water
mists,which
called clouds.
earth, they
When
the
of
largedrops are
ing
drops takes place,formtheir altitude are commonly
an
near
formed
are
that
extent
when
moisture-laden
regionsof the
ture-laden
mois-
portionof
This is frequentlycaused
in the upper
by
its
cold
When
strata.
with them
carry
densation
atmosphere, partialcon-
warmer
striking
the condensation
air, we
is condensed.
of air
current
is present in the
As
moisture
to minute
account
on
are
humid.
regionsof
cooler
and
upper
or
moisture
in it that it can
vapor
feel that
we
LIFE
some
in the
of dust, microorganisms,
atmosphere,togetherwith fine particles
etc.,that were
suspendedin the air. This material
on
reachingthe ground soaks into the soil in part, and in
part it flows off the surface into brooks, rivers,lakes,and
the
It has been
sea.
the water
and
20
estimated
per
cent
runs
on
that
about
at
80 per
cent
of
ground
temperatures
at
Dew
forms at night. It consists
freezingpoint of water.
of drops of moisture that depositupon
objectswhich cool
off relatively
rapidly,and so chill the moisture-laden air
The
that comes
into contact
with them.
importance of
for the life of plants
these various aqueous
precipitations
The
common
the oxygen
from
in various ways.
way
an
of preparingnitrogengas is to
inclosed space of air. This may
So, for example,an animal like a
abstract
be done
rat
or
mouse
NITRIC.
NITROGEN,
AIR,
placedin
be
may
it will
upon
tightlystopperedbottle,where-
it will use
suffocate,because
soon
bottle
with
carbonate
calcium
being made
of the
gases
only about
0.9 per
removing the
nitrogenis
not
of the
gases
argon
of how
space
any
They have
They
are
very
all
inert,
to
the
still
are
group
purposes,
necessary
description
removed;
up
obtained,for the
all make
to get them
impossible
other element.
By simply
dioxide from the air, pure
carbon
and
oxygen
the
Now
found to be
water.
cent
is removed,
chalk.
as
latter in
These
group.
argon
same
in the bottle is
stillremains
which
bonate
car-
comes
be-
yields
dioxide
-f-carbon
limewater
of
precipitate
carbonate, is formed, thus :
in appearance
of lime, calcium
Limewater
because
The
left in the
gas
The
clear limewater.
some
milky
by shaking the
be removed
may
the oxygen
up
carbon dioxide.
33
AMMONIA
ACID,
may
suffice it here
to
be
say
that
perfectlypure nitrogen is
best prepared from certain pure
chemical compounds in which it
The
occurs.
may
oxygen
also be removed
air in
closed space.
of
the
air
FIG.
10.
from
alcohol
"
the
Removing
air by
in it.
one
may
burn
oxygen
burning
in the
bit of sponge
34
CHEMISTRY
saturated
water
with
dioxide
in
formed
are
and
LIFE
In this
case
in
water
dish of
and
carbon
the
be burned
may
DAILY
bottle inverted
Fig. 10.
in the bottle.
water
the
alcohol in
shown
as
AND
in
similarly
the bottle.
In this
case
phosphorusunites
oxide,which
intact.
In
both
of
the
last
experimentsthe water
the inside of the bottle,filling
rises on
the latter to the
fifth of the original
volume occupied by the
extent of one
and one
air,thus showing that fourfifths
of the air is nitrogen
fifth
oxygen.
If a burning splinter
a
or
lightedcandle is thrust into
nitrogengas, the flame is at once extinguished,
showing that
nitrogenwill not support combustion. Animals suffocate in
and die for lack of oxygen.
nitrogen,
Nitrogen gas is not
but it cannot
be used in respiration.In the air
poisonous,
it dilutes the oxygen
At
gas, but at
so
take
oxygen
takes place,even
highly,as,
a
for
instance,when
red-hot tube.
subjectedto
union
The
But
if
are
of
In fact
no
unite
union
heated
the mixture
mixture
not
togetherquite
is passedthrough
nitrogenand
oxygen
is
the very
does take
latter when
mixed.
inert
were
in forming
used successfully
scale.
of
As
facturing
manu-
power
is
36
CHEMISTRY
trate, sodium
AND
nitrate,which
DAILY
is mined
in Chili and
be used.
quently
conse-
Thus
nitric
sodium
acid and
thus
LIFE
nitrate
Potassium
4- sulphuricacid
Sodium
sulphuricacid
nitric acid
sodium
sulphate.
fertilizers. While
not
occur
in nature
as
Nitrates
is from
exceedingly
importantas
are
them
that
nitrates in the
holds them
plantsget
soil
are
soil constituents,
for it
their supply of
contained
in the
nitrogen. The
soil water
which
in solution.
manufacturingsulphuricacid,
in which case it serves
to oxidize sulphurto its higheststage
of oxidation.
Furthermore, in making collodion,
gun cotton,
dynamite,and smokeless powder, nitric acid is used in large
quantities.
Nitric acid is also used in
Nitrous
NITRIC
NITROGEN,
AIR,
be obtained from
acid may
the latter of
ACID,
37
AMMONIA
nitric acid by
The salts
robbing
of nitrous
acid
called nitrites ;
is set free in
compound
weight. By volume
following
equation:
3 volumes
of
the
hydrogen
to
compositionis representedby
4- 1 volume
of
nitrogen
2 volumes
Hydrogen
and
nitrogendo
when
the gases
not
combine
at
the
of ammonia.
however,
all readily,
heated
togetherhighly,as, for
of the electric spark. On thus subjectinstance,by means
ing
of hydrogen and nitrogengases to the continuous
a mixture
action of the electric spark,a small fraction of a per
even
cent
of the gases
are
present is converted
to
ammonia.
But
by
heatingnitrogenous
plantor animal tissues,with littleor no
of air,ammonia
is readilyobtained, especially
when
access
the organicmatter
potash
and
as
and
used is mixed
with lime
or
caustic soda
or
38
CHEMISTRY
coal.
In
remains
AND
DAILY
LIFE
represents the
the
of
to
from
Ammonia
It has
the
gaseous
mucous
cannot
gas
does not
of ammonia
gas
be burned
The
This
the saturated
and
contains
36
It has the
water,
same
does not
as
burn
About
in the
700 volumes
of water
nary
at ordi-
solution is
cent
per
gas
in
lighterthan water.
has a specific
gravity of
of ammonia
by weight.
is popularlycalled
water
flow of tears.
soon
in oxygen.
solution
solution of ammonia
ammonia
and
temperatures.
14" C.
causes
Animals
support combustion
0.8844
and
membranes,
One
At
a
distillation),
which is
products are formed, among
The latter forms by union of nitrogen
and hydrogen
the organicmatter.
gas is colorless and only 0.59 as heavy as air.
tates
characteristic,
sharp,penetratingodor, irrivery
variety of
ammonia.
destructive
ammonia
aqua
ammonia.
tinually
con-
forms
ammonium
nitrate,with
AIR,
sulphuric acid
ammonium
All ammonium
chloride.
On
lye,ammonia
prepare
is
gas
ammonia
pure
Ammonium
chloride
H-
For
soda
lye
sodium
and
is used
water
lime
to
ammonia
water.
salt)
does
It
be volatilized
salt with
example
in the household
polishing metals.
acid
chloride
(common
Ammonia
ammonium
evolved,and
gas.
hydrochloric
salts may
treatingany
39
AMMONIA
ACID,
sulphate, with
ammonium
by heating them.
or
NITRIC
NITROGEN,
cleansingclothes
in
attack
not
the
latter
as
remains
in
is
When
the
thus
ammonia
at
leachingsfrom
formed
hand, being
ammonia
important.
and
water,
hence
of the
are
which
gas,
In
air.
the
form of ammonium
ammonium
share
making coal
gas.
works
always
soil,then,
bonate,
car-
the
sulphateare
salts
are
soluble
in
in
as
of the soil,
salts
of ammonium
is
nitrite,ammonium
ammonium
be
may
salts,among
ammonium
sulphate,which
at the
in the
considerable
the value
is
All
that
ammonium
plants derive
hence
acid
of the
chloride,and
stables,
latter,and
acids
any
nitrate,ammonium
ammonium
From
constituent
the
in
with
carbonic
is present in the
these ammonium
most
from
combines
once
present, especiallywith
at
are
dung piles,in
soil.
wherever
formed
as
fertilizers. In
contains
21 per
cent
merce
com-
gen,
nitro-
fertilizer. It is manufactured
large cities
as
by-product in
40
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
QUESTIONS
1.
in
the
(a)
What
(b)
In
air
what
3.
When
does
4.
What
becomes
6.
How
7.
Why
8.
How
9.
What
what
is
use
is
the
the
an
animal
nitric
the
acid
air
main
two
12.
What
is
ammonia
water
13.
Why
are
these
Mention
are
the
that
in
of
in
How
constituents
important
the
falls
to
Hail
Give
nitrogen
occur
the
ground
its
principal
as
rain
ties.
proper-
gas
nitric
the
air
moist
acid
soil
is
What
useful
as
it
prepare
salts
obtained
formed
nitrates
ammonium
salts
be
in
When
prepared
properties
ammonia
use
Sleet
die
is
what
dry
be
What
nature.
the
dioxide
11.
14.
the
water
Snow
nitrogen
may
are
feel
Of
are
do
carbon
air
of
dew
may
will
the
10.
source
of
Of
What
constituents
proportions
2.
6.
the
are
it
used
for
fertilizers
From
what
forms
in
which
nitrogen
occurs
in
CHAPTER
already learned
have
WE
phosphorus
in
dissolved
and
taste
in
blue
redden
example,
So, for
citric acid
which
the
crystals which
has
in
other
them
before
It is
state.
in water.
they
fruits
be
white
oxalic
contains
and
acid, is formed.
indeed
animals.
by
The
the
In
as
we
the human
have
acid, and
milk
also
gastric glands.
air,
carbonic
lactic acid
seen,
these
is
On
occurs
stomach
In
red
sours,
in the
41
much
the
acid
pure
readily soluble
The
jack-
fermentation
dilute
muscles
coal
is
of
acid
small
of
solution
lactic acid
formic
always contains
in cities where
in
hydrochloric acid
ants
is
tain
moun-
malic
acid.
is essentially a
When
acid
abundant
fruits
tartaric
acid.
tion
solu-
apples,
sour
which
contain
grapes
citric
is most
In
be
less
color-
The
same
the
to
may
water.
from
solid substance
in
world.
beautiful
of
similar
prepared
occur
is due
substance
well, and
as
Acids
lemon
This
other
many
possessing such
latter
quite ripe.
are
may
Similarly
in-the-pulpit
The
taste.
sour
citrous
It too
is present.
the
readily soluble
are
berries, and
ash
of
sour
in the mineral
also
or
are
have
acids.
juice. It consists
markedly
in
found
termed
it contains.
sulphur,
which
Substances
sourness
lemon
from
prepared
litmus.
in
nature
carbon,
when
obtained
are
commonly
are
FORMULAS
products of combustion
the
liquids
water,
characteristics
that
and
burned
are
CHEMICAL
AND
SALTS,
ALKALIES,
ACIDS,
of
formed,
man
and
is formed
is found.
amount
is consumed,
of
it
42
CHEMISTRY
of
processes
acid is
occurs
and
of the
one
sand
Silicic acid
is
has
and
and
taste
It
forming mountains,
areas
does not
Boric
all substances.
of
practicallyinsoluble
no
during the
some
often
masses,
vast
this substance.
vegetablematter.
abundant
grainsit covers
acid in solution,
acids formed
regionsto
most
quartz in huge
as
as
in volcanic
sulphur..
highlycharged with
are
of animal
decay
acid is found
carbonic
also contain
Soil waters
LIFE
too, contain
spring waters
some
DAILY
sulphurousacid,
also contains
and
AND
in
It
water.
redden
quently
conse-
litmus.
ever,
How-
with
indeed
acids.
In fact
litmus,and
acids
some
haw
are
weak
so
acidic
unquestionably
substances
theydo
taste, and
sour
perceptible
no
that
not
redden
because they do
form
salts
with alkalies.
Lime,
lye,and
it is used
as
ammonia
blue.
paper
they have
substances which
are
They
or
corrosive
lye,potash
turn
In strong solutions
alkalies.
typical
are
caustic
soda
for buildingpurposes,
action
on
.the skin.
With
acids
substances called
they react chemically,forming new
salts. So, for example,when a solution of soda lye is treated
with a solution of hydrochloricacid tillthe resulting
liquid
does not change either red or blue litmus paper, we say that
The substance
the acid and the lye have neutralized each other.
which
a
is
in the solution is
now
had
an
lye
taste, and
sour
It has
the lye
to itself. The
quite peculiar
takes placewhen the acid and the lye act on
alkaline taste
change which
Soda
acid had
salt.
common
be
which
is
expressedin
the form
of
an
equationthus
hydrochloricacid yields
sodium
chloride
common
(i.e.
salt)+
water.
44
CHEMISTRY
AND
TABLE
Aluminum
DAILY
LIFE
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Bismuth
.
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Carbon
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Gold
.
Hydrogen
Iodine
Iron
The
figuresin Table
have
all been
determined
by
hydrochloricacid there
with every
are
35.5 grams
in
of chlorine combined
of
termed
the formula
for
chloric
hydro-
ride,
salt,which is sodium chloAgain,in common
we
bined
always have 35.5 parts by weight of chlorine comwith 23 parts by weight of sodium.
The symbol or
formula for common
.then,is NaCl, and it expresses both
salt,
the qualitative
and quantitative
of sodium chloride.
composition
ALKALIES,
ACIDS,
SALTS,
CHEMICAL
45
FORMULAS
indeed
may
mentioned.
Thus
HC1
(36.5
hydrochloric acid)
grams
Na
+
+
(23
grams
sodium)
yield
NaCl
(58.5 grams
+
salt) +
common
(1
gram
hydrogen)
then,thecomposition
general,
ofany compound is expressed
the other. However,
the symbolsofits elements one after
by writing
whenever the compound is a gas or vapor, the symbols
that represent it indicate^
not only the qualitative
tion
composiand quantitative
compositionby weight,but also the
weightof 22.4 litersof the gas or vapor at 0" C. and 760 mm.
barometric
So, for example, the symbol HC1
pressure.
stands for hydrochloric
acid and indicates that in this compound
of hydrogen is combined
1 gram
with 35.5 grams
In
chlorine ; it shows
weigh 36.5
grams,
whence
1 literweighs
gas
^rr"
or
1-629 grams.
22.4:
The volume
of
2 grams
which
hydrogen at
For
to
enter
our
0" C. and
760
it is the volume
mm.
pressure,
of
with
other gases.
It is not
for this practice
further into the reasons
it is customary
necessary
here.
22.4
purpose
to
compare
it suffices to know
that in the
case
46
CHEMISTRY
gas the
of any
AND
weightof a
DAILY
LIFE
liter of it may
be
found by dividing
the formula weightby 224The followingexamples will
illustrations. The composition of carbon dioxide
serve
as
by CO2, which indicates that 12 grams of
gas is represented
carbon
with
combined
are
2X16
32
or
whence
12 +
22.4
32
44 grams
or
1.964 grams.
or
of oxygen
grams
Again,the
for-
""A
mula
for water
and
16
grams
2 +
16
is H2O, which
oxygen
or
of water
18 grams
vapor
liters of
22.4
occupy
space
gen
hydro-
I O
weighs on~i"
the
or
0.8035
From
gram.
the above
illustrations
of
12 X
or
12
or
144
parts of carbon
22
parts of oxygen
by weight;
of sugar
144 grams
contain
plus 176
acid
This
by weight,to
in other words
of carbon
11 X
every
grams
16
1 X
or
22
176
342 grams
of
gen
hydro-
of the former
The
grams
to 5 X
of oxygen.
plus 22
every
16
or
The
80 grams
of the latter.
ACIDS,
ALKALIES,
will
These
the formulas
to
serve
47
FORMULAS
CHEMICAL
SALTS,
are
used.
and
filings
iron
(1) When
Thus
sulphideis formed.
ferrous
Fe
+
32
C
carbon
pentoxideis formed.
P2
sulphateare
formed.
H2SO4
sulphuric acid
98
grams
P206
phosphorus pentoxide
142
grams
acts
:
Zn
H2
HC1
hydrochloric acid
sodium
40
grams
hydroxide
grams
potassium chlorate
potassiumchloride. Thus :
3O
KC1O3
potassium
122.5
chlorate
grams
oxygen
48
grams
161
grams
by sodium
is neutralized
sodium
58.5
chloride
water
18
grams
74.5
grams
yieldsoxygen
KC1
potassium
H2O
is heated, it
Thus
formed.
are
NaCl
(6) When
and
zinc sulphate
2 grams
NaOH
ZnS04
hydrogen
zinc
65 grams
hydroxide,sodium
grams
on
hydrochloricacid
(5) When
phosphorus
in oxygen,
Thus
grams
sulphuricacid
(4) When
44
oxygen
80
grams
dioxide
carbon
05
in the air,carbon
or
CO2
burned
Thus
phosphorus
62
in oxygen
oxygen
32 grams
grams
grams
phosphorus is
(3) When
36.5
88
02
sulphide
ferrous
grams
Thus
dioxide is formed.
12
FeS
is burned
carbon
(2) When
together,
sulphur
iron
56 grams
heated
sulphur are
chloride
grams
48
CHEMISTRY
There
AND
reallyonly
are
change possible,
namely
(1) When
two
or
more
three
DAILY
LIFE
substances
unite to form
new
one
These
are
(2) When
two
of
This may
more
be termed
two
two
or
more
in
new
position
by decom-
reaction
substances react
(6) above.
with
with
synthesis.
another
one
also termed
are
formed
are
analysis,as contrasted
more
or
(5). These
substances
singlesubstance, as
(3) When
to form
or
of double
cases
decomposition.
Chemical
cate
symbols,then,are a great aid in that they indithe chemical compositionof a compound at a glance.
It must, of course,
be kept in mind that such symbols are
and so
offactsfound out by experiment,
only the expression
the formula of a compound cannot be written tillafter
its composition
has been actually
ascertained by chemical analysis.
much
The formation of salts reallyappears
simplerwhen
of equationsin which chemical symbols
expressedby means
are
used, thus
KOH
potassium hydroxide
or
potash lye
2 NaOH
sodium
or
or
In
H2SO4
hydroxide
slaked
KNO3
H2O
potassium nitrate
or
saltpeter
sulphuric acid
Na2SO4
sodium
water
sulphate
H2O
water
lye
Ca(OH)2
calcium
nitric acid
hydroxide
soda
HNO3
lime
2 HC1
hydrochloric
CaCl2
calcium
chloride
H2O
water
acid
CHEMICAL
SALTS,
ALKALIES,
ACIDS,
49
FORMULAS
the
Now
is concerned.
Common
salt,NaCl,
and chlorine,thus
sodium
by neutralization
Cl
by hydrochloricacid,thus
HC1
NaCl
H2O
by
or
SO3
Ca(OH)2 + H2S04
may
at
are
times act
non-metals
Among
may
on
the union
:
CaSO4
acid,thus
sulphuric
CaS04
H2O
in
the most
common
salts
are
chlorides,
sulphates,
and
substances,
general
base-forming
metals
substances,thoughsome
acid-forming
elements,and some
as
acid-forming
of the
The metals,then,are
the non-metals
of
hydroxide,NaOH,
Calcium
of
union
NaCl
base, sodium
of the
NaOH
by direct
Na
or
be formed
may
may
from
the following
respectively
acids: hydrochloricacid HC1, sulphuric
acid H2SO4, nitric
acid HNO3j carbonic acid H2CO3, phosphoricacid H3PO4,
considered
as
derived
50
CHEMISTRY
and
AND
silicicacid H2SiO3.
chloride
NaCl, calcium
DAILY
LIFE
have
sodium
as
from
derived
which
is
sodium
hydrochloricacid HC1,
of
hydrogen
the
metals.
replacedby the respective
Again,we have
monium
sulphate Na2SO4, potassium sulphateK2SO4, am-
sulphate (NH4)2SO4,copper
cium
sulphateCuSO4, calsulphateCaSO4, magnesium sulphateMgSO4, ferrous
sulphate(alsocommonly called copperas)FeSO4, etc. These
sulphatesmay all be considered as derived from sulphuric
acid H2SO4, whose hydrogen has been replacedby the metals
the ammonium
or
Similarlywe have
respectively.
group
potassium nitrate KNO3, sodium nitrate NaNO3, calcium
nitrate Ca(NO3)2, copper
nitrate Cu(NO3)2, ammonium
nitrate NH4NO3,
be regarded as
etc., all of which may
derived
from
nitric acid
carbonate
ammonium
of
Na2CO3,
carbonate
lead carbonate
carbonic
HNO3.
(NH)2CO3,
H2CO3.
carbonates
potassium
PbCO3, etc.,may
acid
The
like
K2CO3,
carbonate
calcium
CaCO3,
carbonate
be considered
as
dium
so-
derivatives
The
be
acetates
manner
from
considered
arsenic
are
as
derived from
acid,lactates from
acid,and
so
on.
Each
acetic acid,arsenates
from
from
boric
In
the
hydrogen of the
radicals (i.e.
groups
may
act
as
metals.
acid is
ments
of eleIn turn
CHAPTER
THE
elements
THE
called
the
is found
but
CaF2,
all
apatite,which
is present
it gets
small
in
into
teeth
frequently
are
consists
extremely
plants,
of the
of calcium
percentage
small
and
so
latter notable
treating calcium
fluoride, hydrofluoric
H2SO4
calcium
acid
attacks
glass, sand,
fluoride, which
bases
gas
that
may
silicate is shown
CaSiO3
calcium
silicate
which
be
by
the
6HF
hydrofluoric
acid
its
action
CaF2
calcium
fluoride
52
It
water.
fluorides
silicon
with
silicon
tetrafluoride
any
calcium
on
SiF4
HF
general, forming
metallic
acid
thus
formed,
in
of
always
are
acid
following equation
=
enamel
hydrofluoric
Thus
present.
which
calcium
readily dissolves
is volatile, and
Fluorine
sulphate
silicates in
and
the
the
phate-plus
phos-
sulphuric
CaSO4
acid
is
with
is
sulphuric
fluoride
calcium
of fluorine
acid, HF,
minute
soils, from
In
fluoride
hydrogen
in
animals.
amounts
By
CaF2
of
the
spar,
of
fluoride.
quantities
into
in
constituent
essentially
are
compounds.
fluoride, fluor
minor
in
nature
in
met
iodine
distributed
fairly widely
present.
This
calcium
as
and
in
occur
the
they
never
chiefly
it is after
in
amounts
mineral
They
state, but
Fluorine
HALOGENS
halogens.
uncombined
VI
H2O
water
THE
acid
Hydrofluoric
is
HALOGENS
53
poisonous. The
used
are
gas
for
etchingglass,
mond
dia-
"
most
Chlorine
XaCl, the
salt with
common
By treating
H2SO4
for
strong affinity
of
human
acid
hydrochloric
called muriatic
and
the
fumes
acid
are
of salt,
spirit
or
condenses
fumes
acid
reallyminute
solution of
acid
With
HC1
sulphate
water
Thus
drops.
temperatures
water
sodium
gas, which
is a colorless pungent
air to
NaHSO4
acid
Hydrochloricacid,also
acid,
sulphuric
sulphuric
sodium
chloride
salt,sodium chloride,
common
of which
occurrence
sodium.
with
mainly in
is found
gas.
four hundred
Hydrochloric acid is
volume
of
there is found
specificgravity
1.19
aids
in
powerful acid.
0.33
cent
the LeBlanc
aqueous
38
soda
solution
per
the
solution of
digestionof
largequantitieson a
contains
acid by weight.
hydrochloric
per
In
in the
with
saturated
and
of
chloric
hydro-
the
droplets
ordinary
At
volumes
cent
food.
mercial
com-
process
has
the
of pure
54
AND
CHEMISTRY
Chlorine is
acid.
electric current
DAILY
preparedby abstracting
hydrogenfrom hydrochloric
This
be done
by simply passing the
may
hydrochloricacid soluthrough an aqueous
FIG.
12.
"
the other.
The
hydrochloricacid by
As such manganese
Mn02
manganese
dioxide
LIFE
common
means
on
way,
of
gen
poleand hydro-
one
however, is to oxidize
suitable
oxidizingagent.
dioxide is usuallychosen,thus
4HC1
hydrochloric
acid
MnCl2
manganous
chloride
H2O
water
C12
chlorine
The
dioxide and
manganese
togetherin
heated
flask
very
55
HALOGENS
THE
hydrochloricacid
retort.
or
pungent odor.
many
of the
elements
it forms
sodium
chloride,
So with
direct union.
gently
Chlorine is a greenish
It is extremely active
sodium
are
with
copper,
H2O
The
C12
2 HC1
oxygen
For
colors,microorganisms,etc.
(a solution of chlorine
water
agent and
an
gas
substances,destroying
this
in water) is
of
chlorine
reason
chlorine gas
antiseptic.When
is formed, thus
bleaching
is conducted
lime,bleaching powder,
Ca(OH)2
C12
slaked lime
chlorine
CaCl(OCl)
chloride
of lime
H2O
water
bleaching powder
Bleachingpowder
agent.
Its action
yield its
oxygen
CaCl2, thus
and bleaching
powerful antiseptic
depends upon the fact that it will readily
and
into calcium
over
chloride,
pass
is
and also
dyestuffs,
destroysthe color of many
kills microorganisms.Bleaching powder is manufactured
on
a
large scale commercially, and is used in bleaching
fabrics,paper pulp, etc. It is also used to rid the soil of
undesirableorganisms.
is mainly found as sodium
Bromine
bromide, NaBr, in
connection with sodium chloride. It may
be preparedby
methods
that are entirelysimilar to those used in making
The
oxygen
56
AND
CHEMISTRY
chlorine.
Thus
acid acts
NaBr
bromide
NaHSO4
sulphuric
acid
acid
is obtained
MnO2
dioxide
dioxide
with
MnBr2
water
elements.
Potassium
photography.
3.188 at 0".
Br2
bromine
manganous
bromide
bromides
forms
acid
hydrobromic acid,
acid
Bromine
hydrobromic
sodium
H2O
hydrobromic
manganese
HBr
4 HBr
sulphuric
sulphate
treating manganese
bromine
when
H2SO4
sodium
bromide
By
LIFE
sodium
on
DAILY
bromide,KBr,
itselfis
Bromine
It boils at 59" C.
many
of the
brownish
About
acid
Hydrobromic
Its
water.
when
than
the latter.
thus
from bromides by chlorine,
NaBr
Bromine
turns starch
is found
Iodine
iodate,NaIO3,
is
Br
bromine
sodium
chloride
paste yellow.
in the ashes of
in connection
sea
weeds, also
It dissolves
alcohol.
The
metals
forms iodides.
sodium
water,
but
metallic
copiouslyin
It is used in medicine
the
sparinglyin
as
Chili saltpeter.Iodine
with
crystalline,
grayishblack solid having almost
luster.
With
hydrochloric
Bromine
is set free
NaCl
chlorine
sodium
bromide
soluble in
Cl
colorless gas
similar to those of
propertiesare
is
pure
as
and
Thus
an
some
we
have
and
antiseptic
of the other
sodium
counter
elements
iodide Nal,
irritant.
iodine
potassium
CaI2, phosphorus
THE
by
57
HALOGENS
sodium
From
with
treatment
iodide,iodine
acid.
sulphuric
may
readily
Thus
gen
hydro-
attacks
once
the
H2SO4
thus
NaHSO4
sulphuric
sodium
acid
acid
iodide
HI
hydriodic
sodium
sulphate
acid
and
H2SO4
2 HI
H2S03
sulphuric
hydriodic
sulphurous
acid
acid
acid
This
H2O
iodine
water
factis used
may
21
also
of iodine
use
testing
starch paste
of
are
in
beautiful
compound, thyroiodine. In
diseases connected
the treatment
of
complex
of goiter
and other
with the
thyroidgland,iodine compounds,
like potassiumiodide,or extract of the thyroidgland of the
by the physician.
sheep,are frequently
prescribed
Iodine may
be liberatedfrom iodides by treating
the latter
with bromine
thus
chlorine,
or
KI
Cl
KC1
chlorine
potassium
iodine
potassium
iodide
chloride
QUESTIONS
1. Name
found
2.
the
halogens,and
one
important compound
of each
in nature.
(a) How
may
(6) What
3. Describe
4. What
is
use
hydrofluoricacid be prepared ?
is made of this compound ?
for?
it is prepared.
What
other
names
58
AND
CHEMISTRY
5.
How
6.
Explain
7.
What
how
is
made
be
chlorine
may
this
Describe
element.
bleaches.
chlorine
bleaching
LIFE
DAILY
powder
what
Upon
fact
its
does
action
depend
8.
What
9.
Compare
use
is
the
made
bromine
of
of
properties
How
iodine
may
with
it
those
be
prepared
of
the
other
elements.
10.
Mention
iodine
would
excess
of
of
some
be
potassium
obtained
iodide.
the
when
of
uses
100
iodine.
grams
how
Compute
of
chlorine
act
much
upon
an
60
gas
CHEMISTRY
should
been
then
can
DAILY
AND
make
its escape
into the
Care must
be taken
LIFE
latter
several hours
after it has
The
also be prepared
gas
not
may
to
rooms
in this process
The
room.
be
to set
disinfected.
the
house
on
(seeChapter XXI).
agent. It is
Sulphur dioxide is also used as a bleaching
fabrics
used for bleachingstraw, feathers,and
especially
fire
FIG.
14.
"
Pumping
sulphur from
Louisiana
sulphur well.
61
ANTIMONY
ARSENIC,
PHOSPHORUS,
SULPHUR,
would
but
this
be
is not
poisonousnature
be
to
recommended
of the substance.
by uniting chemicallywith
altered.
The
the
is thus
action
on
account
Sulphur dioxide
substance
whose
quite different
from
of
the
bleaches
color is
that
of
black gunpowder,
Sulphuris also used in making fireworks,
lime sulphur
both soft and hard rubber, carbon bisulphide,
mixtures
for sprayingshrubs and trees, and sulphuric acid.
of tons of the latter compound are
Thousands
produced
annually. In its productionsulphuris first converted into
sulphur dioxide by burning it in the air. The sulphur
is passed
dioxide is then mixed with air and this mixture
over
finelydivided platinum heated from 400" to 450" C.
In contact with this hot, finelydivided platinum the sulphur
of the air,forming
dioxide unites further with the oxygen
thus
sulphur trioxide,
SO2 + O
Sulphur trioxide
forms
melt at 14".8 C.
It
sulphuricacid,thus
SO3
which
fibers,
long,white, crystalline
takes on water very greedily,
forming
SO3 + H20
H2SO4
is a heavy viscous
Sulphuricacid, also called oil of vitri61,
being 1.838 times as heavy as water at 15" C. It has
liquid,
with
and will dissolvein the same
for water
great affinity
be used in
heat. Care must consequently
liberation of much
pouringsulphuricacid into water. Always pour the acid
62
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
water
stir well
addition of acid.
aftereach
at
if too
(never the
much
liable to be thrown
Sulphuricacid
With
of
out
is
LIFE
into the
water
If the water
substances, it forms
is
poured
of the acid is
of the metals,ammonia,
most
acid) and
salts called
sulphates. Thus
we
have
all other
wood,
animal
sugar,
and
is
is carried
an
sulphuricacid.
The
lead
chamber
on
attacked by
slightly
process
is still used
Sulphuricacid
and liberating
the
acids
in lead-
to
of 60 to
salts,
formingsulphates
thus
ofsuch salts,
NaCl
sodium
H2S04
NaHS04
HC1
acid sodium
sulphuric acid
chloride
63
ANTIMONY
ARSENIC,
PHOSPHORUS,
SULPHUR,
hydrochloric
acid
sulphate
KN03
potassium
H2SO4
KHS04
potassium acid
sulphate
nitrate
HNO3
nitric acid
sulphuric
Fuming sulphuricacid,also called Nordhausen
acid,is sulphuricacid in which additional sulphur trioxide
has been dissolved.
From
sulphurdioxide
when
SQ2 + HaO
dissolves
jj^
derived.
Thus
we
have
also called
sulphiteNa2SO3, sodium acid sulphite,
sodium
NaHS03, calcium sulphiteCaSO3, etc.
bisulphite,
used in photographyand in the preparation
The sulphites
are
of wood pulp in the paper industry.Sulphitesalso used to
bidden
forbut this is now
be employed as food preservatives,
to health.
by law, for they are injurious
of hydrogen
Hydrogen sulphide is a compound consisting
and sulphur. Its composition is expressed by the
sodium
formula
pits,and
without
H2S.
animal
wherever
proper
three volumes
is 1.19 times
water
and
as
heavy
3 O
volume
one
of the
latter
phide
Hydrogen sulwill burn, forming
of the gas.
as
sulphurdioxide,thus
H2S +
manure
vegetablematter is decaying
air. Hydrogen sulphideis poisonous
It dissolves in water,
absorbingabout
eggs, in
and
of
access
in rotten
air.
It
H20
S02
be prepared by treatingferrous
Hydrogen sulphidemay
or
sulphidewith hydrochloric
sulphuricacid,thus :
FeS
2 HC1
FeCl2 + H2S
FeS
H2S04
FeS04 + H2S
64
CHEMISTRY
When
introduced
AND
DAILY
into solutions
of
LIFE
salts
of
the
heavy metals,
H2S
CuS
H2S04
copper
sulphide
AsCl3 + 3 H2S
As"
6 HC1
arsenious
sulphide
bisulphide is
Carbon
1.26.
It boils at
mixed
with air
spark must
47"
colorless
and
is very
and
explosive,
are
be present when
carbon
liquidof specific
gravity
inflammable.Its vapors
consequentlyno flame or
is beingused.
bisulphide
It is used
as
of ants
and
other
insect
pests. Carbon
means
CaS04
gypsum
as
2
.
like
sulphides
lead
From
or
also
in nature
Sulphuroccurs
as
calcium
sulphateCaSO4,
iron
with
metals
pyritessulphur dioxide
of
Much
is obtained
of the
sulphuricacid
by heatingthe
sulphurdioxide
is obtained
etc.
from
used in the
this
source.
are
Nearly two and one half million tons of gypsum
duced
proannuallyin the United States alone. It is used as
land plaster,
wall plaster,
as
stucco, etc.
out
Finallyall plants and animals contain sulphur. Withit theycould not live. Sulphuris a constituent of albumen.
Thus
muscular
seeds contain
tissues,
horns, hoofs, hair,nerves,
sulphur. In
urine
eggs,
sulphur is present in
and
the
SULPHUR,
form
of
PHOSPHORUS,
for
sulphates,
as
ARSENIC,
ANTIMONY
65
continuallyoxidized to sulphates,
of the kidneys. Some
which are then eliminated by means
like onions,garlic,
mustard, skunk cabbages,
radishes,
plants,
in its tissues are
well they
FIG.
of
15.
"
group
of
an
sulphur crystals on
adequateamount
limestone.
66
CHEMISTRY
compounds
completed.
of their
AND
and
tissues,
DAILY
thus
LIFE
the
sulphur cycle is
hydrogen sulphide,which is
easilydetected by its foul odor. Many mineral waters
contain
calcium sulphate,some
contain sodium
sulphate,
Na2SO4, others like those at Epsom contain magnesium
sulphate,MgSO4. The latter are bitter to the taste and
have a laxative effect. Magnesium sulphate
is called Epsom
salt,and is sometimes taken as a purgative.
in nature
in the free state.
It
occurs
Phosphorus never
is,however, quite widely distributed in small quantitiesin
It occurs
compounds.
calcium
as
phosphate,
Ca3(PO4)2,in phosphate
rock in the Carolinas and
of
some
Western
Small
states.
of
the
amounts
also
phosphatesoccur
in iron
in all fertile soils,
(fromwhich
ores
it passes
when
the
ores
are
in
and
slags
duced),
re-
many
graniticrocks,clays,etc.
Bones
FIG.
16.
"
piece of phosphate
rock.
consist
phosphateto
of
calcium
the extent
of
all
an
importantand indispensable
part of the
plants and
muscles, and
in locomotion
animals.
In
the
nerves,
parts that
of
phorus
Phostissues
brain, blood,
are
concerned
reproduction,phosphorus is found.
In
in the
phosphorus is always present, particularly
embryos, and without phosphorusplantscannot grow, hence
seeds
68
CHEMISTRY
As
animals
AND
DAILY
LIFE
live these
returned
phosphorusare never
continually togetherwith
away
to
other
finallyempty
fertilizer
into the
largecities in particular
represents
In order to keepup the supplyofphosphorus,
a colossal waste.
bones, blast furnace slags,and ground phosphaterock are
When
bones are treated with sulphuric
employed as fertilizers.
acid,so-called superphosphateis produced,thus :
ocean.
Ca3(P04)2
calcium
2H2SO4
phosphate
This is more
of our
sulphuric acid
CaSO4 + CaH4(PO4)2
superphosphate
more
available to
plants.
is producedby heating
calcium phosphate
Phosphorusitself
with silica (sand)and carbon.
These are finelyground and
intimatelymixed and then heated out of contact with the
air in earthenware
The
retorts
in
or
following
changetakes place:
Ca3(PO4)2 +
calcium
SiO2 +
silica
5 C
3 CaSiO3
carbon
calcium
silicate
phosphate
Phosphorus is
Under
water
it may
5 CO
carbon
monoxide
yellowish,translucent, waxlike
be melted
at
44" C.
2 P
phosphorus
solid.
It catches fire in
SULPHUR,
PHOSPHORUS,
ARSENIC,
ANTIMONY
69
on
the box
there is
mixture
of red
phosphorus,
dioxide, and glue. The
antimony sulphide,manganese
which
powdered glassincreases the friction,
to
the
and
so
are
matches.
Matches
70
CHEMISTRY
and
conflagrations,
lives
many
tons
of
DAILY
first came
poisonousnature
phorus
Phosmanufacturing them.
into
phosphorus
LIFE
of their
also because
sacrificedin
are
matches
3000
AND
in 1832, and
use
annually used
are
up
now
in
some
making
matches.
Phosphoric
acid
is
calcium phosphate
producedby treating
sulphuricacid,thus
with
3H2SO4
Ca3(PO4)2 +
3CaSO4
sulphuric acid
phosphate
calcium
calcium
sulphate
H3PO4
phosphoric acid
H3P04
HPO3
H2O
The
latter
5 O
P2O5
forms
with water
treatment
on
phosphoricacid,
thus:
P205+-3H20
As
phosphorus is
percentage
in
content
valuable
as
2H3P04
constituent
making purchases.
stated
The
per cent
per
cent
P, which
of
means
of fertilizers,
the
always be considered
times
phosphorusis some-
the element
itself,
more
of fertilizersas
content
per
cent
largerthan
much
figureappears
the
pounds.
142
every
71
ANTIMONY
ARSENIC,
PHOSPHORUS,
SULPHUR,
phosphorus
the
expressedas
when
per cent
P.
Arsenic
It burns
metallic luster.
thus forms
white
odor
and
white
arsenic,As2O3, which
air
in the
emitting a garlic-like
powder, arsenious
as
oxide,
or
white cloud.
importantcompound of
the market and relatively
arsenic. It is quite common
on
sonous
inexpensive. Like all compounds of arsenic,it is very poiarsenious acid,or
White arsenic,
arsenic,"as it is
is used as rat poison. About
also often called in commerce,
1500 tons are
produced yearlyin the United States. It is
soluble in water and has a sweetish,sickeningtaste.
slightly
The antidote for arsenic poisoningis freshlyprecipitated
Indeed, white
"
ferrichydroxide.This
forms
an
insoluble
mass
with
senious
ar-
oxide.
as
poisonsfor
entirely
vermin and insect pests. Two
compounds of arsenic are at
present very commonly employed for this purpose, namely,
Paris green, whose
compositionis Cu3As2O6 Cu(C2H3O2)2,
being a double salt of cupric arsenite and cupric acetate,
arsenate
and
lead
Pb3(AsO4)2. Both Paris green and
but sparinglysoluble in water.
lead arsenate
They
are
Arsenic
compounds
are
used almost
used
are
that
proper
Directions
various
other
for
care.
Antimony
metal
insects.
such
in
and
is
Babbitt
brittle metal.
metal
It is used
for machine
in making type
bearings. As
molten
72
CHEMISTRY
mixed
with
suitable
lead and
AND
tin forms
DAILY
LIFE
alloywhich
an
composition being 25
lead,and 25 per cent tin.
50 per cent
contains
70 to 90 per
and
Bullets
is particularly
cent
per
mony,
anti-
Babbitt metal
mony.
lead, alloyedwith tin and anti-
cent
alloyedwith from
arsenic.
It is used in
preparing
low-meltingalloyswhich are employed in making readily
fusible plugs in the pipes of automatic
sprinklersfor fire
of
protection. So, for instance, Wood's metal, consisting
1
melts at 60". 5 C.
the
most
nitrate,BiO
Bismuth
used
are
preparation being
common
NO3
compounds
BiO
OH,
in medicine,
bismuth
sub-
white
cultly
powder which is diffisoluble in water
and practically
tasteless. It is prescribed
in cases
of dysentery and other disturbances of the
.
alimentary canal.
powder.
It
is also sometimes
used
as
face
QUESTIONS
1. How
does
2. Describe
3. What
the
sulphur occur
how
this element
is formed
propertiesand
when
behaves
heating.
on
sulphuris burned
in the air ?
Describe
of this substance.
uses
4. What
use
is made
6. What
are
the two
on
in nature
of
sulphur?
methods
by which
factured
sulphuricacid is manu-
large scale ?
6. Describe
the
propertiesof sulphuricacid.
What
an
use
is made
of this substance ?
7. What
are
example
each.
8. What
9. How
is hydrogen sulphide?
is carbon
10. Discuss
bisulphidemade
the role of
How
?
is it prepared?
What
is it used for ?
of
one
In
12.
Discuss
13.
What
use
14.
What
is
15.
How
what
of
the
In
What
them?
are
19.
How
20.
What
nature
plant
and
the
animal
life.
arts
could
HsPO-i,
Ca3(P04)2,
the
be
produced
essential
from
in
compound
much
18.
fertilizer
superphosphate
in
in
phosphorus
phosphate,
made
What
of
calcium
P20s?
17.
made
is
in
phosphorus
acid,
pentoxide,
from
of
phosphoric
How
16.
role
73
ANTIMONY
found
phosphorus
much
rock
phosphate
is
forms
11.
ton
ARSENIC,
PHOSPHORUS,
SULPHUR,
what
other
these
used
much
are
pound
acid,
of
phosphorus
H3P04,
could
be
P205?
of
white
in
there
phosphoric
much
How
pound
is
is
phosphorus
arsenic
commercial
does
compounds
arsenic
occur?
for?
arsenic
antimony
is
there
and
in
bismuth,
pound
and
of
Paris
what
green
use
is
made
of
CHAPTER
AND
BORON
Boron
calcium
The
in
occurs
salts.
element
diamond.
be
solution
acid.
sulphuric
of
crystalline flakes
Na2B407
sodium
acid
boron.
and
in
mild
because
preserve
the
is
of
about
blood
the
on
the
floors
milk, meats,
practice is
now
also
known
per
hot
hydrochloric
out
NaCl
form
in the
H3BO3
boric
acid
and
boracic
as
in
treating
the
the
consequently
is at
fish,etc.
forbidden
halls.
;
but
by
74
It has
as
law.
it is
acid
as
it is
tion
solu-
swollen
are
acid
boric
used
for
eyes,
of dance
saturated
boric
saturated
It
acid.
frequently
It is
cent.
Compresses of
on
important compounds
temperature
especially
poisoning.
touch,
either
sodium
the most
room
frequently applied
to
spread
by far
At
agent.
may
water
are
water.
contains
It
as
chloride
acid
antiseptic wash,
are
H2O
boron
by treating
separates
thus
cooling,
on
borax
Boric
solution
very
acid
with
solved
dis-
hard
as
H3BO3.
H2O,
acid
dissolves
boric
hydrochloric
tretraborate
an
latter
HC1
the
of
The
or
Boric
almost
composition
10
be
cools
mass
are
state.
It may
concentrated
of
the
Na2B4O7
borax,
uncombined
the
that
and
its sodium
and
the
when
crystals
has
acid
from
prepared
of
in
and
aluminum,
Boric
acid
brittle solid.
brown,
in form
out
boric
found
never
is
boron
in molten
separates
is
SILICON
in
nature
It
VIII
feels
pery
slip-
used
times
also been
used
to
to
injuriousto health,
Boric
acid
has
prac-
76
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
in the uncombined
occurs
luster.
metallic
that
Its
The
form.
LIFE
element
It is
specific
gfavityis
silicon
never
2.49.
so
hard
one
scale
scratch
can
SiO2
2C
silicon dioxide
2 CO
carbon
carbon
Si
silicon
monoxide
FIG.
19.
"
Molten
as
of steel,
reducingagent.
silicon
as
it is being tapped
from
an
electric furnace.
is the most
Silicon dioxide,SiO2, also called silica,
important
chalcedony,
flint,
Quartz,quartzite,
compound of silicon.
opal,amethyst,agate, carnelian,sandstone,white sand, especially
almost entirely
that on the seashore and the desert,
are
BORON
silicon dioxide.
AND
77
SILICON
used
abrasive.
glued
Silica may be melted to a clear glassin the oxyhyon
paper.
drogen flame. Utensils of such glassare still quitecostly.
They are mainly used in laboratories. Althoughquartz glass
it will not break when
is quite brittle,
exposed to sudden
changes of temperature. So a dish of quartz glassmay be
as
an
made
Quartz sand
the dish.
When
20.
"
pulverized
quartz
SiO2
Na2CO3
soda
silica
Hot
sand
silicate is
carbonate),sodium
eggs,
and
in
When
together.
Na2SiO3
sodium
its solutions
cementingasbestos
sodium
(sodium
formed, thus:
Springs, Arkansas.
water
Sodium
ing
break-
is also
porcelain,
portlandcement, and
FIG.
without
silicate
CO2
carbon
dioxide
glass
glass. It is readily
employedin preserving
fibersand asbestos paper
are
silicate solution
is treated
with
78
CHEMISTRY
hydrochloricor
AND
of flakes
or
thus
jelly,
Na2Si03
sodium
At
silicate
concentrated
but
hydrochloric acid
silicic acid
silicate solution
used
equation) is only
to
has
sodium
chloride
very
weak
acid.
taste.
In
water
it is
when
However,
prepare
the
sodium
cent
per
no
2 NaCl
silicicacid is
slightlysoluble.
very
H2SiO3
ordinarytemperatures
It does not
2HC1
LIFE
some
and
DAILY
not
separate
on
on
in the
pailconstantly,there
will finally
remain behind in the
bladder only silicicacid. Instead
of
of
parchment
be used.
paper
could also
This process
of thus
Graham.
dialysis. By
off
FIG. 21.
about
apt
"
10 per
to
Salts
cent
concentrated
carefullyevaporating
of the water,
jellyon
be
contains
silicicacid.
of silicic acid
some
It is called
very
standing.
abundant
exceedingly
in nature.
BORON
The
only
AND
79
SILICON
those of sodium
are
and
The naturally
potassium and these are preparedartificially.
of the most
occurringsilicates are insoluble. Among some
important
of
these
be
may
mentioned
potash feldspar
CaAl2Si2O8,
feldspar
:
NaAlSi3O8, lime
KAlSi3O8, soda feldspar,
kaolin
ine
or
day H2Al2Si2O8
2
.
meerschaum
Mg2SiO4,
Mg2Si3O8
4
.
H2O, soapstone
or
hornblende
Mg3H2Si4Oi2, asbestos Mg3Si2O7 2 H2O,
and mica KH2Al3Si3Oi2. Granitic rocks consist
Mg2CaFeSi4Oi2,
and mica.
Our fine clay
of crystals
of quartz, feldspar,
soils are formed by the disintegration
of the graniticrocks,
in earlier geological
partlyby the action of glaciation
ages,
partlyby the process of weathering,that is,by the gradual
action of water, air,and wind, particularly
by alternate
freezingand thawing of water in the crevices of the rocks.
of potassium and also of phosBecause
of their content
phorus,
from
rocks and the clay that have come
for granitic
of calcium
their disintegration
always contain minor amounts
phosphate,clay soils are in generalquitedesirable for
agricultural
purposes.
While
sand and the naturallyoccurringsilicates are
all
soluble in water, yet they are by no means
only very slightly
insoluble. So all terrestrialwaters like those ofsprings,
entirely
talc
wells,rivers,lakes,and the
ocean,
plants derive
in
From
considerable
as
well
as
remains
when
in the
It is found
is frequently
met
itself
in the ash of the
particularly
of grasses,
of bamboo
and
to
which
constitutes
the
ash
that
Silica
stability.Often
half
of
other
the
ash
canes,
matter
cinerat
they are inash of plants.
consists
which
of
it
gives
silica. In
About
40 per
cent
of the ash
80
AND
CHEMISTRY
of the feathers
minute
organisms.
dynamite, which
infusorial earth
and
exact
of
then molded
of
into sticks.
SiO2
will attack
In the
plant
other
The
It
analyzing silicates.
is much
is
volatile
silicon tetrafluoride
acid
hydrofluoric
reason
in
water, thus
SiF4
hydrofluoric acid
this
with
silica,
forming
4HF
silica
with
of
making
Hydrofluoricacid
compound,
in
mixed
essentially
nitroglycerine
is
and
This
in the form
nature
For
consist
tomic
Depositsof dia-
animal
elements
LIFE
infusorial earth
or
DAILY
H20
water
also
employed
in
silicates,
glass,and porcelain.The etching
etching silica,
depends upon the fact that silicon tetrafluoride is formed,
and
that
simultaneouslyproduced.
has been known
that may
be present are
art of thus etching glass
bases
fluorides of any
The
for centuries.
QUESTIONS
is boric acid
2. How
3. What
much
What
is borax ?
1. What
is the
use
is made
prepared?
most
abundant
What
of it?
is it used for?
compound
of
silicon?
How
4. Make
of which
quartz is used.
5. What
is water
glass?
is it
How
purpose
is it used ?
6. How
are
agricultural
purposes
7. Discuss
the
Why
are
occurrence
of
silica in natural
waters, also in
plantsand animals.
8. What
is the action of
acid
hydrofluoric
upon
silicates?
CHAPTER
AND
CARBON
WHEN
carbon
also
deposits
called
the
on
apples, bread,
overheated
largely carbon
they
meats
latter element
is
Such
remains
charred
fact
during
that
the
carbon
of
the
plus
burns
and
is
there
long
in
which
masses
all
vegetable
latter
What
always
matter
is due
the
air
carbon
the
i.e
in
to
volatilized
is very
remains
that the
living beings.
been
has
constituents,
are
vegetablematter
or
of
what
some-
of carbon, showing
or
of the
heating.
the
left too
is
baking potatoes,
mineral
heating in
gradually
the
large portion
process
continued
of animal
less than
weigh much
of
constituent
essential
an
process
In
remain.
candle,
soot, which
of
form
charred
only
oven,
are
when
the
in the
When
or
the
in
of
flame
in the
is held
plate
lampblack.
COMPOUNDS
ITS,
porcelain plate
IX
largely
ash.
the charred
On
mass
off,
finally
the
leftnothing but
ash.
By heating wood
of contact
out
the
air
in
is
charcoal
When
is
with
ovens
FIG.
treated, bone
charcoal
may
G
"
charcoal.
Making
through
the
A
of
center
vertical
a
section
pile.
coal
similarly heated,
thus
22.
duced.
pro-
be
is formed;
coke
black
made
from
results.
blood.
81
and
In
when
like
Charcoal
bones
manner
is
are
blood
generally
82
CHEMISTRY
AND
wood
produced by pilingup
the
then
and
whole
with
DAILY
in
suitable manner,
earth to exclude
settingfire to
the wood.
undue
Thus
access
is
Diamond
known.
"
Charcoal
cally
practibone
substances,
charred.
ivas
burning in Bavaria.
carbon.
crystalline
When
it burns,
Charcoal,coke, and
23.
of air,and
it is heated
FIG.
covering
portionof
because
of contact
out
LIFE
high index of
for which reason
it is greatlyprizedas a gem.
refraction,
Less desirable piecesof diamond
used for making drills
are
pure
to drill rocks.
Graphite also
in
infrequently
"
"
soapy
making
"
to
it is colorless and
fairlypure
the touch.
lead
"
has
in nature
state.
It is soft,black, and
It is used
as
and
is not
occurs
lubricant,also for
84
CHEMISTRY
etc., these
to
bituminous
AND
DAILY
LIFE
formed
vegetableremains have graduallybeen transcoal. Wood fiber,peat, brown coal,softcoal or
coal,and anthracite
in
of gradations
or
hard
the
in iron retorts.
or
per
per
methane
or
cent; carbon
cent; oxygen,
marsh
gas,
per
per
Ammonia
of coal gas,
in the manufacture
cent
cent;
nil;carbon dioxide,1.1
cent.
The
also
ing
follow-
fairlytypicalsample of
34.5
monoxide, 7.2
of contact
as
per
hydrogen,
nitrogen,2.3
;
cent; illumi-
is also always
already stated in
Chapter IV,
but it is washed
out
liquors.
When
coal gas
burns
from
an
CARBON
AND
disappearsbecause
for the latter
for
the carbon
such
reason
The
one.
ITS
Bunsen
burninggas by
85
COMPOUNDS
flame is hotter
than
firstmixing it with
nous
the lumi-
arrangement
of
sufficientamount
"D
FIG.
air
that
so
flows from
A.
In
zone
The
Bunsen
tube
both
air and
ignitedat B,
which
and
burner
the
with
"
perfectcombustion
more
mixture is then
burns
24.
an
its flame.
is secured.
air enters
gas
the upper
inner blue
is non-luminous.
The
at
mix
end
the
The
gas
opening
well, and
of T.
cone
inner
C and
zone
this
The
an
gas
outer
contains
86
CHEMISTRY
unconsumed
gas,
combustion
the
All
flame.
LIFE
DAILY
AND
zone
is the
intended
flames
gas
plete
compractically
for
part of
hottest
heating purposes
arrangedon
are
some
source.
burn
never
Charcoal
them.
become
Charcoal
burns.
gas
coke
or
expelledfrom
were
tillthey
glow
coke
or
in
consumed
are
so
gases
burning
that
only
ash remains.
carbon
When
carbon
dioxide
in
burns
thus
results,
of carbon
gas
CO
Carbon monoxide
the
monoxide
flame
is
quitehot.
which
with
burns
blue flame,
oxygen
CO2
carbon
dioxide
producesdeath. Carbon
of coal gas. Its
dangerous ingredient
In
water
gas," which is a mixture of
the
is the most
is formed, thus
excess
monoxide
carbon
is poisonous. When
hemoglobin of
monoxide
an
CO
carbon dioxide,thus
yielding
carbon
is limited and
monoxide
oxygen
is
monoxide
Carbon
dioxide
carbon
of oxygen
is present,carbon
carbon
in excess,
oxygen
co2
oxygen
in
or
amount
air
o2
carbon
the
blood and
"
carbon monoxide
hydrogenand
then
have
H2O
benzene, or
used
non-luminous
99
placed.
emits
gas
Bunsen
which
oxide
cerium
"
This
work
net-
oxide,
"
brilliant
is
stocking
incandescence
to
a
and
light.Producer
carbon
monoxide,
and
carbon
is
gas
63 per cent
minor
dioxide.
passing air
The
water
thorium
cent
per
heated
"
well, for
very
of 1 per cent
is
lamp
employed, over
of
mantle, consisting
and
"
With
is
flame
the
mantle
be
heating,but not at
By
enriching
gas produced
illuminating
gas.
the Welsbach
here
gas
it may
petroleumoils,
from
may
water
illuminatingpurposes.
gas
over
H2,
is excellent for
gas which
for
as
CO
water
all suitable
be used
producedby passingsteam
carton
we
87
COMPOUNDS
ITS
AND
CARBON
of
amounts
It is made
red-hot
over
trogen,
ni-
readilymade
by
coke.
is
and
FIG.
frequentlyused
as
drawback, for it
25.
"
Welsbach
mantle.
of
source
The
acts
nitrogenit
simplyto
contains
is,of
monoxide.
Carbon
dioxide, as
already stated, is
contained
in the
88
CHEMISTRY
react with
thus
AND
DAILY
LIFE
eliminating
oxygen,
C02
6
carbon
H20
dioxide
water
Starch
is
in
cereals,potatoes,and
all
C6H1005
starch
oxygen
article of food. It is
an
02 +
presentin largequantities
other
vegetables.As
these
are
we
live
which
as
we
againcontinually
slowlyoxidized by the oxygen
passes through the walls of the lungs into the blood
Thus carbon dioxide is formed and this is
breathe.
are
has been
carbon
can
of carbon
completed.
dioxide
In this way
and
The
carbon
dioxide and
plant can
the carbon
again take
now
it into
transform
starch.
in the
this process
exhaled, and
and
body,
so
the
lightand warmth
plantcould
latter
dioxide
that
continue
into
water
the
keeps
without whose
sun
live and
not
dioxide and
of transformingcarbon
the
from
The
energy
to
cycle
up
carbon
to
The
on.
going obviouslycomes
is returned
its work
and
starch
oxygen.
Carbonated
waters
waters
are
chargedwith
carbon
dioxide,
in a
the latter gas being placed under pressure over
water
such pressure is released from the water,
When
closed tank.
considerable
amount
springswhose
in nature.
are
baking soda
Soda
water
is water
It is so called because
formerlymade by
in bubbles.
ural
Nat-
are
highly carbonated.
NaHCO3
escapes
waters
So, for
carbon dioxide.
of the gas
the action of
H2S04
sulphuric acid
an
acid
Na2SO4
sodium
the gas
on
sulphate
charged with
employed was
carbon
CO2
dioxide
CARBON
AND
COMPOUNDS
ITS
89
Carbonated
kinds.
waters
Since
are
carbon
dioxide
dissolves carbon
water
in the
occurs
air and
since
natural waters.
Carbonates
reallycarbonic
acid
Carbonic
water.
salts
are
H2C03
acid
carbonic
The
carbon
acid minus
been
never
isolated,
C02
dioxide is
H20
dioxide
water
salts
and
of carbonic acid are, however,quitecommon
stable under ordinaryconditions. They are also of great importance
So limestone
calcium
and
carbonate, CaCO3.
-f-CaCO3.
These
buildingstones
out
of
are
and
making
of contact
consist of almost
pure
limestone
mite
dolo-
Magnesium
consists of magnesium
process
marble
and
valuable
calcium
buildingmaterials,(1) as
(2) for making buildinglime. In the
calcium
on
carbonate,MgCOs
as
Thus
heating
carbonate
is heated
carbon
CaCO3
or
calcium
limestone
kiln
dioxide is expelled,
CaO
in
CO2
-f
oxide
carbon
dioxide
lime
In
wash
slakingthe lime,as for buildingpurposes, making whitefor walls,or producingliquids
for sprayingtrees, etc.
calcium hydroxide results and considerable amounts
of heat
are
evolved
thus:
as
CaO
calcium
lime
+
oxide
H20
water
of lime and
water
Ca(OH)2
calcium
or
hydroxide
slaked lime
proceeds,
90
CHEMISTRY
When
whose
hardeningor
FIG.
and
AND
at the
the slaked
"
setting proceedsbecause
26.
"
homemade
lime
same
is
obtained,
dries out
water
kiln.
of the
air
again acts
Ca(OH)2
calcium
"
LIFE
DAILY
hydroxide
slaked
C02
+
carbon
CaC03
dioxide
calcium
carbonate
on
H2O
water
lime
The
that it may
Moreover, the
may
dry
out
cold,damp
secure
the necessary
air should be
of the
mortar.
must
haw
plentyof air
92
CHEMISTRY
salts in which
stearic acids
are
AND
is
glycerine
the acids.
DAILY
LIFE
and
oleic,palmitic,
By heatingsuch
fats with
strong
the sodium
salt of the
fattyacid,a
soap,
is formed.
So
example :
(C17H33COO)3C3H5
glycerine oleate
cottonseed
3NaOH
caustic
soda
C17H33COONa
sodium
oil
oleate
castile soap*
C3H6(OH)3
glycerine
and consequently
cannot
fatsand oils are hydrocarbons
into soaps by boilingwith lye. It is thus
be transformed
between mineral oils and those of plantor
easy to distinguish
animal origin.
is no hyPetroleum products
cannot
serve
as foods. There
drocar
which
be used for food.
The lower boiling
can
for heating,
hydrocarbonoils from petroleum are used as fuels,
internal combustion
and for propelling
pletely
engines. When comburned they form carbon dioxide and water.
drogen
Hyburns more
readilythan carbon, and the richer in
volatile it is and the more
is,the more
hydrogena hydrocarbon
it burns.
For these reasons
readily
petroleumether,gasoline,
naphtha,and benzine are more suitable than kerosene forrunning
so-calledgasoline
engines, althoughkerosene is used at present
with a fair degree of success, especially
in those engines in
which that hydrocarbon is transformed into a very fine mist
This mist when
mixed with air and
by mechanical means.
subjectedto the action of the electric spark in the engine
cylinderexplodesfairlyreadily. It should be remembered
that all gases which burn in the air will also form mixtures
with air which are
when
explosive
ignited. Upon this fact
the running of gas and gasolineenginesdepends. The fuel
Mineral
is in each
case
volatilized and
mixed
with
CARBON
COMPOUNDS
ITS
exploded in
is then
ture
AND
the
93
ignition.
Acetylene is another
into
hydrocarbon which has come
for lightingpurposes.
It is a
prominent use, particularly
gas at ordinarytemperatures and is readilypreparedby the
action of calcium
CaC2
H2O
carbide
calcium
stonelike
carbide, a
C2H2
calcium
hydroxide
slaked
in
together
the electric
furnaceout
CaO
CaC2
coke
lime
On
3C
of its
account
lime
carbide is obtained
calcium
The
water,
Ca(OH)2
acetylene
water
solid,upon
calcium
CO
carbide
carbon
monoxide
gas
illuminating
power
lightingpurposes,
lanterns,etc.
projection
From
petroleumoils,too, gas of high illuminating
power
be obtained by
cracking the oils,which consists of
may
with red-hot stone surfaces
into contact
having them come
with the air. These oil gases are now
out of contact
produced
in many
municipalgas plants. They are also put on the
market
compressed in steel cylinders.Pintsch gas, which
is used for lighting
acter.
railwaycars, is a rich oil gas of this char"
"
Blaugas, named
from
ilar
sim-
oil gas.
Hydrocarbonsare
as
the mother
carbon
or
are
marsh
from
matter
wry
substances
derived.
gas,
It is called marsh
CH4.
the marshes
which
The
on
be
regarded
from which all other compounds of
simplesthydrocarbon is methane,
numerous
warm
summer
is always present on
gas
days
because it issues
as
the bottom
the
vegetable
of such waters
94
AND
CHEMISTRY
by heatingsodium
CH3COONa
sodium
Marsh
marsh
202
FIG.
runningan
27.
"
marsh
From
by
treatment
Na2CO3
air,thus
sodium
carbon
CH4
methane
carbonate
C02
2H20
dioxide
water
explosive
gas mixture,which
internal combustion
engine.
an
Collectingmarsh
gas
prepared artificially
caustic alkali,
thus
hydroxide
oxygen
gas
be used for
Thus
with
NaOH
sodium
acetate
also be
may
acetate
CH4
Mixed
gas
LIFE
DAILY
gas
from
the bottom
of
could
ditch.
be obtained.
be
obtained
ITS
AND
CARBON
95
COMPOUNDS
methylene chloride
CC14,
tetrachloride
viz* :
Of these
compounds
by
chloroform
important
ones.
Chloroform boils at
rather agreeable
odor,and
61"
temperatures.
than water, has
nary
ordi-
liquidsat
are
are
C., is heavier
is used
as
an
thetic.
anaes-
liquidwhich
not
which, of
inflammable,
of carbon
that it consists
is
an
course,
It boils at 76
is to be
and
to be
mixtures
used
in
much
more
"
eum
and itis
ing
expected,consider-
chlorine.
for
forremovinggrease spotsfrom clothes,
"
Carbon
hence is
which
chloride
tetra-
oftenused
it is
purpose
form
dangerousexplosive
with the air like gasoline,
for example,which is also
cleaningclothes. However, carbon tetrachloride is
"carbonexpensivethan gasoline.The trade name
is sometimes
compound
given to
is also used in
not
carbon
tetrachloride.
The latter
fireextinguishers
ofvarious forms
ticularly
par-
those
bitant
of the syringetype,which are oftensold at exorprices. Carbon tetrachlorideextinguishesfiresbecause
it evaporates and
thus
further.
heat
is
crowds
making
from
the
it impossible
for combustion
stances,
burning subto
proceed
96
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
LIFE
in the following
extinguished
ways : (I)bycutting
offthe supplyof air from the burningmaterials,(2)bylowering
the temperatureofthe materials on fire
combustion
so that further
is impossible.Now
when water
is thrown
an
ordinary
upon
fire the latter is extinguishedfor two reasons;
namely, (1)
the water lowers the temperature,and (2) it also forms clouds of
Fires may
water
vapor
which
oils,,
water
will
which
crowd
will float
cannot
come
be
on
of air to such
access
top of the
burning,the
w.ater, are
on
prevent
addition of
water
tetrachloride.
Still other
been
suggestedfor
have
not
of the
one
for puttingout
delivered from
carbon
by
a
chemicals
they
Carbon
common
use.
very best
means
small
have
but
this purpose,
into
come
dioxide is
ofcarbon
extinguished
by means
known
fires. It
may
be
pressed
cylinderscontainingcom-
dioxide,or
may
be generated
sulphuricacid
the action of
upon
bicarbonate,NaHCO3.
that
ready for
are
to
use,
be
ers
fireextinguish-
inverted and
Fig.28,
contain
then
solution
glassbottle
A fire
FIG. 28.
in which sulphuricacid has been placed.
partly
bottle is looselystopperedwith a
opened to show its This
construction.
the entire appalead stopper. On inverting
ratus
acid bottle is inverted,its stopper drops
the sulphuric
of sodium
"
bicarbonate
and
are
tinguisher
ex-
bicarbonate
solution,
CARBON
is sufficientto
AND
cause
of the saturated
stream
time
and
thus
effervescing
97
COMPOUNDS
ITS
at the
means
to
be
cope
requiredto prevent
FIG. 29.
temperatures below
best that
can
of the
with because
that would
kindlingpoint.
is to prevent the
In such
common
cases
spread of the
high
the
be done
of water
access
"
mass
the
fire
is immediate
CH3C1
methyl chloride
H
or
NaOH
caustic
soda
NaCl
common
+
salt
CH3OH
wood
alcohol
98
CHEMISTRY
Methyl alcohol
AND
is called wood
DAILY
alcohol
LIFE
because it is
cially
commer-
CH3OH
methyl
HCOH
H20
formaldehyde
oxygen
water
alcohol
Formaldehydeis
water.
It
formaline.
and
pungent,poisonousgas which
serves
its solutions
solutions
cent
as
sold
treatingseeds
are
treated with
of
formaldehyde solution
formaldehyde
and
drinks
as
before
preservativein
is forbidden
by
free them
to
the market
on
as
an
in
serve
are
is soluble in
from
for
example,potatoes
are
advantageously
planting. The use
milk
and
law because
the
other
foods
substance
is
poisonous.
On
further oxidation
of formic
fairlypowerfulacid,may
HCOH
be obtained, thus
formaldehyde
But
one
and when
of the
this
the formates.
oxygen
acid, a
HCOOH
formic
acid
Ordinary alcohol,also
is made
aldehyde, formic
commerciallyby
it
occurs.
or
of wine,
spirits
of sugar
by
means
100
CHEMISTRY
AND
FIG.
often used.
when
31.
"
The
Making
LIFE
formed.
is
DAILY
lead acetate,
Pb(CH3CO2)2,
in
tate,
practice,
though sodium aceacetate, Cu(CH3CO2)2, are also
process.
forms Paris
it will be recalled,
latter,
is
arsenite.
green
and
CARBON
AND
heated
if it is carefully
^^
COMFOT^SS
ITS
it contains,
destroythe microorganisms
and then,while stillhot,sealed in air-tight
bottles.
Denatured
alcohol is grainalcohol which has been rendered
unfit for drinkingpurposes
by adding about 10 per cent of
wood
C5H5N, or other poisonousliquid.
alcohol,pyridine,
and is used as a fueland for
Denatured alcohol is sold duty-free
manufacturing
purposes.
and
Whiskeys
of
3
from
20
8 to
As
cent.
per
45
65
to
cent, and
per
cent
per
from
beers
alcoholic liquidsare
beverages,
neither necessary
as
recognized
from
contain
rum
alcohol,wines
to
to
desirable
nor
for the
now
best
of
health.
There
are
many
alcohol;however
in
are
common
use.
grain
erine
Glyc-
water.
C2H5OH
CH3COOH
sodium
seen
at
NaOH
on
acetic acid
CH3COOH
acetic acid
hydroxide
are
properties,
quitecommon
acetate
water
plays the
role of
called ethereal
in nature.
CH3COONa
acetate
there is
metal
salts
or
H2O
water
hydrocarbon
Esters
wood
are
is a salt of salicylic
acid,in which
methyl salicylate,
CH3,
H2O
sodium
once
hydroxideacts
sodium
ethyl
acetic acid
alcohol
It will be
CH3COOC2H5
alcohol,acts
.
C5Hn,
as
is formed
base.
when
methyl,
Banana
acetic acid
CHEMISTRY
and
amyl
alcohol
CH3COOH
C5HUOH
amyl
acids and
as
LIFE
CH3COOC6Hii
alcohol
salts in which
fatsare
DAILY
react
acetic acid
The
AND
amyl
acetate
water
acts
glycerine
the base.
as
So in mutton
we
"oils are
rich in glycerineoleate.
of these
three salts
it is in oleine
richer
they
the
caustic
glycerine
calcium
salts which
calcium
2
soap
+ CaSO4
CnHsfiCOONa
sodium
When
"
cleansed
in the
when
calcium
sulphate
sponding
corre-
Glycerineis
glycerine
insoluble curdy
an
forming the
salt,thus
calcium
sulphate
cium
cal-
insoluble
(Ci7H35COO)2Ca
mass.
contains
water
Na2S04
+
sodium
stearate
"
form
of
insoluble
an
water
Na2CO3
sodium
carbonate
sulphate
be precipitated
calcium
compound,
a
calcium
Na2SO4
sodium
may
CaSO4
The
soaps.
soft soaps.
soap,
stearic,
is first
treated with washing soda,Na2CO3, it
hard water
be
may
calcium
stearate
hard
Hard
soap.
soluble sodium
salts of
form
with
react
and
sodium
glycerineis
sodium
stearate
hard soap
reallythe
and
Ci7Ht6COONa-f ej
soda
lye
stearate
is
formed
of saponification
offats,for example
process
(C17H35COO)3C3H5+3 NaOH=3
This
olive
or
When
and
caustic
or
potassium are
simultaneously produced. These
the
and oleic acids are
palmitic,
productof the
chiefly
oil
of glycerine.The
salts of sodium
In
tallow
or
in
are
H2O
sulphate
'CaC03
calcium
carbonate
CARBON
Instead
case
carbonate
also
may
also be
may
borate
calcium
103
COMPOUNDS
ITS
AND
employedto soften
is precipitated.Ammonium
for the
serve
same
purpose.
distilledwater
forwashing
and so avoid the use of soda, etc.,for the process of
purposes
and the salts that remain
cleansingwater is alwaysexpensive,
in the water are hard on the clothes and also on the hands of the
laundryworkers.
is made
Ether
by very carefullyconducting alcohol into
It is best,
however,to
concentrated
or
heated to
about
sulphuricacid,thus
alcohol
rain water
acid
sulphuric
these conditions
2C2H5OH
use
is taken up
Under
by
the
H2S04
140" C.
sulphuric acid
H2S04.H2O
sulphuric acid
hydrate
(C2H5)2O
ether
is
itwill be recalled,
whereas alcohol,
ofethyl,
the hydroxide
ofethyl. Ether boils at 35" C. and has a specific
gravity of 0.736. It is very inflammable.In this respect
it is even
more
dangerous than gasoline.Ether is used in
medicine as an ancesthetic. It is also employedas a solvent
in analytical
chemistry. Sulphur
forfatsand oils,especially
ethers contain sulphurwhere ordinaryethers contain oxygen.
Sulphur ethers have extremelynauseatingodors.
Carbolic
acid or phenol, C6H5OH, is reallynot an organic
Ether is the oxide
an
104
CHEMISTRY
tion
serves
odor.
as
AND
DAILY
Phenol
antiseptic.
an
is
Creosote
mixture
has
bacon,
These
etc.
wood
is
access
the
characteristic
very
produced when
into the meats
phenols penetrate
from
them
of guajacol, C6H4(OCH3)OH,
LIFE
and
so
of
microorganisms,thus
preventing putrefaction.Hydrochinone, C6H4(OH)2, and
pyrogallol,C6H3(OH)3, also called pyrogallicacid,are also
phenols. They are used as developers in photography.
the hydrocarbon benzene, C6H6, are
From
derived many
preserve
ravages
or
whose
sodium
used
as
salt,sodium
stuffs that
are
used
now
dyeing
matters.
the many
frequentlymet
are
(COOH)2,
acid
ink
and
used
rust
as
which
is made
C2H4(OH)
in
occurs
COOH.
bakingsoda
salt is used
as
With
in
CH
mountain
ash
taric acid
(CH
COOH
berries,and in
OH
(1)
dizing
by oximoving
forre-
serves
tic
laboratory. (2) Lac-
milk.
It has
the formula
It is used
It
Its silver
making biscuits,
pancakes,etc.
OH
sour
in the
in medicine.
antiseptic
an
daily life:
sawdust
from
are
quently
and is frespotsfrom floorsand fabrics,
reducingagent
acid, which
CH2COOH
are
in the arts.
with
dye-
are
the following,
which
oxalic
the
They
matters
replacedvegetablecoloring
Among
has been
consequentlyoften
coal tar dyes, aniline dyes, or coal tar coloring
as
and have practically
completely
They are excellent,
spoken of
C6H5COOH,
Practicallyall
foods.
for
acid
zene
nitroben-
C6H5COONa,
benzoate
for
preservative
aniline C6H5NH2,
as
COOH)2
OH
in
occurs
many
sour
other
in
occurs
COOH)(CH
(3)
grapes.
.
acid,
apples, in
fruits.
OH
.
Malic
COOK)
AND
CARBON
of tartar
is contained
cats.
so
NH
CO
(5) Citric
in lemons
occurs
citrus fruits.
baking powders.
OHCOOH
CH
(CH2COOH)2
in
is used
and
105
COMPOUNDS
ITS
and
acid
other
is contained
in
odor.
disagreeable
in the catnipplant,
much
esteemed by
CH2
COOH
occurs
animals.
largeand extremely
importantgroup of compounds of carbon. They all contain
over
only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and morethe hydrogen and oxygen
are
always present in the same
hydrate.
carboby weight as in water, whence the name
proportions
consist of (1)the celluloses,
The carbohydrates
(2)the
starches,
(3) the gums and dextrines,(4)the sugars.
The
cotton, straw,
compounds
in nature,
as
horses,and
foodfor cattle,
mankind.
Paper is made
etc. ; it therefore
together.
whereas
from
writing paper
rags,
and blottingpaper
and
many
not
for
Filter paper
can
It is evident,however, that
cellulosein
and shelter,
clothing,
fuel,
to
other
other
are
are
pulp,
matted
unsized papers
papers
that have
;
a
106
CHEMISTRY
melted
The
and
AND
DAILY
hence
well for
serves
Nitrates
with
celluloses
looks much
and
like
nitrate and
ordinarycotton, but
it burns
ignition
on
very
be made
Guncotton
of a
of fulminatingmercury.
white
can
explosive.It
The
acted upon
acids.
be used
may
mixture
absorbed
When
sticks,it forms
cellulose are
it is harsher
formed.
to the touch
is
glycerine.
togetherwith nitroyellowishliquid. It is
produced
of concentrated
in diatomic
when
glycerineis
nitric and
earth
and
sulphuric
molded
worked
cotton
for blasting
purposes.
is not
it is
in
gunpowder
soluble in
cellulose tetranitrate
It is used
used
are
and
Guncotton, nitroglycerine,
gunpowder.
and
into
like guncotton,
Nitroglycerine,
of fulminating
but it
mercury,
shocks and it is consequently
a
dynamite.
be
are
as
or
explodedby means
also explode from other
may
With the aid of vaseline
very dangerous compound.
solvent like acetone, (CH3)2 CO, guncotton and
may
It
Guncotton,then,serves
alone
viscous
glycerineand
by
saponifyingthem
on
explodeviolently
by means
The latter is a dangerous
is acted upon
by
mercury
of alcohol.
latter is
the nitrate of
to
results when
that
powder
and
readily,
rapidlyand quietly,
forming no
smoke.
cap
so
hexanitrate, C^Hi^NOs^O^
cellulose
is
Guncotton
ink
by treatingcellulose
sulphuricacids. These nitro-
for
of cellulose,
esters
with
absorb
be formed
may
of nitric and
true
are
of hot rollers.
means
writingpurposes.
of cellulose
mixture
LIFE
They
and
glycerine
nitro-
smokeless
as
dynamite
have
are
also supplanted
militaryoperations. While
mixture
of alcohol and
pentanitrateare
soluble in this
employed in dressingwounds.
On
ether,
as
collodion.
in medicine
evaporation of
the
108
CHEMISTRY
AND
with water
DAILY
LIFE
it
Sugars
The
may
have
monoses
formula
composition corresponding to
C6Hi2O6, and
the
(1) glucose
are
group
dextrose,also known
or
of the bioses
sugar,
grapes,
found in
whence
the
the
name
or
are
grape
(+
hot
the
right,hence this
yeast)
=
sugars.
diabetic
The
C2H5OH
2
carbon
For
of
carbon
latter is
CO2
dioxide
oxide,Cu2O, from
cuprous
a
stronglyalkaline
used in
example,by
patientssugar
may
dilute
this
be detected
means
sium
potas-
ducing
testing
for re-
in the
case
in the urine.
of
By
acid,glucoseis prepared
sulphuric
alcohol and
is also
sugar
to dilute solutions
alcohol
Fehling's solution.
tartrate.
the
red
glucoseprecipitate
solution of copper
malt
sugar.
glucose
Solutions of
position
com-
of
fruits,
especially
yeast is added
When
formed,thus
C6H12O6
The
sugar.
sugar,
(2) maltose, or
sucrose,
juiceof many
lightto
plane of polarized
called dextrose.
grape
sugar,
is
as
Glucose
the
of this
representatives
common
fruit sugar,
(2) levulose, or
and biases.
corn
Thousands
starch
in connection
with
are
of tons ofglucose
annually in
the United
ITS
AND
CARBON
109
COMPOUNDS
as
cane
Glucose is
sugar.
juiceof fruits.
in honey. Its solutions turn the plane of
It also occurs
whence
the name
levulose;they
lightto the left,
polarized
of cualso reduce Fehling'ssolution yieldinga precipitate
prous
Levulose
or
is also found
fructose
in the
Furthermore
cane
By treating
sugar
and levuloseare
n
cane
sugar
thus
produced,
-f-H^O
CeH^Oe
CeH^Oe
levulose
dextrose
water
whereas
dextrose
and
levulose
effectitsreduction.
Cane sugar is also known
contains from
Sugar cane
by the names
15
to
20
sucrose
per
cent
and saccharose.
of it,whereas
beets
110
sugar
CHEMISTRY
it may
AND
be melted
to
DAILY
LIFE
brown
substance
FIG.
to about
The
200" C.
latteris much
ofcane
fermentation
which
32. "A
Water
by heating sucrose
beets.
is given off
esteemed
amorphous glassy
crystalline.Caramel
an
is obtained
field of sugar
on
in candies.
forms.
the caramel
as
cause
time,
occur,
so-called enzyme,
invertase,which slowlyinverts
sucrose
lose,and
In manufacturing sugar,
juiceobtained
with about
from
1 per
sugar
cent
cane
or
to
sugar
glucoseand
the
beets is treated
levu-
salts,serves
to
This
verts
con-
coagulate
CARBON
AND
ITS
111
COMPOUNDS
FIG.
are
On
whirled
liquidin
"
so-calledvacuum
in
evaporated
of steam.
33.
in
field of sugar
pans
of
crystals
cooling,
a
which
centrifuge to
they
grew.
The
cane.
that
sugar
remove
are
heated by
separate
the
adhering brown
latter is sold
as
molasses.
of
made
or
fed to
name
into paper,
cows.
The
These
out.
Bagasse is the
means
annual
or
cane
fuel,
productionof
as
112
CHEMISTRY
from
sugar
Maltose
malt
or
sugar
DAILY
as
extensively
34.
Vacuum
"
Maltose
dioxide.
the
used
pans
in
in
This then
may
Upon
is
an
acts
be fermented
depends. The
fermentation
thus
solutions
may
sugar
factory.
alcohol and
yielding
intermediate productin the
diastase, an
to
alcohol and
from
distillation. When
dioxide.
be concentrated
water
carbon
offermentedliquors
production
tion,
by fractional distilla-
entirelyfree
enzyme
starch,maltose is produced.
upon
like beer
by
malt,
food.
right,reduce Fehling's
of tons, which
with yeast
and readilyferment
solution,
carbon
in malt.
occurs
plane of polarizedlightto
FIG.
LIFE
cane
shows
the
beets and
AND
cannot
such
be
even
Alcohol
obtained
so-called absolute
alcoholic
that
is
by fractional
alcohol
is
re-
CARBON
AND
quired,quicklimeis added
by distillationas
this
The
means.
lime
ITS
to
far
alcohol
as
not
FIG.
35.
When
"
maltose
is treated with
that
it is
with
unites
113
COMPOUNDS
has
been
to
profitable
the water
can
do
centrated
conso
by
present, but
then be distilledoff.
in drying sugar
in
mill.
sugar
dilute acids,dextrose
only is
formed.
Lactose
or
milk sugar
cane
sugar
and
temperature.
5 per cent
to say,
case
fermentation
the
ofmammals.
of lactose.
dissolve about
Lactose
Toward
in the milk
It is not
occurs
than
Cow's
sweet
as
the latter.
part of lactose
at
room
plane of polarizedlightto
solution,but not as readily
as
Fehling's
turns
the
proceedsbut
very
productsformed, however,are
does not
like cane
sugar,
slowlyindeed.
alcohol and
ferment
that is
In this
lactic acid.
lactose at all.
114
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
The proteins,
formerlycalled proteids,consist
and sulphur. They
nitrogen,
oxygen,
water
taken
are
from
the
as
food.
on
to
per
animal
animal
can
what
is left
sists
con-
live without
The
the average
24
exceedingly
an
bodyofan
entirely
ofproteins. No
are
of carbon,hydrogen
cent
carbon, 50.5
to
54.5
nitrogen,15
to
17.7 per
0.3
sulphur,
cent.
The
cent
per
follows
as
; oxygen,
cent
proteins
21
hydrogen,
phosphorus,
;
tain
con-
of
6 per
cent
of these substances
nature
Albumins
are
teins,
pro-
in the seeds of
in beans, peas,
plants,
especially
albumins may
be coagulatedby
blood serum,
means
made.
they occur,
and
been
other
legumes. The
of acids. The name
of heat, also by means
noids
albumiis givento a class of proteinbodies that are closely
related
to the albumins.
So, for example,gelatin,
keratin,and
elastin
are
albuminoids.
Keratin
is the
main
constituent
nails,cuticle,
etc.,while
of hair,hoofs,horns,feathers,
is found
when
in the
albumins
connective
are
acted upon
tissues.
Peptones
by pepsin, an
are
enzyme,
elastin
formed
or
so-
116
LIFE
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
QUESTIONS
1. Make
How
do
know
we
the
2. Mention
3. What
6.
is
6. How
7. What
causes
What
How
Give
product of
and
does it
in nature
occur
and others to be
and
formed
monoxide
flames.
dioxide?
is it
How
is it used for ?
What
non-
explainit.
What
non-luminous
burner
Bunsen
is the
What
example.
an
propertiesof carbon
the
is carbon
How
is a
examples of luminous
are
carbon?
does it contain ?
flames to be luminous
some
diagram of
9. What
10.
produced ?
flame
Give
8. Draw
formed
it is that ammonia
Explain how
luminous
them
4. How
occurs.
element
same
the
are
the
are
carbon
of
uses
in which
forms
are
?
gas ?
is water
11.
What
12.
How
is starch formed
have
to be
would
13.
What
is lime,and how
Explain the
17.
What
happens
18.
What
is petroleum ?
can
process
cycle?
slakinglime.
sets ?
lime mortar
when
Mention
the various
important petroleum
the market.
on
mineral
is it produced ?
of
16.
are
15. What
products that
many
to form
How
How
decomposed
14. What
19.
is it made
How
oil be
from
distinguished
that is of
one
What
21.
100 liters of
to make
necessary
What
?
How
is acetylene?
many
Name
five
of calcium
grams
760
carbide
mm.
pressure
hydrocarbon and
are
hydrate
carbo-
examples of each.
?
For what
22.
What
is chloroform
23.
What
is carbon tetrachloride ?
24.
How
may
25.
Why
should
fires be
water
purpose
What
are
is it used ?
its uses
extinguished?
not
be used to
extinguishburning oils?
CARBON
26.
What
27.
How
pounds
its uses
are
alcohol would
wood
117
COMPOUNDS
What
alcohol ?
is wood
much
ITS
AND
be
requiredto produce
two
formaldehyde ?
of pure
28.
What
is formaline,
and
29.
How
is ordinaryalcohol
30.
How
much
is it used for ?
what
pounds of
would
sugar
grape
What
produced ?
its uses
are
required to produce
be
100
alcohol ?
pure
is it
31.
What
is vinegar?
How
32.
What
is denatured
alcohol ?
33.
What
?
is glycerine
34.
How
36.
To
alcohol and
are
is it made
Why
is it
How
produced ?
ether related
do the
class of substances
what
produced?
chemically?
plant and animal fats and
oils belong ?
36.
What
is hard soap
37.
What
is meant
Soft soap
by the
?
water"?
"hard
term
How
is water
softened ?
What
39.
Why
40.
What
41.
Mention
42.
What
do these
43.
the
is carbolic acid ?
38.
does it preserve
is benzene
six
in nature
Which
is it used for ?
hams
Benzoic
acid ?
of the
are
called
them
Aniline ?
substances
occur
What
they
occur.
carbohydratesand why ?
Where
carbohydratesserve
as
human
food ?
Classify
carbohydrates.
44.
To what
in any
form
45.
What
cellulose serve
animals may
guncotton?
as
Explain by
Dynamite?
food ?
a
few
Will cellulose
examples.
Smokeless
powder?
Celluloid?
46.
What
the
are
propertiesof starch ?
How
of starch ?
47.
What
is flour?
49.
What
60.
To
belong?
is a
what
protein?
Give
class of bodies do
several
examples.
CHAPTER
THE
METALS
OF
THE
ALKALIES
ALKALINE
metals
THE
ccesium, and
of
THE
EARTHS.
the alkalies
rubidium.
AND
are
The
last two
that
rence
of such
are
rare
occur-
will not
they
be
sidered
con-
here.
found
only
in
few
beets.
and
of
in
occur
form
in the
Buckwheat.
on
the
elements
On
are
the
the
ashes
practice
with
ashes
ent
pres-
potash
Potassium
life.
is
Without
an
element
potassium
salts
only
It has
leach
to
in the
of
plants
to
cannot
use
obtained
making
grow.
been
wood
out
plant and
tassium
po-
also
long
and
thus
solution
purpose
118
are
K^COa,
water,
is essential
that
un-
contain
always
tassium.
po-
the
never
elements
other
called potash.
"
sodium.
free or
They
state.
erties
prop-
alkalies
carbonate,
37.
to the
and
of salts.
Plant
FIG.
tobacco
and
the
nature
with
found
times
some-
of caesium
similar
of
combined
and
potassium
metals
The
micas
also those
are
It
amounts.
plants like
In
rubidium,
is
lithium
in small
in certain
occurs
and
Even
the
for
soap.
animal
All
soils
METALS
THE
contain
most
potassiumin
cases
OF
the form
THE
ALKALIES
119
of soluble salts,althoughin
in insufficientquantity. For
this reason,
it has
FIG.
38.
Geological formation
"
in all granitic
rocks and
aluminium, occurs
and
notable amounts
plantssecure
of
claysoils,
in many
potash from
this source,
sylvite,muriate
of
potassium, KC1,
to
some
extent.
beds
of
sixtyto
common
The
layersvaryingin
hundred feet. They rest upon
one
salt. Practically
the entire supply
is derived from
this
enormous
120
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
potassium
amounts
So
potassium occurs
are
The
potassium,and
not
earth's crust
contains
in oceanic water
there is
Caustic
salts
only
bones,muscles, blood,milk, albumin,and
in all plants,
but in
obtained
LIFE
by treatingpotassiumcarbonate
with
be
may
slaked lime,
thus:
K2CO3
Ca(OH)2
calcium
potassium
carbonate
CaCO3
calcium
hydroxide
2 KOH
carbonate
caustic potash or
potassium hydroxide
(insoluble)
of potassiumhydroxideare now
Large quantities
preparedby
of potassiumchloride,muriate of potash. Thus
electrolysis
this saltis decomposed into chlorine and potassium,and when
the latter acts
formed
are
on
2 KC1
down
By boiling
H20
therefore
are
by electrolysis
2 K
and
potassium hydroxide
=2
2 K
KQH
C12
+
H2
caustic
dissolves
readilyin
water
with
with
A few of the most
Potassium
it was
now
acids,it
important ones
carbonate
formerlyderived
made
from
forms
has
various
potassium
will now
be described.
alreadybeen mentioned.
almost
entirelyfrom wood
method
salts.
While
ashes,it is
similar to
THE
OF
METALS
121
ALKALIES
THE
that of
is present in small
amounts
ordinary temperatures
of
white
parts of
100
potassiumnitrate,but the
dissolve 13 parts
water
of
amount
same
salt. At
crystalline
boilingwater
is preparedcommercially
Saltpeter
NaNO3
sodium
KC1
nitrate
NaCl
potassium
sodium
potassium
chloride
nitrate
chloride
The
common
KNO3
potassium nitrate
are
then
obtained
so
on
The
use
CHEMISTRY
122
DAILY
AND
C12
it is
and
in
in water.
photography.
is
produced by conducting
caustic potash,thus :
KC103
chlorine
potash
sea
iodide, KI,
extremely soluble
are
chlorate, KC1O3,
Potassium
animals
potassium
used in medicine
caustic
and
KBr,
in cubes, which
crystallize
Both
in
amounts.
bromide,
Potassium
urine of herbivorous
water.
LIFE
5 KC1
potassium
potassium
chlorate
chloride
H2O
water
potassiumchlorate
of the
Potassium
means.
in the market
chlorate is used in
K2SiO3, is made
silicate,
potassiumcarbonate, thus
Si02 +
silica
This
K2C03
prepared by this
making
It is also used
and explosives.
fireworks,
a gargle
as
for sore throat.
Potassium
is
oxygen,
matches,
in medicine,particularly
by fusingsand with
K2Si08
potassium
potassium
carbonate
silicate
C02
dioxide
carbon
sirupy solutions
glass.
and
its
are
popularlycalled potassiumwater
Potassium
K2SO4, is found at Stassfurt in kainite.
sulphate,
In crude form
It is also a constituent of potassiumalum.
It is employedin the manufactureof
it serves
as
a fertilizer.
hard glass,
alum, and potassiumcarbonate.
Potassium
amounts
white
phosphate, K2HPO4,
in the
blood
salt
crystalline
Potassium
and
which
cyanide,KCN,
is present
in
is an
readilyin
minute
It is
water.
extremely
poisonoussalt.
It
124
SIR
CHEMISTRY
HUMPHRY
DAVY,
AND
DAILY
LIFE
of the
alkali metals.
THE
and
Just
land
take up
THE
OF
plantstake
salt.
common
At
It is about
36
of the secretions.
soluble in cold
parts of
100
temperature
room
all
up
125
ALKALIES
occurs
as
METALS
water
as
solve
dis-
of
water
boiling
dissolves but 39 parts. The
United States alone produces
million tons of salt annuallyand this
nearlyfour and one-half
is only about one-fourth
of the world's yearly production.
Salt is used for making chlorine,hydrochloricacid, caustic
soda, sodium carbonate,and other sodium compounds.
is quite similar
Caustic soda, sodium
hydroxide, NaOH,
to potasium hydroxide in its properties
and is preparedin an
It is used in making hard soap, also
analogousmanner.
in
It is further employed in the manufacture
softening water.
of carbolic acid and oxalic acid,also in making paper
and other articles. Being cheaperthan caustic potash,
it is
used in placeof the latterwhenever it is possible.
"
amount
same
"
Sodium
in the
potassiumcarbonate or potash occurs
ashes of land plants,
soda is found in the ashes of marine
so
plants. Soda is used to make common
glass,hard soap, and
other sodium compounds. It is therefore manufactured
many
on
a very
ing
largescale. There are two processes of manufactursoda, namely,the LeBlanc process and the Solvayprocess.
soda.
Just
as
Both
utilizecommon
In
the LeBlanc
acid,thus
2 NaCl
salt
salt
soda
as
the
process
raw
material.
phuric
salt is first treated with sul-
H2SO4
NaCl
NaHSO4
salt cake
sulphuric acid
HC1
hydrochloric
acid
The
so-called
"
salt cake
sulphate. This
"
consists
is then
of salt and
heated
in
acid
dium
so-
suitable fur-
126
CHEMISTRY
thus
nace,
AND
forming
DAILY
LIFE
hydrochloricacid,
more
sulphate:
NaaSO4
salt cake
hydrochloric
sulphate
The
sulphateis then
sodium
carbon
monoxide
formed, thus
and
rotary furnace
4C
Na2S
sodium
CaCO3
sodium
soda
are
carbon
Na2CO3
4 CO
sulphide
calcium
entire
in this way
sulphideand
Na*S
carbon
sulphate
is then
mass
monoxide
CaS
soda
calcium
carbonate
sulphide
The
and calcium
escapes
acid
Na2SO4
sodium
heated in
and
carbonate
mixed
sodium
HC1
sodium
and
sulphide
The
sodium
carbonate
soluble
sulphideremains as an intained
obresidue. From
the clear solution,crystalsare
10 H2O.
which have the compositionNa2CO3
This
soda.
is so-called washing soda or crystallized
On heating
the crystalsthey lose water
and form calcined soda or anhydrous
.
sodium
carbonate,Na2CO3.
By the Solvay
first obtained.
sodium
process,
This
salt is relatively
less soluble than
correspondingammonium
which
NH4HCO3,
ammonia
NH4OH
On
salt
CO2
carbon
ammonium
bicarbonate
saturated
dioxide is
NH4HCO3
dioxide
of
solution of sodium
bicarbonate, sodium
bicarbonate
chloride
is precipitated,
NH4HCO3
ammonium
bicarbonate
the
hydroxide
with ammonium
NaCl
water, thus
is
bicarbonate,
carbon
when
ammonium
treatment
thus
salt, ammonium
be obtained
may
passedinto strong
bicarbonate,NaIICO3,
NaHCO3
sodium
bicarbonate
NH4C1
ammonium
chloride
METALS
THE
THE
127
ALKALIES
chloride remains
ammonium
The
OF
in
solution.
In
actual
consists in
conductingboth
and carbon dioxide into a saturated solution of comammonia
mon
both of the changes expressedby the last
salt. Thus
two
equationstake placetogether. Sodium bicarbonate is
also called saleratus
baking
or
It has
soda.
mild
alkaline
mz
^"P;^-
M?t
FIG.
reaction,and
is used
heating sodium
On
Even
when
39.
"
Chilian
saltpeter bed.
in medicine, in
sodium
carbonate,thus
Na2CO3
solutions of sodium
dioxide is evolved
; upon
and
it loses water
bicarbonate
XaHCO3
.v?"
H2O
C02
bicarbonate
this factthe
carbon
use
are
heated, carbon
of saleratus in
baking depends.
Sodium
is
nitrate,XuXO3,
consequentlyknown
is found
as
Chili
128
CHEMISTRY
smaller amounts
sodium
of sodium
iodate,NaIO3.
commercial
in
of
source
fertilizeron
and
sulphate,
latter compound is the chief
The
iodine.
Sodium
nitrate is used
H2SO4
NaHS04
as
It also is
ployed
em-
HNO3
time.
sulphate,Na2SO4, is formed
of the Leblanc
and when
soda
it crystallizes
from
formed.
much
This
used
Glauber
Sodium
as
as
the latter at
readilyin water,
temperatures
room
of 'the products
one
It dissolves
process.
beautiful crystalsof
laxative. It
was
firstmade
10
.
H2O
are
salt,which
is
Johann
Rudolf
by
so
in 1658.
sulphite,Na2SO3, is made
by passingsulphur
is used
photography.
Sodium
"
sodium
chloride,
Sodium
in
LIFE
Sodium
a
DAILY
of its nitrogencontent.
account
NaN03
at
AND
thiosulphate,Na2S2O3
hyposulphiteof
soda"
5 H2O,
"hypo," so
much
is *the so-called
used in
making
ing
the "fixingbath" in photography. It is produced by boilwith flowers of sulphur.
a solution of sodium
sulphite
Sodium
Na2SiO3,or sodium water glass,is produced
silicate,
by fusingsilica with sodium carbonate or with a mixture of
carbon and Glauber's salt. In laundry soaps it serves
as
a
the fibers
filler." It is also employed in cementingtogether
of mineral wool and asbestos,
rics,
and in fireproofing
wood, fabor
"
etc.
Borax
have
The
has
the
compositionNa2B4O7
10 H2O.
Its
uses
alreadybeen mentioned.
metals
of the
alkaline earths
are
barium, strontium,
because
are
their
alkaline,
OF
METALS
THE
when
fact is apparent
which
for
they
example.
"
used
"
called
as
whenever
chloride solution
or
the metal
ployed.
em-
ously.
copi-
white
in
in
in nature
specific
gravityis
white pigment in
white."
quently
infre-
It is not
lead,a practice
sulphateis almost
a
all
with water
and
sulphateis
pletely
com-
It precipitates
treated with
other
solution of any
barium
BaSO4
BaCl2
sulphate
as
Barium
solution of
copper
Its
cheap adulterant
treated
occurs
masses.
permanent
insoluble in water
CuSO4
It
powder, it serves
to
that is to be condemned.
barium
be prepared
may
sulphate,BaSO4, also
is barium
barytes."
in compact
form
paints,being
or
spar
Ground
4.48.
of barium
source
called heavy
fairlypure
metals
moist
hydroxidesare
The
chief
These
hydroxide of
the
and
they yieldhydrogen
The
with
treated
are
and when
silver-white in appearance,
are
129
ALKALIES
the
by
THE
barium
barium
chloride
sulphate
CuCl2
copper
chloride
consequently
very commonly used in testing
of sulphur
also for determiningthe amount
for sulphates,
sists
present in a compound, for the latter process commonly conof convertingthe sulphur into a soluble sulphateand
of
barium sulphateby adding an excess
then precipitating
Barium
chloride is
barium
chloride
solution.
From
the
amount
of
barium
be computed,
of sulphurmay
sulphateformed the amount
for the composition of barium
sulphate is well known.
Barium
nitrate,Ba(NO3)2, is used for making green Bengal
all poisonous. Cattle in our
salts are
lights.Barium
Western states have been reportedas seriously
poisonedby
eatingherbs
that had
taken up
barium
from
130
CHEMISTRY
is, of
course,
found
in soils.
compounds
LIFE
rarer
salts color
not
ordinarily
those
to
Strontium
occurrence.
in fireworks and
strontium
is
entirelysimilar
are
of
are
Sr(NO3)2,is used
lights.All
DAILY
very
Strontium
AND
for
the
trate,
ni-
Bunsen
of
flame
red,
calcium compounds
produce an orange-yellowcolor.
in
carbonate,CaC03, is found in largequantities
limestone,
marble,and chalk. Iceland spar or calcite
Calcium
nature
is
as
very
form
crystalline
pure
limestone
mixed
occurs
CaSO4,
sulphate,
occurs
and
In
alabaster.
calcium
the
with
as
hard
sediments
sediments
limestone
when
of chalk
ground
calcium
contain
the waters
serve
as
have
in contact.
come
and
reducingiron
is used
ores.
for
In
whiting,which
as
putty.
by heating limestone
or
on
heating
limestone
slakingof
These
marble
in
the oxide of
CaCO3
The
bicarbonate and
remains
H2O,
have
calcium carbonate
Thus, carbon
These
cement,
teakettles,boilers, etc.
etc.
When
Calcium
CaSO4
calcium
waters
soilswith which
and
Marble
is called marl.
anhydrite,gypsum,
in
generallyalso
or
carbonate.
magnesium,
the rocks
clay,it
natural
sulphateare
of calcium
CaO
lime
in
making
CO2
carbon
mortar
dioxide
have already
been described.
Calcium
acts
on
limestone,thus
hydrochloricacid
132
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
Calcium
nitrate,
It is formed
composted
and
also
manure,
the whitewashed
on
walls of stables.
The
ammonia
present in
nitric acid,
to
then
attacks
calcium carbonate
the
on
the
carbon
This, of
destroysthe
The
course,
wall
ing.
coat-
calcium nitrate
in the soil is
food,for it
calcium
oxide.
di-
goodplant
contains
both
and
nitrogenin
availableform.
Calcium
phosphate,
Ca3(PO4)2,is insoluble in
FIG. 41.
"
A broken
Paris
leg in
plaster of
cast.
water
It
occurs
in
fact that
phuric
by treatingbones or phosphate rock with sulacid,superphosphatefertilizeris formed has already
been mentioned.
rock
used
Over two
and
million
one-half
tons
of phosphate
METALS
THE
rock
mainly
depositshave
occur
Mountain
As
THE
OF
in Florida and
also been
133
ALKALIES
Carolina, but
South
in
found
of the
some
cently
re-
Rocky
states.
silicate,calcium
calcium
in many
occurs
rocks, especially
garnet, mica,
complex silicates like feldspars,
in
blende,
horn-
etc.
by heatinglimestone together
silicatesin a kiln,and then grindingup the
with aluminum
clinker to a fine powder. This is usuallygrayishor grayish
Portland
is made
cement
FIG. 42.
brown
in color.
When
latter,forming
the
resembles
the
whence
be
native
Portland
stonelike
cement,
from
58
per
Magnesia,MgO,
cent;
must
not
mass
found
stone
contain silica,
SiO2,from
65
posts.
with water
mixed
must
to
fence
No
but
in appearance
Portland, England,
at
Portland cement.
name
givenfor
hard
Concrete
"
chemical formula
good Portland
20 to 25 per cent
alumina, from
exceed
5 per
to
can
cement
lime,CaO,
10
cent, and
per
cent.
the less
134
CHEMISTRY
there is of
it,the better.
in notable
DAILY
Iron
LIFE
oxide,Fe2O3,may
found in cements
the extent
to
impurities,like
small
be present
it is
commonly
amounts
Other
are
per
AND
phates,
sul-
less than
cent.
At
Milwaukee, Louisville,and
natural
Rosendale, N.Y.,
amounts
contain
silicates to
make
ground
and
up
quiteserviceable
"
sold
for many
the
and
purposes
is not
the
Portland
right
cement.
clinker
resulting
cement."
natural
as
it nevertheless
cement,
almost
occur
While
cheaperthan
equal
is
land
Port-
the latter in
to
mortar
stone
or
cement
iron
or
concrete
harden
gravel and
forms
then
so-called
steel rods
or
Mixed
saturated
networks
of wires
It is much
used
in
water,
modern
In
concrete.
Portland
structures,
often embedded
are
to
concrete.
at all.
known
as
in
reenforced
erectingbridges,fireproof
buildings,etc.
Nearly fifteenthousand tons of Portland
cement
are
produced annually in the United States alone.
The slagsfrom blast furnaces,which contain silica,
alumina,
and
lime,are
cement, the
now
also used
in the manufacture
lackingingredients
beingadded, of
of Portland
course,
before
commonly
calcium and
sodium.
consists of
It is made
mixture
silica,
by meltingtogether
SiO2,limestone,
CaCOs, and soda,Na2CO3.
correspondsapproximately to
'the
of the silicates of
The
final product
composition
METALS
THE
CaO
used
The
feet
135
ALKALIES
THE
SiO2 -f Na20
3 SiO2
soda
glass. It is
in making windows, bottles,and ordinary glassdishes.
in pots of fire clay about
four
mixture is melted
high and four feet in diameter. Potash lime glass
is known
and
OF
as
soft
glass
or
lime
(B)
(A)
FIG.
is hard
43.
"
(A) Blowing
glass bottle.
(B) Making
window
glass. It
glass.
contains
Crown
glass is also
lime
136
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
in the form
of wire
or
ribbon.
It burns
with
The
formingmagnesium oxide,MgO.
light,
and
in signalling
fireworks,
for flashlights
FIG.
44.
"
in
magnesium
Manufacture
powder, and
brilliant white
metal
in
is used
for
photography.
plate glass.
in many
natural silicates very
Magnesium occurs
widelydistributed. So there are hornblende Mg2CaFeSi4Oi2,
asbestos
Mg3Si2O7 2 H2O, meerschaum
Mg2Si3O8 4 H2O,
and many
other complex silicates that contain magnesium.
All plantsand animals contain magnesium compounds, and
.
THE
these
METALS
in the ash
finally
appear
THE
OF
137
ALKALIES
phosphatesand carbonates.
in guano
and is
Magnesium ammonium
phosphateoccurs
valuable as a fertilizer.
Magnesium
oxide
The
medicine.
and
as
magnesium
carbonate
are
used in
latter
When
act
as
are
called bitterwaters.
found
Some
of the
138
CHEMISTRY
duced, and
various
metals
DAILY
fanciful
trade
LIFE
names
being
are
plied
ap-
it.
to
The
AND
are
Radium
radium
The
of this
lightaffects photographicplates. The intensity
lightincreases with the purity of the radium compounds.
Heat
is also
are
radium
an
compounds
natural waters.
are
In
oxide of uranium
very
uranium
known
as
widely
pounds,
com-
blende,
pitch-
in
relatively
largerquantities.The
emanations from radium are able to destroy
They also
germs.
stopthe germinating
power of seeds and kill the tissues ofliving
fore
beings.Experiments with radium compounds must thereoccurs
be conducted
for
curingdiseases
is stilla
Their value
as
an
agent
be determined.
questionto
QUESTIONS
1. Name
2. What
3. Where
is potassium found
4. Mention
6. What
6. How
7. What
is caustic
five
is black
in nature
is potassium chlorate
is
generalcharacteristics.
potassium cyanide?
What
are
its
propertiesand
uses?
8. How
may
sodium
compounds
be
distinguishedfrom potassium
compounds?
9. Where
is common
What
CHAPTER
THE
ALUMINUM,
XI
HEAVY
IMPORTANT
OF
forming
crust
is
8 per
is
of the
It is found
composed.
THEIR
ALLOYS
aluminum
cent
AND
METALS,
the
by far
material
mainly
abundant,
most
of which
as
earth's
constituent
the
the
of all
siliceous
common
spars,
feld-
rocks, especially in
clays, micas,
slates,etc.
in
occurs
ites,
gran-
It
never
the uncombined
ity
state,for it has great affinfor
it
found
that
an
and
oxygen,
element.
of
colored
brown
presence
of oxides
beautifully
and
as
of aluminum,
FIG.
45.
"
An
emery
wheel.
source
manufacture
140
of iron.
are
of
are
gems.
hydrated
the
crystallized
highly prized
is
being
rubies
oxide
aluminum
minum
alu-
by
and
Sapphires
is
Emery
form
impure
as
with
compounds
oxide,
used
is
nearly always
in
Bauxite
deed
in-
ide
ox-
and
is
for
the
alumi-
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
In Greenland
num.
A1F3
in water.
3
.
NaF,
is found.
It forms white
other
mass
be melted
oxide.
mass
off at the
depositedand oxygen comes
by continually
pole. The bath is replenished
feeding
metallic aluminum
in
num,
alumi-
insoluble
dissolves aluminum
mass
and
masses
the molten
141
ALLOYS
This mineral
quite readilyand
METALS,
is
aluminum
more
is contained
FIG.
46.
in
"
vessel of
Cooking
The
carbon which
graphitic
utensils made
molten
serves
of aluminum.
deposited.Carbon sticks
form the other pole. Eight
volts electricalpressure is sufficientto keep the process going,
but the current strength
is usuallyseveral thousand amperes.
Thus the heat developed
by the electriccurrent is itself
sufficient
metal as well in the molten
to keep the bath and the deposited
the
is
142
CHEMISTRY
the process
state,once
has
time.
to
Over
AND
DAILY
been
started.
the bottom
thousand
twenty-five
producedannuallyin
the United
tons
is silver-white in appearance,
though on
pound.
third
as
molten
of aluminum
States alone.
per
The
metal
LIFE
on
time
are
The
metal
to
itssurface
thus
metal
Aluminum
exposure
minum
alu-
the air
givesthe
bluish appearance.
Aluminum
is only about oneheavy as iron. It is malleable,ductile,melts at
660", and
is
It is used for
and many
of 75 to 90 per cent of
alloyconsisting
aluminum
and 25 to 10 per cent magnesium.
It isharder and
than aluminum
and may be polished
to a higherdegree.
lighter
Magnalium
Aluminum
bronze
5 per
to
an
cent
Aluminum
in
Mixed
suitable varnish
pended
sus-
laquer.
or
metallic aluminum
forms
this mixture
once
arts.
of
mixture
called thermite.
is ignited(which can
be
When
accomplishedby
fuse of
oxygen
and
so
3Fe3O4
black
forms alumina
+
iron oxide
Thermite is used
8A1
aluminum
for weldingcar
A12O3
alumina
rails and
9 Fe
iron
making
welds in
ALUMINUM,
many
only
HEAVY
be butted
together,a
mold
the
even
"
necessary
the
repairs,
The
Welding
to
car
parts need
built around
upon
it.
rail with
the
Thus
FIG. 47.
it is not
run
143
ALLOYS
METALS,
joint,
the iron
In many
cases
thermite.
is so
simple.
Aluminum
is made
aluminum
sulphate,A12(SO4)3,
by dissolving
hydroxide,A1(OH)3, in sulphuric
acid,thus :
2
process
A1(OH)3 +
3 H2SO4
A12(SO4)3+
and is used
H2O
as
mordant
for
24
H2O.
Ammonium
and
alum
sodium
and
sodium
contain
alum
instead
respectively
quitelike potassiumalum.
of
monium
am-
potassium,
Alum crystal-
144
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
mucous
as
Alum
mordant
it has
salts,
in
is used
an
like all
effect on
astringent
as
mouth
wash
the
in medicine,
and unfortunately
it is
dyeingfabrics,
in
these remain
in the biscuit,
bread, or
hydroxide is readilydissolved by
cake.
the
The
num
alumi-
hydrochloricacid
chloride,a powerful
formingaluminum
and is harmful to
which interferes with digestion
astringent
of the digestive
the linings
tract.
Bread and cake made with
alum
baking powder looks well,for the carbon dioxide is
liberated steadilyand justabout at the rightrate to make
cookery. As alum bakingpowders are cheap
fine-appearing
much in use, even
they-are stillunfortunately
though in some
states the law requires
the fact that they contain alum or
aluminum
the
sulphateto be stated on the label to warn
public.
It is a notable factthat thoughaluminum
silicatesare present
in every soil,plantsand animals onlycontain minute traces of
aluminum.
of aluminum
Clay consists essentially
been
formed
from
silicatesthat have
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
In
making
or
fired
and porous
bricks
"
as
earthenware
then
shapes and
it is called.
ALLOYS
METALS,
heated
the
to
145
clay is molded
redness in kilns,
cheap glazemay
be put upon
ware
FIG. 48.
"
pottery
kiln.
to fire.
"
146
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
LIFE
pure
white
appearance.
insoluble in water
"
"
earth metal.
are
There
so
that
they need
and
thorium
been
rare
very
not
belong to
lamps.
is heated
similar earth
several other
and have
these
are
used in
In the Nernst
to
through it.
Platinum,gold,and
making
lamp
incandescence
metals,
oxides of cerium
The
It has
already
mantles
for the
earths.
rare
an
importancein practice
no
be considered here.
Welsbach
oxides
are
practically
litmus,is a
is therefore termed
aluminum
that is
Aluminum
filament of earthy
by passingthe
electric
current
occur
at
in nature
silver are
in the free
or
uncombined
state and
They
are
not
all readily
oxidized.
Platinum
occurs
malleable,and
is silver-white,
very
ductile.
It
Brazil,and Australia.
It is not
acid,nor
or
nitric,
sulphuric
by
attacked
molten
by hydrochloric,
sodium
or
potassium
148
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
LIFE
contain 9 parts
harder
will not
gold
24
well.
wear
used
are
the
For
reason
gold
parts copper;
14
parts copper;
etc.
14
LTnited States
The
gold is
16
gold contains
carat
Pure
etc.
contains
alloys of
copper
fine ; 16 carat
carats
same
produces
about
10
160
tons
"
be
plated in
bath
sisting
con-
gold potassiumcyanide,KAu(CN)4,
ity
togetherwith an electrode of pure gold; a current of electriction
is then passedfrom the latter electrode through the soluwhich is readilycoated with
to the article to be plated,
of
solution of
the metal.
on
the
edgesand
backs
of books,
etc.
signs,church spires,
forornamentingchinaware, gilding
Silver,argentum,
in nature
occurs
sulphideand chloride. It
platinumand gold. Nearly 2000
as
the
annually in
the United
States.
is much
tons
The
abundant
more
than
of silver are
produced
metal melts at 962",is
and heat
malleable,ductile,and the best conductor ofelectricity
silver coins contain
known.
and
part copper
photography.
parts in 100
dissolve 122
the
lunar
caustic
and
is used
are
importantof
prepared.
It is
in ice-cold water
one
of the
It is
most
it is possibleto
increases tenfold.
solubility
water
warts, etc.
it allothers
most
readily,
for
wounds, removing
cauterizing
AgBr, and
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
silver
darken
iodide, Agl,
exposure
on
are
to
149
ALLOYS
METALS,
light,
probablybecause
These
salts
of
of
separation
of the use of these
(B)
FIG.
50.
"
Photography.
(A)
positive.
(B) A negative.
which covers
gelatine,
to lightin the camera,
side of the glass. On exposure
one
reduced.
When
but not visibly,
is slightly,
the bromide
the plateis afterwards treated with a developer (a reducing
the reduction
acid, hydrochinone,
etc.),
agent like pyrogallic
continues where the lighthas started it,and so the picture
be washed offwhen the
must
becomes visible. The developer
of
tially
silver bromide
embedded
in
150
CHEMISTRY
picturehas
been
DAILY
AND
LIFE
the process
or
sharplydeveloped
will continue
and
is laid upon
a
bromide
"
printpaper, which
plate. The
be
printmust
"
whole
fixed
negative,and it may
Silver
"
in the
plating is done
The
which
gold plating,
form
not
Copper, cuprum,
near
Lake
combination
silver oxide
in
Superior. In
with
the
light. The
as the
hypo bath the same
exposedto the light.
solution of potassium silver
a
is similar
been
silverware
been
to
mide
the bro-
on
"
already
on
occurs
"
process
has
in
coated with
similar to that
exposed
now
then be
cyanide,KAg(CN)2.
to
is
is paper
mentioned.
on
(especially
in contact
as
in all respects
is often
spoons,
silver
with
eggs) are
thought.
in the
largequantities
Montana
The
it is found
free state
in
ores
in
iron and
nual
sulphur. Nearly halfof the anoutput of copper in the world is producedin the United
which contributes about 540,000 tons per year.
'States,
Copper
and gold are the only colored metals known.
Copper melts
It is tough,rather hard, ductile,and malleable.
at 1084".
It conducts heat and electricity
wire is
well. Much
copper
used in electricalwork.
is
generallyused
For
in the
other purposes,
together in
some
however,
of the
the
most
desired
are
copper
made
by
proportions.
important alloys of
ALUMINUM,
FIG.
51.
"
Plating silver
HEAVY
spoons.
The
the spoons
METALS.
upper
are
figure shows
hung.
151
ALLOYS
the
rack
on
which
152
zinc and
used.
1
metal, which
Dutch
95
to
brass and
cent
per
copper
and
tin
contain
zinc, and 80
in
often
German
silver consists of
5 to
10 per
in
nickel.
cent
part tin.
Bell
Gun
metal
alloysof
The
called bronzes.
are
part
brown, consists of
9 parts copper
is reddish
5 parts copper.
contains
metal
yellow in color,contains
though other proportionsare
parts copper,
80
is
Brass, which
copper
LIFE
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
for statuary
Bronzes
monly
com-
to
of
making parts
It is
machinery.
to which
consists of bronze
Phosphor
from
is used
bronze
hard.
especially
It
phosphorus
which
attack copper,
and
brass
been
formed
green
of copper,
CuCO3
in contact
ammonia
acts
but
copper.
The
most
its solutions
copper
which
In
Cu(OH)2.
ammonia
water
copper
are
used
as
about
for cleaning
common
5
.
H2O.
salt
It
3 parts of water,
has been
copper
However,
of the air.
also is present, as
is
for copper
in making Bordeaux
sprayingplants,
especially
also for preparingother copper compounds.
Mercury,
gradually
very
kept in mind,
of copper is copper
forms largeblue crystals,
is soluble in
copper
However,
is soluble when
and
it.
and
cookingutensils,
for
poisonom. On
compounds are
that have
be
fact must
used
frequently
are
on
dilute acids do
of the air,many
in presence
littleeffect
hydrochloricacid
mentioned
mixture, and
In Paris green
before.
quicksilver,hydrargyrum, is the
liquidat ordinarytemperatures.
plating,for
only metal
It is found
in
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
METALS,
nature
generallyit
is combined
beingcalled
Mercury
vermilion.
Prussia,California,Japan, and
153
ALLOYS
from
comes
China.
as
with
pigment,
Spain,Austria,
It is used
in thermometers,
So
for fillingteeth.
compounds
in water.
Mercuric
It is very
sublimate.
raw
with
emetic
C.
357"
cut
or
The
are
metals
forms
melts at
over,
more-
insoluble
an
be hammered
may
The
pound
coman
boils at
alloysof
The
an
antidote
39".4 C. and
"
called amalgams.
are
is
and
other
corrosive
poisonous. The
albumin
Mercury
Solid mercury
in water
slight'y
It is to be borne in mind,
compounds
the mercury
purge.
It is but
copiouslysoluble
milk.
in medicine.
chloride,HgCl2, is
exceedingly
powerfulpoison.
is
used
are
chloride,HgCl, is calomel.
mercurous
soluble
Its
mercury
amalgam
with
used in
Tin, stannum,
in nature
occurs
tinstone, cassiterite,
as
To
obtain
SnO2 +
Tin is very
exposure
in
malleable,melts
to
making
2 C
at
2 CO
Sn.
On
tin
by
this method.
154
many
and
The
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
Pewter
metal
per cent
Britannia
antimony,
cent
per
the most
Among
copper.
tin,8
parts tin.
and
salts of tin
important
are
chloride,SnCl2,formed
tin in hot
by dissolving
and stannic chloride,
acid solution,
concentrated hydrochloric
stannous
very
chloride forms
Stannous
chlorine.
chloride with
stannous
or
white
crystalsthat
which
boils at
chloride forms
which is used
a
as
ammonium
114".
With
double
salt,SnCl4
fuming liquid
chloride
chloride is a
reducing
chloride,for
into stannic
over
stannic
Stannous
mordanto
are
example ;
SnCl2
HgCl2
stannous
SnCl4
mercuric
stannic
chloride
chloride
chloride
Hg
mercury
Mosaic
togethersulphur and
and
is used
costlymetal.
annually.
East
The
tin.
for
"
It consists of
bronzing
world
"
is
Tin
articles.
produces about
of this is mined
Most
goldenyellowcrystals,
110,000
in Banca
and
tons
other
rather
of it
boring
neigh-
India islands.
even
in ancient
It melts at 327" C.
times.
The
Romans
used
to this
for this purpose
pipes,and it serves
crystalchiefore of lead is the sulphidePbS, which lizes
day.
The
in
cubes.
It is commonly
alreadymentioned,
tin.
Shot
and
solder and
known
pewter
are
as
galenite. As
three-
156
CHEMISTRY
dex of refraction.
The
salts.
It is also
most
LIFE
DAILY
AND
employed
in
soluble lead
common
salts
as
The
taste.
the nitrate,
are
The
H2O.
3
.
sugar
various lead
making
latter is
agreeabl
sweetish,yet dis-
(PbO),,
is often
used
as
Pb3(AsO4)2,is
used
spraying trees
and
is but
lotion
being called
shrubs.
sparinglysoluble
in water.
latter,this
for wood
On
makes
mixture
is to stand
that
Lead
Paris
green,
White
lead
excellent
to
exposure
arsenate,
also
for
lead arsenate
is
being further
an
per cent
and
basic
It is sold in
PbCO3.
2
.
in linseed oil.
ground
lead water.
Like
parts, a
of lead,Pb(OH)2
the
for diseased
bonate
car-
largequantities
diluted
with
paint,especially
the weather.
White
paint is
cause
lead
colic.
is
Chromium
at
about
occurs
not
1515"
in chrome
chrome
brittle metal
hard, steel-gray,
C.
steel,which
of chromium.
It is 6.8 times
.
heavy
as
makes
oxide,Cr2O3, is chrome
green
in
as
melts
It
water.
is steel alloyedwith
This
which
very
and
hard
is used
paint.
It is also used
Chrome
making
green
small percentage
steel.
as
Chromic
pigment in
glass and
glazes.
It is also used
as
ALUMINUM,
pigment
chromium
beautiful
HEAVY
157
ALLOYS
METALS,
soluble compound of
paint. The most common
is potassium bichromate, K2Cr2O7.
It
forms
as
crystals. It semes
an
orange-colored
oxidizing
in
tanningand
agent,also in chrome
in
dyeingfabrics.
of its properties
Tungsten is also a brittlemetal. In some
itresembles chromium.
Tungsten is used in making tungsten
and also in producingthe filaments for the incandescent
steel,
tungsten electric lamps.
closelyallied
is
Molybdenum
to
Ammonium
tungsten.
when
there forms
added
to
characteristic
called
yellow precipitate
11 MoO3
6 H2O.
(NH^PCX
phosphomolybdate,
ammonium
very
This
is soluble
precipitate
Zinc
and
of
presence
is about
6.9 times
C.
boils at 918"
in ammonia
heavy
as
water.
as
in nature
It is found
carbonate
popularlyknown
blackjack. These
as
in contact
ZnCO3
are
heating
on
thus
zinc carbonate
ZnS
30
zinc sulphide
latter
the
ore
is
first heated
CO2
ZnO
carbon
dioxide
SO2
zinc oxide
oxygen
are
as
zinc oxide
The
ores
ZnO
mainly
sulphur dioxide
From
in earthenware
retorts, thus
ZnO
zinc oxide
In the form
C
carbon
Zn
zinc
etc.,on
CO
+
]
carbon
used
buildings. Galvanized
by heatingwith carbon
monoxide
ornaments,
forgutters,
roofs,
iron,so called,consists
by the
bath
process
of molten
158
AND
CHEMISTRY
zinc.
DAILY
LIFE
The
so
on
of galvanizediron is
its surface.
The
coatingprotects
primary
In the
electrical batteries.
batteryused
common
for ringing
doorbells,
Fig.53,
there is a solution of
nium
ammo-
sal ammoniac,
chloride,
cylindricalplate of
carbon.
FIG.
53.
sal ammoniac
"
showing
battery,
so
the parts.
the
battery carbon
molasses
or
productat
coal tar
as
the
In this
latter is
shapedas
to form
of the
cover
ally
usu-
also
jar. The
first gently,
and
through
is made
The
to redness
finally
battery,the
current
out
of contact
flows from
Zinc
the zinc
chloride is thus
as
the air.
Dry
batteries
contain the
same
gredients.
in-
casingis made
the negativepole
of zinc,which also serves
as
is a cylinof the battery. The carbon generally
drical
Only
rounded
piecein the middle of the celland is surdioxide which oxidizes
by manganese
the hydrogen that is liberated. Plaster of
Paris is used to absorb the liquidand hold the
in place. But the contents must be
ingredients
teries, FIG. 54." A
moist or no
current
can
flow. Blue cup batdry battery.
Fig. 55, contain a zinc polein dilute
phate
sulphuricacid, and a copper pole in saturated copper sulsolution. As the current passes from zinc throughthe
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
159
ALLOYS
METALS,
placeof zinc,but
the latter is
the whole
on
economical, producing
the most
relatively
high
electromotive force.
is the most
Brass
tant
imporis in
alloy
ofzinc which
common
use,
is often present in
metal
States
blue cup
two
fiftythousand
and
United
riG.55._A
each
of zinc
tons
year,
and
the
are
rest
produced
in
of the world
The compounds of
producesabout two times that amount.
zinc are analogousto those of magnesium. It is to be kept
in mind, however, that zinc compounds are poisonous. Zinc
oxide, ZnO, is used in paints,being called zinc white.
Mixed
Zinc
lard
with
vaseline,it forms
or
zinc
oxide
ointment.
It is used for
water.
salt.
sulphate, ZnSO4
It is
as
H^O, is another
readilysoluble
is
Manganese
times
7
.
heavy
a
as
very
zinc
common
in water.
and
melts
at
1300".
is
In
eight
ture
na-
which is mangapyrolusite,
nese
and iron are
dioxide, MnO2.
Alloysof manganese
used injhe steel industry. With
forms
copper,
manganese
bronze.
These are very hard and
alloyscalled manganese
Manganese dioxide is often used in preparing
strong.
it is found
thus
chlorine,
mainly
as
160
CHEMISTRY
MnO2
4HC1
dioxide
DAILY
2H2O
hydrochloric
manganese
The salts
AND
LIFE
-f MnCl2
water
chlorine
manganous
acid
C12
chloride
The manganous
quitenumerous.
salts are
MnCl2, sulphate,
pink in color,and the chloride,
MnS04, nitrate,Mn(NO3)2, and acetate, Mn(C2H3O2)2, are
soluble in water.
Manganese acts as an acidic element in
of manganese
are
and
This
salt crystallizes
in needles that
purple,lustrous
often
used
serves
as
Nickel
water.
hue.
The
as
laboratory
disinfectant.
meltingpoint is
about
nickel and
8.9 times
1485"
C.
75 per cent
as
and
oxidizing
agent.
an
is malleable, ductile,and
of
in the
Its
are
dark
very
It is also
heavy
Nickel
copper.
as
coins
When
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
are
which
formed
cobalt
containing
161
ALLOYS
so
the
Indeed, about
blue.
are
METALS,
glass
glass.
only
which is at
use
practical
of cobalt is
in the production
of blue
and
blue porcelain,
glass,
enamel
blue glazes on
presentmade
Cobalt, nickel,
ware.
iron
and
are
metals that
are
attractedby a magnet,
consequently
said to be magnetic.
Of all the metals,iron,
and
are
the most
ferrum,is
It
found
rarelyis
very
except in
in nature
The
ore
portant
im-
of
iron is
having
is
the
Fe2O3.
dark
red
in
teorites.
me-
most
hematite, which
oxide
ful.
use-
color
an
position
com-
It is
and
finelyground it
cast iron
FIG. 56.
A blast furnace in which
serves
as
a
pigment in
is made.
paint,being called red
The rich deposits
ocher.
gion
of iron ore in the Lake Superiorreconsist of hematite. Magnetite, or magnetic iron ore,
Fe3O4, is black. Limonite, 2 Fe2O3 3 H2O, is a hydrous
oxide of iron. It is yellow in color. It too serves
as
a
of yellow ocher.
These oxides and
pigment under the name
siderite,ferrous carbonate,FeCO3, form the chief ores of iron.
when
162
To
CHEMISTRY
AND
charcoal,
coke,or
FIG.
furnace.
57.
"
from these
coal and
passes
mixed
theyare
ores,
limestone and
then heated in
with
blast
LIFE
modern
In the lower
sufficient oxygen
DAILY
form
in and
carbon
there is
dioxide.
hot carbon
consequently
The
latter gas
164
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
per cent
of silicon,
from
sulphurup
LIFE
cent
of carbon
carbon.
From
per
of
also
iron
as
0.5
to
phosphorus,and
generally
present. Wrought
iron is the
purest iron
the market.
It contains
cent
on
per
ents.
foreigningredi-
The
carbon
tent
con-
is generally
less than
0.2
Wrought
cent.
per
iron melts
and
can
from
900"
at
FIG.
59.
"
Wrought
the
iron
as
it appears
under
borate
welded
at
to
1100".
In
Thus
or
or
sand
is
slagof iron
iron silicate is
formed, and
microscope.
C.
be
welding,borax
used.
1600"
when
the
iron,brought to welding
this slagfliesoff and the clean
heat,is pounded together,
of the
piecesof
iron
into
come
can
act
and
intimate
hold
contact
them
faces
surso
together.
iron is made
Thus
the carbon
with
the oxygen
of the
pig iron
is removed
because it unites
of the
air.
Other
phosphorus,are also
of the iron. Finally
oxidized and form a slag with some
the iron is almost free from foreignmatter
except a few
stitute
tenths of a per cent of carbon.
Malleable iron is a cheap subfor wrought iron. It is made by embedding the castings
in iron oxide and then heatingfor about two days,after
impuritiespresent,
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
165
ALLOYS
METALS,
of the carbon is
slowly. Thus some
removed
from the castings,
making them lessbrittlethan they
It is to be borne in mind that a largecarbon content
were.
iron brittle. Sulphur and phosphorusare
makes
especially
it quitebrittle. Steel is
in iron,for theymake
objectionable
free from sulphurand phosphorus. Silicon too is
practically
The carbon in steel varies
present only in small amounts.
from about 0.2 to 1.6 per cent, mild steel containingthe
all is cooled
which
of
smaller amounts
The
off
bon.
car-
of
process
then chilling
the carbon
out
crystallize
and
wry
sudden
Very
does
chilling
carbon
heating
the
makes
hard.
not
give
chance
as
to
ite,
graph-
combined
the
steel
If the cool-
irig proceeds
Very
FlG.
60._
steel
all
slowly,practically
the
carbon
out, and
so
to
the carbon.
mass,
so-called Bessemer
called open
much
mi-
By suitable chilling,
temper, that is,the desired degreeof hardness,
as
iron with
the
the molten
under
croscope.
crystallizes
the proper
be obtained.
may
iron
it appears
as
The
in the Bessemer
as
converter
iron oxide
hearth
removal
on
the
process.
phosphorus,the
hearth
process,
is used,
hearth
When
or
of
the
in which
by heating cast
furnace,the so-
cast
iron contains
of lime
CHEMISTRY
166
obtained
AND
by calciningdolomite.
calcium
phosphates of
which
iron
sold
are
as
there
Thus
rustingof
An
"
series
iron
phorus,
phos-
and
open
States.
hearth
furnace.
hydratedferricoxide
popularlyas hammer
is heated
iron
the
oxide,also known
when
61.
ferrous
are
FeCl3, ferrous
the
two
absorbs
FIG.
forms
LIFE
This
are
Iron
DAILY
in
the
air, is
is formed.
The
black, which
ferrous
ferric
In
black
results
oxide,
most
Fe2O3
or
Fe3O4.
important salts of
sulphate,also known
Ferrous
is FeS04
It is
7
.
H2O.
It is formed
as
by
green
here.
vitriol or
the oxidation
copperas,
of
pyrite,
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
FeS2, which
occurs
crystalsare
of
in nature
sulphatedissolves readilyin
tannin
It is used in
water.
The
ink.
rous
Fer-
making
in extract
essential ingredient
is an
167
ALLOYS
METALS,
of nutgalls,
which
to
the ferrous
obtainable from
dealers everywhere.
Ferric
not
mass,
unlike
copiouslyin water,
medicine.
the
The
maple sugar
with
brown
in appearance.
so-called stypticcotton
bleedingof wounds
dark
It dissolves
ether.
which
consists of absorbent
This
line
crystal-
It is used in
is used to stop
treated
cotton
material
not
only
as
Blue
a
an
printpaper
solution of
ferricammonium
On
exposure
This paper
to
germs.
citrate
cyanide. The
K3Fe(CN)6.
consists of paper
from
plus potassiumferric
pmssiate of potash,
to
with
the
cipitate,
pre-
168
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
for printingphotographs
from negatives.
for making blue prints. But blue
The latter will also serve
printsare commonly made by using tracingcloth or paper
that is not too thick on which the writingor drawing that is
to be reproducedin blue printform has been traced.
The
thicker the paper, the longermust
be the exposure
to the
lightto get the desired results. Ammonia, caustic soda,and
caustic potash solutions decompose TurnbuU's
blue, and so
be used to write white characters on
blue prints. The
may
latter are stable in the light,
also toward acids,but alkalies,
blue color.
justmentioned, destroythe
as
It is to
be borne
in mind
iron is
in small amounts
that
To
the
everywhere.In all soils it occurs.
sand, earth, and the brownish and yellowishclays it
present almost
brown
in the sandstones
oxides
all
compounds
of iron.
plantsand
Iron
of iron.
compounds
The
are
sandstones
other
with
together
the tissues of
present in
green
the blood of
and
iron is essential,
of which
and
commonly
are
animals.
Our
animals contains
only about
0.004
; so,
per cent
body contains
of iron.
QUESTIONS
1. Where
2. How
is aluminum
found
is metallic aluminum
3. Mention
the
What
4. What
most
in
made
minum.
important characteristics of metallic alu-
is it used for ?
is thermite ?
form ?
Describe
its use.
HEAVY
ALUMINUM,
5. What
porcelainmade
is
6. How
169
ALLOYS
is it used for ?
?
difference between
is the
7. What
METALS,
porcelain and
ordinary
crockeryware
8. How
is ultramarine
9. How
much
made
alumina
What
be made
can
its uses
are
from
45 grams
of
potassium
alum?
10.
What
11.
For
12.
What
are
what
gold used ?
is sterling
silver ?
What
14.
Discuss
15.
What
16.
Where
the
is
What
are
is it used for ?
of silver compounds
use
does
in
photography.
Mention
three
18.
Describe
the most
19.
What
20.
Of what
21.
Mention
important alloysof
its chief
are
copper.
compound o"fcopper.
common
is Bordeaux
mixture
is mercury
important compounds
two
what
uses
use
in nature, and
occur
copper
17.
they
What
negative?
characteristics and
of mercury
and
state
used for.
are
is tin obtained
from
its ores
22.
How
23.
What
is pewter ?
24.
What
26.
What
is mosaic
26.
Mention
27.
What
28.
What
the
does
Britannia
gold ?
metal ?
Solder ?
is it used for ?
propertiesand
uses
of lead.
is lead
arsenate?
Sugar of lead?
White
lead?
29.
What
use
30.
What
is ammonium
31.
How
these
Why?
is the most
13.
What
each.
its uses
what
is
purposes
Describe
ores
is made
does zinc
?
of
occur
potassium bichromate
How
is it obtained
from
CHEMISTRY
170
What
33.
Describe
iron
galvanized
is
32.
AND
ordinary
an
DAILY
LIFE
?
such
battery
is
as
used
for
ringing
doorbell.
34.
State
35.
What
the
of
uses
is
chemical
the
36.
Of
what
37.
State
38.
How
39.
What
use
is made
40.
Name
the
chief
its
from
41.
is
potassium
used
chloride.
for?
Write
the
equation
and
nickel
to
iron
iron
an
nickel.
?
spoon
and
ores
of
uses
plate
cobalt
of
permanganate
characteristics
proceed
zinc
changes.
expressing
the
and
dioxide
manganese
use
oxide
zinc
briefly how
state
iron
is obtained
ores.
chief
is the
What
difference
between
iron
cast
and
wrought
iron?
in
42.
How
is steel
43.
Why
are
44.
What
45.
Explain
46.
many
What
48.
Describe
49.
Discuss
is it
phosphorus
iron
objectionable
is it made
How
and
the
production
series
of salts
also
of
tempered
and
does
iron
blue
print.
form
is
ordinary
how
the
to
occurrence
ink
make
cement
of
iron
in
plants
are
made
steel.
?
Mention
iron?
Portland
iron
in
series.
each
47.
how
fertilizers
how
with
How
of
and
sulphur
is malleable
connection
and
made,
and
animals.
two
pounds
com-
172
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
Thus
From
obtained
off
by distilling
which
over
be used
can
the solvent,
and
over
again.
of
It
fat is
or
is obtained
use
in
from
important
paints.
flaxseed,
yielding
about 2.3 gallonsof oil. The drying
qualities
of linseed oil depend
upon the factthat it has the poiver
to absorb oxygen
from the air.
one
This
tough,
is quite
oil. By
original
62.
"
press
oil from
used
in
seeds.
moving
re-
oxides
of manganese,
or
ing
boil-
oxide,
linoleates
PAINTS,
OILS,
AND
173
VARNISHES
yellowishin
paintis obtained. This is usuallyslightly
tint,due to the color of the oil,but by adding a very small
of blue
this yellow
Prussian blue,for example
amount
and a pure white paintis obtained,which
shade is dispelled
"
"
FIG.
63.
"
barrel
of white
lead.
for
but is exceedingly
durable,especially
slowly,
The
outside work that is to be exposed to the weather.
rapidlyby adding small
paint can be made to dry more
also termed Japan
of so-called driers,sometimes
amounts
driers. As stated before, they consist of substances that
from the air and then giveit off to the oil,
at
absorb oxygen
dries rather
174
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
LIFE
so
its
addition to
burnt."
Any
durable.
There
drier reallytends
is much
oil to which
not
it is
oxide
to
make
as
the
paint
less
added;
"
popularlycalled
bunghole boiled oil." Often zinc
to the
is used in paintstogetherwith white lead, even
of half and half.
extent
Paints may
be colored by
able
adding suit-
chrome
oxide.
to
green,
often used
it is not
as
as
is very
Prussian
solution
which
blue
is
permanent.
kalsomines,etc.
Shades
of
of lampblack to
quantities
gray
white
in
by adding small
paint. // is always best
result
PAINTS,
to
applytwo
or
OILS,
thin coats
more
than to attempt to
cover
This is obvious,for
the
AND
175
VARNISHES
objectwith
but
one
thick coat.
and will
dry readily,
FIG.
"
Gathering
turpentine.
consistencywith
pentine,
turpentine.Turthe sap collected
CioHie,is obtained by distilling
pinetrees. After the turpentinehas been distilled off,
thinned
from
64.
to
the proper
AND
CHEMISTRY
176
LIFE
DAILY
Many paintscontain
makes
paintfilm
rosin,
costly.
enamel
White
white lead
zinc oxide
or
Other
suitable
colored
used.
or
paints result
enamel
Either
wood
goldenshellac has
from
is
oil and
FIG.
added
to
which
pigment.
by introducing
as
solution of shellac,a
alcohol
shellac is bleached
White
Shellac varnish
made
been
both have
consists of
varnish
resin,in alcohol.
brown
or
superiorvarnish
pigments.
Shellac
be
paints are
65.
"
the
cheaper,but
or
grainalcohol
shellac,whereas
may
the
as
durable,as varnish
rosin.
Trinidad
plant
asphalt lake
near
the edge.
PAINTS,
Black
for
used
varnishes
AND
OILS,
177
VARNISHES
coating iron
commonly
are
benzine
is
asphaltum,
found
pavements,
crushed
and
stone
rollingthe
heavy, hot
in
hot mixture
hard
water,
can
for
used
it with
it
on
are
excellent
making
applying this
then
66.
chalk
paints. Many
forms
is also
by mixing
An
"
finely
of
foundation
securelyinto place by
of
both
means
kalsomines
coating
be used
plasteredwalls.
asphalt
or
be tinted by
may
of
or
two.
It
consist
Kalsomines
lime
turpentine
crete,
con-
of
means
rollers.
steam
FIG.
slaked
natural
Trinidad.
in
street
of the
mixture
or
in
pared
pre-
as
solution
thin
have
of
York.
New
in
street
been
of
glue
it dries.
which
These
added.
pigments just as
contain
to
in the
tures
mixcase
Kalsomines,
being soluble
work, preferably on
178
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
QUESTIONS
1.
For
2.
How
3.
What
4.
How
are
6.
How
are
suitable
for
what
oils
may
is
6.
What
is
7.
What
are
8.
Why
is
classified
oils
plant
animal
paint
drier
the
several
Name
it
why
state
Name
How
dries.
plant
several.
driers
are
adulterants
better
turpentine
used?
oils.
Are
these
Why
of
and
one
prepared?
so-called
some
Name
obtained
oils
varnishes
oil
drying
in
use
be
and
paints
are
purposes
in
used
than
benzine
used
linseed
in
oil
and
paints
nishes
var-
Describe
how
10.
Mention
five
11.
How
12.
What
is
shellac
13.
What
is
black
14.
What
is
asphalt
15.
What
is
kalsomine
9.
is
varnish
to
make
good
that
pigments
made
paint
for
used
are
outside
in
woodwork.
paints.
varnish
varnish
and
For
what
for
what
is
it
purpose
used
is
it
used
CHEMISTRY
180
AND
have been
the
cocoon
then
woven
DAILY
certain treatment.
to
subjected
The
of the silkworm.
into cloth.
Silk is made
silkthreads
Wool
LIFE
woven.
substances containing
carbon,hydrogen,
oxygen,
FIG.
68.
"
are
spun
sheep.
from
and
It is
sheep.
not
the
one
evolve
has
hand, and
the odor
cotton
on
of burnt
alreadybeen pointedout,
(C6HioO6)OTand so contains no
as
ignited.Cotton,
is practically
pure cellulose
nitrogen. Moreover, wool
LEATHER,
and
silk
is not.
and
WOOL,
SILK,
readilysoluble
are
in caustic
then
and
spun
whereas
alkalies,
mechanical
Because
woven.
181
RUBBER
COTTON,
of
cotton
impurities,
FIG.
is much
is far
frequentlytaken
cloth.
much
In
"
threads.
though it
for cotton
69.
fleece of wool.
Such
cheaperthan
apart and
this process
than
new
of such made
over
When
over
used
become
finally
so
cheaper than
Old woolen
wool.
used
over
the threads
durable
woven
clothingis
again to
of wool
are
therefrom
make
new
necessarily
is much
less
in the warp
cotton
goods. By usingsome
woolens, a better wearingcloth is obtained.
again and again, however, the threads
short
as
to
be worthless except as
fertilizer.
CHEMISTRY
182
AND
DAILY
LIFE
Moreover, when
used for
with
warp
the woolen
is
known
commonly
and linen
fabricsare
FIG.
70.
"
An
now
as
shoddy.
woven
on
mixed
cotton
Silk, woolen,cotton,
old-fashioned
loom
of colonial
of
days.
the aniline
acid
either slightly
or
basic in character.
LEATHER,
either
SILK,
weakly acidic
to show
will serve
of
use
illustration
by
when
and
An
Suppose the
mordant.
183
RUBBER
COTTON,
basic substances.
or
the
is tannic acid ;
WOOL,
they
are
certain amount
in
immersed
now
dant
mor-
tion
soluof the
dye
of
basic
in extract of hemlock
consists of immersion
contains
This extract
tannin
Leather
does
not
unites
described.
by immersing the
Often
hides
Thus
the water
leather is formed
This
process
months,
or
even
extracts
by the union
requiresa
a
much
year, may
to convert
hide in extract
put
are
and
dissolve in water
into
water
is then added
tannin
from
will not
the hide
of tanbark
with
vats
as
alternate
to
cover
longer time.
be
oak bark.
with the
chemically
compound which is called
which
or
step.
requiredto
Two
secure
or
three
the end in
184
CHEMISTRY
view.
have
to
to
placed in
be
another
hide
gains about
the process
of tanning.
also used.
morocco
vat
Nevertheless,in this
time.
obtained.
are
DAILY
AND
71.
with
an
per
barks
from
"
scene
goatskinsor
in
tannery.
and
bark
new
the hides
from
time
excellent
cent
in
productis
weightduring
besides oak
leather
FIG.
Other
exhausted
way
35
LIFE
or
hemlock
is employed in
imitation
Scrubbing
morocco
making
from
the hides.
proceeds rapidly;
sheepskins. The tanning in this case
The hair of the goatskins
usuallyit lasts only a day or two.
of lime
is removed
by the lime process, but the excess
This keeps
is then got rid of by usinghen or pigeon manure.
secured by
soft leathers are
the leather soft. In other cases
bran preparedby treatof sour
removing the lime by means
LEATHER,
ing
bran
with
and
water
lime
removing the
WOOL,
SILK,
sour
"
called
are
"
The
largeswellingof the hide is abated."
contains organic
acids which form soluble salts with
these then
aniline
can
be washed
Russia
dyes.
as
is used
sheepskins.These
with
sour
bran
are
to
willow
with
for
remove
with
the
bate
the
liquor
lime,and
similar manner,
tamarack
or
gloves,is
unhaired
and
is producedin
leather
Morocco
out.
185
RUBBER
COTTON,
made
of
bark.
Kid
goatskinsor
excess
the
lime.
The
actual
of
It is
The
alum
unites
antisepticand
with the
moreover
so
guards
or
buckskin
do not.
The
latter are
made
from
skins of
as
morocco
sheep in much the same
way
treated with animal oilsto make
leather,onlythey are finally
them
of oil is removed
soft and pliable.The excess
very
of alkalies. Splitleather is made by splitting
thick
by means
of machinery. Three or
hides,such as cowhide, by means
four or more
thin layersare thus made from one skin. These
then tanned separately
and the grainis pressedupon them
are
This split
leather is cheap,but not as durable
by machines.
as that from natural thin skins.
Much
leather is tanned in America by the chrome-tanning
deer, goats, or
process.
The
hides
are
unhaired
and
186
They
manner.
then
are
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
in
soaked
LIFE
dilute solution of
drochl
hy-
with
made
tannin.
dark
edges are
cut
green
in color,due
to
Its
the presence
of
oxide.
chromic
Skins that
to
are
They
process.
tawed
and water, and finally
salt
and
getshard when
with
alum-tanned,
All
alum.
tanned
are
by
the alum
cleansed,dried,oiled,treated with
are
bran
wet
is chrome-tanned.
calf leather
Box
it dries,for water
solution of
sour
common
leather when
thoroughly
dissolves out
the alum,
Rubber
of
produced
The
best rubber
The
in the
About
six
grow
in
tropicalclimes.
from
the trees
of latex
are
rubber.
by making
the exudingfluid in
collecting
ounces
of three
course
from
comes
vessels.
the
trees, which
india-rubber
the
from
suitable
collected from
sions
inci-
1.8
tree
ounces
tree
by
plantations.
alreadysupplied
188
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
AND
ash,0.85
per cent
LIFE
caoutchouc,
and
resin,
The
process
by Goodyear
in 1843.
rubber.
of
vulcanizing rubber
was
of
It consists essentially
discovered
addingabout
molding the
Such
cent
of
vulcanized rubber is
all sticky
as
in solvents
more
less porous,
elastic,
and not at
naphtha, which
are
the
common
solvents
does not
for
caoutchouc.
rubber
is vulcanized
subjectedto cold. Sometimes
it with chloride of sulphur,
without
heating,by simplytreating
ever,
which is a liquidat room
temperatures. This is,howWhite
rubber
for many
not as satisfactory
purposes.
cally
chalk or kaolin mechaniarticles are made
by incorporating
is similarly
colored by
Red
rubber
with the rubber.
black
of lamprubber
by means
black,
using antimony sulphide,
blue rubber
by using ultramarine blue, and so on.
made
by spreading
Rubber
coats, boots, shoes, etc., are
layerof caoutchouc properly
upon the cloth fabrics a plastic
mixed with sulphur. The vulcanizingis then accomplished
by heatingto 140" to 150" C. Treatingwith a solution of
when
LEATHER,
chloride
yieldas good
is mixed
caoutchouc
sulphur and
vulcanite
to
rubber.
thirty to fiftyper
that
temperatures
Hard
rubber
is used
cent
from
are
tliose employed
but
vogue,
ebonite, is obtained
or
with about
heated
then
189
RUBBER
COTTON,
results.
Hard
of
WOOL,
of
it does not
when
SILK,
in making
in
making
many
other
useful articles.
Rubber
used
as
is
non-conductor
and
of electricity
an
too, is used
as
insulator
an
as
for coveringwires
and
demand
and
to
make
costly that
Rubber
consist
enormously
tires
however,
on
and
at
up
all the
the
on
article.
somewhat
with
ful,
success-
These
by heating certain
where
elastic
with
some
partial
is obtained,
mass
rubber
mixed
still
scale.
market.
sulphur. Such
equal of
been
commercial
is worked
not
of recent
produced is nevertheless
of products obtained
essentially
are
rubber
automobiles
on
these have
yet made
are,
decomposition ensues
in
thus
it is not
substitutes
which
used
articles.
While
artificially.
oils,notably corn
like hard
serves
ever,
is,how-
of the
is much
of rubber
use
the gum
good insulator,it
It also
ber,
rub-
machinery and
It
has increased
of the
rubber
from
comes
Hard
similar to rubber.
of various
vehicles.
other
cables.
for rubber
account
on
years
Being
electrical
on
not
hence is much
stitutes
sub-
they
are
of the genuine
190
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
QUESTIONS
1.
making
What
different
the
are
wearing
How
3.
What
is
shoddy
4.
What
is
linen?
5.
How
6.
What
7.
Describe
8.
What
is
sole
9.
What
is
split
is
the
10.
How
is
leather
11.
How
is
"
12.
How
13.
Describe
14.
How
15.
What
are
the
is
the
16.
How
17.
What
rubber
making
white
for
kid
use.
leather
by
of
use
oak
tanbark
that
of
process
made?
be
to
are
gutta-percha,
obtained
and
for
furs
treated
tanning.
the
from
vulcanizing
rubber
used
chrome
prepared
made
gloves
leather
its
leather
material
is
cotton
leather
by
hard
and
Describe
of
process
is meant
is
for
buckskin"
skins
material
wool
dyed
mordant
the
fabrics
are
obtained
between
distinguish
2.
improve
is
apparel
which
from
sources
rubber
rubber
what
are
How
is
What
its
trees
does
it
uses
used
?
this
for
process
CHAPTER
THE
LARGE
areas
XIV
SOIL
are
covered with
loose
at
that
experience
in diggingwells
gatheredincidentally
Livingorganismsof various kinds and variable
has
water
been
and air
are
The
has
shown.
amounts
of
soil,which is the
FIG.
73.
"
Soil formation
showing
191
to soil.
192
CHEMISTRY
clay, which
and
Sand
are
soils,
AND
mineral matter
form
DAILY
LIFE
of silica,
of particles
cates,
siliconsisting
and
now
The work
and
the air in
rocks is comdisintegrating
It proceeds constantly.
monly termed weathering of rock.
The action of water
and air is in part purely physical,
that
is,mechanical,and again it is partlychemical in its nature.
All rocks are more
and consequently
allow water
or less porous
As this freezes,it expands and bursts
to soak into them.
the rocks,which then gradually
crumble.
Again, the water
of water
dissolves and
rocks
and
are
carries away
This
composed.
it further weakens
waters
the
As these
real sand.
In
effect is chemical
structure
of the
of which
in character,
rock
and
also
particles.
of shallow
their beds.
of the material
some
roll the
streams
gravelstones
along
along,they strike
knocked
off ; they are
againstone another ; their corners
are
ground smooth by the continual rubbing;and at the same
time they are also reduced in size by the solvent action of the
water.
Thus the particles
become
smaller and smaller till
then are
they are nothing but sand. These finer particles
the less soluble portionsof the disintegrated
rocks,
generally
and as they are carried forward by the stream
they finally
arrive in stillwater, where they sink to the bottom.
When
the stream
as
eventuallychanges its course, they appear
a
pebblesare
similar way
the
carried
waves
on
the shores of
THE
lakes
and
continuallyreducing rocks
are
seas
193
SOIL
to
fine
particles.
In the form ofice,
mechanical agent
water is a very important
in the disintegration
ice as
of rocks. So the cakes of floating
monly
they are carried down by rapid streams in springare comcovered with mud, rocks,and not infrequently
tions
porof trees and other detritus that has been torn
the banks.
The
ice
on
from
away
American
River,was
74.
continent, about
These
as
great depth ;
glaciers moved
to
that of the
Mountains.
This
see
map,
was
that
glaciers
Fig.
like great
movement
the Ohio
as
southward
far south
less
doubt-
exist at the
in the
ice carried
largefield of glacial
Rocky
everything
when
material and
are
round
so
and
action to which
commonly
smooth
because
These
called
"
of the
are
of very
hard heads."
hard
They
grindingand rolling
194
CHEMISTRY
underlyingrock
that have
been
rock upon
which
FIG. 74.
"
Map
upon
formed
AND
which
they
rest
LIFE
to-day.
by the weatheringof
they rest
of North
DAILY
are
the
Such
particular
they
are
found
are
soils
termed
transported soils.
by glaciers
belong to the latter class.
place
Thus
But
196
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
of the
LIFE
FIG. 75.
"
Sand
dunes
on
Michigan.
those that
rocks,especially
are
also
creatures, the
humble
in the work
of
earthworms,
is
formingsoils. They
on
the surface at
rate
estimated
as
ten
tons
per
THE
acre
annually.
Ants
work
are
in Africa, they
climates,as
warm
197
SOIL
perform much
water
to
enter
rocks and
plant,they leave
water
gainsaccess to
throughwhich
This water always contains carbon dioxide
as
alreadystated,it dissolves portionsof
channels
The
them
roots
available
food
hairs of
and root
dioxide,which
as
is absorbed
condition
readily. Roots
more
soils,thus
a
porous,
sometimes
makes
same
the earthworm.
as
that
the
some
as
cay
they de-
from
new
thus
plants.
rocks and
soil
necessary
elements
for their
growth.
It must
soil formation
are
in
slight
any
one
year;
not
be forgotten
disintegration
theless
theynever-
throughhundreds
of years. A small crack in a rock enables the tiny plantsto
work their way into it. As they grow, they exert great pressure,
the rock asunder.
which is frequently
sufficientto split
It is not uncommon
bowlders weighing several tons
to see
splitin two and a tree growingup between the pieces.
Peat bogs are formed in swampy
placesor shallow ponds
where plantsgrow year after year, dying at the end of the
and falling
As this
to the ground or into the water.
season,
is repeatedfor many
results a
years, there finally
process
largeaccumulation of vegetablematerial. This rots more
to be a type of soil. If the rotting
takes
or less and so comes
placeunder water, it proceedsvery slowlyand resultsin the
amount
to
on
198
CHEMISTRY
of peat, which
formation
of the
some
original
shapesof
there
countless tons
LIFE
is fairlysolid and
of coal.
DAILY
AND
generallyshows
the
undrained
marshes
of this country
of peat
is soft and
been washed
When
does not
show
It is usuallymixed
formerlywas.
have
and
spongy
small
of what
trace
any
it
it.
over
quantityof
soil is viewed
with
the naked
which
it appears
made
look like
up of small particles
and decayed
littlegrains. They are tinypiecesof disintegrated
eye,
rock which
seen
to
those that
which
particles,
piecesof
range
are
are
in size from
as
fine as dust.
the mineral
that
particles
are
organicmatter
largeenough to
clay. The
fine dustlike
be readily
matter, there
and
are
also present
the
ter.
organicmatpredominates.The rock
be readilyseen
called
are
termed silt
are
particles
are
finest material.
THE
199
SOIL
in sands,loams, and
be
seed
usuallyfertileand easily
are
claysis
soils are
called humus, and muck
sometimes
spoken of as
is vegetable
soils.
Real humus
matter
humus
so
completely
decayedthat one cannot tellwhat it was originally.
and tiny
Though thus made up of minute rock particles
tains
piecesof decayed roots and stems, the soil nevertheless conthe substances necessary to make plantsgrow and develop
to maturity. When
moisture
a seed is placedin soil of proper
and germinates. Firming the soil
content, it absorbs water
about the seed bringsit into closer contact
with the moisture
and hastens the absorptionof water.
But besides moisture,
seeds require
germinating
oxygen, and so while the soil must
in close contact
moisture, it
around
to
must
the seed
with
be
not
to
as
the
and
nor
water-logged
for
some
it contains ; but
chemical
so
sufficient
closely
packed
grow
contain
sooner
or
elements
are
of the
reserve
food which
later
tain
cer-
the
considered
as
them.
It should
be
chemical
elements mentioned
are
plantsin
the form
of salts that
soils contain
getsits carbon
are
without
Humus
but these
silicon,
are
erally
gengrown
200
roots.
structure
salts.
CHEMISTRY
Some
AND
of the elements
of the
So while
hydrogen, oxygen,
fats,and
LIFE
are
plant,while
hydrogen and
and
DAILY
carbon
unite to form
oxygen
combine
to
form
water,
lulose,
starch,cel-
oils (see
Each
crop
taken from
elements
which
certain amount
thus removed
have
been
The
of
amounts
tained
carefullyascer-
togetherwith the
by chemical analyses. These results,
that
chemical analysesof the soils themselves,have shown
soils contain enough of the essential elements to furnish
most
Nevertheless,as will be further
crops for hundreds of years.
explainedbelow, the available supply of these elements is so
limited that additional amounts
must
be added
either
as
mercial
com-
if crop productionis
or
as
farm manures,
fertilizers
to continue at a profit.Chemical
analyseshave also shown
that an acre
surface foot of soil may
contain enough potassium
of phosphorussufficient
to last 1500 years, and supplies
for 200 to 500 years, of nitrogenfor 100 to 300 years, and
The amounts
of plant food
sulphur for 200 to 300 years.
of our
from an
removed
common
acre
by some
crops are
given in Table 8.
above
Besides the essential elements
mentioned, plants
of water throughouttheir periodof
requirelargequantities
growth. This water is necessary to dissolve the soluble salts
them
in the soil and to convey
through the walls of the
is also needed to keep the
rootlets into the plant. Water
cell walls of the
leaf moist
so
that
it may
absorb
carbon
THE
JEAN
The
first chemist
BAPTISTS
who
analyzed
201
SOIL
BOUSSINGAULT,
crops
and
manure
1802-1887.
and
studied
closely the
202
CHEMISTRY
AND
TABLE
AMOUNT
OF
PLANT
CROPS,
FOOD
REMOVED
EXPRESSED
DAILY
8
FROM
IN
LIFE
POUNDS
THE
PER
LAND
BY
VARIOUS
ACRE
exhalation
of
regulatetheir temperatureby transpiration
(i.e.
from their leaves)just as animals
water
keep their
vapor,
from their
perspiration
skins. The amount
thus requiredby a plant is
of water
very great. So, for example, it takes from 250 to 300 pounds
ofwater to producea pound ofdry matter in the corn plant,and
in the clover plantfrom 500 to 600 pounds of water are necessary
obtain a pound ofdry material.
to finally
The fertility
of factors.
of the soil depends upon
a number
temperatures
normal
by
means
of
204
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
are
soil,
as well
the
left on
matter
from
as
serves
decay, and
aided
so,
by additional
there
other
supply of
and
stems
and
manure
it
as
to
fertilizer,
crop, and
so
on.
are
and
of manure,
considerable
as
is taken from
and fertilizers
manures
the sale
of grain,sheep,cattle,
hogs,milk, and
the farm.
productsfrom
These
constantlycause
duction
re-
succeedingyear'scrop. On the
other hand, there may
be very substantial gains made,
and carbon, by
of desirable compounds of nitrogen
especially
raisingcrops that absorb nitrogenfrom the atmosphere,a
which is accomplished by the action of bacteria
process
Clover, alfalfa,beans, peas, as well
growing on the roots.
of material for any
as
other members
character.
extent
It
of the
is,of
have been
made
; nor
humus
that
bind
readilyblown about by
three times its
gainsthat
are
to be
reaction,are
of the
own
soil,so
weight of
the
that they
less
are
can
hold from
two
to
the
held
it easier to work
this makes
tion.
produc-
organic
soil grains. It
together,and
most
the decompositionof
coatingaround
winds.
the
in crop
considered
retaining
power
estimate the
produced by
helpsto
to
by growinglegume crops.
prominent factors
matter
easy
of this
crops
Usually,the organicmatter
with
available form, together
The
always
not
course,
legume family,are
these
soils
THE
205
SOIL
storehouse of nitrogen
is, moreover,
a
properly. Humus
compounds, and consequentlyhumus soils are always rich
in nitrogen.By the slow action of bacteria,complex nitrogenous
broken down
are
successively
compounds in humus
and nitrates.
into the simple compounds, ammonia, nitrites,
and highest
The nitrates are the final
oxidation product. They
of nitrogenfor the growing plants,
whose
serve
as
a source
roots
absorb
process
by
is transformed
ammonia
which
for most
at any
of
nitrates in soils
time is very
one
their supply of
plantstake
in this form.
amount
to
The
nitrogenfrom
the soil
Plants
in
and complexconstituents,
the
building
up those wry important
proteins.
The preparation
of the available supply of nitrogenfor
esting
plantsby the bacteria of the soil forms one of the most interchaptersin the story of the feedingof crops. When
plantsdie,their roots, stalks,and leaves are returned to the
soil,where their decompositionis brought about by molds,
bacteria,and other low forms of life. Much plantmaterial
is fed to animals, but even
then a largeresidue of unoxidized
is returned to the soil as manure.
This vegetable
matter
matter
animal refuse is attacked by putrefactive
bacteria,
or
which
reduce the proteinsto simpler compounds. Still
other bacteria convert
these into ammonia, which
really
making.
Ammonia
nitrite bacteria,and
is
changed
nitrites and
to nitrous and
on
nitrites by the
The
bacteria do not
really
nitric acid.
to
produce the
i.e.
nitrification,
of
As
hence the
neces-
206
CHEMISTRY
AND
nitrate is
in
left
or
as
LIFE
they form.
In
this way
calcium
of nitrates,the
the form
DAILY
nitrogenthen
passes
the soil
from
it is utilized in
buildingup proteins.
These are then returned to the soil direct,or they are first
fed to animals, in which case the nitrogen
is excreted in simpler
compounds (urea,uric,and hippuricacids)in the urine
and more
complex ones in the feces. When returned to the
soil,all of these compounds are
and
firstconverted to ammonia
and thus
finally
again to nitrates,
the nitrogen cycle completes
itself
and over again as long as the
over
the necessary energy
furnishes
for plantgrowth.
While plantsin generaldo not
get their nitrogen supply direct
from the air,it has alreadybeen
sun
that
mentioned
to
store
air in
up
legumes are
nitrogen from
little nodules
the
on
In
of
these
FIG.
76."
Nodules
of
on
the
roots
from
bean.
the
certain
of
are
observation.
nodules
the
red
of
cowpeas
common
take
which
their
on
roots
clover,beans, and
matter
the
bacteria.
nodules
aid
the
roots, with
able
are
bacteria
nitrogen direct
air, and
then
give it
soy
over
to
the
spoken
of
the fixation
as
of
food
such
207
SOIL
THE
nitrogen. The
as
nodules
is left in these
supplyof nitrogen,which
live on.
turn
When
the roots
on
the
siderable
con-
cation
subsequentnitrifi-
upon
becomes
the
to
sugar
plant in
Thus
crop
it is that
usually
leave enough available nitrogenin the soil for a good crop of
cotton or corn.
raisinga crop of a legumein a
Consequently
the
rotation is one ofthe most important
methods ofmaintaining
available nitrogen
supplyof the soil.
Soils are spoken of as acid,alkaline,
to
or neutral according
their reaction toward
to
litmus pamper.
marl.
limestone
pulverized
unsuitable
are
per
It is better
than
properties.A
acre
in five years
once
to
fresh
ton
of
use
lime,
quickfinely
is commonly
much.
too
of
amount
being from
from
soils
lime, rather
The
Acid
ally
growth of legumes,and it is therefore usuof
such acidityby an application
correct
not
or
0.02
phosphorus in
to 0.1 per
soilsis generally
small,
most
All crops
cent.
this element
take
is present as
phosphorus
phosphates.
Plants store
up
in the form
soils offarms
feeds are
Raw
rock
of commercial
ofdairystates,where
purchased,may
milk and
actuallyshow
"
cream
are
sold and
gain of phosphorus.
cial
floats,"is a cheap commer-
phosphorus. When
used
208
with
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
slow
in
becoming
of the fact that its phosphatesdo not
available on account
dissolve very
readily,it nevertheless gives good results.
Superphosphate, or acid phosphate (which,as has been stated
in Chapter VII, is made by treating
bones or phosphaterock
with sulphuricacid),dissolves far more
readilyand hence is
immediatelyavailable to plants. It should be used when a
supplyof organicmatter is not at hand.
There is usuallya sufficient
amount
of available potassium
in soils. This is especially
true of claysoils,
which are rich
in feldspars.And
when
these soils are furnished with
so
plentyof organicmatter that givesoff carbon dioxide as it
the solvent action of the soil
decomposes,thereby increasing
water
the feldspathic
on
constituents,an ample supply of
potassium is furnished to the rootlets of the growing crop.
Some soils,
like sands and marshes, are deficient
in potassium.
To these it should be added at the rate of fiftyto one
hundred pounds of potassiumchloride or potassiumsulphate
per
acre.
THE
209
SOIL
compacted togetherthat
This
entrance.
soil.
lumpy
decreased.
dry
a
out
From
common
or
too
nor
root
hairs
In
drains away,
neither air
either
the water
case
soilsthat
are
too loose
can
as
gain
coarse,
storage capacityis
and porous,
moisture
that they
water
capillaryattraction,
bore
or
of
of solid substances.
soils,
Fine-grained
particles
claysoilsare an excellent example,have small pores or
and hence water will rise from
between their particles,
between
which
spaces
below and be
of
coarser
nearer
grain.
to
It is indeed
ofwater so that
low.
have been planted,moisture will be drawn to them from bethe ground,for rolling
This is accomplishedby rolling
forces the particles
of soil closer togetherand thus a
results.
of water
by capillarity
stronger upward movement
is lostby
Much
water that has thus been drawn
up by capillarity
at the surface
evaporation
ofthe soil. This loss can be greatly
reduced by covering the surface with a protecting
layer or
soilmulch.
So if the surface of the soil to the depth of two
three inches is thoroughlystirred on a dry, windy day,
or
the dry layerthat is thus formed becomes an effectivebarrier
against large losses of moisture from below. In regions
is of the very greatest
where rainfall is lightthis practice
importance. It is upon this principlethat so-called dry
movement
fanning is based.
In
water,
gravitational
often used.
Their
210
neck of
soil,and
funnel be
then
water
is-removed,
and the
stoppered,
poured on till the
portionof
be filled with
funnel
full,
funnel is brim
saturated condition.
considerable
LIFE
meaning
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
If
the
the stopper
now
water
will drain
off because
runs
of the action
and
held
the water
and
If the funnel
water.
to
become
weighed out
is thus allowed
or
this
expelledis
thus
to remain
that it is held
called
more
lary
capil-
exposed
apparentlydry
water
is termed
portionof
if a
But
dry.
in this way
moved
hydroscopic
tightlyby
the
moisture.
water.
soil
soil be
boiling
The
water
It is obvious
than
particles
the
water.
capillary
water
by proper natural or
gravitational
artificialunderdrainingis necessary
because, if it remains in
and so displaces
the soil,the latter becomes
water-logged,
in the soil for the growing roots.
the air which is necessary
Drainage lowers the water level in the soil,causing roots to
penetratedeeperfor moisture, and consequentlytheir feeding
ground is increased. This helps them to withstand drought.
removal
The
The
amount
in
of
of moisture
in
determiningwhether
"
soil must
it is an
be taken
into consideration
opportune time
to
work
are
wet, the particles
when
In
"
dling
pud-
making
of
effect
humus
soils, humus
sandy
In
together
The
warm
heat
quickly.
They
that
the
important factor
and
water,
ones,
regardlessof
that
than
quickly
more
water
cools
sweat
warm
the
from
up
out
sun's
rays.
gardening
of
the
them
Such
or
large
fine
animal
latter, just
they
early spring
crops.
warm
so
borne
in
which
at
to
the
as
it will
evaporate
rapidly
dust
equal
heat
than
Barefooted
most
wet
boys
become
warm
of
evaporation
the
evaporation
sandy
gravitational water
readily absorb
are
be
Dark-colored,
the
soils, then,
not
in
more
Indeed,
spring because
and
do
rate
road
body.
soils do
of
ones
composition.
or
the
up
and
consequently
must
of
warm
soil.
wet
the
color
readily
light-colored
moisture
sorb
abwith
the
by
are
It
amounts
and
sand
soil cools
earliest in
drains
of
determining
their color
dry
soils.
amount
by
to
power
heat
They
hand,
cold
secured
readiness
dark-colored
so
know
well
it takes
for
up,
in
The
consequently
they
called
are
however,
warm
of
and
by their
soils absorb
as
sand
of
particles.
sun.
other
the
be
greatly influenced
is
puddle.
to
grains
not
coarse
the
of
readily
so
content,
most
could
that
is affected
rays
the
is to
clays,
as
tendency
cement
such
soils
On
soils.
moisture
mind,
result
the
relatively rapidly.
warm
absorb
not
to
dark-colored
Thus
up
called
tends
absorbed
is thus
soil.
the
the
from
heat
which
so
of
temperature
heat
lessen
LIFE
soils, such
so
around
of water
films
mere
firmly,
more
DAILY
fine-grained
on
particles and
the
divide
of
AND
CHEMISTRY
212
heat
suitable
soon
from
for
soils
the
market
THE
213
SOIL
QUESTIONS
its
formation
is
How
3.
What
is
What
is
are
soil
is
peat
bogs
the
what
and
made,
What
2.
soils
formed
difference
active
agencies
in
glacier
the
are
?
and
sedentary
between
transported
?
4.
What
is
the
humus
Name
the
6.
About
how
of
7.
wheat
How
essential
elements
much
would
much
corn
between
difference
soil
sandy
and
soil
clay
5.
crops
in
what
From
1.
phosphorus
it
plant
?
it
8.
Why
is
9.
How
would
required
is
to
necessary
for
is there
in
make
production.
crop
soil, and
how
many
dry
matter
produce
water
needed
to
have
of
plenty
pound
of
organic
in
the
be
the
matter
soil?
10.
proper
11.
What
of
humus
capillary
between
12.
for
is
What
How
does
reaction
the
may
reaction
maintain
you
the
on
the
and
nitrogen
the
soil
of
growth
by
meant
the
the
of
water-holding
drainage
help
and
soils
should
what
legumes
of
puddling
gravitational
be,
of
content
clay?
of
power
What
soil
is
the
Distinguish
water.
plant
in
season
of
drought
fluence
in-
CHAPTER
COMMERCIAL
COMMERCIAL
They
fertilizersare
manufactured
warehouses
plant foods.
and seed stores.
fertilizersin the
this money
againstthe
not
FERTILIZERS
are
About
United
is thrown
use
States
away.
of commercial
they should
that
XV
be
and
probably
This
is not
one-half
an
argument
but it does
fertilizers,
purchased with
that
mean
judgment,
proper
they are
of
and
actually
necessary.
and
Experimentalinvestigations
shown
in most
that material
common
increases in the
experiencehave
yieldof
been
obtained by
214
FIG. 78.
"
Effect of fertilizers on
used.
215
FERTILIZERS
COMMERCIAL
(B)
crop
No
of potatoes.
fertilizerused.
(^4) Complete
fertilizer
216
CHEMISTRY
do not
contain any
AND
DAILY
LIFE
or
limestone
and
just mentioned.
gypsum
are
quently
fre-
The
soil.
Commercial
which
are
consists of two
or
basal materials
such
more
mixed
gether
to-
gen,
givethe desired percentage content of nitrophosphorus,and potassium. These basal materials are
derived (1) from inorganicor mineral matter, and (2) from
material.
organicmatter, that is to say, from animal or vegetable
of nitrogen,the inorganic
salts,
So, for example,as sources
ammonium
rials
sulphateand sodium nitrate,and organicmatelike dried blood, meat
scraps, tankage,fish scrap, and
so
as
to
cotton-seed meal
are
in
bones and
as
sources
and
use.
As
of phosphorus,
basic
be considered
sources
phosphate rock
and
common
more
from
the Stassfurt
in detail.
sulphate is
of bone black.
concentrated
Ammonium
containing20
fertilizer,
soluble in water, does not
per cent ofnitrogen.It is copiously
readilyleach out of the soil,and very quicklyundergoes
a
very
COMMERCIAL
that is,conversion
nitrification,
into nitrates.
Sodium
trate,
ni-
NaNO3,
in
217
FERTILIZERS
Chapter X.
It
occurs
Chili
as
in
saltpeter
in the
natural
value of fish as
from
South
America.
saltpeterbeds contains a
salt. This, however, is practically
of common
largeamount
removed from the productbefore it is placedon the market,
that as sold it is a crude nitrate of soda containing
so
from 15
to 16 per cent ofnitrogen.Nitrate of soda is readilysoluble
in water
and easilyleached from the soil. It should consequently
be appliedjustbefore
plantingor afterthe planthas
possession
of the soil. Fifty to one hundred pounds per acre
age
is a proper application.Dried blood, meat scraps, and tankfrom the slaughterhouses.
Dried blood is simply
come
animals dried and ground. Like all
blood of the slaughtered
it is insoluble in water ; but it
organicnitrogenousfertilizers,
its nitrogenin soluble
ferments readilyin the soil and yields
form to the growing plant. Dried blood contains from 13
while meat
to 14 per cent of nitrogen,
scraps contain variable
of nitrogen,
The
amounts
usuallyfrom 4 to 10 per cent.
The
material
posits
extensive de-
the
fertilizerwas
known
to
our
American
ans.
Indi-
and
the Great
Lakes.
seed
Cotton-
wool
waste
is obtained
from
the woolen
mills.
The
chemical
nature
218
AND
CHEMISTRY
of these 'has
XIII.
sale
All of these
soil that
as
to
LIFE
in
Chapters IX
materials decompose
and
slowly in the
so
their
passed laws prohibiting
fertilizers. In ordinaryfarming it is seldom profitable
for the nitrogen
purchasenitrogenous
fertilizers,
supply
states
many
have
be maintained
the proper
of
in
DAILY
Chapter
use
by
Such
crops
of farm
in rotation,as
legume crops
XIV.
means
as
manure
and
alreadystated
the clovers,
peas, and beans
if he
nitrogengatherers,especially
plows under a goodly part of the plant. In
occasionally
intensive farming, like market gardening,
it will be necessary
liberal use
to make
of nitrogenousfertilizers
of commercial
are
as
origin.
Since three-fourths of the
soil is
depositedin
sold from
the
lizers
the farm, it is clear that phosphatic ferti-
phosphorus
offundamental importance. In the soil,
the phosphates of calcium, magnesium, and iron.
occurs
as
As already pointedout in Chapter VII, phosphates are salts
of phosphoricacid,H3PO4.
In all the importantcommercial
phosphatefertilizers,
includingphosphaterock, bones, basic
slag,and guano, phosphorusis present as phosphatesformed
acid,H3PO4, with lime,CaO.
by the combination ofphosphoric
These are phosphates of calcium, commonly spoken of as
phosphatesof lime. With lime, phosphoricacid forms three
importantcompounds : (1)insoluble phosphateoflime,which is
tricalcium phosphate,
Ca3(PO4)2; (2)soluble phosphateoflime,
are
which ismonocalcium
phosphate,CaH4(PO4)2
of lime,which
phosphate
The
firstof these, as
in water
Ground
its name
bone, guano,
is dicalcium
and (3)reverted
phosphate,Ca2H2(PO4)2.
indicates,is almost
insoluble
220
CHEMISTRY
Wyoming.
It contains
AND
from
DAILY
LIFE
of phosphorus
and is the chiefsource
and also the cheapestsource
of phosphorus
have
supply on the market. Recent investigations
that when
shown
used with sufficient organicmatter, such
farm manure
as
or
ground phosphate rock
manure,
green
for the organicmatter
has high fertilizing
posing
decomon
power,
11 to 13 per cent
phosphate,
phosphate
of lime
thus
making
aids in
it available.
"
is also known
the
dissolving
as
lime
one
Soluble
phosphate,"
acid
ton
The
half
ton
of gypsum.
latter is formed
bone
or
phosphate
phosphate
rock
CaH4(PO4)2
phosphos-
monocalcium
phate, "acid
phate
the monocalcium
Ca2H2(PO4)2
dicalcium
"reverted
phosphate
phosphate"
"
It is clear,
then,that the dicalcium
atid than
phosphate formed
phosphate,i.e. the
is less
latter has
COMMERCIAL
"
reverted
"
221
FERTILIZERS
somewhat.
Hence
it is known
"
as
reverted
in water, it dissolves
in water
similated
containingcarbon dioxide and hence is readilyasby plants. As stated in Chapter XI, a phosphate
of steel. This
fertilizeris produced in the manufacture
material is popularlycalled basic slag,its compositionbeing
about
Ca5P2SiOi2. Though it was
formerlythrown away,
its value as a fertilizeris now
duly recognized.It contains
from 6.5 to 8.5 per cent ofphosphorusin a somewhat different
form from that in the other phosphatesjust described,as
the formula given indicates. It should be finely
ground, for
it is difficultly
soluble in the soil water.
The factthat it is
rich in lime makes it specially
desirable for use on acid soils.
Most of the basic slagon the market is importedfrom England,
but it is not unlikelythat more
will soon
in the
be made
United States,as iron ores of highphosphatecontent are used
in the iron and steel industry.
The potash fertilizers are commonly considered as of less
tilizer
importance than either the nitrogenousor phosphaticferfor potassiumcompounds are usuallymore
abundant
in the soil than either nitrogen-bearing
phates.
compounds or phosMoreover, thoughmost crops remove
more
potassium
than phosphorus,
the former element is more
liable to be returned
in the stems
that
latter. Potassium
and leaves of
plants,and
as
is more
these
are
abundant
the parts
222
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
AND
LIFE
with chlorine,as
be used
can
all crops
on
beets,and potatoes,which
present.
Potassium
the formula
except
appear
indicates.
This salt
rine
the chlo-
injuredby
phate
sul-
and
"f potassium,
value for those crops that are
is of special
injuredby the
Kainite
chloride,as just mentioned.
(see Chapter X), the
is essentially
most common
a double
fertilizers,
ofthe Stassfurt
salt of potassiumchloride and magnesium sulphate. It contains
phate.
from 10 to 12 per cent ofpotassiumas chloride and suland while
It is thus a low-gradepotash fertilizer;
phate,
than the muriate or sulcheap per ton, it reallycosts more
for these are so much
richer in potassium. For many
of potassium for
the sole source
ashes
wood
were
years
furt
but since the introduction of the Stassfertilizing
purposes,
of
salts,ashes
unleached,ashes
hence
are
as
appear
contain
valuable.
much
from
Per
less
cent
on-
the
2 to 7 per cent
When
of potassiumand
both of which
market.
of lime,CaCO3,
"
are
soil acidity.
A
are
salt
of substances like lime,gypsum, and common
but they are
to the land under certain conditions,
beneficial
number
of plantfood,
not considered
as
generally
important sources
There are
and so are frequently
termed indirect fertilizers.
but few if any soils that do not contain enough lime to supply
the needs of the plant,and so the value of lime as a fertilizer
is indirect. It corrects acidity,
other compounds
acts upon
COMMERCIAL
223
FERTILIZERS
liberate soluble
and helpsbacterial
potassiumsalts,
life in the soil. By keeping the soil neutral, it creates
a
home for many
microorganismswhich help to make
proper
is
plant food available. Lime for agricultural
purposes
put on the market as caustic or burned lime,CaO ; air-slaked
lime or carbonate of lime, CaCO3 ; ground limestone rock ;
CaCO3 ; and also as beet sugar
ground clam or oyster shells,
refuse. The chemical nature
of lime, limestone,or calcium
has alreadybeen sufficiently
described
carbonate,and gypsum
in ChaptersIX and X.
Air-slaked
lime is quicklimewhich
has again been converted to the carbonate,CaCO3, by exposure
so
as
to
to
it must
the air.
be
When
appliedwrith
the land
on
already stated
in
Chapter
is coming into generalfavor,
XIV.
Finely ground limestone
be obtained at a sufficiently
and when it can
low cost, it is
undoubtedly the safest form in which to apply lime, especially
by the inexperienced.Lime should be spread over
the surface and then incorporated
with the upper
two
to
four inches of the soil. The clovers and legumesin general
lime than do the cereals,
for theyare much more
require more
sensitiveto the acidity
of the soil. A ton per acre every four
five years is a good application
of limestone.
or
Gypsum,
land plaster,CaSO4
2 H2O, has given excellent results with
clovers and legume plants. It is also a cheap source
of sulphur,
which is low in amount
in most
soils,and is freely
used by plantsof high protein content
well as by such
as
rutabagas,onions, garcrops as cabbage,kohlrabi,turnips,
lic,
and horse-radish.
Common
salt,NaCl, has sometimes
been used as a manure,
but it is not supposed to furnish
plantfood, and while it has givenbeneficial results
necessary
care,
as
at
fertilizers
are
fertilizermanufacturer
very
very
so.
common
on
does
generally
the market.
the
mixingof
The
the
224
AND
CHEMISTRY
LIFE
DAILY
"
"
"
"
the
basal
The
materials
proper
and
mix
them
at home.
selection of commercial
fertilizersis obviously
tions
directo givedefinite
impossible
to kinds and quantities
as
offertilizers
for different
crops,
because soils differ
in their content of plantfood. But
greatly
valuable suggesby carefullynoting the growing crop, some
tions
be gainedas to which fertilizersare most
needed.
may
So a crop with a deep green color,well-developed
leaf,and
luxuriant growth is not suffering
or
from a lack of nitrogen
potassium. A rank excessive growth of leaf and stem, but
sized
imperfect bud and flower development, and small undergrain,denotes plentyof nitrogenand potassium,but a
lack of phosphorus, These suggestions
are
helps,but it is
not
periments
always safe to depend upon them entirely.Field exTo determine with any degreeof
are
necessary.
certaintywhat particularfertilizerwould be helpful,the
of great
importance.
It is
225
FERTILIZERS
COMMERCIAL
himself.This can be
farmermust conduct some experiments
of the fieldof
done by carefully
marking off certain portions
uniform soil into plotsof definite size,and then usingdifferent
materials on these plots. A plotone
rod
fertilizing
wide and eightrods long contains one-twentieth of an acre,
and is of convenient size for experiment. Careful notes
should be kept during the growingseason, and the weights
of the harvested crops should be recorded.
This givesdefinite
if continued over
several years.
information,especially
When
basal materials
of these materials
most
arrangement
of
the
plotsand
of materials to
the amounts
apply.
This will
be limed.
are
give evidence
as
to
plotsmay
DIAGRAM
Plot 1. None.
Plot
8. N and S
phate).
(Blood and Sul-
Plot
9. P and S
phate).
(Bone and Sul-
Plot 3. P
(Steamed Bone
10
Meal,
Plot 10. P
and
(Bone
and
Chloride).
lb.).
Plot 4. S
(Gypsum,
Plot 5. K
10
Plot 11.
lb.).
Plot 6. None.
N, P, and S (Blood,
Bone, and Sulphate).
N, P, S, and K (Blood,
Bone, Sulphate, and
Chloride).
No
definite rule
to
apply,for
Q
can
be
givenas
to the amount
of fertilizer
of
plant
226
CHEMISTRY
AND
pounds per
acre
on
DAILY
LIFE
be grown
to
is also
factor.
soils already
is
fertile
heavy
application
for ordinary
farm
and
crops
will
only
returns
giveprofitable
on
used in
intensive
farming. It is
better to make lighter
plication
apoffrom 100 to
200 pounds of any
one
basal
and
to
from
,itw
material
the amount
vary
to
year
acre,
per
when
year,
experience has
shown
that economical
returns
be
can
expected from
applications*
heavier
To
againstfraud,many
fertilizer
that the
guaranteed
tilizer should
FIG. 80.
"
with
complicatedas
than
so
Greek
many
be
fer-
placed
on
on
it.
confuse
letters.
and
A
bag containingit.
the
are
of such
of
sample
no
legendsare
of such
on
value
more
a
page
label is
227
are
"
the amounts
"
to
of
ysis
anal-
fertilizer
Most
so
require
laws
formula
or
state
label
per
means
cent
of
in this fertilizer8 to 10
this is erroneouslycalled
CHEMISTRY
228
of
3.
When
should
4.
What
is
acid
useful
doubly
7.
8.
it
do
9.
potash
salts
Of
How
to
soil
the
leather
scrap
as
source
fertilizers.
does
How
an
from
come
On
kind
what
soils
of
is
it
are
is
in
wood
it
best
what
to
from
come
ashes
is
use
fertilizers
mainly
What
compounds
add
lime
to
sold
commonly
and
soil,
added
when
gypsum
soils
to
is
What
should
why
?
by
meant
home
mixing
10.
of
use
phosphate
floats
slag
form
what
added
be
of
from
contained
are
In
applied
Where
value
LIFE
basic
does
What
be
the
to
kinds
differ
phosphate
6.
of
fertilizers
DAILY
soda
of
objection
three
Name
5.
nitrate
the
for
nitrogen
AND
How
fertilizer
the
can
requirements
of
soil
be
best
mined
deter-
11.
of
mixed
and
phosphorus,
ammonium
make
fertilizer
ton
of
such
of
cent
per
bone
sulphate,
up
contains
potassium.
and
meal,
mixture
cent
per
kainite
of
nitrogen,
How
would
many
be
per
cent
pounds
of
needed
to
CHAPTER
XVI
MANURE
FARM
OF
farm
all fertilizers,
manure
stillthe
popular.
the excreta
It consists of the
of farm
animals
duction,
pro-
majority
for
placed their reliance on such manures
of the land.
maintainingthe fertility
A well-kept
manure
heap may safelybe taken as one of the
in farming. The fertilizer
and success
surest indications of thrift
value of the manure
ferent
produced each year by the difof farmers
have
classes of farm
animals
United
States aggregates
in the
nitrogen(N) in commercial
10 cents, 6 cents, and
15 cents
per
pound
are
spectively
re-
for the
made
has
year,
on
value
of $75,000,000 per
and that throughimproperhandlingone-third of the value
on
is lost.
The
manure
produced by
the
various
classes
of farm
mals
ani-
solid
physicalproperties.
both the
from the pig and cow
The manure
(including
and liquid
excrement) is very high in water, containing
229
230
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
On
sheep have
lower
water
LIFE
from
excreta
content, about
65
70 per cent.
ferment
used.
The
more
from
manure
animals
like clover,alfalfa,
bran, and
animals
that from
fed
fed
are
cottonseed
meal
rich foods,
on
is better than
on
rich in
and
that
stover,
corn
nitrogenand phosphorus,and
to
Furthermore, the
grainhas been added.
from young 'and growinganimals, as calves and colts,
manure
is not so valuable as that from older animals, and especially
animals that are fattening. Young growinganimals use up
more
phosphorus,and potassiumin the foodfor
of the nitrogen,
little or
which
their
no
bodies to make
own
animals.
animals
Mature
as
not
are
poor
in
but
flesh,
are
tening,
fat-
phosphorus,and potassium,
requirethe retention ofnitrogen,
A milch cow
does the buildingof bone and muscle.
will
produce as
This
ration.
go
that
rich manure,
producea
not
over
rich
manure
is because
There is in 5000
and
If the milk
no
pounds of
are
not
If the milk
is skimmed
loss occurs,
are
on
the
same
of the fertilizerconstituents
some
so
steer
fattening
material equal in
pounds of milk fertilizing
as
phorus
nitrogen,
potassium,and phosvalue of 500
milk.
The fertilizer
for the
in the skimmed
butter is
and
only about
10
cents.
This
shows
how
FARM
231
MANURE
the
same
time
and
on
steep hillsides
practiceinsures
on
or
the
same
the banks
largewaste.
in two ways:
farm.
of
Barns
are
running
The value
often built
streams, which
of
manure
may
offeeds
rich in fertilizing
that are
materials,or (2) by purchasing
suitable commercial
plantfood and adding it to the manure.
The firstmethod
that the farmer must
means
purchasesome
of the mill by-productsnow
offered for sale,and feed them
A successful stock man
to his stock.
usuallyfinds it profitable
with one or more
to thus reenforce his home-grown grains
of the various mill by-products. A farmer who is buying
of his
largeamounts
of concentrates is increasingthe fertility
be
increased
land, provided
he
is
saving
the
manure.
Bran
use
is
trate
concen-
is rich in
CHEMISTRY
232
acid
floats,or
gypsum,
in crops.
AND
The
DAILY
LIFE
phosphate results
in
crease
profitablein-
however,comes
greatestprofit,
the
from
of which
Farm
elements
is
manure
there is often
lack.
perishable
productand
with intelligence
to obtain the greatest
value
is handled
manure
as
the waste
absorb
to
express
of the
on
most
is realized.
The
liquidexcrement
it. The
of
purpose
contains
and
but
Most
Another
the
The
of
plant food
less,
Doubtone-
ding
using sufficientbed-
not
to
off
as
rapidlyas
practice.Pound for
uncommon
more
It
of the potassium,
of the
mal.
phosphorusexcreted by the anithe phosphorusis found in the solid droppings.
trace
fact of great
more
by
more
it.
allowingthe urine
is
from
boring of holes
is by no means
an
possible
pound the liquidexcrement
be handled
must
importance in
this connection
available to
solid excrement
and
quently
conse-
dung.
plants,it
plantsthan
is that
before its
become
nitrogencan
able
avail-
wash
the
them
manure
away.
must
Very
is thrown
often when
under
the roof
soon
the
stables
eaves
saturates
are
cleaned
of the barn
the
pileand
or
a
out,
shed
dark
233
MANURE
FARM
plantfood,
or
soaking
and it is usuallylost by draininginto a stream
Then again,
it
into the ground where no plantsare to grow.
into largepilesthat
is thrown
often happens that manure
allowed to lieexposedto the rain and weather for months.
are
liquidbeginsto
FIG.
81.
An
"
only
productionof
ammonia
boy
on
gas
bacteria cannot
prevented. Other
of wasting farm
ferments.
manure.
results in the
by bacteria,and
suffered with
accumulated
and
warm
contains
nitrogen.
smartingeyes
from
.manure
be prevented.Thus
largely
compact
"
"
way
contains much
(NH8), which
escapes
has
gets
common
ammonia
the farm
the
too
is caused
This fermentation
The
it
conditions
such
Under
This
away.
run
the
great losses
if the
manure
pilebe
most
moving
re-
stable.
horse
which
to manure,
penetrate it,the
live in it and
when
made
tive
destruc-
so
pileand
cause
is
234
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
LIFE
rotting
; but this is not harmful, beingon the contrary a process
for market
greatlydesired in the productionof manure
gardening. The secret of keepingthe hot fermentationdown
is to keep the manure
heap compact and moist. This allows the
ammonia
will be small.
as
pileto rot,but the loss ofnitrogen
It is better to allow the
to accumulate
manure
in the stable
manure
As
soon
as
the animals
taken
are
out, the
dailyand
haul the
manure
wherever
to the field. This is the very best practice
directly
and saves
than any other
the manure
more
perfectly
possible,
method.
Sometimes
the ground is too wet or the fields,
too
and make
other causes
arise which prevent hauling,
or
hilly,
In such cases, a good comit necessary to store the manure.
pact
pileshould be built where water can be appliedto keep
it from gettinghot. The pileshould be made solid and so
deep that the hardest rain will not soak through. This can
from five to six feet high.
be accomplished
by making the piles
with the bottom and sides of cement
A basin-like depression
A roof is not so necessary.
is a good placeto store manure.
the losses of
is exposedin loose shallow piles,
When
manure
of the total
plantfood in a few months may be at least one-half
in the
manure.
It has
the field
as
It is very
soon
as
that
possible.It
wasteful
of both
manure
should
should
also be
fertilizerand
be hauled to
spreadat once.
labor to dump
236
CHEMISTRY
the average
to
cover
water
workable.
Any
better
kind
than
to let them
crop.
It is
The
best
they add
Clovers,
good results
when
even
nitrogen than
to the soil
the
adds
legume
only
the
farming,
of the
to
feed
to the
nitrogen
nitrogenwhich
to
the land.
and
land, providedhe
it is
cut
In this way
nearly all
saves
common
plants
the
soil.
the
manure.
more
ing
manur-
green
they are
green
manuring
the
are
in the
These
legumes,
soils need.
most
are
all
of the
plants produce
only the
largeroot systems
much
leaves
bean.
or
No
All others
hay
the farmer
plant food
more
plant
it in the
bandry
hus-
of animal
and
but
giveback
can
Red
good.
harvested, and
stubble
pea
sandy
plowed under
used.
is
green
cowpeas
clover
puts
and
while
better, in systems
the
aids
time
warmer
weeds
because
of the
humus
same
this is what
crop
But
roots
firstplace. Usually
manure
the
of
humus
cultivation; thus
manuring
clover, their
red
the
of green
will add
they
at
and
one
under.
turned
alfalfa and
the
is
under
addition
under
nitrogen,and
common
manure
amounts.
be used for
can
autumn
green
plowing
and
soy
the
clays become
Rye
in the
sown
smaller
for
plow
go to seed.
with
The
plant
It is better to
crop.
of
and
of
by
heavy application.
quantity of
in the soil
decay
condition
physical
soils retain
stubble
oftener
dioxide.
carbon
removed
retainingmoisture,
it in better
spring.
considered
is meant
in their
that
soil in
because
largearea
manuring
green
produce
the
is not
be treated
can
plants so
and
LIFE
spreadera small
manure
be made
the fields
This
crops.
With
By
DAILY
average
can
AND
return
the
back
to
the
"
237
MANURE
FARM
QUESTIONS
1.
and
state
2.
content
3.
is
What
does
how
is
What
value
cold
annually
manure
with
?
manure
How
ton
of
the
value
What
produced
of
is
the
its
dairy
in
your
products
approximate
water
influence
5.
Name
two
methods
6.
How
is the
value
7.
How
would
8.
How
would
9.
What
is
What
the
be
is meant
nitrogen
and
the
of
of
composition
increasing
lost
manure
you
prevent
harmful
you
prevent
leaching
best
applied
by
phosphorus
there
are
spectively
re-
manure
factors
should
of
pounds
many
What
10.
the
it compare
4.
acre
of
in
per
the
to
way
apply
annually
green
the
of
value
manure
of
manure.
fermentation
and
manure,
how
many
tons
manuring,
and
of
what
benefit
is it ?
CHAPTER
PLANT
THE
farmer
WHAT
his animals
feed
means
the education
He grows
the
on
need
providefor
to
PRODUCES
IT
plantsand animals.
rears
on
AND
LIFE
XVII
for
the
plants
plants. He sellsa
it and
thus
the
secures
and
farming purposes,
of his children.
He
beginshis
of plants.
in common.
livingthings possess certain properties
Careful study has shown that the livingsubstance in plants
This living
the same.
substance is
and animals is practically
called protoplasm. It is a clear,granularsubstance of about
It is this that grows,
the consistencyof the white of egg.
tions
builds the plantand the animal, and performs all the funcof life. Exactlywhat it is,
is not known, but it is closely
allied to some
of the complex bodies which the plantcan build,
All
for example,the
from
another
one
In most
of the
walls that
are
and
common
enable them
animals
some
filledwith mineral
to
maintain
their form.
These
thick
make
soft-walled.
up
In
PLANT
LIFE
which
stances
are
AND
not
it.
of themselves
is alive and
thus formed
IT
WHAT
239
PRODUCES
alive.
The
new
toplasm
pro-
produced
animal which is increasing
in size and weight
protoplasm.Among the other activities of
the absorptionand assimilation of food and
plantor
is making new
protoplasmare
the storing
of reserve
foodstuffs in the seed for future use,
also the building
of new
cellwalls,the secreting
of substances
for protectionand the repairof injuries
that may
have been
and the elimination of various waste
received,
productsthat
are
constantlybeingformed.
A knowledgeof the seed and seed germination is of fundamental
importance. On examining a kernel of corn it will
FIG. 83.
be
seen
to
nourish
"
good
ear
that it contains
that it can
of
corn.
The
kernels
are
of good shape.
store
240
CHEMISTRY
be borne in mind
AND
that
DAILY
LIFE
On
They will
rot.
and
warmth
air
noticed that
not
if the germ
grow
furnished.
are
in the shock
start
or
stack
is in
Who
duringa
the beans
rot
has not
wet
when
or
the seed
seen
and who
season,
has
plantedin sufficiently
warm,
which
grows
upward
growth
the
surrounded
warm
of
common
have
germ
the
was
it in the
to form
seed coat
starts
is
is
ward
down-
put forth,
is,the part of
experience. So
sometimes
moist
remained
oats
sproutand
sown
grow
is a matter
during cold
unsprouted for
weather
month, while-
PLANT
when
LIFE
in
sown
AND
temperatures
to awake
germinate.
Thus
ground
cucumbers
84.
in
wheat
the
and
of
make
them
wheat, oats,
sprout,that is,
rye,
and
them
than
them
seeds
FIG.
sows
241
PRODUCES
they came
up in about oneSeeds of different
plantsrequire
different
farmer
IT
weather
warm
germinate when
WHAT
"
Germinating
6orn
so
requireswarmer
ground must
the
kernels.
earlyspring. Corn
and
barley
or
good farmer
of rice and
be
oxygen
water
up.
germinateunder
lilies; but
dissolved
come
in
the
even
in such
water.
cases,
Packing
there must
the soil too
242
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
LIFE
around the seed will keep out the air and so hinder or
closely
true of heavyclay
prevent germination. This is particularly
On
soils.
the other hand, packing loamy or sandy soils
around seeds aids germination
tact
by bringingthe seeds in confilms surroundingthe soil grains. These
with water
of air
stillpermit sufficient access
soils,
being more
porous,
than
Some
to the seed.
more
difficulties
plantsexperience
others in their efforts
to come
up, that is,to reach the surface
of the ground. For example, instead of sending up slender
like the peas, or thin blades like the barley,they raise
stems
and try to lifta portion
the entire swollen seed out of the soil,
of the ground up with it. The bean is a plantof this kind.
be keptin
In plantingseeds these two types of behavior must
mind.
Thus wheat, barley,peas, and corn
belong to the first
therefore always be planted a little
type; and they may
deeper than
Other
thickness.
but
a
no
be covered
never
seed should
seeds may
be
planteddeeperthan
After
water
and
with
has
a
started
downy
to
grow
somewhat
necessary
from
fringethat
five times
than
more
be covered
proper
becomes
are
The
their
deeper,
to insure
the seed, it
looks
like the
They
further
the
plant. During
the
244
CHEMISTRY
essential for
vegetablelife.
its
plant food
AND
LIFE
that is absorbed
in solution
thus
DAILY
gainsits way
into the
and wind
that
around
surrounds
the solid
The
sap passes
root
to
the leaf as
result
the action
and evaporation
of capillarity
of water from the
surfaceof the leaf. The heightto which sap may thus travel
of
is sometimes
trees
very
considerable.
In
the
of the
case
to hundreds
of feet,and
giant
the root
the work
to
interesting
of
the stem
of
passes
stem
of
This
plant.
white snowball
solution
The
up
the
upward
may
lilyin
through the
or
plant is
connected
vase
stem
of the
liquidin
by placingthe stem
passage
be done
a
of red ink.
and
of which
The
red
system of tubes
cells,some
It is
formed
carry
by
tinuously
con-
pounds
simplecomfood,made
from
the
air than
from
the
soil.
In
hundred
LIFE
PLANT
oil,and
sugar,
the
in plants are
dioxide
carbon
taken
from
which
absorbed
are
by the
salt solutions
from
roots,
of which
openings,most
are
the leaf
located
chlorophyll,the substance
color.
green
for when
the
Here
is
sun
of the water
oxygen.
to
wonderful
shiningon
on
through
the under
The
latter gas
which
chemical
the
other
and
the air,
of
as
carbon
some
made
elements
with
245
PRODUCES
other substances
many
IT
WHAT
AND
on
leafthe
small
very
side of the
into contact
the
leaf
owes
its
dioxide and
each other,
forming starch
is exhaled
by
the
leaf. The
leaves, and
hundred
matter.
is thus
returned
to
the air.
Plants
use
several
246
CHEMISTRY
sunshine
AND
DAILY
LIFE
and
plant is the
Man
man.
an
does.
animal
flesh
usuallyeats
which
from
or
either received
vegetablematerials.
of food
source
source
is the
plant. The
In all cases,
food
from
the
materials
from
other
ultimate
produced
the
name
of which
the
group,
bodies
consists of nitrogen-containing
implies,
are
by far the most important.
proteins
LIFE
PLANT
WHAT
AND
247
PRODUCES
IT
carbohydrates,
as
extensive.
compounds
of oxygen,
made
are
It should be remembered
that these
hydrogen,and carbon,which
The chemist in
wholly from the air and water.
his analysisof plant tissues always separates the cellulose
from the rest of the carbohydrates,as being of littlevalue
are
derived
to
animals.
This
to
the rest
of the
he
the
crude
fiber,and
bohydrates
car-
gives
nitrogen-free
name
extract.
Starch
is
distributed
widely
and
dant
abun-
constituent of vegetable
tissue. It isfound
in all the green
of leaves,and
parts
lates
accumu-
in those organs
plants which
stores
serve
of
reserve
It
occurs
of
as
rial.
mateFIG.
are
cent
more
"
Potato
starch
grains.
cially
espe-
in roots, fruits,
and
60 to 70 per
86.
seeds.
is present.
abundant
than
In
some
seeds
as
much
a^
lose
Probablyonlywater and cellustarch in the vegetable
world.
248
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
in the interior of
which
have
seed in which
Potato
in
an
starch
diameter,while
those of wheat
inch in diameter,and
glass.
These
are
resemble
in
differences
smaller,about 0.001 of
in outline
thick burning
shape of starch
grainsfurnish the most
importantmeans
of
tecting
de-
adulterations
one
as,
of
grain with another,
for example, when
flour
corn
with wheat
is
flour.
changed by
chemical
is not
means,
87.
"
Pea
starch
less
Unsome
starch
soluble in water.
Prolonged
FIG.
mixed
with
hot
the
starch
grains.
swell and
treatment
water
causes
grains
to
burst, thus
coarse
ployed in
laundries.
Applied as
paste
to
linen,it
causes
LIFE
PLANT
AND
IT
WHAT
249
PRODUCES
the
fabrics.
a
taste, and
the
that
the
loaf
the
In
in toast
and
crust
they
from
is baked.
of bread
cotton
they
formed
when
starch
of the
substances
same
are
fabric
have
Dextrins
sweet
are
adhere
to
particularly
are
abundant.
The
are
sugars
valuable
very
carbohydrates,
although they
plantsin
in
occur
less amounts
FIG.
than
the starches.
88.
"
Wheat
starch
grains.
hey
found
are
occurs
only in
in abundance,
the south.
is
small
to-day
The
a
very
sugar
in
in the sugar cane, which grows
beet which thrives in northern climes
as
important
of sugar.
source
Sucrose
in
exists in sorghum and in considerable quantities
fieldcorn,
contain
sweet
an
other sugars
potatoes, and
pineapples.Fruits
appreciableamount
and
organicacids.
also known
Chapter IX, dextrose,
of this sugar
As
as
ordinary
generally
mixed
already pointed
glucose and
also
grape
with
out
in
sugar,
CHEMISTRY
250
is
wry
AND
DAILY
importantarticleof commerce,
the market
in the form
it is also present to
some
LIFE
usuallyappearingon
in molasses,which
see.
Corn
ing
sirupis glucosepreparedby the usual method, i.e.by heatstarch with dilute sulphuric
acid ; see Chapter IX, where
the behavior of dextrose and other sugars toward Fehling's
solution is also described.
is formed
from
Fructose
starch when
occurs
in fruits,and
seeds
germinate. These
sugars too have been described in Chapter IX.
The
closely related to the carbohydrates.
pectins are
of fruits such as applesand
of the jellying
They are the cause
currants.
They exist in greater abundance in fruit that is
not quiteripe,and consequentlythis is commonly selected
for jellymaking in preference
such unto ripefruit. When
ripe
fruits are
and are
cooked, the pectinstake up water
bodies which set to a firm mass
on
changed into gelatinous
cooling.
The tough or woody parts of planttissues consist of cellulose.
Wood, cotton, linen, hemp, flax,etc.,when freedfrom
mineral matter, are almost pure cellulose,
as
already stated in
Celluloseis insoluble in water, and is not readily
Chapter IX.
attacked even
see
by strong acids,as previouslyexplained,
In tables of the results of food analysis,the
Chapter IX.
This material is largely
term
crude fiberis commonly used.
maltose
cellulose.
Plant
said in Chapter IX
as
to
the chemical
reviewed
should be carefully
will be recalled that
oils,and what
though
fats and
nature
has been
of such
pounds
com-
in this connection.
It
yet they
are
entirelydifferent class
of
CHEMISTRY
252
as
DAILY
corn,
peanuts
run
oils from
wheat
LIFE
contain from
cotton
fat; while flaxseed (linseed),
as
high
as
thirtyto forty-five
per
of the seeds
some
cottonseed and
Thus
AND
olive oils
are
to
seed, and
cent.
of great commercial
are
two
The
value.
importantarticles of food,
acid
in lemons
occurs
present in
and
apples,currants,
givesthe tart taste
sour
tartaric acid
mountain
to
in rhubarb, oxalis,and
grapes
ash berries,
etc.;
;
and
oxalic acid
the
jack-in-the-pulpit
The ordinaryfarm seeds,roots, and fodders,
however,are free
to fermentation
from acids ; and it is onlywhen theyare subjected
A familiar example of
that acids are formedfrom them.
this is the productionof silage. Here fermentation changes
the sugars of the fresh corn
mainly to acetic and lactic acids
(see Chapter IX for a descriptionof these), and it is the
volatile acids that give to silageits sour
smell. The sour
smell of the ill-kept
kitchen garbage pailis also due to volatile
What
has been
organic acids produced by fermentation.
said about organicacids in Chapter IX should be carefully
may
be found
reviewed
The
here.
proteins, which
there
are
are
several kinds of
very
proteins.A
familiar
one
is the
PLANT
LIFE
AND
IT
WHAT
253
PRODUCES
albumen
is
reallya remarkable
understood.
Some
reallydepend
upon
of
properties
secures
the
the housewife
by
no
fully
means
of
observation
and
the chemical, physical,
of gum
watches
the
water
is
matters
common
very
tenacious
change which
physiological
example,the farmer's boy
from
fresh wheat
kernels,
observes
the white
harden
mass
as
is
are
rich
particularly
to
Some
seeds
are
in
proteins which
insoluble in water,
they are
abundantly in
most
occur
they may
seeds.
be dissolved
solution of
While
by treating
salt.
common
which cannot
be mentioned
proteins
here. When heated with soda lime all proteins
giveoffammonia,
which fact is frequently
used to detect their presence.
Certain
are
numerous
other
serve
proteins. It is in the
of the
form
of these amides
to
that the
nitrogen
254
kind
Nitrogenouscompounds of this
hays and
roots
in
contained
far
are
in
trogen
part of the ni-
for
plants cut
abundant
more
considerable
in seeds.
than
LIFE
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
clovers, and
QUESTIONS
What
1.
What
2.
What
3.
is
name
things are
three
given
given
effect does
to
common
all
living
to the
to make
necessary
substance
the
to
is it contained
In what
matter
is
name
What
seed sprout ?
have
temperature
germination of
the
on
seeds ?
How
4.
differ in
seeds
the
they
way
the
through
come
ground
What
5.
do
action
is the
material
food
does
how
it ?
enter
What
6.
of
plant comes
from
the air ?
What
7.
is
especiallyactive
What
8.
the
9.
10.
fruits
in its
11.
What
12.
is the function
a
plant do ?
of
substance
What
in the leaf
starch ?
sunlight in making
that
plant with
three substances
that
of
animal.
an
carbohydrates.
are
pare
Com-
How
would
for starch ?
How
causes
does
cane
their
differ from
sugar
jellying?
starch ?
does
How
What
substance
in
starch
properties?
What
does
What
elements
What
are
important element
13.
sunlight?
in
breathing of
Name
test
you
an
two
acids
are
contained
in the
found
in fats ?
process
in
in the soil ?
are
found
Name
in
of food
protein ?
a
silage?
dissolves fats ?
What
Why
analysiscontain ?
is
protein.
nitrogen such
CHAPTER
THE
ANIMALS
the carbon
nor
AND
ANIMAL
feed
cannot
XVIII
on
in
dioxide
FEED
ITS
the mineral
the air.
in the soil
matter
Plants
live
both.
on
The
into substances
domestic animals.
Plants form
him
and
his servants
"
the
of the farm.
The
bodies of animals
nevertheless,the chemist
classes of substances
same
are
would
say
that
mals
present in the bodies of ani-
which
are
are
not
present in animals.
The
starches
represent
one
of the intestine
as
More
than
halfof the
animal
measure
animals
composedof water.
255
consists of water
and
besides
a
large
256
CHEMISTRY
The
dry
mineral
AND
matter
DAILY
which
LIFE
remains
when
the bodies
of
of
an
animal, nevertheless
body is in
this
95 per cent
earthy framework,
which
consists
principally
of calcium phosphate. The ash of the animal always contains
all of the mineral elements that are necessary for the growth
mineral constituents that a plant
of the plant. The same
have in order to be able to develop are also required
must
by the animal in its process of growth. Animals generally
sodium and chlorine than plants,
contain more
for the blood
is rich in common
salt. There is generally
abundance of
an
ash in the common
feedsto supplyall of the mineral matter the
animal needs. But pigsfed on grainalone,without access
to
receive wood ashes in their feed,for
to advantage
a pasture, may
this will furnish them
and
to range
other
tion
lime,and thus aid in bone forma-
more
ways.
Laying
bone, or limestone.
These
matter
hens
having no
in the form
opportunity
of oyster shells,
should be suitablyground.
They
ANIMAL
THE
animal
have
ITS
AND
257
FEED
but it must
or fat,
get along without carbohydrates
certain amount
ofproteinin its dailyration,
for the cells
can
which can
losingnitrogen,
only be
constantly
by protein.
replaced
free from nitrogen. Those
The fats,it will be recalled,
are
be depositedin the tissues of
with the food may
consumed
essential change. Small depositsof fat,
the body without
of
the
body
are
in every
indeed, occur
in
cell,but the
held
amount
varies
reserve
So
animal.
of fat,while
The
and
organ
hard-worked
or
energy,
show
in the
it is stored
as
such
body
reserves.
to furnish
reserve
material.
The
origin.They
part ofallfoodofvegetable
form by far the largest
dized
not stored permanentlyin the body, but as they are oxiare
in the system they furnish heat or mechanical work.
of sugar in the blood,
less
There is always a small amount
"
than
one
contain
per
an
cent,
but
"
after
of the
abundance
reallyanimal starch.
But
meal
muscles
carbohydrateglycogen,which
portionof
is
the
carbohydrates.When consumed in
of the immediate
are
excess
requirements,carbohydrates
illustration
changedto fatsand stored as such. As a practical
animal's dailyintake of
be mentioned
the well-known
rich in starch,as
meal, which is particularly
The
animal
some
Even
a
an
value of
food.
fattening
idle horse
more
work
corn
and
pends
ex-
the
of energy
he must
258
CHEMISTRY
AND
body dailyto
is much
DAILY
above
LIFE
maintain
and
man
its temperature.
is about 38" C.,
the
prevailingtemperature of any
climate, and to maintain this temperaturefuel is required.
All of the foodstuffs
carbohydrates,fats,and proteins
fuel in the animal body to produce heat and
serve
as
may
other forms of energy ; but when fats and carbohydratesare
the proteinsof the tissues are not normally burned
available,
for this purpose.
and fats are lacking
Only when carbohydrates
will the animal burn up its proteins; and so, because the
latter are relatively
economical to have
expensive,it is more
in the diet as sources
a plentiful
supplyoffatsand carbohydrates
protein,however,
of heat and other energy, providingsufficient
when new
in growth,or when milk
to be built,
tissues are
as
is to be produced,as in the case
A working
of the milch cow.
horse needs some
protein,but uses mainly carbohydrates
and plant fats for the production of heat and work.
A
pound of fat will produce2.4 times as much heat as a pound
of carbohydrates;which will not seem
strange when it is
that fats contain relatively
much
remembered
carbon
more
than is present in carbohydrates.A pound of proteinwill
of heat as a pound of caramount
bohydrates.
produce about the same
"
The
"
260
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
tion
swallowing. After masticathe food passes down the gullet
into the stomach.
In the
case
of man, the horse,and the pig,the stomach is a singlesac,
and true digestion
In ruminants
begins here at once.
(cud
chewers),like the ox and the sheep,the stomach consists offour
is reached by the food does
sacs, and not until the fourthone
true digestion
begin. These sacs are used for storage, and
The largepaunch
they are rather complicatedin structure.
of
the
the
which
ox,
is
first compartment
reached
after
of 50
is in
food
leaves
it
mouth,
the
by
has
the
capacity
to 60 gallons. It
the paunch that
a
its
of
and
coarse
nature, it is returned
later for
the mouth
to
thoroughdividing
and mixing with saliva.
more
This
FIG. 89.
"
Stomach
of
"
The
is what
is called
horse.
on
chewing
the
cud."
paunch is thus
in the
a
much
membrane
mucous
watery
fluid
acid,and the
bination
that
two
enzymes,
pepsin and
acid is the
the
proteinsof
on
stomach.
It is
ofpepsinand
It acts
lines the
rennin.
This
com-
tion.
effective
agent in the digesthem
the food,dissolving
ANIMAL
THE
AND
ITS
261
FEED
dog
of the
that
much
higher.
are
the
to
thai is,
are
changed
proteins
simple soluble nitrogenous
substances.
utilization
of
The
coarse
feed
as
ox,
for the
reason
that
FIG. 90.
"
Stomach
of
sheep.
As
fluid which
cannot
source
be
of nutriment
absorbed, it would
directly
not
is
be
so
When
this
testine
the small in-
262
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
and (3)
(2) lipase,a fat-splitting
splitting
enzyme,
enzyme,
amylopsin, a starch-digesting
By the action of this
enzyme.
becomes
the acid chyme from the stomach
alkaline,
juice,
and the unattacked
proteins,fats, and carbohydrates are
reduced to simplercompounds, which are more
soluble in
testina
the juiceand capable of being absorbed
through the inwall. The fat undergoes but little change,but a
part of it is converted to soap, the formation of which helps
divided
to hold the rest of the fat in suspensionas very finely
that can be absorbed.
globules
The
proteins,carbohydrates,and fats of the food are
Throughdigested
by the processes justdescribed.
gradually
out the length
proceedsrapidly.
of the longintestine absorption
Water, salts,and the products of digestionpass from the
intestine into the circulating
lymph and blood. The sugars
and stored
carried to the liver,converted into glycogen,
are
temporarily,
being doled out again to the blood in constant
cells of the body
to be carried to the remotest
quantities
carried to all the cells of the body,
for fuel. The proteins
are
in the work of repair
and new
where they serve
growth. The
fatsare either depositedin the various tissues,or are used
food by the hungry and moving muscle cells.
as
with oxygen.
Here purple
In the lungsthe blood is supplied
which it
blood is changed to scarlet by the oxygen
venous
At the same
absorbs.
bon
time, a considerable quantity of cardioxide,which was formed in the burning of fuel in the
and given
is brought to the lungs by the blood stream
cells,
air contains about 21 per cent ofoxygen
up to the air. Inspired
and 0.03 per cent of carbon dioxide,while in expiredair there
is approximately16.5 per cent of oxygen and 4-4 Per ceni "f
ANIMAL
THE
carbon dioxide.
Though
263
FEED
is absorbed
oxygen
the process
here that
is not
ITS
AND
of oxidation
in the
lungs,it
of the carbon
and
Foods
the animal.
to
such
cellulose,
hays,straws,
as
the
Those
rich in
parts ofgrains,
coarse
digested.
of grains. Milk is completely
likewise differ in their ability
feeds.
to digest
coarse
and the horse will make better use of hay and straw
pig. This is mainly due to the largestorage apparatus
or
Animals
The
cow
than the
in the former
animals.
Because
of these differences in
of their nutrients
of feeds, the availability
digestibility
the
naturallydiffers.
This
of the
availability
nutrients
of foods
of
secure
knowledge
animal
in the
feeding standard.
many
of the several
digestibility
feedingmaterial determines how
of the relative
nutrients contained
an
animals.
Such
knowledge
has
It has
how
been
to
make
secured
also been
by
found
264
CHEMISTRY
AND
LIFE
DAILY
limits.
that
starch
are
used
The
The
follows
as
weight of digestibleprotein
weight of digestiblecarbohydrate +
example,the
For
100
nutritive ratio of
fat
(digestible
2.4)
is obtained
meal
corn
Ib. contain
fat.
4.3 Ib. digestible
7.9
7.9
7.9
66.7 +
The
(4.3 X 2.4)
there
66.7 +
76.02
9.32
9.6
nutritive ratio
that for
means
J^
=
~
are
9.6
This
1 : 9.6.
of corn meal is therefore
proteinin corn meal
every pound of digestible
carbohydrates and fat
pounds of digestible
many
Wolff-Lehiriann
most
scientific and
feeding standards
used.
They
were
animals
constructed
practicalexperiments
on
after
domestic
ANIMAL
THE
animals
had
made
been
AND
ITS
determine
to
the proper
are
embodied
standards.
i.e.
in what
ration
not
The
commonly
conforming to such
are
amounts
ration.
of
one
Feeding standards
265
FEED
hard and
results
ing
called feeda
standard,
digestibleprotein,
balanced
of
fastrules,because
ration.
there
are
WOLFF-LEHMANN
FOR
1000
LB.
STANDARD
LIVE
WEIGHT,
DAILY
22 pounds of milk
yielding
of average
compositionwill need daily 29 pounds of dry
protein,
matter, which shall contain 2.5 pounds of digestible
13 pounds of carbohydrates,
and 0.5 pound of fat,for every
1000 pounds of her live weight.
that animals
thrive
Practical tests have shown
generally
better when the ration is properly
balanced. A balanced ration
is
more
animal.
economical
There
is
cow
generallywaste
animal is fed
If,for instance,
an
as
in
well
an
as
unbalanced
ration which
is too
ration.
high in
266
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
LIFE
it will consume
more
carbohydratesand too low in protein,
carbohydrates than it needs in order to get the necessary
protein. Sometimes, under specialconditions,depending
the feed
on
hand
on
desirable to feed
an
and
the market
value, it is necessary
This
ration.
unbalanced
or
ever,
should,how-
ash
and
in their rations.
Narrow
rations
suit them
best.
is
ration, and
narrow
and fatscan
carbohydrates
animals, and
been found
Working
be abundant
in the rations
nutritive ration of 1
satisfactory.This is much
by
considered
it is well
as
the Wolff-Lehmann
sound
animals
10 has
wider than
of fattening
actually
that
standard, but it is
ommended
recnow
largesupply of
proteinabove that requiredfor maintenance need be supplied.
abundance of carbohydrates,
The farmer always producesan
that working and fattening
it is fortunate
and for this reason
be properlyfed with the farm-grown
animals as well can
without the purchaseof proteinconcentrates, such
materials,
as
gluten feed, bran, or oil meal. Horses working on the
of the FijiIslands receive 15 pounds of
plantations
sugar
and their feed has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 11.8.
molasses daily,
as
already stated.
no
CHEMISTRY
268
foods
Do
9.
in
residues
10.
What
is
11.
From
the
ratio
nutritive
From
12.
weighing
cow
materials
The
What
13.
pig,
working
meant
the
the
in
same
1000
oat
horse,
grain
may
and
and
feeds
large
leave
there
growing
feed
also
balanced
giving
be
gluten
feed,
in
ration
animal
the
?
calculate
the
milk.
of
ration
pounds
30
feeding,
hay
a
corn,
of
and
alfalfa
calculate
oats,
are
ratio
on
and
pounds
differences
text
tables,
available
nutritive
the
by
tables
of
foods
intestine
the
What
digestibility?
in
differ
LIFE
DAILY
AND
of
and
of
for
milk
alfalfa
dairy
daily.
hay.
fattening
XIX
CHAPTER
AND
HUMAN
foods consumed
THE
origin. The
animal
ANIMAL
FOODS
necessary
of animals
and
without
characteristic of
an
of
excess
than
the meat
protein. The
vegetable
foods is
guishing
distin-
their richness
in
a
feature which offersa strikingcontrast to
carbohydrates,
which contains practically
animal flesh,
no
carbohydrates.The
food of animal origincontaininga fair proporonly common
tion
of
The
carbohydrates is milk
with
of milk
its content
disadvantageof vegetable
foods is that they are
bulky and
as
rule but
are
Bulkiness
property
relatively
sugar.
in
vast
number
of cells the
is
It is due
that
chieflyto
is
the
to
common
largeamounts
all
vegetable
of water
contains.
The
and
green
especially
bulky ; in fact,their bulk is
of nutrients which
out of all proportion
to the small amount
Four-fifths of the weight of fruits,green
they contain.
peas, beans, cabbage,carrots, radishes,etc., is due to water.
It is probably safe to conclude, however, that the proteins.
fresh
vegetables
are
269
270
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
LIFE
in vegetables
are
equalin nutritive value
fats,and carbohydrates
substances derived from the animal kingdom.
to the same
is made
Bread
nutrition
of human
the
from
the
"
of cereals rests
made
domestic
our
on
furnish
them
from
and
in
used
animals.
they and
mineral
The
the
matter
agreeableform.
an
alone, they
cheaply,
qualities
"
These
theless,
Neverfor the
of domestic
and
oil meals
will
prominent
Indian
as
furnish the
to
serve
like
concentrates
(maize) and
corn
these
of energy.
sources
In
the
gluten feeds
protein
cereals,
some
consequently
are
and
Rice
and
panied
accom-
additional
carbohydratespredominate in
required. The
like rice and
animals, mill
teins,
pro-
"
well suited
not
are
portance
im-
products
the cereals as
distinguish
when
also enter
carbohydrates,fats, and
abundantly,
It is the basis
rations of
largelyinto the
cereals.
grainsof
have
wheat
grain contain
high
proteinin
corn
as
per
tissue.
cent
Wheat
is the most
importantcereal,but
and buckwheat
oats, barley,
character
making
of the
of
also
are
light,porous
most
light,
porous
ancient
This
bread.
The
sticky
of
foods.
and
slightly
general composition
water, 11 per cent ;
of
but
none
It
was
The
averages
the
10
protein,
Barley is one
highly esteemed
about
cereals
11
per
is about
to 12 per cent
of the
by the
in cereals
of water
amount
the
property is also
same
loaf of bread.
of greatvalue.
rice,corn,
adapts it to
of wheat peculiarly
proteins
rye,
cent.
as
The
follows
carbohydrates,
HUMAN
ANIMAL
AND
averages
to
as
run
may
high
but
grown
these
but
grainshaving thick
have
cellulosecontent
being used
Before
appliedtoo rigidly
Thus
the proteinsof
or
as
in which
low
8.5 per
as
the wheat
and
extreme
only from
Such
per cent.
be
not
17 per cent,
as
figuresare
ash,2
grain.
the climate
depending upon
cent,
of
particularsample
any
wheat
271
FOODS
unusual.
was
Most
of cellulose;
2 to 3 per cent
outer
of 10 to 12 per cent.
for human
usually
are
cellulose
powder the coarser
sifted out, and the fine product so obtained is
are
particles
meal
called flour, the term
being appliedto the coarser
out the bran, i.e.the outer coating
products. In thus sifting
this
From
ground
to
of the
grain in
matter
powder.
the
case
were
mineral
of wheat, the
made
matter
from
quantity of
the
coarser
meal, because
contained in it
Twenty-fiveyears
mineral
are
the wheat
ago
laxative
simply
was
and
taken from
Foods
the wheat
are
of protein.
been
kernel.
preparedfor
the table
by baking
acted
and
cooking,
physically,
The chemical compounds
chemically,and bacteriologically.
of which foods are composed are altered to a greateror lesser
during which
degreeby heat.
processes
In
they
are
upon
is,it is partlyhydrated,and
certain extent
so
becomes
with water
softened.
that
Further-
272
CHEMISTRY
at the
more,
changed
to
AND
DAILY
LIFE
dextrin ; but
the temperature
is not
because
change is only slight,
high enough
the
when
to
baked
dry heat,more
is
The
considerablyabove that of boilingwater.
by boiling
water, but by
sugars are not altered appreciably
dry heat they may be changed to a dark brown substance
called caramel.
During the formation of caramel, water is
given off. The dark color of the crust of the loafof bread is
oven
due to caramel.
heat.
Some
The
fats
not
are
regarded as of
any
great influence
In
general,the proteins
less soluble by the action of heat, but
all
action
on
the proteins.
The
dry heat,
the
their moisture
is converted
HUMAN
ANIMAL
AND
273
FOODS
FIG. 91.
"
(A) Popcorn
effective in
(B) Popcorn
partly popped.
Highly magnified.
fully popped.
is lowered.
palatability
lessened by adding salt
This undesirable effect will be greatly
in proper quantity.
to the water
The bacterial organisms in foods are destroyedin the process
of cooking,
provideda temperature of 150" F. is reached
extracted
and
from
maintained
of foods
them, and
so
their
rarelyreach
temperature
The
above
interior parts
200"
F. while
274
CHEMISTRY
be borne in mind
,
entlynot
at all harmful
and
water
bake
Bread
mass.
when
The
it.
with the
eaten
is
are
appar-
food.
raw
food it must
as
is to
simplestway
This
be made
may
LIFE
the bacteria
cases
flour available
manner,.
proper
DAILY
that in such
In order to make
in
AND
be cooked
it with
mix
light
by havinga
gas, carbon
dioxide,
plants,capable of breaking
and
The
alcohol.
carbon
It consists of very
used.
up
into
sugar
minute
dioxide
carbon
in
less than
much
This is relatively
water.
is from
of meat, which
a
than
littlemore
of
7 to 8 per cent
70 to 80 per
50 per
and
proteins,
at least two
carbon
obtained
commonly
is almost
known
The
carbonate
always
"
as
be
used
and
the gas
"
in
common
is
The
in
are
being
use
acid,H2C4H4O6,
tartaric
separatelyor
calcium
in combination.
All
of
these
tened,
bakingsoda and moisin the food differ
widelyin amount
productsleft
character.
that remains
which
saleratus."
or
baking soda
to decompose the baking soda
liberate the
bicarbonate, NaHC03,
sodium
to
serves
"
of tartar,KHC4H4O6,
tains
con-
(1) a
ingredients,
from
also
carbohydrates,about
2 to 3 per cent
contain
content
Bread
cent.
of
cent
the water
mixed with
It is the nature
in the bread
bakingpowder is more
and
which
amount
determines
of the residue
whether
In the
one
cream
276
CHEMISTRY
proteinstock
from
as
The
feed under
24 to 28 per
the
cent
former
brewing of
allowed to
the action
seeds.
In
It
tains
con-
been
polished
The patent barleyis simply
used in
Barley is extensively
malt
flour.
of gluten feed.
of the husk.
to
LIFE
pearlbarleyground
DAILY
name
human
after removal
the
AND
liquors.The
The
residues from
wanted
ling
brewing and distilindustries are dried. They are rich proteincattle foods,
such as brewers' grains and distillers'grains,havinga content
of 25 to 30 per cent of protein. Ajax
is such dried distillers'
grain. The cereal grain rice is extremely rich in
carbohydrates,and the common
product on the market has
been preparedby polishing
the original
seed. This polishing
was
formerly carried out by rotatingthe seeds in
process
drums lined with sheepskin,
the
but is now
done by agitating
grainswith talc.
In preparingbreakfast
foods, the entire clean grain is
in some
ground or pulverized
cases, while in others the bran
In order to improve their keepand germ are first removed.
ing
these foods are often sterilizedbefore being put
qualities,
is a preparation
Shredded wheat
up in sealed packages.
"
"
"
"
of whole
the
Force
of flakes,cooked
with
baked.
finally
"
is malted
steam.
whole wheat
By malting
or
in the form
partlypre-
"
Oatmeal
This
AND
is the whole
oat
reduces
the
ANIMAL
with
corn,
277
FOODS
the outer
cellulose content
consist of cooked
flakes
malt
HUMAN
has
been
When
removed.
materially. Corn
very
which
husk
treated
with
the amount
of
food contains is compared
food which a packageof breakfast
tcith its cost, the material is found to be quiteexpensive. The
had
cereals
better
be
bought
in proper
form
and
cooked
at
home.
The
istic
pulses include beans,peas, and lentils. The character-
these
"
bushels of potatoes.
of
compositionand
not
like the
pulsesor
the
278
CHEMISTRY
cereals.
per cent
about
being
of starch.
There
LIFE
the content
one,
DAILY
AND
75 per
is some
mainly
than
loss of material
of mineral
and
of water
cent
20
in
boiling,
proteins,
and
matter
fresh
it is consequently
slight.
nutritive value.
turnipis a vegetableof but slight
The
and
5 to 8 per cent
of
It
bohydrates.
car-
even
therefore
greater than
that in milk.
None of this carbohydrate material is starch ;
it is present in the form of pectins. The peculiar
flavorof
turnipswhich is so highlyesteemed by some
persons is due to
tritious
nucomplexsulphurcompounds. Carrots are decidedlymore
than turnips,mainly because
of their richness in
On boiling
sugar, of which they contain nearly 10 per cent.
carrots, about
is
the
favorite
25
per
of this sugar
cent
vegetablewith
German
race.
is
content
Cabbage
those
people,especially
many
It is also
is lost.
of
of the
from
10 to
12 per
The
sugar
beet
table sugar
cane
cabbage.
it contains
that
compositions
Beet
roots
of
cent
is
very
similar
richer in sugar,
taining
con-
readilyavailable carbohydrates.
of the main
one
from
are
are
10 to 20
sources
cent
per
of
our
of sucrose,
sugar.
When
would
content
from
judged strictly
seem
to
of the
delightwhich
be of littlevalue
chemical
as
fruits
standpoint,
food, owing to their low
to
the
palate and
but
the
when
the
eagerness
AND
HUMAN
with which
fruits
they are
to be
certainlyappear
normal
by
eaten
279
FOODS
ANIMAL
children
are
considered,
importanthuman
very
food.
fruit in
all of which
calcium,and iron salts,
cell.
of fruits
old.
are
first used
was
and
apples,apricots,
is present.
sugar
process
It
In
cans
placedthe
full
cans
time.
In
by
Frenchman
bottles which
or
or
usually
hundred
one
named
he
bottles in water
Appert,who
sealed.
and
years
He
then
boiled them
for
will not
ferment
due cannot
changesare
Bacteria
and
yeasts
matter.
vegetable
Some
pass
are
In fact
of them
yeasts
through the
to
which
cotton.
they
are
of almost
do great harm
such
universal
on
all
rence.
occur-
280
CHEMISTRY
of them
AND
DAILY
LIFE
beneficial. Fruits
opment
spoilbecause of the develwhich bring about chemical
of these microorganisms,
odors and flavors
as the disagreeable
changes in the tissues,
that are produced clearly
indicate. Bacteria grow luxuriantly
in foodsthat are rich in nitrogenous
if the
material,especially
foods are warm
and moist. Among such foods are meat,
most
fish,eggs,
to
are
beans, and
peas,
because
preserve
is that in warm,
of the
muggy
quickly.Bacteria
of
largeamounts
milk.
do
sugar
not
; but when
acid,and
usuallyslightly
yeasts and
so
generalthey do
It is for this
Some
vegetablefoods contain
nitrogenousmaterial that very
much
so
few
than
port
sup-
fruits
by bacteria.
acid
bacteria
and
Lemons, cranberries,
not
that canned
reason
attack them.
it
milk, etc.,spoil
freshmeat, fish,
develop in material containing
are
more
Thus
weather
present, both
are
difficult
are
present bacteria.
ever
are
bacterial growth.
All of these
and
so
little
yeasts will
or
rhubarb
belong to
this class.
The proper
of
are
checking
use
the
of
microorganisms, for
or
best way
of them
most
fifteenminutes
to
the temperature
of
But if the
water, i.e.100" C. or 212" F.
boiling
bacteria producespores, boiling
be continued for an hour
must
to insure their complete
destruction.
Yeasts and their
or more
more
easilydestroyedthan bacterial spores. Of
spores are
does not know what kinds of organisms
one
generally
course,
food that is to be canned, but it
are
present in the particular
is well known
that most
fruits are
growth of bacteria,and
destroyedby heatingfrom
of 212"
that
as
10 to 15 minutes
at
can
be
temperature
and the
// no living
organismsor spores are left,
used has been
sterilizationof all the dishes and appliances
F.
HUMAN
AND
ANIMAL
281
FOODS
i
there is no
thorough,
should not keepfor a
why
the
fruit,
ifproperlysealed,
fruit is preserved
year or longer.When
of sugar
with a large amount
(a pound of sugar to a pound
it does not need to be hermetically
of fruit),
sealed to protect
it from yeasts or bacteria,because the thick sirupformed is
not favorable
to their growth. Molds, however, will grow
fruit when thus preserved,
and it is better to seal the jars
on
in any
reason
case.
and
kind of organicmaterial.
weather molds
such
and
as
form in
on
grow
substance
containingmoisture
fine threads,which
the attacked
branch
substance.
preserves
is moisture
favorable.
develop
Molds
or
and
of
spore
their way
it
jelly,
as
on
canned
which
spores
falls upon
over
of these spores
one
tumbler
well
are
a
and work
If
from
When
in the air.
almost
upon
boiled potatoes,
breads,mush, etc.,as
always floatingabout
there
For
short time
preserved
fruits. Molds
jar of
warmth
under favorable
will
and into
drops on a
germinate,if
the temperature
is
into
282
LIFE
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
i
commonly
them
act
are
rich
are
mild laxatives.
as
among
water-containingfruits.
and this makes
and proteins,
rich in oil,
carbohydrates,
are
extremely nutritious. Bulk for bulk, dry nuts are
present
Nuts
of ash, fat,and
food materials,which
valuable
Nuts
up
doubtless
strong
contrast
among
the
to' the
nutritious foods
most
in
existence.
Their
butter
example
"
nut
butter
"
the
expressedfats
and
"
of
nuts,
beveragesso important,but
these
stimulatingand restorative
as
for
nuttolene."
It is not
makes
from
made
are
effects which
that
cocoa
rather the
peculiar
they produce. All
The
their
owe
three
alkaloids,caffeine,theine,and theobromine,
in coffee,
tea, and
relation to
somewhat
is not
one
another, and
similar.
The
the
readilyaffect
leaf,and the
cocoa
nervous
have a certain
respectively,
consequentlytheir effects are
of these
amount
beingonly from
large,
in the
cocoa
1 to 2 per cent
alkaloids in
system.
seed all
tained
con-
come
tropics.Children ought
quantities
The
not
very small
even
from
alkaloids present
plantsthat
to
are
grown
CHEMISTRY
284
AND
FIG.
in the fruits
juicebecomes
are
93.
"
DAILY
LIFE
plantation.
tea
cider ;
These
ordinary temperatures,
but
at
rapidlyat
90"-100" F.
The
and
foods of animal
milk.
These
characterized by
amount
are
a
fish,eggs,
origininclude meat, gelatin,
all
high proteinmaterials.
of fat in meat
slaughteredanimal.
composition: water,
varies
greatlywith
Lean
sirloin has
is
Meat
The
about
the
following
examination
these
are
71 per cent
found
to
be made
up
of bundles
of
HUMAN
ANIMAL
AND
Nutritive
refute,and fuel
ingredients,
Kon
Nutrients.
285
FOODS
value.
-nutrients.
Fuel
Fati.
Fuclv8lue7calorl"r~[
400
800
Refuse.
Water.
Mineral
Carbo-
hydrates.
matters.
1200
1600
2000
2400
Sugar
FIG. 94.
"
value.
Calories.
286
CHEMISTRY
AND
the
in the
legof
tender and
more
should be cut
the crab.
more
the
across
of the tubes
LIFE
fibers.
These
In
they are
meats
some
in other
fibers vary
they are
cases
much
is the
easilydigestible
Meat
meat.
for then
of the fibers,
contents
DAILY
it is easier to chew
are
it ; and
axes
since the
is also more
the connective
are
gelatines
of animals.
dissolved and
on
On
boiling
coolingthe
is crude
Glue
mass.
resultingsolution sets to a jellylike
gelatin.It is commonly made from hide clippings.The
purest form of gelatinis isinglass,which is made from the
from those of sturgeons.
swimming bladders of fish,especially
Ordinary gelatincontains 85 per cent of proteinand 12 to
13 per cent of water
jellypreparedfor the
; but the common
table at home contains only from 2 to 3 per cent of gelatin.
hydrates.
Fish, like meat, contains protein,
fat,and littleor no carboIn localities near
the sea, fish is the cheapestsource
of protein. The
composition of the different food fish is
is usuallyabout
somewhat
variable,but the water content
60 per cent, the remainder
being bones, protein,fat, etc.
The proteincontent
varies from 10 to 16 per cent.
in the
Next to milk, eggs are the most wonderful
foodstuff
world.
Just
as
milk
requiredby
are
new
contains
the various
life that
of it may
chemical
lies dormant
within
its
in the egg
so
young,
uents
nutritive constit-
are
necessary
mass.
jellylike
there
for the
Out
and fats,
but
proteins,
no
The
carbohydrates.
average
weight
HUMAN
of
about
of water, and
87 per cent
more
per cent
of water, and
1 per
is yolk. The
is nearlya pure
1 per cent
of the latter,
of ash.
Some
kind,called lecithins;
of the yolk are of a special
in phosphorus(seeChapter IX).
In addition to the
from
them, which
there
are
on
the
serve
as
bulky foods
the farm.
silage.As
grainsand
These
are
the various
yolk
15 to
16
of the fats
these
rich
are
productsprepared
and
man
The
of mineral matter.
cent
shell
solution of
It contains from
per cent
is
of which
cent
and
proteinalbumen,
the
11 per
32 per cent
white
The
of lime.
is carbonate
287
FOODS
about
ounces,
57
shell,
is
is two
hen's egg
ANIMAL
AND
are
animals,
so
common
and
hays,straws, cornstalks,
corn
and
foddersare rich in carbohydrates
but they differ greatlyamong
themselves,
poor in proteins,
dependingupon the kind of plantfrom which they are made.
Thus
the hays made
from such plantsas timothy,
redtop,
and June grass are comparatively
and rich in
poor in protein
celluloseor crude fiber.They contain about 6 per cent of
proteinand as much as 30 per cent of crude fiber. The rest
of the plant consists chieflyof available carbohydrates.
These
available carbohydrates,however, are
not
really
starches and sugars ; they are more
like cellulosein character.
In contrast to the hays made from the above-named
grasses,
those from the legumes,
such as the cloversand alfalfa,
contain
from 12 to 15 per cent of proteinand nearlyas much crude
fiber and available carbohydratesas the hays of the firstmentioned
rule these
group.
pounds
of crude
but 300
to 400
An
acre
protein while
pounds.
of
an
alfalfa will
acre
This is the
of
reason
produce 1600
timothy
why
will
the
yield
legume
of
The
288
CHEMISTRY
AND
high
namely, from
FIG. 95.
after the
ears
40
as
per
straws
3 to 5 per cent.
"
An
alfalfa field.
have
been
considered.
generally
nearly furnish a maintenance
it contains about 19
field-cured,
of other
40
carbohydrates,
per
stover
"
It has
"
which is left,
has
been
higherfeeding
found
that
cent
taining
con-
caps
harvested
fiber,often
Corn
The
barley,
timothy, redtop,
rich in
are
cent, and
value than
will
feeds than
poorer
LIFE
as
generallyconsidered
are
DAILY
of
30
fiber,
of water, and
it
When
per cent
3 to 4 per
cent of
protein.
It is becoming common
is grown
wherever corn
to
practice
cut it before the kernel is hard and glazedand store it in a
silo. There are probably 100,000 silos in America, and 95
plant. Silage can
per cent of these are filledwith the corn
be made from beet leaves,
beet waste, pea vines from the canneries,
and to some
extent also from cloverand alfalfa
is the
; but corn
FIG. 96.
"
modern
concrete
silo.
(289)
290
CHEMISTRY
main
plantused
AND
as
to
silo
soon
down
exclude
acids,alcohols,and carbon
proteinspresent
plantsbreak
dioxide,and
of the
some
acids formed
partlydigested. The
are
material in the
of the
sugars
harvested
firmlypacked
possible.The
the
warm;
When
air as
much
as
becomes
to
LIFE
at
DAILY
are
making
of
have
silage.They
estimated
been cured
Silageis
fed.
to
amount
probably smaller
are
were
to
at
same
been
handling.
than
on
if the
the field.
when
it is
no
waste
in
vegetable foods?
QUESTIONS
Name
foods in which
some
this is an
Name
the cereal
3.
What
is the effect of
very
of the
some
bread
makes
5.
What
is glutenfeed,and
6.
much
How
How
sugar
principalnutrient in
8.
What
9.
What
causes
much
the
How
does it affect
baking powder?
meal ?
corn
meal ?
corn
is there in fresh
is there in
walnut
is
compositionfrom
water
How
how
"force"
do beans differ in
starchytuber.
7.
on
flakes" and
"corn
How
What
are
which
baking
4.
What
exception.
grains. From
2.
does
is the
What
1.
sugar
Name
cabbage?
beet?
What
is the
of fruit?
spoiling
How
can
it be
yeast and
prevented?
mold
Name
11.
How
How
does
some
does
corn
292
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
LIFE
forthe growthand
development
of young animals. It is a complete food, and
and selecting,
veloped
has deman
throughcareful feeding,
breeding,
the dairycow
much
milk
so that she now
more
yields
is needed
than
the milk.
for her
Some
have
cows
their weight
ofmilk in
producedfrom
year,
or
nature
ten
of this
albumen, milk
sugar,
and
ash.
few
but they
present in small quantities,
importance. The
milk is
average
about the
same
as
that in fresh
composition of
and
of cows
Fat
Casein
2.5
Albumen
0.7
Sugar
5.1
Ash
0.7
milk
is very
high,being
vegetables.
varies
The
dairy
as
cow
of littlepractical
breeds,such
are
rich in
substances
Solids
breeds
water, fat,casein,
other
are
most
follows :
as
Water
The
fifteentimes
quantityannually.
substances :
composedof the following
M ilk is
to
intended
over
of them
whom
for
offspring,
is not
sure
the
depends upon
sign of
cow
herself. A
cow
more
givesher largestflow
of milk after the calf is a few weeks old,but the nutrients of the
milk
increase
gradually
advances
and
the udder
as
in
quantityas
is very
The
the
periodof lactation
firstmilk drawn
from
called
low in fat,while the last fraction,
MILK
milk, will
stripper
a
notion
common
by the kind
AND
have
much
as
293
PRODUCTS
as
10 per
cent
of feeds which
FIG.
ducted
ITS
97.
"
cow
But
eats.
pure-bred Jersey
It is
be increased
many
well-con-
cow.
that such
is very
influence
at all.
slight,
ifindeed the composition
ofmilk can thus be affected
The
fat occurs
in milk in the form of small globules.
They
are
experiments have
can
offat.
very
minute
proven
in size and
it would
take about
6000
of
them
cream
skimmed
separator, while
milk.
the
smallest
ones
remain
in the
294
CHEMISTRY
Casein
to
DAILY
AND
LIFE
is the principal
body in the milk and
nitrogenous
the skimmed
the milk
from
by the addition
of
It
gives
be separated
can
acid,or by the
an
action of rennet.
skimmed
milk
are
firm curd.
treated
with
To-day largeamounts
sulphuric acid.
(B)
(A)
FIG. 98.
"
The
compared.
milk.
and
When
rennet
the
tablets
are
facture
manu-
countless other
The
dried rennet.
of most
The
the
This
forms
forms
of cheese.
albumen
in milk
is,
probablyof
to the growing calf,but is not used commercially as a
use
separate product. It may be obtained by boilingthe whey
which is left after removing the casein.
has already been
is a carbohydratewhich
Milk
sugar
nitrogenouscompound.
of course,
also
described
It is
It is obtained
from
the milk
ITS
AND
MILK
295
PRODUCTS
for butter
making, requiresmore
cheese
or
than any
care
be
givento
the surroundings
of the cow, to the actual process of milking,
and to the placewhere
to the dishes in which the milk is placed,
other
work
it is
kept.
on
the farm.
When
These
these
favorable temperatures
hours
singlebacterium
which
millions,
are
all so
may
form of plant
previouschapters. At
bacteria grow rapidly. In 24
mentioned
been
they have
are
in
increase in numbers
are
not
to
several
noticed
cept
ex-
milk
cause
to
curdle.
milk to
sour
The
notion
common
that
thunderstorms
is entirely
erroneous.
Disease-producing
germs
or
bacteria
oftenintroduced
tuberScarlet fever,
are
296
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
and
culosis,
cholera,
typhoidfever,
and
spreadin
this way.
The
LIFE
throat may
sore
fly is
house
be carried
great carrier of
be
named
"
only 60"
to
80" C.
thus
is heated
affected,
slightly
killed and the keeping
are
at
MILK
of
qualities
various
the milk
substances
milk
human
common
use
"
!"
cyhc
acid',
for-
r*
"o"fS
"
of bacteria
chief
The
hi sufficient
added
growth, the
be
can
becomes
milk
in
preservatives
^^fl
"
Q^
"
"""
"
o
maldehyde, and
""O'00oVo o 'ocpi
V '.$"
.*"
acid.
6^6cn"^"-" ^
"*8"foS"Shft
in any
use
bacterial
By adding
are
acid, sail-
Their
growth
consumption.
boric
benzoic
the
however, antisepticsare
quantitiesto prevent
unfit for
297
PRODUCTS
materiallyincreased.
are
to
prevented. When,
ITS
AND
'
quantity is generallyprohibited
6
FIG.
"~""
u
lOO.
Pure
"
and
impure milk.
long black
The
and this
bylaw;
is
methods
because when used theyshow that uncleanly
right,
are
of milk production
beingpracticed.Milk produced under
clean, sanitaryconditions,and
as
it is necessary
The
for
fat of milk
removed, what
milk with
well
transportationto
exists in
the milk
the
cityand
globuleswhich
After
stands.
tend
long
as
the
to
sumer.
con-
rise to
been
milk.
Cream
is
allowed to stand
The
cream
Not
80 per cent
is then removed
with
in this
from
to
36
concaved
slightly
indeed,only
way;
24
cans
hours.
ladle.
about
In the deep-
298
CHEMISTRY
foot in
one
ice-cold water.
AND
The
DAILY
LIFE
diameter,which
then
are
placedin
operationis
cream
practically
completein 12 hours. In this way
be removed, dependingupon
cent of the fat can
90 to 95 per
the conditions
of
nipulation,
cooling,ma-
and
the breed
of the
whose
cow
is thus
milk
treated.
Because
of its
the
globules,
small
the
fat of
Hoi-
completely
as
removed
that
as
of the Jerseymilk
by
this process.
Cream
tors
separa-
machines
are
which
are
in
now
generaluse.
them
the
into
runs
which
In
milk
a
bowl
is revolving
several
FIG.
101. -A
minute.
to
heavy
to
as
modern
This
revolvingtends
throw
the
times
heavy
of the bowl.
of the cover,
The
or
edge of
the bowl.
of the bowl
cover
fat,can
milk
ticles
par-
the center
the
thousand
to
near
separator.
cream
from
escape
escapes
There
are
from
many
is so
as
come
structed
con-
the center
the
opening
makes
different
300
CHEMISTRY
from
sweet
AND
is
cream
usuallynot
more
Ordinary market
salted.
It contains
salt. Under
oil,"milk,and
not
Law, butter
than
more
"
oil.
"
Oleo
Neutral
colored
oil
oil
is much
used
by churning together
small amount
"
"
is the
16
to imitate
as
as
"
must
tain
con-
part of the
does not
vary
substitute for
"
of cottonseed
oil and
peanut
in which
butter,
it is taxed
case
formed.
The
granularmass
which
Numerous
due
are
liquidfat
up
as
churned
with
cooling.This
made
are
the milk
albumen
in the
whey. Only
made
two
made
extract
is made
calf with
which
cheese
causes
of rennet
making, the
milk is warmed
Rennet
cheese
In the process
and
and
is
to the milk.
contains
to 84" F.
of
monly
com-
are
ash
cheese
namely, Cheddar
small amount
of the
Cheddar
rennet
All
largepart of the
is then worked,
in this country,
by addinga
pleasant
un-
milk, and
from milk.
are
the
butter.
kinds of cheese
are
and
to
is then
is obtained upon
salted,and made
of
cent
per
10 cents per
odors
of
is melted
yellowso
of water,
12 per cent
butter.
sour-cream
water.
Oleomargarine, which
what
some-
Food
of fat and
cent
per
LIFE
casein than
82.5
DAILY
of the
ferment
of Cheddar
"
"
ripened
MILK
to
0.25 per
cent
ITS
AND
acidity. Rennet
warmed, which
After
beingmaintained
into
off and
solid mass.
causes
for
warm
one
when
In this process
in the curd.
entangledmechanically
is now
is drawn
301
PRODUCTS
to two
The
the
vat
harden.
This is now
FIG.
102.
"
passedthrougha grindingmill,
put into
lowed
at a temperature of from 50" to 60" F. and alcuringrooms
to ripen. When
three to four months old,it is put on
the cheese at a temperaof ripening
the market.
The practice
ture
The process
as low as 30" F. is coming into generaluse.
of making cottage cheese is substantially
Instead
as follows.
of adding rennet
be allowed to
to curdle the milk, it may
it may
be soured by adding a
stand until it is sour;
or
A starter is a powder, containing
starter."
livingbacteria,
"
302
CHEMISTRY
which
will
AND
DAILY
LIFE
when
added
The
to
milk.
whey, and
after
of cheese.
Cheddar
per
cent
per
cent
salt.
fat,28
contains about
per
and
Some
high as
skimmed
50
cent
per
before
Milk
of water.
beingcoagulatedwith
its manufacture
There
are
stillother
skimmed
The
water.
third
milk
or
more
from
milk is evaporatedin
even
product,
milk
may
milk isa
is used when
partly
the product
rennet, and
In many
cheese.
the market.
whole
milk
certain
partly
to
pans
Condensed
In many
or
densed
Con-
portionof
largevacuum
of its original
volume.
the
same
is sometimes
prohibited.
dairy productson
by evaporatingoff
in
extensively
composition.
is
is manufactured
milk
Roquefort, contain
34
casein and
cent
is made
cheese, which
some
as
Swiss
cheese
cases
the
one-
milk should
cane
sugar
in
contain
40
per
good substitute
cent
of
cane
sugar.
or
be obtained,as
on
cream,
sea
densed
Conand it
voyages,
MILK
cream
milk
the
AND
ITS
latter is the
303
PRODUCTS
better.
Ice
cream
consists of
material,and sometimes
flavoring
stances
cornstarch,gelatin,
or
tragacanth. The last three subgum
added to give the ice cream
smoothness
and
are
body.
No two thingshave done more
to revolutionize the dairy
industrythan the cream
separatorand a simple test forfat.
or
cream,
sugar,
FIG.
The
103.
eggs,
"
Babcock
run
by
steam.
cream
tester
Babcock
was
invented
of the Wisconsin
is a
in America
by
fessor
Pro-
Experiment Station
the milk
simplemeans
oftesting
forits amount offat. By its use the dairyman can determine
which of his.cows
are
paying their board, and in this way he
ascertain the value of a cow
for butter produccan
definitely
tion.
Knowing the per cent of butter fat in the milk and the
to
quantity of milk produced,it becomes an easy matter
compute justhow much butter fat is beingproduced. Again,
The
Babcock
test
304
on
CHEMISTRY
creameries
tester
has become
fat content
Babcock
watering milk
Babcock
has
DAILY
be
can
and
LIFE
paid for
cheese factories.
and
but too
Since the
practice
common
largelydisappeared.Coupled with
test
on
an
every
of
AND
the
adulteration there
equallyimportantinstrument,called
This instrument resembles a floating
thermometer
the lactometer.
(seeFig.107). Its purpose is to determine the specific
milk has a specific
gravityof
gravityof milk. Normal
1.029-1.034,and if the fat is partlyremoved, the specific
adds water, he
gravityis raised ; but if the adulterator now
bring the specific
gravityback to that of normal milk.
may
The
tampering with
use
the milk.
more
the amount
casein
of
it
test;
test for
payment
proper
fatand
at
method
This
Station in 1907.
Babcock
devised
was
is known
This
casein in milk.
the Wisconsin
is almost
as
at
factories.
cheese
as
the
Hart
Experiment
simple as the
the problem of
With
cheese-yielding
capacity
of the
both the
milk
can
be determined.
QUESTIONS
1.
What
2.
About
much
Which
4.
What
5.
How
6.
What
has the
is the
would
from ?
What
does
principaluse
you
come
sugar
from
milk ?
MILK
AND
STEPHEN
Scientist and
test has
inventor
revolutionized
X
MOULTON
ITS
305
PRODUCTS
BABCOCK.
1843-.
dairying.
bears
his
name,
This
306
CHEMISTRY
What
7.
whether
is
should
they
Name
antiseptic?
an
DAILY
AND
allowed
be
ever
LIFE
antiseptics
two
in
Give
milk.
and
state
for
reason
your
answer.
Name
8.
fat
is
there
does
there
in
butter
10.
Describe
11.
How
is
sometimes
fail
and
oleomargarine
Cheddar
How
much
to
How
come
much
water
butter
how
milk.
from
cream
cream
ordinary
separating
of
ways
good
in
Why
9.
is
three
cheese
renovated
and
made,
butter
what
is
its
are
general
made.
position
com-
Who
12.
it
was
be
used
13.
done
invented
?
Of
at
cheese
What
is
the
what
is
importance
factories
used
commonly
lactometer,
for
payment
and
what
fat
it ?
of
is
for
test
What
milk
it
used
milk,
two
for
and
tests
where
should
CHEMISTRY
308
DAILY
AND
LIFE
FIG.
FIG.
105
105
are
(A).
"
(B).
"
San
Jose scale
San
Jose
scale
on
on
an
an
to breathe.
manner
are
called
tact
con-
poisons.
poisons generally contain
Stomachic
present not
as
arsenic, which
as
is
POISONS
also known
FOR
white arsenic
as
ORCHARD
AND
FARM
arsenious acid,or
or
arsenate.
water, it nevertheless
that corrodes
discarded.
an
"
burns
or
In
fact,any
insecticide must
"
as
more
or
lead
these compounds
White
not
arsenic
was
has
first
copiouslysoluble
in
to yielda solution
sufficiently
foliage.It was
arsenical poisonthat
the
therefore
soon
is to be used
littleuncombined
have wry
some
Green
Paris
of
'composition
exact
309
PESTS
white
as
arsenic,
As2Os, in it.
Paris
is at
green
compositionis expressed
by the formula Cu3As2O6 Cu(CaHsOi)2. This poison is
prepared by adding a hot solution of arsenious acid to a hot
swallow
solution
of copper
separates
out
Paris green
as
acetate.
fine
is almost
this mixture
From
powder
of
color.
brightgreen
Paris green
Pure
it will
readily
dissolve in ammonia
solution being dark
water, the resulting
This is a test by means
blue.
in
of which certain impurities
Paris green may
be detected. Thus, if a sample of the substance
is adulterated
with gypsum,
white
settle out
finally
on
separate out, it of
course
insoluble in ammonia
also be
as
in
suspension
the bottom
not
the ammonia
of the
only shows
are
sometimes
that
present.
occurs,
water
the
and
glass. If no solids
which are
impurities
The
glasstest
may
310
CHEMISTRY
of acetic acid.
cent
per
acid, 31
of arsenious
cent
AND
DAILY
These
oxide and
of copper
cent
per
LIFE
10
all
chemicallycombined
mula
compositionis indicated by the forare
compound, whose
given above. Paris green should not contain over 5 per
burn the foliage.
cent offreearsenious acid,or it will seriously
in spraying,from 6 to 8 ounces
For use
of Paris green should
be thoroughly
worked into a paste with a littlewater, and then
In addition,about 2 pounds of
added,to 50 gallonsof water.
in
one
"
as
free arsenious
"
marker
the
on
sprayed
plants.
purple is
London
poison which
arsenical
an
ported
first im-
was
It is
England as a substitute for Paris green.
with slaked lime a purple,arsenious acid
preparedby boiling
bearingresidue from the dye industry. Arsenite of lime is
thus formed, together
with some
arsenate, which contains more
than the arsenite. London purpleis more
injurious
oxygen
of free
than good Paris green, because of its content
to foliage
arsenious acid. It should alwaysbe used with lime.
from
Lead
and
arsenate
first used
was
recommended
was
againstthe
by addinglead
These
dissolved in water.
the cold and react
Pb3(AsO4)2.
when
once
This
insecticide in 1892
an
It
caterpillar.
tent
solution to sodium
acetate
also
readily in
it adheres wry
is prepared
arsenate
dissolve
substances
sodium
to form
dried it
It is the most
acetate
as
For
to the
tenaciously
spraying purposes
use.
leaves and
thermore,
Furis least
pounds of the
commonly
proportion
two
is the
used.
Hellebore
is the
is often recommended
ground
root
of the
as
an
insect
poison. This
poke-rootplant. Pyrethrum,
or
FOR
POISONS
insect
FARM
AND
comes
from
powder, which
ORCHARD
311
PESTS
Both of these
is another poisonof similar character.
plants,
materials contain poisonoussubstances,but they deteriorate
much
with age.
Contact
poisons may
act
insects.
Lime-
sulphur was
first
employed in
this
country
as
sheepdip,but
its
1886
in
use
now
either
FIG.
106.
"
purchased in the
commercial
form
or
made
at
simple home-made
arrangement
making lime-sulphur.
home.
It may
be
for
prepared
then added
for 45 minutes.
to the
The
the
mass
is boiled
boiled by
passing
bines
throughit. During the heatingprocess, the lime comwith the sulphurformingcalcium sulphides
of variable
there results a yellowto orange
composition. On standing,
colored solution,
under which is an insoluble sludge. This
steam
312
AND
CHEMISTRY
DAILY
LIFE
consists of undissolved
calcium sulphite,
and calcium
sulphur,
stantly
sulphate.During the boiling,the solution should conmark
be kept up to the 50-gallon
by adding water
it evaporates. When
finished,the clear liquidshould be
as
strained off and tightly
barreled,because it does not keep
with the air,which oxidizes it.
in contact
For
scale
exterminating
of
the purpose
of
the
Baume
marks
For
is meant
solution must
to test
that the
but
strength
adjusted that a
hydrometer (Fig.107) will sink to the
mentioned
before the liquidis used.
It
is believed that
so
the tree
on
decompose
be
liquid
work,
summer
By this
1" Baume.
insects the
and
the calcium
phides
sul-
as
Kerosene
It
FIG.
107.
Baume
"
use.
kills
mixed
were,
insecticide. Kerosene
be
an
emulsion
of
compound
prepared from
IX).
as
of kerosene
and
with
keep
because
it will not
kerosene
mix
must
it
material that will carry the oil,
as
it from
separatingout from the mixture.
some
usuallyemployed. Kerosene
emulsion may
be made
one
pound of soap in 2.5
by dissolving
gallonsof water, then adding 2.5 gallonsof kerosene to the
the entire
solution,and
thoroughlymixing by pumping
mixture througha bucket sprayer.
Diluted to from 20 to 30
For
this purpose
soap
is
POISONS
FOR
the mixture
gallons,
suckinginsects.
Tobacco
AND
FARM
be
may
decoctions
so
hot water
108.
Plant
"
extracts
againstscale
and
other
germicides;as
of the
poisonousproperties
lice
(aphis)on
as
maple
the
313
PESTS
they contain.
FIG.
used
also be used
can
ORCHARD
as
burn tobacco in
an
leaf.
tobacco
insecticide. It is
are
made,
tice
prac-
common
to get rid of
greenhouses
certain
plant
lice.
Gaseous
insecticides
difficultto
particularly
acid gas
are
often used
attack.
is the most
Of
againstinsects that
are
effective. Cyanides
are
deadly
314
CHEMISTRY
poisons and
should
AND
DAILY
be handled
never
LIFE
with
the
fingers(see
by treating
one
of it may
be inhaled.
means
make
its action
closed
rooms
or
To
gas is
be fatal ; it should
effective,it should
under
or
buildings,
treatment
The
be
deadly poison
therefore
by
plantand
applied in tightly
tents,
the orange
on
as
trees
the
is done
in the
of California.
Fungicides
are
materials
for the
plantscalled fungi.
parasitic
use
is Bordeaux
control of the
4
mixture, which
The
destruction
of certain
in
chief
fungicide
in France
originated
common
for the
It is made by suspending
downy mildew on grapes.
pounds of copper sulphate(alsocalled blue vitriol
316
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
the copper
is
composition.When
appliedto the foliage,
slowlybrought into solution by the action of the carbon
dioxide of the air, and
the pest.
thus becomes
lime should
The
always be
active
in
in
destroying
Bordeaux,
in
excess
and
Bordeaux
mixture is filteredand
solution of
brown
a
potassium ferrocyanideis added to the filtrate,
of copper
phate
precipitate
ferrocyanideforms if free copper sulis present.
alone has
To make
an
should be added.
of 4
There
and
productof
market
as
barn
green
or
lead arsenate
poisons that
which
formaldehyde,is
the
causes
This is
stillother
are
or
is
either Paris
insecticide,
to 50
ounces
the home
mixture
and it
fungicide,
effective poisonous action upon
plant insects.
no
it
Bordeaux
used
sometimes
in
be
malin,
discussed. Forbriefly
that is,it
powerfuldisinfectant;
must
a
are
complete destruction
of disease germs.
alcohol,and is put
38 to 40 per cent
solution in water.
It is
For
on
the
killing
spores
Mercuric
on
One
ammonium
chloride
to
It is put up
hasten
common
in tablet forms
sufficiently
strong solution
to kill
FOR
POISONS
most
Corrosive sublimate
germs.
insoluble
forms
antidote
or
eggs
of lime
Chloride
with
compounds
forit is raw
or
ORCHARD
AND
FARM
317
PESTS
poison,and
proteins.Consequentlyan
is
stomachic
milk.
bleaching powder
and bleaching
agent. It is a
disinfecting
powder preparedby passingchlorine into slaked lime. It
is
common
very
always
has
strong odor
The
and
other
and
chloride behind.
oxygen
germs
leavingcalcium
its oxygen,
slowly givesup
It is unstable
of chlorine.
destroys
organicmatter.
is made
settle.
to
allowing the precipitate
soda and
clear solution
The
is
employed.
of the cheapestand most usefulof the
well
It will destroy organicmatter
various disinfectants.
as
bacteria,and therefore it is useful in disposingof the
as
alone
Lime
is
one
serves
as
water
to
"
milk
whitewash
have
which
bodies of animals
in barns
and
of lime
"
it must
with
pump,
spray
be
has
disease; it also
some
pens.
lime
died of
good
Sixty parts of
whitewash
or
for air-slaked
freshto be active,
When
no
germicidal
plied
appower.
will enter
whitewash
the cracks in
stables,etc., and
a
house
The
for liceand
burning
;
vermin.
of
sulphur is
but it is not
very
one
destroy the
spores
oldest methods
infecti
of dis-
stroys
Sulphur dioxide debut it does
lifein general,
reliable.
of the
of bacteria.
In
the presence
of moisture. Sulphur
sulphur dioxide requires
tage
be procuredeverywhere, and it has the further advanmay
that it is cheap. In fumigatingwith sulphur proceedas
318
CHEMISTRY
follows
In
inches.
will
In
AND
washtub
bricks
this,
placeseveral
stones, which
or
LIFE
to
depth of
water
put
DAILY
bricks
flatstones
or
about two
water
about
four
that they
so
inches.
Upon
the
tub, placean
the bricks.
Now
been
alcohol
or
in alcohol.
strong
even
that about
so
paper
soaked
rum
with
sulphur.
and
As
soon
with
alcohol
as
not
dioxide is gone.
match
Mount
in the
end
upper
be
the
burningwell,leave
the
opened so
inhabited
burn
to
tightly. After
may
be
lightthe
this
will be communicated
the alcohol is
It should
will do.
which
denatured
or
room
The
paper.
alcohol
whisky
or
Wood
air the
to
room
of sulphur
will
officer
attend to the
are
used
balls.
in
naphthaline. The
dips.
These
are
are
from
which
are
zeno-
products,as
sprayed upon
flies.
sulphuras
latter
These
contain tobacco
are
not
as
ef-
FOR
POISONS
fective
FARM
AND
ORCHARD
as
In
319
PESTS
of the factthat
mew
so
of
many
could
or
the
nook
be any
seldom
or
of the house
corner
need of chemical
infectan
dis-
and typhoid
diphtheria,
oftuberculosis,
in six to eighthours. The
feverare killed by direct sunlight
is not nearlyso
diffused sunlightwhich reaches our
rooms
and it usuallyrequiresseveral
powerfulas direct sunlight,
days for it to destroygerm life. Another common
agentfor
bacteria is heat.
It may
be employed dry, as by baking
killing
The germs
in
an
Dry heat is
moist
or
oven,
not
as
All germs
heat.
as
by boilingwith
water
or
steam.
effective in
destroyinggerms as moist
clothingmay be destroyedby boiling
in
lyehas
been added.
QUESTIONS
1.
Name
classes of
2.
two
poisonsused
What
poisons?
is the
What
Paris green
in which
ways
to exterminate
common
is Paris green
for purity.
Why
4.
How
may
For what
do
the two
insects act ?
made
be
of ?
Give
two
ways
paste ?
Why
should
purchased as
lime-sulphurbe prepared ?
How
3.
5.
insects feed.
for testing
high-
purpose
is kerosene
emulsion
used ?
Why
is soap
320
CHEMISTRY
What
6.
is
in
excess
8.
What
9.
Name
how
it
10.
be
avoided
Bordeaux
preparation
its
is
formalin
the
DAILY
used
in
when
using
mixture,
LIFE
killing
this
and
why
can
it
gophers,
ants,
substance
should
etc.
is
Why
lime
be
used
in
and
chemical
whitewash
when
elements
in
be
used
advantageously
bleaching
good
material
to
be
What
is
the
action
powder.
State
acts.
hen-houses
11.
is
What
7.
substance
flames
should
Why
the
AND
of
sunlight
on
germs
used
in
stables
and
XXII
CHAPTER
TO
EXPERIMENTS
PRACTICAL
PERFORMED
BE
LABORATORY1
THE
MANIPULATION
LABORATORY
IN
fileacross
triangular
or
three
times
(Fig. 110)
at the placewhere
the glassis to be
Then
cut.
the
take
tube
hands
in
and
the
with
the thumbs
placed
together,
near
FIG.
just back
of
110.
"
the
break, make
(Fig.111).
deeper scratch.
same
time
pressing
If the tube is
large,it may
be necessary to filearound the glass. The broken edgeswill
be sharp and should be rounded by rotatingthem in the tip
of
Bunsen
burner.
"
are
Lists of apparatus
given
students
at the
use
Y
end
proper
and
chemicals
of this
care
322
CHEMISTRY
AND
DAILY
LIFE
tube and
heat
it until it
weight; then
from
desired
FIG.
111.
"
tube
and
bore
of the tube
will not
contract
or
fully
care-
shape.
is heated
not
it
remove
too
If
the
uniformly
highly,the
(See Fig.113.)
In
FIG.
Fittingcorks
to
tubing. Select
112.
"
glass
cork of
flask to be used.
or
cork press,
by means
ing
or by roll-
it between
the desk
and
block
Select
of
cork
smaller
slightly
tube
Place
to
the
be
borer
than the
inserted.
cork
wood.
on
the
throughit,
FlG"
bends
113'~Goodt^ngadglass
"f
324
CHEMISTRY
to
on
into
the shelf
AND
table.
or
DAILY
When
another,a glassrod,held
as
LIFE
down
Filtering. This
ordinarily
the separation
116.
Folding
"
of
filter.
liquidfrom
wooden
stand.
solid.
arm
of
at
The
folded
filter
is three
of which
does not
quitereach
FIG.
fit,vary
paper
the
"
If the paper
does not
use.
it does.
until
foldingslightly
placethe
Now
againstthe
The
117.
the top.
filteris now
ready for
use
to
gentlywith
remove
(Fig.117).
any
the
fingers
air bubbles.
PRACTICAL
LABORATORY
Heating liquidsin
test tubes.
full.
one-third
Hold
325
EXPERIMENTS
it between
only about
FIG.
shown
may
In
in
118.
Fig. 118.
Heating
"
liquid in
test-tube holder
test tube.
or
band
of paper
observations and
conclusions
notebook,which
and
in
neatlyand carefully
suggestions
upon
completion
of
each
his
tory
labora-
for
rections
cor-
ment.
experi-
326
CHEMISTRY
AND
EXPERIMENTS
TO
Chemical
1.
of rock
and
(1) Grind
CHAPTER
physical changes.
Examine
such
its properties,
crystallineform.
piecein
LIFE
ACCOMPANY
Notice
candy.
DAILY
Has
mortar.
and
Does
stir with
the sugar
the
add
its taste.
changed?
littleof the
Taste
(3) Heat
piece
its color,
as
taste
glassrod.
stillexist?
Describe
powdered candy
the solution.
of the
5 grams
Taste
in water?
resemble?
Has
there been
platinum wire
Was
there
and
shake.
or
What
a
pieceof
the residue.
Will it dissolve
does the
substance
new
chemical
no
Use
flame
Pour
on
some
bisulphide sparingly.
in
room
dangerous
more
into
carbon
watch
the
the
working
gasoline. Does
than
off the
while
liquidfrom
the
Remember
with
the
solve?
sulphur disundissolved sulphur
watch
powdered
glass?
iron.
dissolve in carbon
Is
Test
it like
it with
sulphur?
a
it,for it
magnet.
residue
(2) Examine
See if it will
PRACTICAL
LABORATORY
Chemical
with
small
tube
to
cool.
way
up
down
part
this to
run
the
tube
There
is
from
Test
black
by
TO
Electrolysisof
The
acid,for
pure
Note
with
II
shown
as
conduct
four
or
Can
substance ?
new
acidulated
slightly
Three
amine
ex-
been.
magnet.
experimentis to
will not
and
glow had
CHAPTER
This
distilledwater
well.
sufficiently
it open
the
ACCOMPANY
be
allow
not
iron in the
water.
used should
water
where
the instructor.
Do
phur
sul-
material
sulphuror
EXPERIMENTS
4.
tube.
be dissolved out
the
detect either
you
littlemelted
sulphurcan
tube
test
mass
of
mixture
experiment in
probably a
with
mix
of the
rest
When
of the tube.
the
Heat
the
and
down
the
mixture ?
When
flame.
on
the above
coal, remove
red-hot
of it
change.
iron from
sulphur and
327
EXPERIMENTS
dry
be done
in
with
Fig.1.
sulphuric
the electriccurrent
cells will suffice.
of gas formed
in the two
arms.
5.
Explosion of hydrogen
be done
is to
by
and
the
mixture.
oxygen
who
instructor,
of water,
oxyhydrogen gas by electrolysis
mixture
is effected by
Salts in well
well water
on
evaporate. The
over
water.
watch
will prepare
mercury.
periment
ex-
the
The
plosion
ex-
of the electricspark,
the apparatus
beingarrangedas
means
tube
This
Place
some
shown
in
Fig.2.
ordinary service
or
328
the watch
glasson
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
bath.
hot water
LIFE
Note
in the dish.
7.
as
shown
flask.
in
water.
Observe
the water
cc.
collect 100
cc.
is
before and
of the distillateby
watch
there
Is
result compare
8.
Water
with
any
some
50 grams
of each in
Then
of them
with
minutes
the
residue
wheat
or
carrot,
corn
on
How
left?
of
few
clean
does
(1) Take
or
potato
some
to
this
weighed dishes
a
warm
glassplate. Window
plateswill be dimmed
of tinned
green
represent a
samples of seed.
as
odor
Evaporate
gentleheat
substances.
plant,also
root, and
and
denser.
con-
that of experiment 6?
in various
leaves of any
in the
of the distilled
taste
after distillation.
cubic centimeters
glass.
of water
runningthrough the
in the
the difference
apparatus
an
up
200 to 300
sure
Set
distilled water.
Preparation of
Weigh
iron
or
lain.
porce-
placeand cover
glasswill do. In
over
with water
out
each
a
few
that has
been
9.
driven
Amount
that the
out
of
the
of water
in
plant. When
it has been
seen
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
plant. Take
the
gentlyover a
has been
everythingpossible
flame
Ash
10.
9 and
heat
it
of the
cent
In the
ash which
white
or
gray
the
in
dry
in the
elements
ash
carbonates,chlorides,and
off.
There
are
2 to 5 per
removingthe water.
found, but these are
wherever it
as
will remain
from
to
was
The
grown.
phosphates,sulphates,
silicates. The
of calcium and
the presence
elements
present
are
left after
the plant,or
whatever
same
in
experiment
porcelaindish until
amount
was
residue from
burned
may
that
matter
329
EXPERIMENTS
phosphorusin
the ash by
simple
qualitativetests.
of
Deposits
11.
minutes
lime
about 200
mineral water
in
of lime
sediment
the carbon
lime and
cc.
Boil
by boiling water.
of hard
"
well water
or
of
turbidity
or
the water.
dioxide,which
magnesia
is
for
White
few
Rock"
cool,note
any
Boilinghas
in solution.
When
this carbon
pelled
ex-
of
dioxide
the scale in
and
depositsinterfere
These
Hard
12.
hard water
and
in
soft
The
in teacrust
kettles
precipitate.
of this nature.
boilers are
chiefly
with good heating and steaming.
Place
water.
about
50
of very
cc.
notice how
permanent
of lime
tap
200-cc.
much
Repeat
solution ?
magnesiasalts in
10 grams
these in
solution must
Also
be added
notice the
before
precipitate
experiment,
usingrain water and
Which of these waters
respectively.
requiresthe
soap
scrape
soap
lather is formed.
soap.
water
most
and
the
Hardness
of water
solution.
of castile soap
literof denatured
is due
To prepare
to
fine
to
the soap
and
shavings,
the lime
solution,
dissolve
330
CHEMISTRY
to 1350
a
cc.
DAILY
LIFE
filterit. Keep it in
clear,
tightly
stopperedbottle.
EXPERIMENTS
13.
of
AND
TO
Preparation of hydrogen.
granulatedzinc
Cover
ACCOMPANY
in
dip below
the water.
for collection of
flask
cc.
Fill two
the gas
FIG.
119.
"
in
or
the
Hydrogen
Place from
arrangedas
of water.
III
CHAPTER
The
15 to 20 grams
shown
in
Fig.119.
three cylinders
with water
generator.
hydrogen easilyescapes.
all is ready, add, through the thistle tube, about 15
concentrated hydrochloricacid. Do
not
apply any
When
cc.
of
heat.
332
"
tube
CHEMISTRY
AND
so
When
the
while
stillunder
DAILY
is collected in
cylinderis filled,
cover
It
water.
then
of the
one
it with
can
LIFE
cylinders.
of the
glassplates
placed upright on
one
be
tube
or
from
remove
FIG.
do, a
120.
Making
"
the hot
tube
it for
moment
and
break
in
one
the flame.
remove
tube
delivery
will be formed
vacuum
then
is under
Do
water.
not
If you
oxygen.
(1) Light
splinterand place
it.
of the
cylinders
;
remove
it and
tinguish
ex-
grain of wheat,
sulphur in
flame and
into
small
a
small
the
iron spoon.
larger
Ignitethe
thrust
piece of sulphur,no
PRACTICAL
then
LABORATORY
with
and shake
Ozone
machine
has
and
EXPERIMENTS
air
odor of
dioxide
clear limewater
the
ozone
There is
on
a
surface of water
in the
it under
no
end of
till you
water
than
more
a
bottle under
the white
it
are
it behave ?
and
blow
glasstube.
serve
Ob-
Expose
some
serve
ob-
of carbon dioxide
of carbon.
thin piece of cork
largeas
Handle
Note
pea.
it with
actuallyrequire
Let
spoon
the
absorbed.
Note
(1) Now
support
sulphur on
perfectly
test tube
carbonate.
air,beingcareful
pentoxide.
in the bottle.
of
cc.
on
it
phorus
Phos-
forceps. Keep
the
piece
for
use.
water.
fumes
IV
directed.
bottle filledwith
small amount
as
dangerous.
10
clean
is very
Does
Pour
source
plant's
Use
Ozone
CHAPTER
air.
air.
be detected.
can
the purpose
the air in
sults
re-
of calcium
the precipitate
the result.
in the
ACCOMPANY
in
the
frictional electric
(calciumhydroxide)into
clear limewater
Record
Also
discharges.
bottle
TO
Carbon
Work
produced
electric
of
The
in water.
18.
odor
by the
Smell
Ozone.
the contents.
sparks.
the
note
formed
been
17.
electric
by
litmus paper.
observations.
and explainyour
16.
pieceof blue
333
EXPERIMENTS
gas
The
the extent
test
keep the
stand
mouth
of the
water
over
white
fumes
are
until
phorus
phos-
combustion?
and
to
(2) Place
insert it in the
lightedsplinter.
some
burning
nitrogen. How
does
334
CHEMISTRY
of
Preparation
20.
AND
LIFE'
DAILY
should
Specialcare
nitric acid.
be
with
is
on
spilled
specialcare
Carefullyintroduce
shake
very
gentlyand
by
or
the
of
means
then
add 2
small
pieceof
becomes
in
chloride,10
tube
If
grams
of
Heat
tube, cooled by
test
(1) Remove
What
the
drop of
pieceof woolen
(2) Place
containing5
the mixture
few
drops of
of water
cc.
and
(3) Place
happens ?
flask
der
containingthe remainadd
place,
littlewater.
ammonia.
the
then 25
into
applyit to
reaction takes
no
of the copper
Into
copper
Preparationof
Fig. 122.
test
of nitric acid.
cc.
of the acid.
21.
and
glasstube
indigosolution
What
tests
following
in Fig. 121.
nitrate and
Make
water.
cloth
gentlyuntil
that
nitric acid.
Making
"
sulphuricacid
of concentrated
grams
acid
121.
wounds
shown
as
of sodium
25 grams
FIG.
and
painfulburns
heal
in
be
must
Arrangeapparatus as
place 10
of ammonium
grams
shown
25
cc.
of water.
PRACTICAL
LABORATORY
335
EXPERIMENTS
apparatus is
properlyconnected, apply
the
When
heat
gentlyfor 8
to 10
minutes.
(1) Test
the
paper.
with
litmus
red
with
gas
burning splinter.
evaporating
drochloric
place 5 cc. of hy-
(3) Into
dish
an
acid
and
and
of water,
cc.
gas
pour
of the
cylinder
Avoid inhaling
any
this into
gas.
of the ammonia
white
fumes
The
gas.
are
chloride.
you
10
nium
ammo-
Why did
gas in
inverted cylinder?
an
What
when
ammonia
treated
Shake
is
with
a
formed
Water?
cylinderof
gas
is
gas
with 25
FIG.
122.
"
Making
ammonia.
monia
am-
cc.
of water, and
EXPERIMENTS
22.
Acids
TO
in fruits and
ACCOMPANY
silage.
CHAPTER
(1) Cut
open
lemon
and
squeeze
some
of the
336
repeatedwith
be
periment may
is tartaric acid.
acid
and
Acids
23.
same
of dilute
bases.
sodium
10
out
beaker, and
add
and
solution,but by
of
means
used, add
alkalies turn
glassrod
In
drop
or
litmus paper.
heat
solution
until the
excessive
heating. This
solution becomes
in the
dish.
and
taste
sodium
and
It is
common
hydroxide.
TO
Preparation
some
Warm
of the gas
Test the
Bases
and
upon
apply
Avoid
dryness.
to
or
the
of the material
entirelydifferent
either
by
bath
some
salt and
hydrochloricacid
the
of
ACCOMPANY
union
of
an
the
bubble
with
liquid
CHAPTER
hydrochloric acid.
hydroxide
in
or
acid
EXPERIMENTS
24.
of the
spatteringwhen
Taste
It is formed
drop
sand
will prevent
action from
into the
action
perceptible
no
evaporated
concentrated.
chemical
base.
is
paper
sodium
lain
porce-
this dilute
of the acid.
two
transfer
much
too
case
Add
drop the
not
in
10
hydroxide solution
little at
Do
Put
salt.
of water.
cc.
When
the
mainly
are
of water
cc.
of sodium
cc.
50
10
the acid, a
hydroxide to
been
of
cream
neutralize
acids
of
Preparation
hydrochloricacid
Measure
dish.
has
and
silage,
the
silage
the main
get
we
grapes
In
way.
in which
lactic acids.
acetic and
into
the
From
LIFE
grapes
tartar.
cc.
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
mixture
grams
cc.
litmus paper.
Into
of
common
generator,
of concentrated
gently if
through water
VI
in
necessary.
salt.
phuric
sulLet
receivingflask.
Taste it carefully.
Take
the
away
water, and
the
ammonia
the
gas
burn?
near
the
nitric acid to 10
drops of
of
precipitate
well water
26.
air ?
moistened
with
Explain, and
What
water.
over
gas
write
some
To
which
few
is the
for chlorides,add
test
add
and then
of water
cc.
The
1 per cent
lighterthan
is formed
precipitate
in water.
Chlorides
of
To
bottle by
silver chloride.
insoluble
25.
the
silver nitrate.
drops of
very
jar of
or
filter paper
gas.
to rise ?
the water
heavier
escaping
Invert
equation.
causes
Hold
in
of the gas
some
Is the gas
air.
displacement of
Does
collect
337
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
formation
and
on
of
few
of
cc.
white
Try
0.1 per
on
this
on
tion
solu-
cent
salt.
common
of
action
Bleaching
Place
bleaching powder.
the
Cover
beaker.
20
powder
acid.
with water, and then add 40 cc. of 10 per cent sulphuric
of
Hang a moist stripof red calico in the beaker by means
of
grams
wire.
bleachingpowder
Now
gently,and
the
cover
in
with
beaker
let it stand.
glassplate,warm
Turkey red
is the result ?
What
Vapors
and
an
and
then
add
gently.
Note
are
the vapors
28.
Vapors
which
tube,
test
Warm
formed.
These
of iodine.
of
bromine.
and
in
acid, and
bromine
sulphuricacid.
bromide
this mixture
potassium iodide
dioxide in
of concentrated
cc.
of
1 gram
of manganese
equal amount
2
Place
iodine.
of
are
1 gram
test
heat
Mix
gram
of manganese
tube, add
gently.
evolved.
cc.
Note
of
pulverizedpotassium
dioxide.
Place
of concentrated
the
brown
fumes
phuric
sulof
338
CHEMISTRY
AND
EXPERIMENTS
TO
ACCOMPANY
coarselypulverized,in
tube holder,and
CHAPTER
heat
slowlyuntil
becomes
to
test
thin,amber- colored
so
liquid
be
quicklypour
when
reverts
dissolve
to
sulphur soluble
some
watch
should
cool examine
mass
it
in water?
bisulphide. Pour
glassand allow
it to stand and
near). Examine
be
the
Is
ordinary sulphur.
to
the crystals
lens.
Fill
Sulphur dioxide.
30.
roll sulphur,
that it cannot
under
it is
becomes
of
grams
tube attached
test
VII
liquid.As
and
LIFE
29.
Try
DAILY
small
iron
half
spoon
full
litmus
or
paper,
red
the spoon
stops burning,remove
a
glassplate. What
and
paper,
carnation.
coloringmatter
is also
and
and
is the effect on
soon
the
as
the
cover
sulphur
cylinderwith
the cloth,on
the litmus
the flower?
on
As
good disinfectant.
It killsgerm
life.
Make
Sulphuric acid.
31.
acid
sulphuric
of the
(1) Put
or
in
cc.
used
a
test
acid, and
off the
examine
What
is this black
about
of water
into 2
gram,
and
cc.
of
followingtests
in the Babcock
tube and
Then
stick
of the
Also
test
a
the
remove
the stick.
material ?
cc.
the
sulphuricacid.
sulphuricacid
into
some
for milk
fat.
of wood
splinter
splinter. Wash
It has
drop
with
turned
pieceof
black.
sugar,
(2) Put 10
cc.
add
340
CHEMISTRY
EXPERIMENTS
boric
and
water
Then
stir in
residue
acid
from
tillno
of water
cc.
Add
(1) Dissolve
contained
On
in
100
cc.
of
will dissolve.
more
the
cooling,
out.
separate
VIII
Boil
borax.
borax
powdered
follows:
as
LIFE
CHAPTER
acidifywith hydrochloricacid.
of boric acid
DAILY
ACCOMPANY
TO
Making
35.
AND
flakes
the
test
solid
some
porcelainevaporating dish.
It will burn
with
of boric acid.
with
(2) Test
turmeric paper.
hydrochloricacid
having been
and
of
grams
of
and
wash
solution
with
is acidified with
this solution.
silicates.
Weigh
acid.
hydrochloric
hour ; pour
an
presence
is dried at 100" C.
paper
for
the
the turmeric
moistened
concentrated
Warm
Note
boric acid
36. Insolubilityof
shows
of the aqueous
some
after
flame which
green
to
carefully 5
out
flask and
Does
add
it
25
cc.
dissolve?
filterpaper,
through a
Put the
funnel
careful that
soil is
The
is lost.
none
Has
largelymade
up
much
of
almost
which
silicates,
are
insoluble materials.
37.
Sodium
of sodium
cc.
silicate.
glassin
water
of water, and
acid.
ness,
Note
and
add
Place
an
2 to 3
cc.
of
sirupysolution
evaporatingdish,dilute
cc.
of concentrated
with
hydrochloric
the
heat
10
and examine
water, filter,
What
is it?
PRACTICAL
LABORATORY
EXPERIMENTS
ACCOMPANY
TO
each
pieceof bone,
and
the bone
with
be obtained
In
in wood?
elements
from
bone?
luminous
Heat
and
iron crucible
an
black.
wheat.
ground
some
IX
from
Remove
ceases.
bean, in
sand.
cover
smoking
largeas
as
CHAPTER
341
EXPERIMENTS
What
the
principal
ment
experi-
are
Try the
same
Particles of carbon
gas
flame
or
amine
ex-
candle
or
may
lamp
Absorbing
40.
To
carbon.
of
power
10
of
cc.
water
test
both
absorbs
in
tube add
bag hung
colors and
odors.
in the water
of
half bushel
of charcoal
Preparation
as
shown
in
of
carbon
Fig.119.
to
dioxide.
Put
cover
20
Arrange
grams
the apparatus
of marble
in the
342
CHEMISTRY
Fill 2
AND
cylinderswith water
slowly through the tube
add
for
or
acid.
Allow
collect from
and
2 to 3
set them
is
cylindersof
note
and
(2) Test
some
(3) Pour
sodium
into
another
then
the cylinders,
(1) While
Boil
escapinggas
the gas
and
Remove
the
the reappearance
note
of the
chloric
hydro-
the apparatus
tube
test
of
is firstformed
precipitate
redissolved.
cylinderof
of
the gas.
of the gas
some
Then
gas.
of concentrated
cc.
the result.
the
collecting
the table.
uprighton
graduallythen
thus formed
30
LIFE
some
runningpass
limewater,and
and
DAILY
of the
with
over
clear solution
precipitate.
burning splinter.
candle flame.
cylinderover
hydroxide. Why
25
per
the
gas
does
What
cent
appear
dis-
students may
also perform similar experiAgricultural
ments,
using other calcium-containing
substances, such as
caustic
lime, limestone,floats,and
to
gypsum,
if these
see
Making
42.
of caustic soda
into
in 120
porcelaindish
of water
and
In
soap.
beaker
of water.
cc.
of about
minutes, carefullyreplacingfrom
lost by evaporation. Then
Add
20
be
finally
of
grams
allow to cool.
of
excess
The
lye, and
time
time
to
The
more.
to
decrease
50
for
of the caustic
volume
of the
one-third.
in solution.
the
Try
glycerine,
to
make
gas
cc.
the water
about
salt remain
grams
salt,boil
soap
similarly,
using
soap
hour
allowed
common
add
capacity,
liquidmay
cc.
15
Pour
500
of tallow.
50 grams
dissolve
of
tallow.
Alcoholic
43.
into
500-cc.
fermentation.
bottle,add
50
Weigh
cc.
of water
10
grams
and
of
small
flour
piece
of
yeast cake.
with
water
clear limewater
(seeFig.123).
the
warm
on
bath
85"
half
containingenough
an
Place
Why?
over
connect
kerosene.
of
sand
delivery tube
one-
of
quarter
bottle
test tube
of
means
cover
inch
By
343
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
(not
for
F.)
hour.
an
Observe
Why?
of gas
the bubbles
in bread
occurs
fermentation.
Alcoholic
"
fats such
alcohol
spots from
clothing. Spotsdue
is
to
be removed
as
This
formed.
are
making.
of grease
Removal
44.
and
dioxide
Carbon
water.
what
123.
in the lime-
formed
with
soap
In the
case
with
or
be treated,or
softened with
gasoline.Why?
flames
45.
around
of
when
used
you
soda.
as
carbonate, put 5
This
To
in
Do
is sodium
fillerfor soap.
grams
treated with
then
have
not
using it.
are
washing powders.
oil and
is inflammable.
Gasoline
Washing
sometimes
some
test
carbonate
It is the main
such
test tube
powder
and
add
and
is
ent
constitufor sodium
few
drops
CHEMISTRY
344
AND
If there is
acid.
hydrochloric
of
of
appearance
compounds.
The
instructor
and
LIFE
brisk evolution
nose
of
important organic
some
should
have
the
student
followingmaterials
the
oil,carbon
of gas, it
carbonate.
46. Odors
DAILY
amine
ex-
bolic
car-
chloroform,
tetrachloride,
etc.
of
gram
clover
dry
hay,
as
10
to
Connect
and
with
red
The
carbon
carbon
form
and
dioxide and
carbonates
forms
dioxide
with
litmus paper.
decomposesproteinmaterial
water
Soda-lime
blue.
carbon
the
the
Test
of the
enough soda-
nitrogenas ammonia.
liberates
in
minutes.
It should turn
with
meat
or
peas,
deliverytube
Mix
for
Test
47.
with
oxygen
water;
soda-
the
lime.
for
Test
48.
In another
of water.
cc.
sulphate(bluestone)the
Place
water.
cc.
of the
cc.
of this egg
potash solution,
put
sulphatesolution
copper
color will be
a
10
shake
to
size of
deep
wheat,
corn,
and
an
add
This is
bran, and
by
be crushed
or
of
the
tube,and
first the
only
this
means.
ground,and warmed
in a littleof the caustic potash solution and
adding the copper sulphatesolution.
should
cc.
tube, add
test
over
again.
of water.
cc.
into 50
egg
copper
on
violet color.
meat
in 50
the thumb
shake
piece of
solution in
Now
greenishblue,but
pea
of
caustic
of caustic potash in
glassdissolve
about
Pour
10 per cent
These
for
materials
short time
then filteredbefore
Preparation
49.
flour in
into
of
protein.
dish,add
porcelain
stiff dough. Do not
345
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
Put
15
12 to
have
about
much
water
mix
present.
ing
dough,and, hold-
the ball of
of
grams
of water, and
cc.
too
25
water
Remove
it from water
much as possible,
as
freeing
and then weigh it. Spread it out in a thin cake, and then
let it dry in the oven
or in a warm
reweigh
place,and finally
it. Calculate the per cent of glutenin the flour. The gluten
of the wheat.
consists of the two principal
proteins
of flax or hemp seed
50. Fats and oils. Crush 5 grams
A grease spot will appear
the
on
on
a pieceof white
paper.
latter. Should the test fail to show
oil,placethe crushed
in a warm
seeds and the paper
placeon a tin plate. The
highertemperature will melt the oil out, which will then be
shown
by the grease spot on the paper.
the water,
it from
Fats
51.
Place the
and
oils.
powder in
Crush
four
and
flask,
stopperedand away
off,and through a
filter paper,
the
gasolineto
beaker.
Allow
is left in
or
52.
spots
on
cloth
gasoline.
the flask
pour
loosely
the gasoline
it between
Test
removed
are
of
cc.
corn.
benzine
fingers
dissolve fats.
by washing with
line
gaso-
pulp of
clean
benzine.
Preparation of starch.
potatoes. Tie
a
Then
flames.
beaker.
it 25
Keep
feeling.Gasoline and
Grease
the
from
five kernels of
over
pour
Shake
into
or
the
pulp
into water.
Allow
in
Make
cloth and
two
the
juice
water, occasionally
dippingthe bag
a
the beaker
to
squeeze
stand for 20
minutes,
or
346
CHEMISTRY
AND
is not
settle.
Test
half
in 50
Taste
starch.
"
Shake
a
add
then
and
out
settling
the
starch
at
the
in
was
wheat, oats,
Test
54.
raisins in 50
then
few
starch.
in
gram
test
tube, then
test
drops of
save
It is
tube
boil,
iodine solution.
adding 1
gram
of iodine to the
throughoutthe
solution.
solution.
On
filter;
standing,the starch,
In
it
was
the
first*case
arations
Prep-
not.
also be made
may
from
beans.
or
for sugar
cc.
Leave
potassium iodide
and
of
some
dry, and
and
grams
by dissolving5
of water
some
is
the
water
of the
some
one-half
Place
is made
cc.
by adding more
Finallypour
full of water.
and filter. To
followingtests.
tasteless.
practically
(This
it
LIFE
pour
the beaker
about
Now
clean,wash
againallowingit to
53.
DAILY
(glucose). Grind
of water.
25
of dried
grams
beaker.
This is
place 10 cc. of Fehling'ssolution.
of copper
6.2 grams
made by dissolving
sulphate,3.5 grams
of Rochelle salts (sodium potassiumtartrate) and 2 grams of
Place about 10 cc.
potassiumhydroxidein 100 cc. of water.
of the Fehling's
solution in a test tube and add from 5 to 10
Into
test
tube
cc.
Heat
over
A reddish brown
flame
and
let the
liquid
forms, which
precipitate
348
"
holding
CHEMISTRY
piece of
experiment with
60.
with
if necessary.
Note
Place
process.
100
for four
it
test
of
some
by blowing
one-half
gram
10
of water
and
cc.
When
What
Lime
of
insoluble
61.
has
of
of
by
higher
than
small
the
62.
about
match.
The
the
powder
care.
of
slaking
allow
solution
Place
clay.
of acid-
cent
per
acid.
time, and
of silica and
10
and
tube, add
test
add
to stand
hydrochloric
consists
of water
inch
ribbon
white
consists
and
hard.
long
C.
so
Allow
WThy?
note
carefully heat
Regulate the
that
it to
that
in
it reaches
cool.
few
Mix
utes
min-
Explain.
Hold
magnesium.
an
115"
to
thermometer
C.
115"
tube
test
gypsum
of
means
becomes
mass
ribbon
to
in
less than
In
Paris.
quantity
Burning
Examine
contains
mass
bottle;
acid, a little at
more
the
glass tube.
lime
action,
the
of the
drops
dissolved
powdered
temperature
few
the
material.
Plaster
with
slaked
add
not
high purity
grams
no
then
in
some
grams
it well
how
vigorously,and
filter
of the
hasten
lime
40
moisten
observe
warm.
10
Then
air
about
and
to
and
slaked
shake
about
readily undergoes
the
five hours.
or
lime
fresh
of distilled water
cc.
Place
35" C.
reaction
salt.
lime.
about
to
the
Good,
up.
LIFE
evaporating dish,
an
warming
water,
warms
in
barium
quality of
the
lime
of burned
piece of
DAILY
calcium
Testing
AND
in
burns
piece
forceps and
with
product
formed.
of about
of
magnesium
apply
lighted
brilliant white
What
is it?
flame.
light
Flash-
It should
be
used
with
PRACTICAL
EXPERIMENTS
few
test
drops
tube containing5
Observe
Add
solution.
the result.
observe
testingfor
alum
is
the
solution.
2 grams
Mix
absence
or
alum
same
well and
bakingpowder,
of alum.
In the presence
add
few
protein. To
and
drops
of
in this
form.
To
This
tion
solu-
The
water.
aluminum
case
tion
solu-
solution and
alum.
ammonia
of
cc.
alum
an
proteinand
chloride add
of
heavy precipitatewill
compound
of aluminum
bonate
car-
and the
of alum
result.
insoluble
an
about
carbonate solution.
64. Compounds
observe
of ammonium
cc.
containinga
Repeat
tion
solu-
then add
blue color is
white
and
result. Mix
carbonate
and ammonium
of egg
alum
an
drops of
the presence
XI
few
of ammonium
amount
of
few
drops of
of water
cc.
and
the
CHAPTER
few
logwood extract
of
Add
alum.
solution.
of flour in
ACCOMPANY
TO
349
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
same
hydroxide
is
formed.
65. Copper
about
one-fourth of
hammer
to
in
out
silver
dime
hydrochloricacid until
The
then cut
nitrate in
over
Expose
copper
Copper
an
rate
evapo-
evaporating
flame.
formed.
The
black
happens?
and
sulphatein
solution
Filter and
66.
for the
Account
is
precipitate
further
the
light. What
It is best
To
no
it.
is silver chloride.
white precipitate
to the
hood, dissolve
Under
coin.
its reactions.
100
cc.
note
of water.
the
(1) Dissolve 5
Place
result.
grams
of
brightiron
nail
(2) To
grams
of
350
CHEMISTRY
AND
10
DAILY
LIFE
of water, and 5
cc.
cc.
of concentrated
Now
of the copper
cc.
(3) To
10
of the copper
cc.
phate
sul-
drops of potassiumferrocyanide.
This is a delicate
A reddish brown
is formed.
precipitate
be used for testingBordeaux
ture
mixtest for copper, and can
for excess
of copper
sulphatein solution. In Bordeaux
if this test shows the brown
more
precipitate,
preparation,
lime must
be added ; see experiment 151.
the hood, treat about 0.2
Under
67. Copper in brass.
of brass with 5
gram
few
of nitricacid in
cc.
add 5
water
or
note
mation
This color is due to the for-
for
mercury
drops of
poisoning. To
the white
and
nitrate.
antidote
An
68.
test tube
of
a
an
egg.
20
cc.
of
Stir thoroughly
cubic centimeters
few
1 in 2000.
In
mercury.
milk
are
is a compound
precipitate
of mercury.
chloride add
chloride.
The
gray
Note
mercury.
contained in
70.
whites
proteinand
of eggs
and
goodantidote.
69. Preparation
stannous
poisoningthe
of mercury
case
of the
Lead
the
bottle
and
To
cc.
of
solution of
on
few
its salts.
Dissolve
5 grams
of metallic lead
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
solution with
acid; and
colors
lead
Action
of water
tube.
5 to
white.
are
Put
lead.
on
"
shavingsinto
water.
of different
Precipitates
sulphide is black; lead
Lead
formed.
are
sulphateand chloride
71.
351
EXPERIMENTS
of clean
gram
bright
tube
brown
test
coloration indicates
In
water.
coated with
of lime
in
solution.
Soft water,
especially
peaty
does hard
lead
which
contact
more
than
sulphateand carbonate
further
attack.
72.
Preparation of
lead
To
chromate.
cc.
of
solution
of
Treat 10 to 20
Making formalin.
cc.
of wood
alcohol
penetratingsmell is due to
the production of formaldehyde,formed
the wood
from
alcohol by oxidation of the latter by the permanganate.
In a loop of platinum wire, made
74. Cobalt bead.
by
bendingthe wire around the sharpend of a pencil,
placesome
borax and
bead.
Now
nitrate.
dip
Then
again and
the bead
into
Note
allow
the bead
on
to
melt.
cooling.
Note
beautiful
352
CHEMISTRY
Preparation of
75.
nails in
sulphate. Place
iron
flask,add about
500-cc.
25
Add
beaker.
2 to 3
of dilute
cc.
sulphuric
gently until
warm
off. Pour
comes
gas
of iron
25 grams
of dilute
cc.
LIFE
DAILY
AND
sulphuricacid
to
clean
the solution,
allow
boil the
commonly prepared at
this salt
are
copperas,
of
76. Change
of ferrous
gram
steel
drain.
and is
and ferroussulphate.
vitriol,
green
ferrous
to
sulphatein 20
ferric
Dissolve one-half
iron.
Divide the
of water.
cc.
other
portion add
this latter
Heat
five
drops
of concentrated
cool,and
portionto boiling;
until
water
for
names
into two
of
The
This
no
liquid
few
drops
To
nitric acid.
then
add
Compare the
precipitateforms.
the
monia
am-
two
Compounds
77.
1 gram
of
of tannin
of tannic acid in 25
cotton
cloth
(about
sulphate(1
gram
cc.
of ferrous
Observe
78. Making
on
and
thin paper
then
cover
can
cc.
by
cc.
on
blue
10
Does
Dip
water.
cm.) into
to 5
the
solution of
of water).
sulphatesolution
of hot
be removed
the result.
iron
dip it into
then
in 25
and
After
piece
solution.
ferrous
tion.
of tannic acid solu-
print. Place
leaf
or
drawing made
frame
printing
glassof a photographer's
it with a pieceof blue printingpaper
(the
the
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
paper
expose
to
time of exposure
the paper from
the printon
the
be secured
can
film?
Crush
the
days.
out
of
successful
Wash
with
is left.
Try
Solubilityof
corn
oils.
examine
gasolinein
spreada layer
it.
it set to
off the
ruler. How
to dissolve
some
the
tract
Ex-
mortar.
flask. Pour
a
a
Has
oil on
Try
XII
doors,or under
film of
brush
of flaxseed in
to
the
print. Remove
and spread
water
CHAPTER
With
Now
10 grams
material with
and
gasoline,
oil.
determine
to
ACCOMPANY
linseed
it to stand
made
dry.
TO
Drying of
79.
frame.
cloth to
be
for
necessary
EXPERIMENTS
80.
paper
the object
and
drug stores. The operationof placing
Now
togethershould be done in a darkened room.
the printing
frame to direct sunlightfor about 3 to 5
minutes.
hard
353
EXPERIMENTS
line
gaso-
oil that
does it act?
linseed oil in
ment,
experigasoline;also in carbon bisulphide.Try the same
usingcorn oil,also butter fat,instead of linseed oil.
EXPERIMENTS
81.
of
Odor
TO
CHAPTER
ACCOMPANY
cotton.
Burn
XIII
small
pieces
case.
Try
the
same
will not.
2
354
AND
CHEMISTRY
82.
very
laundry. Another
namely, Prussian blue.
cyanide of iron. Because
goods if
the
depositedon
of
10 per
drops of
this form
add
Now
an
cloth into
the
nearly.drythey
are
Notice
dissolves.
No
how
flame
cloth
should
Removal
over
-a
aside
of
dish
for an
be
treated in such
the
experiment,
same
of rubber
of the tube.
and
swells up
What
slowly
near.
Dissolve
some
apply it to a piece of
to dry and note the stain
iron rust
hour and
the result.
contents
rubber
the
to
heat gentlyin
bisulphide,
of carbon
Solubilityof asphalt.
turpentineand
87.
cc.
drain.
in water
happens?
in
Note
to
or become
gelatinize
been
gelatine.Try
rubber.
tube, add
hot water
86.
no
droxid
hy-
sole leather,half
pieceof
the solution
fresh cowhide.
85. Solubilityof
test
leather has
sticky? Sole
that it contains
Does
ferric
fabrics.
usinga pieceof
in
of
cc.
immersion
them
be washed
may
the various
on
in sole leather.
way
After
stripsand allow
When
viscid and
To
woolen, silk,and
white
solution of fuchsine.
remove
they
precipitateof
Dip stripsof
in the solution
largeas
used.
causes
as
bluing is
be
may
excess
reddish brown
the
This is what
84.
rust
and about
potassiumferrocyanide,
is Prussian
acid. The blue precipitate
hydrochloric
boiling. Note
test
of
it decomposes
solution of
cent
blue.
cotton
which
with
ease
add
solution of ferric chloride,
10 per cent
of the
with
cc.
LIFE
Bluing. Indigowas
the
10
DAILY
from
hot
containing
cloth.
water.
asphaltpaint
unpaintedwood.
leftbehind.
Then
as
the steam
356
CHEMISTRY
Coffee
91.
same
and
manner
in the
removed
from
reagents
to
these
Apply
stains
material
their color to
owe
water
fabrics
such
in the
in the
ing
due to the color-
are
is soluble in ammonia
therefore be
can
removed
are
They
liquids.Grass
chlorophyll.This
and
These
stains.
tea
LIFE
DAILY
as
matter
AND
in alcohol,
or
these
by
stains.
Also
sunlight. What
agents.
re-
try
is the
result?
Blood
92.
blood
the
These
stains.
called
red
pigment
coloring matter
of
is
water,
warm
of the
stain,before
CHAPTER
XIV
acid treatment.
EXPERIMENTS
in soil.
bulk of soda-lime
test
ACCOMPANY
TO
Nitrogen
strong
the
It is also soluble in
usingthe
93.
to
This
haemoglobin.
easilydecomposed by acids.
which
due
are
in
tube.
Mix
5 grams
equal
an
mortar
Connect
soil and
of
tube
the
with
to
deliverytube
Fig.120, but have the end of the tube lead into another
distilledwater.
Heat the first test tube
test tube containing
Test the
cautiouslywith a burner for five to ten minutes.
as
in
with
water
litmus
paper
and
note
the reaction.
soda-
The
of the
forms
latter contains
water, carbon
the
dioxide,and
nitrogenand
has
ammonia.
The
into the
passed over
water.
94.
add
25
Phosphorus
cc.
in soils.
Place 10 grams
strong hydrochloricacid,and
an
hour.
Pour
nitric acid
solution turns
drop by drop
warm
on
gradually,
shakingafter
this until the
of soil in
each
flask,
a
a
water
add
monia
am-
addition,and continue
red litmus
blue.
Then
add
acid,
slightly
PRACTICAL
or
LABORATORY
ammonium
molybdate
357
EXPERIMENTS
red.
solution.
add
Then
yellow color
10
of
cc.
precipitate
after a few minutes shows the presence
of phosphorus.
It is best to keep the solution at 65" C. to aid the precipitation
of the ammonium
phosphomolybdate.
(1) peat,
95. Reaction of soils. For this experiment use
tact
(2) a mildly alkaline soil,and (3) a clay soil. Bring in conwith each soil,moistened
with distilled water, pieces
Note
of sensitive red and blue litmus paper.
changes
any
in color of the litmus paper
In
similar way
test
or
find.
results you
own
farm.
that
is
which
one
changes blue
wash
ground limestone.
test it again. Try the
it shows
soil
"
one
for most
of
limestone.
of fresh limestone,rotten
each
hydrochloricacid
hour.
An
Dry
water.
of known
Place
oven
"
sweet
or
about
25
grams
stone
limestone,and residual lime-
Add
weight.
in the
them
lime
agricultural
plants.
100
dried and
alkaline
at
of 5 per
cc.
to
of burned
grams
mixture
Weathering
97.
take
"
thoroughly and
same
experiment,using wood ashes
soil is stillacid,add enough lime until
If the
is the normal
acid soil,
an
litmus to red,
15 to 25
Stir the
or
instead of lime.
add
find
you
on
Wash
stand
to
filter papers
one
ready
al-
100" C. and
of insoluble matter
for
cent
in each
weigh.
case
and
culate
Calplain
ex-
the results.
98. Puddling
pound
of
of
clay.
To
In
one
each
enough
water
to
make
the
basins
soilis slightly
moist,but do not work
add
of two
or
stir it. To
place a
until the
the other
claysticky;mix thoroughly
CHEMISTRY
358
with
stick and
placethe
LIFE
DAILY
AND
mixture
in the
sun
to
To
20
dry.
Note
the results.
Effect
99.
soil in
soluble
box, add
To
the
of
25
another
salts
grams
box
same
soils.
on
of sodium
of the
Water
of
pounds
soil add
same
both, and
of
2 grams
set them
in
proper
number
of seeds (25)
placefor growth. Plant with the same
number
and after the plantsare well started thin to the same
(12). Note the results. Too much of soluble salts may be
harmful.
An acre of soil 6 inches deep weighs about 2,000,000
the above
acre
on
pounds; estimate the application
per
of nitrate used for 20 pounds of soil. Does this
amounts
ers
suggest why soluble fertilizbe appliedin
must
not
?
largeamounts
Effect
100.
of
the
on
wall
the
may
the bottom
with 2 inches
that
so
be observed.
plant some
of
Plant 4 to 5 peas
glassjar.
near
3 inches
2 to
of moist soilon
a
of
germination
Place
seeds.
deep planting
Now
cover
of soil and
more
more
they
seed.
peat
Re-
.(Fig.
124),planting
seeds only an inch deep.
this
the
Keep
1 01.
124.
on
"
Effect
of
deep
Capillary action
planting
germination of seed.
water
soil moist
and
warm.
FIG.
the
on
pieceof
soil.
of
Firmly tie a
linen cloth
over
the
Lamp
chimneys
are
suitable.
Fill
one
tube
PRACTICAL
Compact
soils after
the lower
immerse
Then
them
Support
week,
measure
What
does
with
each
addition
allow
the
of
In
clay.
lime
and
the
makes
clay
them
each
and
with
soil to
to
the rays
table.
boxes
with
as
tin
of
amount
unlined
box
readings as
to
has
in
separate
made
water
add
one
influence
one-half
After
of the
gram
of
in
lime
parison,
com-
observe
hours
24
by
of burned
gram
for purposes
throwing
deep,
Insert
and
expose
hours.
in
thermometers
the
recordingthe reading
for two
soil and
with
lampblack and
with
one
boxes,
Fill two
temperature.
five inches
inches
1.5
boxes
the
the
equally
eters
of the thermom-
Arrange
the
results
is the conclusion?
drainage
above
not
the
soil
on
iron
or
oiled cloth.
lined until it
other.
Let
largely drained
experiment
103.
Fill two
temperature.
galvanized
three
1 add
chalk.
minutes
in the
or
of
No.
to it.
Cover
or
of
What
Effect
104.
and
of the sun,
ten
each
is used
soil
on
this.
gypsum
every
in
rises.
water
square
depth
one
better.
gently compact
other
the
of color
foot
one
is added
note
work
Effect
103.
beaker
stir; to No.
lime
no
beakers, and
down
For
the
of turbid
cc.
the
To
clay.
some
up
and
which
to
of water.
this show?
of burned
lime
basin
stand.
to
loam.
gently jarring.
by
them
height
third with
day
Sedimentation
102.
clay soil,and
each
and
upright
359
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
Add
water
to
Add
the
begins to drain.
stand
away.
lined
box
one
in the
temperature
360
CHEMISTRY
EXPERIMENTS
Action
105.
foot square
AND
DAILY
LIFE
ACCOMPANY
TO
CHAPTER
XV
and
boxes,about
five inches
dinary
deep,place20 pounds of ordry soil. Before putting the soil into one of the
oughly
boxes, add to it the following
materials,mixing them thorof calcium acid phosphate,
with the soil : 5 grams
3 grams
of potassium nitrate,and 3 grams
of potassium sulphate.
and when
Water the soils,
they have been properly
worked, plantin each box 25 rape seeds and placethe boxes
in a greenhouseor window.
When
the plantsare up, thin
one
them
down
to
16 and
let them
Note
grow.
the difference
in
of rape
seed.
To
one
of finelyground limestone.
10 grams
of the boxes
Why
add
add
the limestone
?
1
bone
the
cc.
ash in 15
of water
cc.
of ammonium
one
gram
filter. To
the
solution.
the
warm
molybdate,and
precipitate?What
heat
add 3 to 5
and filter. To
mixture
(1) To
in bones.
06. Phosphorus
about
filtrate add
filtrate add
Note
(2) In
first added
to
Try
10
yellow
tube
cc.
of distilledwater
and
cc.
of ammonium
the result,and
the ash.
to
test
compare
the
same
date
molyb-
it with
is the
What
does it indicate?
warm
of
gram
of nitric acid,shake
cc.
warm.
one
that
nitric acid
experimentwith
kainit in
test
tube,add
100
cc.
Place
gram
of
PRACTICAL
with
08.
of bone
acid.
Add
rod.
After
of
1 gram
Also
test
tube
the
odor.
been
allow
added,
mix
of commercial
grams
the
it for
soluble
phosphates
as
the
in
2
volatility of
of
grams
heat
cold
with
In
with
iron
an
mixture
in
100
sulphuric
stand
to
examine
it.
Test
experiment
106.
gently
and
of
thus
filter papers
portions
water
walls
of the
carbonate.
observe
volatilizes
ventilated
the
tube.
test
applied
less
horse
stables.
manure
verts
con-
ammonium
to
phate
sul-
it.
of
nitrogenous
in separate
Which
is much
the
to
carbonate
water,
100
cc.
of these
sulphate,
funnels.
and
of
Place
fertilizers.
nitrate, ammonium
until
same
ammonium
saves
of
the
Try
The
again
may
This
Note
result.
readily and
sulphate.
plaster,when
the
Solubility
of sodium
and
In
salts.
i.e. land
some
ammonium
ammonium
ammonium
poorly
are
case.
box
of
lizers.
ferti-
potash
cigar
and
Apply
on
Gypsum,
each
muriate
carbonate
carbonate
with
In
pulverize
place
volatile.
small
100
with
soluble
readily
Then
experiment
on
also
days.
ammonium
each
acid
Differences
deposit
nitrate) ;
experiment
same
test
109.
no.
and
all has
three
the
phosphate.
meal
the
Try
all
are
acid
Making
grams
for
salts
These
361
EXPERIMENTS
dissolve?
saltpeter (potassium
potash.
salt
the
Does
ture.
LABORATORY
Pour
continue
to
filtrate
have
fertilizers
are
and
10
dried
grams
blood
over
each
sample
leach
the
samples
been
collected
insoluble
in water?
in
362
AND
CHEMISTRY
EXPERIMENTS
TO
Losses
in.
from
of cotton
bottom, and
until
water
In
box
which
the
or
five inches
and
square
of rather
by pouring
been
window
and
deep, containing
horse
of ammonia
Loss
112.
the
by
in
manure
seeds.
quantity of soil,but
same
be added
as
germinated, thin
in
down
house
green-
growth.
leachingof
from
to
the differences in
note
idea
experiment gives an
occur
collected.
infertilesoil,plant 25 rape
near
wad
good
manure
two
in
leach the
pound
one
16
This
XVI
largefunnel having
containingthe
seeds.
25 rape
to
pounds
similar box
or
foot
one
15 to 20
In
one
CHAPTER
by leaching. Take
manure
place it in
on
LIFE
ACCOMPANY
of fresh manure,
in the
DAILY
plant
manures.
Place
manure.
fresh
some
it.
Let
it stand
warm
ammonia
noticeable ?
so
Moist
earth
is
good
absorbent
for ammonia.
Plant
113.
food
in
urine.
about
cc.
as
not
presence
few
test
57.
yellow coloration
phosphorus. Why?
in the
urine
phosphatesleave
the
of
our
body
in
a
(human
test
tube
place
to
65"
is very
animals.
little
Most
cc.
C., but
shows
precipitate
There
or
experiment 56,
Warm
or
domestic
as
In
drops of
molybdate solution.
boil.
of
experiment
of urine ; add
of ammonium
do
in
urine
some
the flame
Test
the
phorus
phos-
of the
364
CHEMISTRY
Barium
hydroxide is
milky
is
good there
FIG.
126.
drawn
draw
Green
"
iness will
will be
with
very
small
LIFE
sensitive to
quantityof
carbon
the leaves.
over
dioxide
Now
from
If the
light
take carbon
coming
dioxide,be-
the gas.
evidence of carbon
no
the
leaves
DAILY
AND
the tube
tube.
Milk-
largeseeds,such
for
This
appear.
few hours.
as
beans
Then
day
or
two
corn,
plant them
placefor
or
an
inch
in order
and
in moist
When
does the
plumuleappear
them
in water
ing
sawdust, cover-
longdoes
soak
their progress.
radicle an
inch
How
long?
PRACTICAL
LABORATORY
Soak
half
dozen
of them
mutilate
some
in moist
sawdust.
cut
poisons and
of
Influence
117.
beans
mutilation
for
in various ways
on
few hours
before
365
EXPERIMENTS
tion.
germinaand
then
plantingthem
of the beans ;
one
poisona
third by
may
but
a
to
wide-mouthed
ounce
pint bottle.
Put
seed and
enough
of mustard
the stopper of
to
moisten
the
seeds
clear limewater.
the presence
The
(3) Decant
a
of the air
some
solution becomes
shake
it
cating
milky, indi-
of carbon dioxide.
Explainthe results.
in plants. Take
some
dry planttissue from
119. Carbon
like beans or wheat, and placeit in a porcegrowingplants,
lain
dish. Heat it stronglyover
Bunsen
a
flame, covering
the greater part of the dish with a porcelain
iron cover.
or
Thick
gases
will
come
366
to
AND
CHEMISTRY
with
into contact
come
the flame, by
DAILY
LIFE
the flame.
After
completelycoveringthe
which
which
its contents
Nitrogen
1 20.
basin.
draw
Withto cool.
seen
black soot
guish
time, extin-
The
plants.
is contained
in the
the
with
plant tissue.
important element
plant in combination
gen,
nitro-
with
not
mix
or
gram
soda-lime,and
which
gases
smelled.
come
Test
and heat it
put the
a
Crush
in seed.
mortar.
cover
ammonia,
which
Phosphorus
121.
a
and therefore is
during combustion
of a plant. To show its presence in the plant
of dry plantmaterial in a test tube with
two
in a flame; the
then heat the whole directly
When
Add
10
cc.
iron
an
paper.
kernels of wheat
25
the Bunsen
or
Do
mass
Break
up
the charred
in
cible
porcelaincru-
burner.
stronglyover
on.
small beaker.
in
be
can
not
to
of water,
cc.
with
particles
to
then
add
beaker.
Add
heat and
ammonia
blue.
white
The
cc.
of
add
of water
To
and
cc.
is
to
of the filtrate
just turns
of acetic acid, or
acid
distinctly
saturated
cc.
about 20
water
Then
cc.
finallyfilter.
50
more
litmus.
solution of ammonium
red litmus
if necessary,
Now
add
oxalate.
in the ash.
PRACTICAL
potassiumwith
for
367
EXPERIMENTS
plants. Test
in
Potassium
123.
in
LABORATORY
blue
the clover
described
glassas
experiment 56.
material in
the
wash
turnipand
out
place
washed
dilute hydrochloric
in
pulp
bag and
linen
the
Place
matter.
pectin. Grate
of
Preparation
124.
let stand
Then
hours.
48
the acid
out
squeeze
water) and
of
15
to
liquid.
liquidand to the
filtrate add
an
equal bulk
of alcohol. The
precipitate
Filter the
formed
is
pectin.
The
ence
pres-
is the
of their jellying.
cause
acetic
contains
Taste
acid.
and
vinegar,
some
place25
Add
gar
Vine-
Acids in foods.
125.
of it in
cc.
drops
two
then
beaker.
of
phenol-
phthaleinsolution,and
add
carefully
of
baking
dilute solution
soda
from
just
the
combined
has
but
then
rette,
bu-
red
with
is no
longeracid
little taste.
What
gas
127.
"
Neutralizing
an
acid.
Now
appears.
liquid. It
FIG.
acid fruits,
such
as
in taste.
sodium
The
acetate,
soda has
salt which
ployed.
em-
CHEMISTRY
368
AND
TO
EXPERIMENTS
slaughterhouse.Wash
the
Remove
CHAPTER
XVIII
hog's stomach
thoroughlywith
at
the stomach
membrane.
mucous
LIFE
ACCOMPANY
126.
DAILY
Grind
water.
this membrane
in
tion
grinderand placeit in 500 cc. of 0.2 per cent soluacid. Add 10 cc. of chloroform
of hydrochloric
to prevent
putrefaction.After standingat ordinarytemperatures
sausage
placeabout
into
white
egg
of
10 grams
Into
100
of this solution
cc.
by placing
boilingwater.
its
tents
con-
warm
stomach.
add
15
and
In
this
powder
Test
sugars.
solution
in the
be used in this
for this
solution.
Malt
in
Action
one-half to
are
small
converts
with
brewer's malt
be
may
one
100
cupboard for 24
a portionof the
some
the sprouts
128.
test
experiment54. If
barley grainsthemselves
as
had, the
iodine
in
of flour and
2 grams
crush
mortar
30
flask,
tion,
After 24 hours filteroff the solu-
liquidadd
the
starch.
Put
of water.
cc.
to
for starch
when
on
water.
Then
malt
barley kernels.
malted
and
of
Action
127.
inch
cc.
of
hours.
residue
starch to
Fehling's
cannot
germinated;
long the seeds
be
and
can
experiment.
of
saliva
experiment,chew
starch.
on
a
small
beaker.
To
pieceof
Make
some
obtain
the saliva
and
paraffin,
starch paste by
pure
PRACTICAL
LABORATORY
369
EXPERIMENTS
minute, remove
EXPERIMENTS
TO
in foods.
Water
129.
ACCOMPANY
Mark
CHAPTER
crucibles with
porcelain
two
your
initials,
using a lead pencil.Place them
and
heat
in
them
desiccator and
them.
weigh
4 grams
to remain
Into each
in
an
10
15
to
them
95" to 100" C.
Cool them
in the
Cool
crucible place
at
oven
in the flame
to
XIX
of water
cent
per
in the flour.
water.
Repeat
stead
grated turnips,or with butter. Incrucibles ordinarytinned iron salve box
porcelain
also be used.
may
Starch
130.
and
(starch)and proteintests
of the brown
it with
If you
get
made
bread.
test
from
Test
Make
samples of bread.
this extract
the
Take
iodine
some
Compare the
2s
on
bread.
crust
water.
in
protein
results.
What
are
your
same
loaf of
conclusions?
370
CHEMISTRY
Effect of heat
131.
AND
DAILY
LIFE
With
potato starch.
on
the point of
knife scrape
Breakfast
133.
two
samples of
with
see
Under
foods.
cereal breakfast
the appearance
foods
134.
were
Eggs.
Tell from
made.
Composition
character.
foods.
of the starch
microscope,examine
the
Crush
the
and
of
eggshell. Examine
microscope,and
grind an
its
note
tion
por-
cal
physi-
eggshell.Extract
it
thoroughlywith warm
water, and then dissolve the extracted
in dilute hydrochloricacid. Observe that a gas comes
mass
off. Hold in the gas a drop of limewater on the end of a
Filter
glassrod and note how cloudy the liquidbecomes.
line,
the acid solution,add ammonia
until stronglyalkawater
and then add 5
cc.
of ammonium
is the
?
What
precipitate
must
What
oxalate solution.
Try
was
the
formed
same
Why
experiment
372
CHEMISTRY
one-half gram
of
Filter,and
of
cc.
cc.
of water
of ammonium
Grind
in
Place 20 to 30 grams
cates
indiyellowprecipitate
up
in
meat
some
flask and
let it stand
one-half
it with 50
cover
and
allow
it may
be set outdoors.
Do
the
gasolineoff
with
well before
up
into
this purpose
in the
peanuts instead
pouring on
the
of
gasoline.
the results ?
are
141.
the
of
cc.
occasionally
Observe
experiment
same
meat, grindingthem
What
Pour
it
beaker
beaker.
hour.
grinder.
meat
molyb
phosphates.
in meat.
Fat
add
gently.
warm
LIFE
DAILY
bakingpowder in
of nitric water.
140.
AND
Action
of iron
compounds
tannic
on
Make
acid.
an
The
of ferrous
cc.
of ferrous
solution turns
it becomes
black.
of hemlock
or
Try
oak
the
bark.
All of these
milk
on
examine
143.
paper.
is the way
examination
the milk
How
Make
some
of milk.
ink is
the bark
or
with
globulesand
for
Examine
of
XX
CHAPTER
Cover
infusion
tannin.
Place
of milk.
drawings.
do the two
Acidity
Let
for fat
an
common
instead of tea,
ACCOMPANY
microscopeslide.
hair,dirt,etc.
milk.
TO
Microscopic
a
This
plantmaterials contain
EXPERIMENTS
142.
experiment with
used
same
drop
of
glassand
such as
impurities,
a
cover
drop of skimmed
differ ?
Test
of the milk
fresh milk
sour
and
with
blue litmus
blue
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
the sugar
in 100
of water, add 5
cc.
Has
hours.
24
in
turned
has
milk)
sour
or
flask uncorked
solution
the
milk
milk and 2
or
of blue litmus
cc.
the
red?
been
of
grams
of skimmed
cc.
phosphate. Add
the
Leave
Place
lactic acid.
of
of sodium
crystals
solution.
is lactic acid,producedfrom
by bacteria.
in the milk
Formation
144.
sugar
acid formed
The
litmus paper.
373
EXPERIMENTS
cupboard
for
If it has, lactic
formed.
Taste
the
with
the
solution.
Babcock
145.
pipetteinto
should
be
the
test
for
test
bottle
in
fat
17.6
and
carefullytaken
Measure
milk.
of milk.
cc.
well mixed.
The
Add
sample
17.5
cc.
of
commercial
mix
the
the test
at
of 800
rate
hot water
1200 revolutions
to
the shoulder,and
whirl
with water
for two
to
near
to
one
and
Jerseymilk.
Test
the
milk
to
whirl
again
the
from
treme
ex-
largedivision,as
Each
cent.
per
Test
cent.
per
Read
Each
whole
up
fillthe bottle
and
graduations
highestpoint.
two, represents
contents
Then
minutes.
two
from
bringthe
cient
suffi-
Add
minute.
per
Holstein
milk
cows
your
the
from
small
on
farm.
146.
of the
To
10
Formalin
preservativein
cc.
of milk add
acid
Pour
over
slowlyto boiling
147.
cc.
of
containingper
chloride solution.
motion.
and
milk
10
instructor should
The
in milk.
have
the
solution of
liter 2
the mixture
of 10 per cent
cc.
in
placesome
pupilsdetect it.
concentrated hydrochl
flame,givingthe
ferric
slightrotary
for
oleomargarine. Foam
test
for
purity of
374
CHEMISTRY
butter.
Heat
AND
about
DAILY
LIFE
of the
3 grams
sample in a largeiron
low flame, stirring
over
a
constantlywith a splinter.
spoon
Genuine
butter will boil quietly,
with the productionof considerable
froth or
foam.
Oleomargarine and renovated
butter will sputter and make
much
noise. Always
more
by making a simultaneous test with genuine butter.
compare
148.
Waterhouse
of sweet
butter
Into
test.
small
beaker
and add
milk,heat nearlyto boiling,
50
pour
cc.
of
5 to 10 grams
EXPERIMENTS
149.
TO
Purity
Paris green.
of
ACCOMPANY
Paris
Put
it in
Take
green.
beaker
CHAPTER
and
about
add 25
one
of
gram
of ammonia
cc.
water.
XXI
If the
"
"
green
no
solid residue.
150.
in 200
Shake
with
or
Add
of water.
50
grams
of flowers
the mixture
and heat it in
vigorously,
frequent shaking. Finally placeit over
free flame and
be watched
bumping.
pound
an
The
hour.
of
sulphur.
steam
wire
mixture
bath
gauze
must
and occasionally
stirred in order to avoid violent
After
of lime
25 grams
allow
boiling,
liquidand the
Preparation of
of copper
Bordeaux
sulphatein
pound
all to stand
Dissolve
mixture.
pounds
of lime in 2
of hot
pounds of
water.
water
0.5
Also
and strain
PRACTICAL
material.
coarse
pouredinto
pailand
the
mixture
of Bordeaux
The
375
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
into
pailso
solution of copper
it is the aim
to
as
remove
sulphateis then
In the
preparation
justenough lime to
combine with all of the copper sulphate. Test the mixture
If it is acid, enough more
lime should
with litmus paper.
the litmus blue, The
be added to turn
ferrocyanidetest
also be performed as follows : Filter some
of the finished
can
mixture, and add a few drops of potassium ferrocyanide.
If a reddish brown
color appears, more
lime
or
precipitate
should be added.
What
is the reddish brown
?
precipitate
Destruction
152.
Place
about
barley,and
wheat, in
the seeds,wash
them
Do
solution of formalin
there
for half
they germinate?
with such
LISTS
AND
APPARATUS
FOR
THE
of 20
What
corn,
cent
per
Remove
in moist
sawdust
must
care
be
poisons?
CHEMICALS
EXPERIMENTS
as
hour.
an
placethem
practicedin treatingseeds
OF
formalin.
by
power
of different grains,such
germination.
use
germinating
8 kernels
or
strength. Leave
for
of
to
NECESSARY
DESCRIBED
IN
THIS
CHAPTER
GENERAL
1 Babcock
1
1
to
1 eg., and
set of
weights,50
gr.
1 eg.
Drying
1 Water
2 Mortars
oven
bath
(copper).
(6 holes).
of porcelain,
(4 in.),
preferably
though glassmortars
do.
2 Thermometers
4
APPARATUS
tester.
Microscope.
Inexpensivebalance sensitive
to
LABORATORY
(0"-120").
2 Condensers
holders.
(Liebig).
will
AND
CHEMISTRY
376
DAILY
1 Gross
LIFE
12.
1 Cork
cylinders.
Cobalt glasses10 cm.
square.
Magnet (horseshoe).
Pneumatic
troughs,galvanizediron,1 ft. long, 8 in. high, and
milk pans.
in. wide, or can
use
1-gal.stoneware
Platinum wires,4 in. long,about No. 26 B. " S. guage.
2 500-cc.
6
1
4
1 Blast
LIST
burner
1 Bunsen
2
USED
BY
EACH
Stirringrods.
in.).
Erlenmeyer flasks (300 cc.).
4 Watch
2
APPARATUS
OF
glasses(diam.
25 Filter papers
1 Box
(11 cm.).
matches.
1 Wire
gauze
2 Crucibles
1 Test
(4 in. square).
diam. 3.5 cm.)
(porcelain,
tube brush.
2 Funnels
1
1 Test
tube stand.
1 Wooden
12 Test tubes 12
6 Beakers
1 Casserole
2
cm.
(nest 100
cc.).
(200 cc.).
1 Crucible
tongs (9 inches).
7.5
cm.).
cm.
STUDENT
1 Test
1
2
2
1
1
tube
clamp.
Water bath (copper).
dishes (2" in. diam.).
Aluminum
Feet of glasstubing (soft),
ext. diam.
File (15 cm.
long),triangular.
100-cc. cylinder.
1 Bottle each
1
1
377
EXPERIMENTS
LABORATORY
PRACTICAL
mm.
Ring stand
Deflagratingspoon.
(wide mouth)
4 Bottles
250
cc.
Rubber
2 Flasks 500
mm.).
cc.
1 Thistle tube.
1 Desiccator.
1 Iron crucible 50
cc.
CHEMICALS
TEN
FOR
STUDENTS
GRAMS
1500
1000
2000
200
100
Alcohol
Alum
(potassium)
25
25
chloride
Aluminum
Ammonium
carbonate
Ammonium
chloride
Ammonium
hydroxide,sp.
Ammonium
oxalate
25
Ammonium
nitrate
100
Ammonium
sulphate
molybdate
Ammonium
50
250
gr. 0.9
.100
1500
50
Arsenic
trioxide
100
Barium
chloride
20
Barium
hydrate
20
Bone
black
Bone
ash
100
.
100
50
Borax
Calcium
chloride
(granular)
200
.
378
DAILY
AND
CHEMISTRY
LIFE
GRAMS
Calcium
sulphate (gypsum)
Calcium
carbonate
Carbon
50
.
50
(marble)
30
bisulphide
25
Citric acid
Charcoal,ten pieces8
cm.
cm.
Cochineal
Cobalt
10
nitrate
250
.
50
100
50
Formalin
Fuchsine
Glucose
25
......;.
1000
(sirup)
Iron chloride
30
.
Iron powder
25
Iron
75
sulphate(ferrous)
Iron sulphide
250
Iodine
10
Indigo
15
Lime
50
Logwood
10
25
Lead
acetate
Lead
Lead
nitrate
.100
.
10
Litmus
10
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium sulphate
Magnesium wire or ribbon
Manganese dioxide
Methyl violet
Mercury
50
20
10
1000
5
.......
Mercuric
chloride
100
20
10
Paraffin
Phenolphthalein
Phosphorus, yellow
10
Potassium
carbonate
50
Potassium
chlorate
Potassium
sulphate
20
Potassium
dichromate
25
250
INDEX
Alabaster, 130.
253.
Albumen,
in milk, 294.
Albuminoids, 114.
Albumins, 114.
Alcohol, absolute, 112.
amyl, 102.
denatured, 101.
grain, 98.
wood, 98.
Alfalfa, 287.
Alkalies, 42.
metals
of, 118.
Alkaline
earths, test for, 347.
Alkaloids, 115.
Allotropic form of phosphorus,
Allspice, 283.
Alum, 274.
143.
ammonium,
baking powders, 144.
potassium, 143.
sodium, 143.
testing for, 349.
Alumina, 141.
140.
Aluminum,
bronze, 142.
metal, 142.
paint, 142.
sulphate, 143.
153.
Amalgams,
aldehyde, 99.
Acetylene, 93.
Acid, acetic, 41, 98.
benzoic, 104.
boric, 42, 74.
butyric, 105.
carbolic, 103.
Acetic
carbonic,
89.
citric,105.
definition
of, 48.
formic,
hippuric, 105.
hydriodic, 57.
hydrobromic, 56.
hydrochloric, 53, 336.
hydrofluoric, 52.
lactic,41, 104.
malic, 41, 104.
muriatic, 53.
oxalic, 41, 104.
phosphate, 208, 220, 361.
phosphoric, 70.
Prussic, 123.
pyrogallic, 104.
salicylic,101.
42, 78.
silicic,
sulphuric, 61.
sulphurous, 63.
tartaric, 41, 104.
valeric, 105.
Acids, 41.
in fruits,335.
in plants, 252.
in silage,335.
Acidulated
rock, 220.
98.
Air, carbon
dioxide
Amides,
from
manure,
362.
in, 30.
water,
Ammonium
253.
38.
Ammonia,
aqua,
composition of, 37.
from
coal, 37.
38.
bicarbonate,
chloride, 39.
molybdate, 157.
salts in soil,39, 361.
sulphate, 39, 216.
in, 35.
Ajax, 276.
381
126.
INDEX
382
Amyl acetate, 101.
alcohol, 102.
Amylopsin, 262.
Analysis, 48.
Aniline, 104.
dyes, 104.
Animal
foods, 284.
heat, 258.
Animals, 255.
action in soil,196.
carbohydrate in, 257.
fat in, 257.
mineral
matter
in, 255, 256.
protein in, 256.
water
in, 255.
work
by, 257.
Anthracite, 84.
Antidote, for arsenic, 71.
71.
Antimony,
Antiseptic, defined, 20.
Ants, as soil formers, 197.
Apparatus, list of, 375, 376.
Apparatus dealers, 379.
Aqua regia, 147.
Aristotle, 2.
Armor
plate, 160.
Arsenic, 71.
antidote
white,
for, 71.
309.
Arsenious
oxide, 71.
Asphalt,
177.
Balanced
ration, 265.
oil,101.
Barium
nitrate, 129.
sulphate, 129, 347.
Barley, 270.
Barytes, 129.
Base, definition of, 49.
Banana
Basic
lead
Basic
156.
acetate,
Bauxite,
140.
Beers, 101.
Beet, leaves
for silage,288.
roots, 278.
109, 249.
sugar,
Bell metal, 152.
Bengal lights,129.
Benzene, 103.
Benzine, 91.
Bessemer
process,
165.
Bioses,
Bismuth, 72.
subnitrate, 72.
Blackjack, 64, 157.
Black
varnish, 177.
Blast furnace, 161, 162.
Blaugas, 93.
Bleaching powder, 55, 317, 33'
Bleeding, stoppage of, 167.
Blood
charcoal, 81.
Blood
poisoning, 74.
108.
Blood
stains, 356.
Blue
B
Babbitt
Babcock,
Babcock
tartrate, 275.
Baking
glass, 161.
Blue print, paper,
167.
making of, 352.
Bluing, 354.
Bone, ground, 218.
steamed, 219.
Bone
black, 81.
Bones, 218.
phosphorus in, 360.
Boracic
acid, 74.
Borax,
occurrence
128.
of, 74.
of, 75.
acid test for, 316.
Bordeaux,
mixture, 152, 314.
preparation of, 374.
uses
Boric
383
INDEX
Boron,
74.
Bottom
lands, 195.
Boussingault, portrait, 201.
193.
Bowlders,
271.
Bran,
Bread,
making, 274.
protein in, 369.
starch
in, 369.
Breakfast
Brewer's
Brimstone,
59.
metal,
154.
vapors,
Bronzes,
Brucine,
152.
115.
Buckskin,
Bullets,
185.
72.
Bunsen
burner,
Butter,
299.
85.
cream,
Carbonated
waters, 88.
Carbonate
Brewing, 276.
Bricks, 145.
Britannia
Carboleum, 318.
acid, 103, 318.
Carbon, 81.
of, 341.
absorbing power
bisulphide, 64, 314.
cycle, 88.
dioxide, preparation of, 341.
dioxide in air, 30, 333.
monoxide, 86.
preparation of, 341.
of, 341.
reducing power
tetrachloride, 95.
Carbolic
299.
of potassium,
120.
Carbonates, 89.
95.
Carboneum,
119.
Carnallite,
Carrots, 278.
Casein, 294, 304.
Cassiterite, 153.
Cast iron, 163.
Caustic
soda, 125.
Cells, 238.
Celluloid, 107.
Cellulose, 105, 250.
nitrates of, 106.
Cement, for floors,131.
natural, 134.
Portland, 133.
Centrifuge, 111.
Cabbage,
278.
Cadaverine, 114.
Calcined
soda, 126.
Calcium, acid phosphate, 274.
carbide, 93.
carbonate, 130.
chloride, 130.
nitrate, 132.
phosphate, 66, 132.
silicate,133.
Calomel, 153.
Camembert
cheese, 302.
Cane
108, 249.
of, 109.
of fruit, 279.
sugar,
inversion
Cunning
Caoutchouc, 187.
Capillarity, 209.
Capillary water, 210, 358.
Caramel, 110, 272.
Carbohydrate, 105, 247.
digestion of, 262.
Cereals, 270.
composition of, 270.
Cerium, 146.
Chalk, 130.
Chamois
skin, 185.
Charcoal, 81.
Cheese, 300.
composition of, 302.
Chemical
change, 4, 326, 327.
Chemical
equations, 45.
Chemicals, list of, 377.
Chili saltpeter,36, 121, 217.
Chloride
Chlorine, 53.
Chlorine
water,
Chloroform,
Chlorophyl,
Chrome
55.
95.
168, 245.
156, 174.
green,
steel, 156.
tanning, 185.
yellow, 156, 174.
156.
Chromium,
Churning,
299.
384
INDEX
gas,
84.
Coal
tar
dyes,
Corrosive
"
Cream
separators,
298.
fiber, 247.
Cryolite, 141.
Cyanides, 313,
314.
Davy,
portrait, 124.
proportions, law of, 44.
Denatured
alcohol, 101.
Depilation, 183.
Developer in photography, 149.
Dew, 10, 32.
Dextrine, 107, 249.
Dextrose, 108.
Dialysis, 78.
82.
Diamond,
276.
112,
Diastase,
Digestibility of feeds, 263.
Digestion, 258.
of proteins, 368.
Dioxygen, 28.
Distillation,destructive, 38.
dry, 38.
Definite
Coefficient of digestibility,
263.
Coffee, 282.
stains, 356.
Coins, silver,48.
Coke, 81.
Colemanite, 75.
Collodion, 36, 106.
Collostrum, 295.
223.
salt as fertilizer,
Common
Compound,
denned, 6.
326.
Compounds,
Concrete, 134.
reenforced, 134.
Condensed
milk, 302.
Contact
poisons, 308, 311.
Cooking, 271.
effect of, 272.
Copal, 176.
Copper, 150.
acetate, 100.
alloys of, 148, 150.
Cream
104.
Cobalt, 160.
bead, 351.
Cocaine, 115.
Cocoa, 282.
Codeine, 115.
Corn
288.
Distilled
water,
10, 328.
48.
Driers, 172.
Dry
Dry
Dutch
batteries, 158.
farming, 209.
metal,
152.
Earthenware,
145.
Earthworms,
action
of, 196.
385
INDEX
Ebonite, 189.
Egg albumen, 371.
Eggs, 286.
composition of, 370.
Elastin, 114.
Elements,
ancient
idea of, 2.
Etching glass,52.
Ether,
Ether
103.
extract, 251.
Fires,extinguishing, 96.
217.
Fish, as fertilizer,
as
food, 286.
smoking, 104.
Fixation
of nitrogen, 207.
Flashlight powder, 136.
Flaxseed, 172.
Floats, 207, 219.
Flour, 107, 271.
Fluorine, 52.
Fly removers,
Fogs, 10.
318.
Foods,
"
Face
powder, 137.
chloride, 116.
oxide, 116.
sulphate, 116.
Fertility,factors of, 202.
Fertilizer,phosphatic, 218.
Fertilizers,action of, 360.
analysis of, 226, 227.
commercial, 214.
elementary system, 227.
experimenting on, 224.
home
mixing of, 224.
indirect,222.
Ferrous
laws
on,
226.
mixed, 223.
nitrogenous, 216.
selection of, 224.
special,224.
Filtering,323, 324.
Fire bricks, 146.
Fire
clay, 146.
2c
98.
Formates,
91.
distillation,
Fractional
Fructose,
108, 250.
Fruit
stains,355.
Fruit
sugar,
108.
Fruits, 278.
Fundamental
considerations,
Fungicides, 314.
Furs, 186.
iron, 157.
Gasoline, 91.
Gelatin, 286.
silver, 152, 160.
Germination,
239, 240, 364.
German
Germol, 318.
Germs
Gin,
in water,
17.
112.
Glaciers, 193.
Glass, 134, 135.
quartz, 77.
Glazes, 145.
1.
386
INDEX
Globulin, 253.
Hydrocarbons, 91.
Hydrochinone, 104.
Hydrogen, dioxide,28.
equivalent, 45.
Gold,
257.
147.
copper
Granitic
28.
preparation
of, 330.
properties of, 22.
stearate, 102.
Glycogen,
22.
occurrence,
peroxide,
Hypo,
128.
Hyposulphite
of soda, 128.
"Grape-nuts," 276.
Grape sugar, 108, 249.
Graphite,
82.
Ice cream,
302.
Indian
275.
corn,
Grease
Infusorial earth,
Ink, 167, 352.
Ink stains, 355.
Green
Green
manuring, 236.
vitriol,166.
Growing animals, 266.
action
121.
Gutta-percha, 189.
Gypsum, 64, 130.
as
216.
fertilizer,
vapors,
starch,
on
Hail, 32.
Hair, as fertilizer,
217.
104.
[odoform, 95.
Iron, change to ferric,352.
compounds
with
Hay,
287.
as
Heavy
disinfectant,319.
spar,
219.
Hellebore, 310.
Hematite, 161.
Hemoglobin, 168.
Hippuric acid, 206.
Hoof
meal, 217.
Hornblende, 79, 136.
Horn
meal, 217.
Human
foods, 269.
Humus,
199, 212.
Hunyad spring, 137.
tannic
metal, 161.
pyrites, 64.
of, 354.
rusting of,
sulphate, 352.
ridium, 147.
singlass, 286.
166.
soprene,
187.
Hammer
black, 166.
Hard
preparation, 342.
soap,
Heat
57.
337.
rust, removal
H
Halogens, 52.
Ham, smoking,
313.
311.
Invertase, 110.
Iodine, 56.
Gun
metal, 152.
Gunpowder, black,
smokeless, 106.
Insecticides,gaseous,
Insect powder,
Guajacol, 104.
Guano, 218, 219.
Guncotton, 36, 106.
80.
driers, 173.
elly making, 250.
unket
tablets, 294.
apan
Cohlrabi,278,
acid, 372.
388
INDEX
Meat, 284.
Meat
N
217.
scraps,
Medium
ratio, 264.
79, 136.
Meerschaum,
chloride, 316.
Mercury, 152.
antidote
for, 350.
fulminating, 106.
preparation of, 350.
Metalloids, 6.
Metals, 6.
base forming, 49.
Methane, 93.
Methyl alcohol, 97.
salicylate,101.
Mica, 79.
Milch
needs of, 267.
cows,
Milk, 291.
acidity of, 372.
antiseptics in, 296, 297.
Mercuric
ash
in, 295.
Naphtha, 91.
Naphthalene, 318.
Narcotine, 115.
Narrow
ratio, 264.
Negative, photographic, 150.
Nernst
lamp, 146.
Neutralization, 42.
Neutral
oil,300.
Nickel, ammonium
sulphate, 160.
coins, 160.
metal, 160.
plating, 160.
Nicotine, 115.
Nitrate
of soda, 217.
Nitrates, 36, 205.
Nitric acid, 35, 36, 334.
Nitrification,205.
Nitrites,propertiesof, 37.
Nitrobenzene, 104.
Nitrogen, 32, 34, 333.
cycle, 206.
361.
fertilizers,
Nitroglycerine, 106.
Nitrous
acid, 37.
Non-metals, 6, 50.
Nucleoproteins, 114.
secretion
Nut
of, 291.
shallow
setting, 297.
souring of, 294.
yield, 291.
Mill
concentrates,
Mixtures,
Moisture
270.
Mutton
butter, 282.
Nutmeg,
Nutritive
283.
ratio, 264.
Nux
vomica,
115.
326.
111.
in fruit,281.
157.
Molybdenum,
Monoses, 108.
Mordants, 167, 182.
Morphine, 115.
Mortar, 90.
Mosaic
gold, 154.
Moth
balls,318.
Muck, 198.
Mulch, 209.
Muriate
of potash, 119, 222.
Muriatic
for, 344.
in air,31.
Molasses,
Molds
tests
108, 294.
sugar,
acid, 53.
tallow,
102.
Oatmeal, 277.
Oats, 270.
Oil gases, 93.
Oil of mirbane,
104.
Oil of vitriol,61.
Oils, 250.
drying, 171.
non-drying, 171.
solubilityof, 353.
Oleomargarine, 300, 373.
Oleo oil,300.
Olive oil,102.
Onion, 278.
389
IXDKX
165.
Open hearth process,
Opium, 115.
344.
Organic compounds,
147.
Osmium,
Oxides, acid forming, 26.
alkali forming, 26.
Oxygen, 24, 331.
327.
Oxyhydrogen
gas,
Oysters, 284.
Ozone, 27, 333.
93.
gas,
Pitchblende, 138.
Plant, stem of, 244.
Plant
food, 244.
in crops,
202.
in
urine, 362.
Planting of seeds, 358.
Plant
enamel,
stains, 355.
147.
Palladium,
life,238.
Plants, as soil formers,
carbon
in, 365.
nitrogen in, 366.
potassium in, 367.
Palm
oil,102.
Paper, 105.
Paraffin, 91.
Plaster
Paris
Poisons
Paint, 171.
176.
green,
test
use
71, 309.
for, 374.
of, 310.
Pasteur
filters,18.
Pasteurization
of milk, 296.
Peanuts, 277.
Pearlash, 121.
Pearl barley, 276.
Peat, formation
of, 198.
Peat bogs, 197.
Pectins, 250, 367.
Pepper, 283.
Pepsin, 114, 260.
Peptones, 114.
Permanent
white, 129.
Peruvian
bark, 115.
Petroleum, 91.
Petroleum
ether, 91.
154.
Pewter,
Phenol, 103.
Phenolates, 103.
Phosphate of lime, 218, 220.
Phosphate rock, 66, 132, 218.
Phosphates, 339.
Phosphor bronze, 152.
Phosphorus, cycle, 68.
in fertilizers,
70.
in soils,207, 356.
occurrence
197.
of, 66.
red, 69.
yellow, 69.
Photographic
plate, 149.
Photography,
150.
Portland
cement,
133.
Potassium,
bromide, 122.
chlorate, 122.
chloride, 121.
cyanide, 122.
hydroxide, 347.
in soils,208.
iodide, 122.
metallic, 123.
nitrate, 121.
permanganate,
160.
122.
phosphate,
platinic chloride, 147.
silicate, 122.
test
for, 347.
Potato,
Potato
Potato
Producer
277.
scab, treatment
starch, 248.
gas,
114.
of, 98.
87.
Proteids,
Protein, coagulation of, 349.
digestion of, 262.
preparation of, 345.
test for, 344.
390
INDEX
coats, 188.
hard, 189.
Protoplasm, 238.
Prussian
blue, 174.
Prussic acid, 123.
Ptomaines, 114.
Ptyalin, 259.
Puddling, 210.
164.
Puddling process,
277.
Pulses,
Putrescine, 114.
Putty, 130.
Pyrethrum, 310.
Pyrite, 166.
Pyrogallic acid, 104.
Pyrogallol, 104.
Pyroligneous acid, 98.
Q
Quartz, 79.
Quartz glass, 77.
Quicksilver, 152.
Quinine, 115.
Rain,
10.
earths, 146.
Reaction
of soil,357.
Red
ocher, 161, 174.
Rennet, 300.
'
Renovated
260.
butter, 300.
Reverted
phosphate, 22.
Rhigolene, 91.
147.
Rhodium,
Rice, 272, 276.
Rochelle
salt, 108.
Rock, weathering of, 192.
Rock
candy, 109.
Rock
phosphate, 207.
Root, action of, 242.
Root
hairs, 242.
Root
nodules, 206.
Roots, 277.
Roquefort cheese, 302.
Rosin, 173.
186.
Rubber,
186.
plantations, 186.
preparations, 187.
red, 188.
solubilityof, 354.
substitutes, 189.
synthetic, 189.
vulcanized, 188.
white, 188.
Rubies, 140.
Rum, 101, 112.
Rutabaga, 278.
147.
Ruthenium,
S
soil,358.
138.
Rare
Rennin,
Para,
San
Radish, 278.
Radium,
Sand
paper,
77.
Sapphires, 140.
of, 244.
Sap, movement
Science, definition of, 1.
Seeds, air for, 365.
behavior
of, 241.
mutilation
of, 365.
wheat,"
276.
Siderite, 161.
Silage, 252, 288.
acids in, 290.
Silica,76.
Silicates, insolubilityof, 340.
Silicon, 76.
dioxide, 76.
391
INDEX
Soil,transported, 194.
Silk, 180.
water, 209.
Silt, 198.
Silver, 148.
bromide, 148.
chloride, 148.
iodide, 149.
nitrate, 148.
plating, 150.
sterling,148.
Skim
milk, 297, 299.
Skim
milk
cheese,
302.
Slag, 163.
Sleet, 32.
Smalt
glass, 161.
Smokeless
powder, 36.
Snow, 32.
Soap, 92.
calcium, 102.
hard, 102.
making, 251.
soft, 102.
Soapstone, 79.
Soda, 125.
Soda
water, 88.
Sodium, acetate, 100.
action
on
water, 331.
benzoate, 104.
bicarbonate, 274.
carbonate, 125.
chloride, 123.
hydroxide,
125.
iodate, 128.
metallic, 123.
nitrate, 127.
silicate,77, 128, 340.
sulphate, 128.
sulphite, 128.
test for, 347.
thiosulphate,128.
Soft coal, 84.
process,
126.
Soil, 191.
acids in, 207.
classes of, 198.
color of, 212.
composition
of, 200.
drainage, 359.
fertility
of, 202.
formation, 192.
liming, 207.
sedentary, 194.
temperature
action
effect of heat
grains, 370.
in seeds, 245.
of, 368.
for, 346.
Starter, 301.
Stassfurt fertilizers,
222.
salt beds, 121.
Steel, 165.
hardening of, 165.
tempering of, 165.
Steinholz, 137.
Stomach, of cow, 260.
of horse, 260.
Stomachic
poisons, 308.
Storage battery, 155.
Straws, 288.
Strontium
nitrate, 130.
Strychnine, 115.
Styptic cotton, 167.
Sublimate, corrosive, 153.
Sucrose, 108.
Sugars, 108, 249.
Sugar beet, 278.
Sugar, in plants, 245.
Sugar of lead, 156.
Sugar, manufacturing of, 110.
test
Solder, 154.
Solvay
Spices, 283.
Spirits of hartshorn, 38.
Spirits of wine, 98.
Springs, sulphur, 66.
Stannic
chloride, 154.
Stannous
chloride, 154.
Starch, 88, 107, 247.
for, 346.
Sulphates, 62.
Sulphate of potash, 222.
Sulphites, 63.
Sulphur, cycle, 66.
dioxide, 59, 338.
disinfectant, 317, 318.
ethers, 103.
flowers of, 59.
in animals, 64.
in plants, 65.
in soils,208.
of, 59.
occurrence
properties of, 338.
392
INDEX
Sulphur, roll,59.
springs, 66.
trioxide,61.
Sulphuric acid, 338.
contact
lead
process,
chamber
Nordhausen,
62.
process,
63.
white,
62.
159.
Vulcanite, 189.
Sunlight as disinfectant,
319.
Superphosphate, 68, 207, 220.
Swiss
cheese, 302.
Sylvite,119.
of elements, 43.
Synthesis,48.
Symbols
uses,
8.
327.
Talc, 137.
Tannin, 167, 183.
Tartaric
acid, 274.
Tea, 282.
stains, 356.
86.
gas,
in, 17.
germs
glass, 77.
hard, 15, 102, 329.
in animals, 13.
in
plants,328.
in plants and animals, 11.
mineral
matter
in, 15.
Tilth, 208.
Tin, foil,153.
plate, 153.
of, 328.
pollution of, 18.
purification of, 19.
saline matters
in, 9.
soft, 329.
spring, 14.
well, 14.
occurrence
stone, 153.
Tobacco
decoctions,313.
Trypsin,
Tubers,
262.
277.
Tungsten,
157.
Turnip, 278.
Turpentine,
Type
Waterhouse
test, 374.
Well
Welsbach
Wheat,
174.
White
metal, 71.
U
Ultramarine, 146.
Ultramarine
blue, 174.
Urea, 206.
acid, 206.
Vacuum
pans,
lamp,
111.
Varnish, 175.
Vaseline,91.
Vegetables, fresh, 269.
Verdigris,152.
White
87.
270.
Whisky, 101,
White
Uric
water,
112.
Whitewash, 317.
Whiting, 130.
Wide
ratio, 264.
Wind, action of, 159.
Wines, 101.
Wintergreen oil,101.
Wolff-Lehmann
standard, 264, 265.
Wood
alcohol, 98.
Wood
ashes, 222.
Wood's
metal, 72.
Wool, 180.
burning of, 353.
Wool
waste., 217.
393
INDEX
of,
needs
Working
animals,
Wounds,
cauterizing
Wrought
iron,
of,
266.
148.
318.
Zenoleum,
164.
Zinc,
157.
159.
chloride,
oxide,
Yeast,
oxide
371.
in
food,
273.
in
fruit,
279,
Yellow
ocher,
159.
ointment,
sulphate,
white,
280.
161,
174.
159.
159.
159.
Elements
Warren's
G.
By
F.
Farm
of
Professor
WARREN,
York
New
Crops,
Agriculture
of
Farm
and
Management
nell
College of Agriculture at Cor-
State
University
Cloth,
Written
Farm
Professor
by
G.
and
Management
Cornell
F.
Warren,
Farm
who
in
Crops
University,
authority
an
is in
charge
New
York
the
4.56pages, $/./o
ismO)
of
of
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State
questions
on
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net
of
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pertaining
culture,
Agri-
practical
to
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Professor
Warren
West
eighteen
The
Elements
It
with
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written
in
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J.
E.
and
in
characterizes
girls and
the
teaching
of
book
style, that
cannot
E.
am
opinion
suitably
enough
of
much
very
it is the only
there
at
to
pleased
book
'
country
Corsicana,
Texas
of
Elements
for
Iowa
book
THE
Publishers
for
with
the
on
; too
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in
has
down
and
the
and
sity.
Univer-
"
to
the
languages,
his
subject,
been
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and
of
teacher
high
them.
to
have
over
ten
It is writ-
space.
subject
been
unanimous
'
Agriculture
schools
well
as
convinces
for
as
is written
in
an
that
me
the
private
attractive
Warren's
market
many
schools
that
books
must
of
Elements
'
too
are
be
more
Agriculture.'
the
work
of
COMPANY
Fifth
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In
my
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not
simple and
give
than
a
primer."
presents
MACMILLAN
64-66
at
the
Schools,
merit
dle
mid-
hundred
talk
waste
no
home
his
present
the
is
author
The
agriculture
Warren's
schools
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writer
correct.
instance
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S. SMITH,
for
of
"
not
in the
study.
how
three
work
physics, mathematics,
Agriculture
knows
of
does
farm
his
with
that
on
up
farm
secondary
scientific
in matter,
and
thoroughly
fail to please as well
instruct."
as
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work
of
Supt.
uncommon
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Supt.
For
text.
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student.
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that
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examination
"An
the
style pedagogically
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praise
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He
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gives agriculture
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it is
of
farmer.
the
at
he
dignified subject
in
living
which
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"
pupil.
as
is
and
is,moreover,
New
York
Professor
and
Boston,
of
BLACK
HENRY
N.
By
Schools
Practical
the
Latin
Roxbury
DAVIS
N.
HARVEY
School,
Harvard
of
University.
Cloth,
intend
they
not
those
only
select
the
ships, automobiles,
and
fireless
cleaners,
vacuum
in
found
are
see
of the
value
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principles
topic,
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people,
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further
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value
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brief
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chapter.
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and
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admirable
principles
the
forceful
exposition,
practical, interesting,
illustrations.
COMPANY
MACMILLAN
New
we
still
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summariz-
by
that
familiar
emphasize
to
science,
book
the
teacher,
master
64-66
Chicago
in
phrasing
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exceptionally
problems,
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in mind
easily used."
features
noteworthy
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and
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clearly
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THE
Then,
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illustration
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of familiar
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principles,
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detract
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understand
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should
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therefore,
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machinery,
and
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side
life.
daily
electrical
cookers,
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to
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all
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"
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reason
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of
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interest
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instruments,
to
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book,"
particular,
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preparing
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It is not
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In
the
the
our
hold
on
school
and
successfullyblended
Secondary
natural
two
its
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simple
things
and
wonderful
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to
of
PART
I.
"
II.
PART
III.
PART
IV.
"
"
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it
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adopted
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Bailey proceeds
characteristics
conditions
effective simplicity
principles:
has
like," and
Professor
it.
life
individual
originate these,
nature
book.
of
; lack
encourage
do
to
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general
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can
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produces
it
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its fellows
communities
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moreover,
scientific
success
subject.
Four
by
story
Itself;
The
Plant
in Its Relation
Histology,
Kinds
general
or
the
Minute
to
Environment
of Plants, including
CHICAGO
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Structure
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features
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sympathy
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; that
struggle
plant
horizon
our
interest.
pedagogical
PART
has
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that" "like
of
neighbors,
plants
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of natural
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science
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characteristics,
their
in
alike
are
inclines";
laws
pupils
recognizes four
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tree
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interested
List
life.
interest
an
Professor
be
interested
are
should
everybody
that
interest
could
immaturity
revision
of the
We
greater
our
shall
people
life.
animal
and
plant
that
University
izmo,
desirable
nor
BAILEY
H.
FRANCISCO
Shelter
Clothing:
and
TEXTBOOK
OF
HELEN
By
and
ANNA
M.
of Household
College, Columbia
Teachers
tion,
Educa-
Arts
Professor
Assistant
COOLEY,
Education,
Arts
Household
of
Professor
KINNE,
ARTS
HOUSEHOLD
THE
University.
In
This
book
it,make
and
and
up
the
full
The
sewing.
home-making.
home
in
the
decoration
the
of
of food
to
improve
with
modern
and
homemaker.
housekeeper
to
fibers
and
and
she
the
know
must
how
infected
home
in
plan
necessity
some
book
of the
or
of
phase
of
keynote
the
the
sanitation,
wisdom
in
in
and
Parts
breadth,
them
variety,
detect
the
of
ferent
dif-
garments
of
danger
up-to-date
ments
gar-
book
on
experience.
common
omitted
shifted
or
The
the
and
use,
tion
adultera-
ready-made
from
schools.
intelligent
fabrics
to
the
simple
on
the
domestic
able
The
to
be
may
the
and
versant
con-
schemes
waste,
built
between
be
sweatshops.
of
disposal
buying
be
best
instructs
family
different
of
the
her
relates
The
furniture
must
In
modern
should
clothing
she
and
of
resources
the
distinguish
to
processes.
is flexible.
convenience
for
weaves,
topics
disclose
measure
cooking
and
domestic.
science
"
herself
the
floors, of
textiles
operators
such
book
the
the
plan,
homemakers
for
modern
able
durable
protect
treats
bare
be
must
diseased
by
economy
The
the
to
follows
of
every
economy
of
end
matters
of
finishing
"
this
on
which
selection
choose
to
be
the
exercise
utilization
to
of
walls,
ways
deceptive
will
arrangements
in
efficient
be
the
thought
modern
tinted
the
In
balance,
regard
they
as
life," and
scientific
of
home
that
details
to
careful
Harmony
of the
for
stands
some
with
that
Management,
confined
clothing.
and
lighting,
are
not
itself,and
home
efficiency
lines, these
hold
makers
house
Economics
heating
sanitary
the
Household
fully, but
treat
authors
as
of the
Home
science
books
proportion
provision
"
in domestic
The
and
matters
Foods
volume,
course
press
chapter
meet
to
headings
practicability
of
the
Home.
The
water
supply,
Materials
and
"
and
how
making
garments;
clothing
; economics
THE
Its
the
plan
of
disposal
they
are
construction
and
made.
embroidery.
of dress
Boston
and
"
History
repair
of
MACMILLAN
New
heating,
decoration
Garment-making.
Dress.
care
64-66
Chicago
waste
ventilating, lighting,
Textiles.
furnishing.
"
of
Patterns
costume
clothing
cutting
hygiene
millinery.
COMPANY
Fifth
Avenue
York
City
Atlanta
Dallas
San
Francisco
"
and
of