SIEMENS

APPLICATION DATA
AD353-130
Rev 1
March 2006

Procidia Control Solutions

Fundamentals of Combustion
This application data sheet discusses the
fundamentals of combustion of gaseous, liquid and
solid fuels in boilers. A Siemens 353 1 controller can
be easily configured as a versatile combustion
controller that enables high fuel combustion efficiency
while maintaining a high degree of boiler safety.

Combustion Control Objectives

An understanding of the combustion process is a
necessity when designing a boiler control application
and when defining the combustion control
specifications. The boiler example shown here is a
water tube boiler with a gaseous/liquid fuel burner.

air/fuel ratio across the entire firing rate and they

compensate for variations in fuel quality and air
changes due to the seasons.

Combustion Theory
Combustion is the oxidation of a fuel resulting in the
release of energy. In a typical industrial application,
combustion occurs in a furnace. The energy
released by combustion is used to perform work or
provide heating. As shown below, the furnace can
provide heat energy to a boiler. In the boiler, fuel
energy converts water into steam and the steam is
used to transport energy. The energy transfer from
Superheated Steam

SteamDrum

Windbox
Feedwater

Feedwater

Flue
Stack

Fuel
Furnace
Air
Mud Drum

Flue Gas

ID Fan

Air
FD Fan

The primary function of combustion control is to

maintain the air/fuel ratio close to the ideal
stoichiometric relationship. This maximizes boiler
efficiency, ensures safe operation of the boiler and
minimizes emitting of air pollutants. Modern control
systems permit the boiler to operate at the optimum
1

See Application Support at the back of this publication for

a list of controllers.

furnace to boiler is by convection of hot flue gases

and by radiation from the flame.
The furnace fuel can be gaseous, liquid or solid.
Typical gaseous fuels are natural gas, propane and
hydrogen. Typical liquid fuels are fuel oils and waste
combustible solvents. Typical solid fuels are
pulverized coal or wood chips. Many of these fuels
will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

AD353-130

CH 4 ( g ) + 2O2 ( g ) + 8N 2 ( g )

Carbon (C) is the principle element of coal. In the

presence of oxygen (O2), it burns to form carbon
dioxide. The process is exothermic, meaning that it
releases energy.

CO2 ( g ) + H 2O( g ) + 8N 2 ( g ) + H
H = 21,500 BTU/lb

C (s ) + O2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) + H

Note that the heat of combustion is the same whether

oxygen or air is used because nitrogen does not
react. However, the disadvantage of using air
instead of oxygen is a loss of usable energy heating
the nitrogen gas.

where H is the heat of combustion

H = 14,100 BTU/lb
Note: The s within parenthesis denotes that
state of the compound is a solid, l denotes a
liquid and g denotes a gas.

Propane (C3H8) is an alternative gaseous fuel that

may be used in some smaller, portable furnaces.

C3 H 8 ( g ) + 5O2 ( g ) + 20N 2 ( g )

One (1) BTU is the amount of energy required to

raise the temperature of one (1) pound of water at 39
degrees Fahrenheit by one (1) degree.

3CO2 ( g ) + 4H 2O( g ) + 20N 2 ( g ) + H

H = 19,900 BTU/lb

Hydrogen (H), in the presence of oxygen, burns to

form water vapor. The reaction releases more
energy than hydrocarbons.

Combustion Control
Combustion control satisfies the firing rate demand
by supplying both air and fuel at the optimum air/fuel
ratio. If excess air is present, energy is lost heating
the excess. More fuel must be burned to meet the
firing rate demand. If insufficient air is present, then
not all fuel is completely burned. Again, more fuel is
required in order to satisfy the energy requirement.
Both of these conditions result in reduced boiler
efficiency.

H 2 ( g ) + 21 O2 ( g ) H 2O( g ) + H
H = 51,600 BTU/lb
Note: By convention, heat of combustion equations
present water in the vapor phase. Water in the vapor
state contains a large quantity of energy,
approximately 1000 BTU per pound. The energy of
vaporization is unusable in combustion applications.

A fuel rich combustion mixture is a hazardous

condition. If it suddenly mixes with a stream of fresh
air, it may auto-ignite resulting in an explosion.
Modern control systems monitor fuel and air flow and
insure that sufficient air is always present.

Natural gas is primarily methane with some ethane

and propane. Methane, in the presence of oxygen,
burns to form carbon dioxide and water vapor. The
process is exothermic.

Combustion Air and Draft

CH 4 ( g ) + 2O2 ( g ) CO2 ( g ) + H 2O( g ) + H

Air is the most important factor in a combustion

system. Fresh combustion air must move into the
furnace while flue gases must move from the furnace
into the stack. This movement is known as draft. In
combustion, a natural draft occurs. However, in
boiler applications natural draft is insufficient for the
firing rate demand and fans are employed. Boilers
use either a forced draft, induced draft or
balanced draft system. In a forced draft system, a
fan forces fresh combustion air into the furnace. In
induced draft, a fan blows flue gases out of the
furnace and into the stack. In balanced draft, both
forced draft and induced draft fans are used.

H = 21,500 BTU/lb
At ambient conditions (atmospheric pressure and
room temperature), gases obey the ideal gas law.
One (1) cubic foot of methane contains the same
number of molecules as one (1) cubic foot of oxygen.
Therefore, one cubic foot of methane plus two cubic
feet of oxygen is the perfect, or stoichiometric, fuel
mixture. In industrial applications, oxygen is seldom
used due to its high cost of generation. Air is readily
available but it is composed of approximately 20%
oxygen and 80% nitrogen by volume. Assuming
complete combustion of methane and air in a
stoichiometric equivalent mixture, the combustion
equation becomes:

As a rule, ten cubic feet of air at ambient conditions

are required to support combustion of 1000 BTUs of
a hydrocarbon fuel. If a one million BTU per hour
2

AD353-130

firing rate is required, this can be achieved using any

one of the following fuels:

Nitrogen Oxides Formation

NOX formation in combustion systems has come
under increasing scrutiny since it has been linked to
ozone formation and acid rain. Control of NOX
emissions has therefore become one of the dominant
control objectives to consider.

10,000 SCFH air plus 1000 SCFH natural

gas
10,000 SCFH air plus 400 SCFH propane
10,000 SCFH air plus 8 gallons/hour No. 2
fuel oil

Since air is the usual source of oxygen for

combustion, potential by-products that can be
generated are NOX (NO and NO2) compounds. NOX
is formed during combustion through two separate
paths oxidations of nitrogen in hydrocarbon fuels
create fuel NOX while at high temperatures (above
2000F), nitrogen and oxygen dissociate to form
thermal NOX.

As can be seen above, the air/fuel ratio is

proportional to the BTU content of the hydrocarbon
fuel used. Another design parameter is that you can
design for approximately 1300-1400 BTU per pound
air used.
Excess Oxygen

Several techniques have emerged to control NOX.

Primarily due to cost issues, front-end preventive
measures, such as Low-NOX burners, FGR (Flue
Gas Recirculation), staged combustion and fuel
switching, are considered preferable to end-of-pipe
methods like scrubbers.

Typically, boilers operate with a slight excess of

oxygen in the air/fuel mixture to minimize formation of
carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is an
intermediate by-product of the combustion process.
C ( s ) + 1 O2 ( g ) CO( g ) + H
2

Additional Information on Boiler Control

H = 4,000 BTU/lb
CO( g ) +

Application Data sheet AD353-132 Boiler Control

Overview provides additional information on the use
of the Siemens 353 for use in boiler control
applications.

1 O ( g ) CO ( g ) + H
2
2 2

H = 10,100 BTU/lb

Application Support

In oxygen deficient combustion, other intermediate

by-products are formed. Intermediate combustion
by-products are undesirable because they are air
pollutants and they represent wasted energy.
Carbon monoxide is typically monitored because it is
easy to measure and it is a good indicator of the
presence of other by-products.

Other Application Data sheets in this series can be

found at the Siemens public Internet site. Detailed
information about the function blocks mentioned in
this publication can be found in the Users Manual for
each controller.
Siemens sales representatives in the United States
and globally are available to provide additional
application support.

When a perfect air/fuel combustion mixture is

provided, carbon monoxide will form due to the
dynamic nature of the combustion process. There
are three factors that affect combustion efficiency:
time, thoroughness of mixing, and furnace
temperature. Studies have shown that a small
amount of excess oxygen greatly reduces the
formation of carbon monoxide. Typically, at low firing
rates, 4% excess oxygen is sufficient. At high firing
rates, 1% excess oxygen may be sufficient
because the furnace is generally hotter and there is
more turbulence or mixing.

The configuration(s) in this publication can be created

in a Model 353 Process Automation Controller, Model
353R Rack Mount Process Automation Controller
(i|pac Internet Control System), Model 352Plus
Single-Loop Digital Controller, Model 354 Universal
Control Station, or Model 354N Universal Loop
Controller (model series 354 discontinued).

AD353-130

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use by third parties for their own purposes could violate the rights of the owners.
Siemens Energy & Automation, Inc. assumes no liability for errors or omissions in this document or for the application and use of information
in this document. The information herein is subject to change without notice.
Siemens Energy & Automation, Inc. is not responsible for changes to product functionality after the publication of this document. Customers
are urged to consult with a Siemens Energy & Automation, Inc. sales representative to confirm the applicability of the information in this
document to the product they purchased.
Control circuits are provided only to assist customers in developing individual applications. Before implementing any control circuit, it should
be thoroughly tested under all process conditions.
Copyright 2006, Siemens Energy & Automation, Inc.