Page | 1

A)

Filtration

Filtration is a mechanical or physical process to separate solid particulates from fluids. Filtrate
is a liquid that has passed through the filtration process. Residue is the material remaining after
filtration.
Examples of filtration:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The coffee filter to keep the coffee separate from the grounds.
HEPA filters in air conditioning to remove particles from air.
Belt filters to extract precious metals in mining.
Whatman filter paper 40 is for separating crystals of CuSO4 from cold water.
Water filtration system: A water filtration system generally makes use of a thick layer
of granular materials, such as sand, gravel, and charcoal. Such a filter may be many feet
thick and is known, therefore, as a deep-bed filter. When impure water passes through
such a filter, suspended solids are removed, allowing relatively pure water to be collected
at the bottom of the filter. In commercial water purification plants, the deep-bed filter
may be modified to remove other impurities.
6. Furnaces use filtration to prevent the furnace elements from fouling with particulates.
7. Pneumatic conveying systems often employ filtration to stop or slow the flow of material
that is transported, through the use of abaghouse.
8. In the laboratory, a Bchner funnel is often used, with a filter paper serving as the porous
barrier.

9. An experiment to prove the existence of microscopic organisms involves the comparison

of water passed through unglazed porcelain and unfiltered water. When left in sealed
containers the filtered water takes longer to go foul, demonstrating that very small items
(such as bacteria) can be removed from fluids by filtration.
10. In the kidney, renal filtration is the filtration of blood in the glomerulus, followed by
selective reabsorption of many substances essential for the body to maintain homeostasis.

Page | 2

11. DE filtration: Filtration systems are varied in design, operation, and application. The
most traditional system is diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration, in which DE is used to
aggregate and collect suspended solids. The DE is collected on filter paper inside the
pressure filter as the juice passes through the unit. The resulting juice is sparkling clear.
12. Gas masks: On the battlefield for respiratory support and other necessary equipment,
decontamination solutions, and staff trained to decontaminate chemical warfare
casualties. Collective protective shelters, complete with filters for airflow systems, have
been provided to shield personnel in an otherwise contaminated area. Such shelters can
provide a toxic-free area for person.

B)

Sieving

Sieving involves using a screen or mesh to separate parts of a mixture. It can stop larger particles
from going through and let the solution or the smaller pieces through.
If barrier is a mat of fibers or a porous polymer with small pore sizes, it is called filtration. If the
barrier is of interwoven metal wire (screen); natural cloth (burlap, net); in a regular pattern and
having regular, rather large, pore sizes, it is called sieving.
Examples of Sieving:
1. Screen wire can separate sand and rocks.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Very small porous screen wire separates water and rocks is also an example of sieving.
Sieving of flour.
Dimensional sorting of peas and beans.
Tea strainer, which is used to separate tea leaves from water. Sieves work because large
particles cannot fit through the holes in a sieve, but small particles can.
6. Sieving is often used in preparing food, but it also has other uses. For example, very
small sieves can separate viruses from bacteria.
7. Fishing net could be considered a very large sieve for catching fishes.
8. Cheese curd is separating via cloth.
9. Very small regular porous size screen wire can be used to separate juices from fruits.
10. Soot particles from smokestacks.

Page | 3

11. Regular size screen wire is used to separate large solid clots, formed in the mixture of
sand and cement.

C)

Dialysis

Dialysis is the transfer of solute (dissolved solids) across a semipermeable membrane. Strictly
speaking, dialysis refers only to the transfer of the solute; transfer of the solvent is
called osmosis.
If dialysis is done in the presence of electric current, then it is called electrodialysis.

Examples of Dialysis:
1. A solution of starch and sodium chloride in water can be separated by placing the mixture
in a vessel on one side of a semipermeable membrane and placing pure water on the other
side. The smaller particles of sodium chloride (which dissolve in water to form sodium
and chloride ions) will diffuse across the membrane; diffusion of the much larger starch
particles (which are not truly in solution but are in colloidal suspension) is hindered and
may be completely prevented. By continuously or periodically replacing the solvent with
fresh solvent, almost all of the sodium chloride can be removed. The method was
originated by Thomas Graham.
2. Mixed macromolecules, such as proteins, may be similarly separated. By the use of
graded semipermeable membranes chosen to allow successively smaller molecules to
pass, mixtures can be separated into components of graded ranges of molecular weight.
3. Separation of enzymes from blood.
4. Separation of hormones by semipermeable membrane from blood and other fluids in the
body.
5. Hemodialysis is a method in which kidney failure is treated with the process of dialysis.
In hemodialysis, blood is removed, purified through dialysis, and returned to the
bloodstream. In kidney failure, there is retention of salts and water, urea, and metabolic
acids. The patient is then connected to a dialysis machine, which is also called a
hemodialyzer. The blood flows through small channels made of semipermeable
membranes. The dissolved substances like urea and salts pass through a sterile solution.

Page | 4

Compounds like sugar and amino acids are added to the sterile solution. The dialysis
solution is on the other side of the membranes, and the molecules flow through the
membranes. The molecules diffuse from a higher concentration to low concentration area.
The concentrations of molecules needed to be removed from the blood are zero in the
dialysis fluid. The process of hemodialysis helps many patients who have kidney failure.
6. Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a treatment for patients with severe chronic kidney disease.
The process uses the patient's peritoneum in the abdomen as a membrane across which
fluids and dissolved substances (electrolytes, urea, glucose, albumin and other small
molecules)
are
exchanged
from
the
blood.
Peritoneal dialysis is
the
dialysis through the peritoneum, the dialyzing solution being introduced into and removed from the peritoneal cavity, as either a continuous or an intermittent procedure.
7. Lymph dialysis removal of urea and other elements from lymph collected from the thoracic duct, treated outside the body, and later reinfused.
8. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) involves continuous presence of dialysis solution in the peritoneal cavity. It can be used to remove metabolic wastes from
kidney. e.g. urea, glucose, etc.
9. Continuous cycling peritoneal dialysis (CCPD) a procedure similar to continuous ambula
tory peritoneal dialysis but taking place atnight, using a machine to make several fluid ex
changes automatically. It can also be used to remove metabolic wastes from kidney. e.g.
urea, glucose, etc.
10. Intermittent peritoneal dialysis (IPD) an older form of peritoneal dialysis in which dialysi
s solution is infused into the peritoneal cavity,allowed to equilibrate for 10 to 20 minutes,
and then drained out.
11. Colloidal mesoporous silica nanoparticles less than 20 nm in diameter are prepared
by dialysis; this simple surfactant removal route can avoid aggregation by sedimentation
redispersion and remove cationic surfactants while retaining the original colloidal state,
which is applicable to the preparation of primary nanoparticles carrying a functional
organic substance.

D)

Size Exclusion Chromatography

Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is a chromatographic method in which molecules in

solution are separated by their size, and in some cases molecular weight. It is usually applied to
large molecules or macromolecular complexes such as proteins and industrial polymers.
Typically, when an aqueous solution is used to transport the sample through the column, the

Page | 5

technique is known as gel-filtration chromatography, versus the name gel permeation

chromatography, which is used when an organic solvent is used as a mobile phase.

Examples of Size-exclusion chromatography:

1. Biochemical applications: In general, SEC is considered a low resolution
chromatography as it does not discern similar species very well, and is therefore often
reserved for the final "polishing" step of purification. The technique can determine
the quaternary structure of purified proteins that have slow exchange times, since it can
be carried out under native solution conditions, preserving macromolecular interactions.
SEC can also assay protein tertiary structure, as it measures the hydrodynamic volume
(not molecular weight), allowing folded and unfolded versions of the same protein to be
distinguished. For example, the apparent hydrodynamic radius of a typical protein
domain might be 14 and 36 for the folded and unfolded forms, respectively. SEC
allows the separation of these two forms, as the folded form will elute much later due to
its smaller size.
2. Polymer synthesis: SEC can be used as a measure of both the size and
the polydispersity of a synthesized polymer, that is, the ability to be able to find the
distribution of the sizes of polymer molecules. If standards of a known size are run
previously, then a calibration curve can be created to determine the sizes of polymer
molecules of interest in the solvent chosen for analysis (often THF). In alternative
fashion, techniques such as light scattering and/or viscometry can be used online with
SEC to yield absolute molecular weights that do not rely on calibration with standards of
known molecular weight. Due to the difference in size of two polymers with identical
molecular weights, the absolute determination methods are, in general, more desirable. A
typical SEC system can quickly (in about half an hour) give polymer chemists
information on the size and polydispersity of the sample. The preparative SEC can be
used for polymer fractionation on an analytical scale.

Page | 6

3. High-pressure size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) is used for determining

molecular weights of aquatic humic substances.
4. Determination of the porosities of monolithic columns by inverse size-exclusion
chromatography.
5. Aqueous phase size-exclusion-chromatography used for PLP-SEC studies into freeradical propagation rate of acrylic acid in aqueous solution.
6. Quantitation of aggregate levels in a recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody
formulation by size-exclusion chromatography, asymmetrical flow field flow
fractionation, and sedimentation velocity.
7. High-resolution length sorting and purification of DNA-wrapped carbon nanotubes
by size-exclusion chromatography.
8. Characterization of commercial and experimental sodium caseinates by multiangle laser
light scattering and size-exclusion chromatography
9. Purification of molecularly bridged metal nanoparticle arrays by centrifugation and size
exclusion chromatography
10. Absolute size-exclusion chromatography (ASEC) is a technique that couples a dynamic
light scattering (DLS) instrument to a size exclusion chromatography system for absolute
size measurements of proteins and macromolecules as they elute from the
chromatography system.
The definition of absolute used here is that it does not require calibration to obtain
hydrodynamic size, often referred to as hydrodynamic diameter (D H in units of nm). The
sizes of the macromolecules are measured as they elute into the flow cell of the DLS
instrument from the size exclusion column set. It should be noted that the hydrodynamic
size of the molecules or particles are measured and not their molecular weights. For
proteins a Mark-Houwink type of calculation can be used to estimate the molecular
weight from the hydrodynamic size. A big advantage of DLS coupled with SEC is the
ability to obtain enhanced DLS resolution.

E)

Centrifugation

The process by which substances are separated by centrifugal force

to increase the rate of filtration or sedimentation of two
immiscible liquids or a liquid and a solid is called centrifugation.
Examples of Centrifugation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Separating chalk powder from water.

Removing fat from milk to produce skimmed milk.
Separating textiles.
Removing water from lettuce after washing it in a salad spinner.
Separating particles from an air-flow using cyclonic separation.
The clarification and stabilization of wine.
Separation of water particles from clothes while spin-drying
in washing machines.

Page | 7

8. Separation of urine components and blood components in forensic and research

laboratory.
9. Separation of cellular components e.g. lysosomes from other components.
10. Equilibrium-density-gradient centrifugation:
a procedure for separating particles such as viruses or ribosomes or molecules such as D
NA in which the sample is placed on apreformed gradient such as sucrose or cesium chlo
ride. Upon centrifugation either by rate zonal or equilibrium procedures, themacromolecu
les are 'banded' in the gradient and can be collected as a pure fraction.
11. Isotope separation:
Other centrifuges, the first being the Zippe-type centrifuge, separate isotopes of chemical
elements. These kinds of centrifuges are in use in nuclear power and nuclear weapons
programs.
12. Human centrifuges are exceptionally large centrifuges that test the reactions and tolerance
of pilots and astronauts to acceleration above those experienced in the Earth's gravity.

F)

Masking

Masking is a pseudo-separation method in which a species is prevented from participating in a

chemical reaction by binding it with a masking agent in an unreactive complex.
The reagent used to bind the species to be masked in an unreactive complex is called masking
agent.
Technically, masking is not a separation technique because we do not physically separate the
analyte and the interferent. We do, however, chemically isolate the interferent from the analyte,
resulting in a pseudo-separation.
Examples of Masking:

A passivation layer thermally grown or deposited on wafers. It is resistant to high

temperatures. Oxygen or water vapor is used to grow silicon dioxide at temperatures
above 900 degrees C. Silicon dioxide is used as a masking layer as well as an insulator.
A passivation layer chemically deposited on a wafer at temperatures of between 600
degrees C and 900 degrees C to protect the wafer from contamination. Silicon nitride is
also used as a masking layer and as an insulator.

Page | 8

Masking Agent

Elements Whose Ions Can Be Masked

CN

Ag, Au, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pd, Pt, Zn

SCN

Ag, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pd, Pt, Zn

NH3

Ag, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn

Al, Co, Cr, Mg, Mn, Sn, Zn

S2O32

Au, Ce, Co, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Pb, Pd, Pt, Sb, Sn, Zn

tartrate

Al, Ba, Bi, Ca, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Pb, Pd, Pt, Sb, Sn, Zn

oxalate

Al, Fe, Mg, Mn

thioglycolic acid

Cu, Fe, Sn

Examples of Selected Inorganic and Organic Masking Agents for Metal Ions

G)

Distillation

Distillation is the technique of heating a liquid to create vapor which is collected when cooled
separate from the original liquid.
Examples of Distillation:
1. Pure water can be separated from salt water through distillation. Salt water is boiled to
create water steam, but the salt remains in the solution. The steam is collected and
allowed to cool back into salt-free water.

Page | 9

2. Fractional distillation is used to separate petroleum into its fractions.

3. Distillation is used to make any of the liquors that are stronger than wine.
4. Azeotropic distillation: If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there
exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of
techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by
"jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding another component to create a
new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically
removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a
drying agent or a desiccant (such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the
soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for
this purpose as well.
5. Pressure-swing distillation: One example of the application of pressure-swing distillation
is during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis
from ethanol.
6. Distillation in food processing: Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to
ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such
as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol.
Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected
in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage. Some of these beverages
are then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more flavor compounds and
characteristic flavors.
7. Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but
rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an
inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids
and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give
methanol is the root of its common name wood alcohol.
8. Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of
evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is
the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process
is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content,
respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation
concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them; As a result, many countries

P a g e | 10

prohibit such applejack as a health measure. However, reducing methanol with the
absorption of 4A molecular sieve is a practical method for production.
9. Steam distillation is employed in the manufacture of essential oils, for use in perfumes,
for example. In this method, steam is passed through the plant material containing the
desired oils. Eucalyptus oil and orange oil are obtained by this method on the industrial
scale. Steam distillation is also sometimes used to separate intermediate or final products
during the synthesis of complex organic compounds.
10. Steam distillation is also widely used in petroleum refineries and petrochemical plants
where it is commonly referred to as "steam stripping".
11. Steam distillation also is an important means of separating fatty acids from mixtures and
for treating crude products such as tall oils to extract and separate fatty acids, soaps and
other commercially valuable organic compounds.
12. Extractive distillation: The separation of an azeotropic mixture of
benzene and cyclohexane, where aniline is one suitable solvent.

H) Sublimation
Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to
the gas phase without passing through the intermediate liquid phase.

Examples of Sublimation:
1. Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimes everywhere along the line
below the triple point (e.g., at the temperature of 78.5 C (194.65 K,
104.2 F) at atmospheric pressure), whereas its melting into liquid
CO2 can occur only along the line at pressures and temperatures above
the triple point (i.e., 5.2 atm, 56.4 C)
2. Snow and ice sublime, although more slowly, at temperatures below
the freezing/melting point temperature line at 0 C for most pressures;
see line below triple point. In freeze-drying, the material to be
dehydrated is frozen and its water is allowed to sublime under reduced
pressure or vacuum.

P a g e | 11

3. Vacuum sublimation is the method of choice for purification of organic

compounds for the use in the organic electronics industry, where very
high purities (often > 99.99%) are needed to satisfy the standards for
consumer electronics and other applications.
4. Iodine produces fumes on gentle heating. It is possible to obtain liquid
iodine at atmospheric pressure by controlling the temperature at just
above the melting point of iodine. In forensic science, iodine vapor can
reveal latent fingerprints on paper.
5. Naphthalene (M.P. 79 0C), ingredient in mothballs, also sublimes at 25
0
C at 1 torr.
6. Arsenic can also sublime at high temperatures.
7. A useful analytical example of sublimation is the isolation of amino
acids from fossil mollusk shells and deep-sea sediments.
8. Urea (M.P. 79 0C) sublimes at 50 0C at 1 torr.
9. Sulfur, benzoin and NH4NO3 are obtained readily in pure form by
sublimation.
10.
Iodine and camphor readily sublime at room temperatures and
pressures.
11.
Saccharin, quinine, cholesterol, and atropine are the additional
examples of compounds that are conveniently separated by
sublimation.