Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
2011
CDMA TECHNOLOGY
THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
Bachelor of Engineering in
Electr ical
BY
SUPERVISOR
PROF. I K Pattharwala
May-june
2011
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that
Date:-
May-june
2011
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I place on record and warmly acknowledge the continuous
encouragement, invaluable supervision, timely suggestions and
inspired guidance offered by my guide Prof. I K pattharwala
,Department of Electrical Engineering ,Government Engineering
College , Modasa in bringing this report to a successful completion.
I am grateful to Prof. H R Dave , Head of the Department of
Electrical Engineering for permitting me to make use of the facilities
available in the department to carry out the project successfully. Last
but not the least I express my sincere thanks to all my friends who
have patiently extended all sorts of help for accomplishing this
undertaking.
Finally I extend my gratefulness to one and all who are directly or
indirectly involved in the successful completion of this project work.
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2011
CONTENT:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
INTRODUCTION.
MAIN TYPES OF CDMA.
BIRTH OF CDMA.
EVOLUTION OF CDMA.
CDMA PRINCIPLE.
WORKING OF CDMA.
CDMA IMPLEMENTATION.
7.1 CDMA CHANNELS
7.2 CDMA FORWARD CHANNELS
7.3 CDMA REVERSE CHANNELS
7.4 CDMA MODULATION
7.5 CDMA FOR CELLULAR
8. DS-CDMA IN CELLULAR SYSTEMS.
8.1 THE OBJECTIVES OF IMT-2000
8.2 DS-CDMA TECHNIQUE
8.3 TRANSMITTER STRUCTURE
8.4 RECEIVER STRUCTURE
8.5 PROPERTIES OF DS-CDMA
9. FEATURES OF CDMA.
10. GSM
11. CDMA VS GSM.
12. ADVANTAGES OF CDMA.
13. DISADVANTAGES OF CDMA.
14. APPLICATION OF CDMA TECHNOLOGY.
15. FUTURE OF WCDMA
16. CONCLUSION.
17. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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1. INTRODUCTION
This paper is intended to provide an introduction to CDMA use in wireless
telephone systems. The focus is on explaining, in generally non-technical
language, both the key aspects of CDMA technology, and the primary benefits
the technology offers to wireless communication system operators and their
subscribers. There is a tremendous amount of detailed technical information
which is intentionally not covered in this forum.
It has been necessary, though, to assume at least a rudimentary familiarity with
cellular telephone systems, including the basic characteristics of radio and the
RF spectrum, as well as fundamental system design concepts such as frequency
re-use.
What is CDMA?
One of the most important concepts to any cellular telephone system is that of
"multiple access", meaning that multiple, simultaneous users can be supported.
In other words, a large number of users share a common pool of radio channels
and any user can gain access to any channel (each user is not always assigned to
the same channel). A channel can be thought of as merely a portion of the limited
radio resource which is temporary allocated for a specific purpose, such as
someone's phone call. A multiple access method is a definition of how the radio
spectrum is divided into channels and how channels are allocated to the many
users of the system.
The CDMA Cellular Standard
With CDMA, unique digital codes, rather than separate RF frequencies or
channels, are used to differentiate subscribers. The codes are shared by both the
mobile station (cellular phone) and the base station, and are called "pseudoRandom Code Sequences." All users share the same range of radio spectrum.
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CDMA 2000:
We now have cdma2000 and its variants like 1X EV, 1XEV-DO, and MC 3X.
The reffer to variants of usage of a 1.25MHz channel. 3X uses a 5 MHz channel.
This first phase of cdma2000 - variously called 1XRTT, 3G1X, or just plain 1X is designed to double current voice capacity and support always-on data
transmission speeds 10 times faster than typically available today, some 153.6
kbps on both the forward and reverse links.
CDMA2000 Technical Detail:
Frequency band: Any existing band.
Minimum frequency band required: 1x: 2x1.25MHz, 3x: 2x3.75
Chip rate: 1x: 1.2288, 3x: 3.6864 Mcps
Maximum user data rate: 1x: 144 kbps now, 307 kbps in the future 1xEV-DO:
max 384 kbps - 2.4 Mbps, 1xEV-DV: 4.8 Mbps.
WCDMA:
Wideband CDMA that forms the basis of 3G networks, Developed originally by
Qualcomm, CDMA is characterized by high capacity and small cell radius,
employing spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme. WCDMA
uses 5 MHz bandwidth.
CDMA Phones at Glance:
Samsung SCH-N191
LG RD2030
LG-Elect-TM910
LG Electronics TM510
THE Tata Indicom CDMA Mobile Cost Table
Activation Cost
Monthly Rental
Deposit
Handset
Rs.1050
Rs.450
Rs.3,000
Hyundai HGC-310E Rs.9,800
Samsung SCH-620 Rs.10,800
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3.BIRTH OF CDMA
At World War II
CDMA is a military technology first used during World War II by the English
allies to foil German attempts at jamming transmissions. The allies decided to
transmit over several frequencies, instead of one, making it difficult for the
Germans to pick up the complete signal.
History Of CDMA
Somewhere close to the Second World War, Hollywood actress-turned-inventor,
Hedy Lamarr and co-inventor George Antheil, co-patented a way for controlling
torpedoes by sending signals over multiple radio frequencies using random
patterns. They called this frequency hopping.
After some hue and cry, the US Navy discarded their work as architecturally
unfeasible. In 1957, Sylvania Electronic System Division, in Buffalo, New
York , took up the same idea. After the expiry of the inventors patent, they used
the same technology to secure communications for the US military.
In the mid-80s, the US military declassified what is now called CDMA
technology, a technique based on spread-spectrum technology, for use in
wireless communication. The spread-spectrum technology works by digitizing
multiple conversations, attaching a code(known only to the sender and receiver),
and then breaking the signals into bits and reassembling them.
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4.EVOLUTION OF CDMA
1940s and 1950s Spread Spectrum technique for military anti-jam applications.
1949 Claude Shannon and Robert Pierce develop basic ideas of CDMA
1970s Several CDMA developments for military systems (e. g. GPS)
In March 1992, the TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) established
the TR-45.5 subcommittee with the charter of developing a spread spectrum
digital cellular standard. In July of 1993, the TIA gave its approval for the
CDMA Technology standard.
1993 IS-95 CDMA standard finalized
1995 Commercial operation of N-CDMA system (IS-95) in Hong Kong/Korea
October 1, 2000 SK Telecom of Korea launches the first commercial cdma2000
network
April 17, 2001 Ericsson and Vodafone UK claim to have made the world's first
WCDMA voice call over commercial network.
October 1, 2001 NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial WCDMA 3G
mobile network.
January 28, 2002 SK Telecom in Korea launched the world's first commercial
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO.October 1, 2002 Qualcomm announces world's first
Bluetooth WCDMA (UMTS) and GSM Voice Calls.
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5.CDMA PRINCIPLE
If we change our communication topology from point-to-point to point-tomultipoint, we have hanged the communication environment from single-link to
a multiple-access link. The multiple-access scheme in a spread-spectrum system
is termed code-division multiple-access (CDMA).
Each access to a common channel needs some form of orthogonality. For
frequency-division multiple-access (FDMA), we achieve orthogonality in the
frequency domain by selecting nonoverlapping unique frequency bands to each
user. We achieve orthogonality in the time domain by selection nonoverlapping
unique time segments to each user; this process is referred to as time-division
multiple-access (TDMA). The spread-spectrum form of multiple access exploits
the orthogonality in the code domain and is termed code-division multipleaccess (CDMA).
The multiuser environment in the spread-spectrum case is set up for each user in
assigning each user a unique spreading sequence out of a family of orthogonal
sequences. Each user in a CDMA network occupies the same channel
bandwidth.
A CDMA system is clearly not a collision avoidance system like FDMA and
TDMA. The opposite is true and explains the differences in the behavior of
CDMA systems compared to FDMA and TDMA. In general, the collisions at the
channel is a disadvantage of CDMA system and can be mitigated by careful
selection of the sequence and power control that is close to perfect.
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6.WORKING OF CDMA
The CDMA uses the spread spectrum technology. The spread spectrum refers to
any system that satisfies the following conditions :
1. The spread spectrum may be viewed as a kind of modulation scheme in
which the modulated(spread spectrum) signal bandwidth is much greater
than the message(baseband) signal bandwidth. Thus, spread spectrum is
a wideband scheme.
2.The spectral spreading is performed by a code that is independent of the
message signal. This same ode is also used at the receiver to despread the
received signal in order to recover the message signal (from spread spectrum
signal). In secure communication, this code is known only to the person(s) for
whom the message is intended.
The spread spectrum increases the bandwidth of the message signal by a factor
N, called the processing gain. If the message signal bandwidth is B Hz and the
corresponding spread spectrum signal bandwidth is Bss Hz, then Processing
gain N = Bss / B
Thus, the key to CDMA is to be able to extract the desired signal while rejecting
everything else as random noise. A somewhat simplified description of CDMA
follows:
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In CDMA each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals called chips.
Typically, there are 64 or 128 chips per bit, but in the example given below we
will use 8 chips/bit for simplicity.
Each station is assigned a unique m-bit code or chip sequence. To transmit a 1
bit, a station sends its chip sequence. To transmit a 0 bit, it sends the ones
complement of its chip sequence. No other patterns are permitted. Thus for m =
8, if a station A is assigned the chip sequence 00011011, it sends a 1 bit by
sending 00011011 and 0 bit by sending 11100100.
If we have 1-MHz band available for 100 stations, with FDM each one would
have 10 kHz and could send at 10 kbps (assuming 1 bit per Hz). With CDMA,
each station uses the full 1 MHz, so the chip rate is 1 Megachip per second. With
fewer than 100 chips per bit, the effective bandwidth per station is higher for
CDMA than FDMA, and the channel allocation problem is also solved.
It is more convenient to use a bipolar notation, with binary 0 being 1 and binary
1 being +1. We will show chip sequences in parentheses, so a 1 bit for station A
now becomes (-1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1). In Fig. (1), we show the binary chip
sequence assigned to four example stations. In Fig. (2), we show them in our
bipolar notation.
A: 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
B: 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
C: 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
D: 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
A: (-1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1)
B: (-1-1+1-1+1+1+1-1)
C: (-1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1)
D: (-1+1-1-1-1-1+1-1)
Six Examples:
_ _1_
_ 11_
1 0_ _
C
B+C
A+B
S1= ( -1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 1 -1)
S2= ( -2 0 0 0 +2 +2 0 -2)
S3= ( 0 0 2 +2 0 -2 0 +2)
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1 0 1 _ A+B+C
1 1 1 1 A+B+C+D
1 1 0 1 A+B+C+D
S4= ( -1 +1 3 +3 1 1 1 +1)
S5= ( -4 0 -2 0 +2 0 +2 -2)
S6= ( -2 2 0 2 0 2 +4 0 )
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transmit nothing. For the moment, we assume that all stations are synchronized
in time, so all chip sequence begin at the same instant.
When two or more station transmit simultaneously, their bipolar signals add
linearly. For example, if in one chip period three stations output +1 and one
station outputs 1, the result is +2. One can think of this as adding voltages:
three stations outputting +1 volts and 1 station outputting 1 volts gives 2 volts.
In Fig.(3), we see six examples of one or more stations transmitting at the same
time. In the first example, C transmits a 1 bit, so we just get Cs chip sequence.
In the second example, both B and C transmit 1 bits, so we get the sum of their
bipolar chip sequences.
In the third example, station A sends 1 and station B sends a 0. The others are
silent. In the fifth example, all four stations sends 1 bit. Finally, in the last
example A, B, and D sends a 1 bit, while C sends a 0 bit. Note that each of the
six sequences S1 through S6 given in Fig. (3) represents only one bit time.
To recover the bit stream of an individual station, the receiver must know that
stations chip sequence in advance. It does the recovery by computing the
normalized inner product of the received chip sequence (the linear sum of all the
stations that transmitted) and the chip sequence of the station whose bit stream it
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is trying to recover. If the received chip sequence is S and the receiver is trying
to listen to a station whose chip sequence is C, it just computes the normalized
inner product, SC.
To see why this works, imagine the two stations, A and C, both transmit a 1 bit at
the same time that B transmit a 0 bit. The receiver sees the sum: S = A+B+C
and computes
SC = AC+ BC+ CC =0+0+1 = 1
The first two terms vanish because all pairs of chip sequence have been carefully
chosen to be orthogonal. Now it should be clear why this property must be
imposed on the chip sequence.
To make the decoding process more concrete, let us consider the six examples of
fig.(4) again. Suppose that the receiver is interested in extracting the bit sent by
station C from each of the six sums S1 through S6. It calculates the bit by
summing the pairwise products of the received S and C vector of Fig.(2), and
then taking 1/8 of the result (since m=8 here). As shown, each time the correct
bit is decoded.
Assumptions in the above Example:
First, we assumed that all the chips are synchronized in time. In reality, doing so
is impossible. What can be done is that the sender and receiver synchronize by
having the sender transmit a long enough known chip sequence that the receiver
can lock onto. All other (unsynchronized) transmissions are then seen as random
noise.
An implicit assumption in the above example is that the power levels of all
stations are the same as perceived by the receiver. CDMA is typically used for
wireless systems with a fixed base station and many mobile stations at varying
distances from it. The power levels received at the base station depends on how
far away the transmitters are. A good heuristic here is for each mobile station to
transmit to the base station at the inverse of the power level it receives from the
base station, so a mobile station receiving a weak signal from the base will use
more power than one getting a strong signal. The base station can also give
explicit commands to the mobile stations to increase or decrease their
transmission power.
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We have also assumed that the receiver knows who the sender is. In principle,
given enough computing capacity, the receiver can listen to all the senders at
once by running the decoding algorithm for each of them in parallel. In real life,
suffice it to say that this is easier than done.
7.CDMA IMPLEMENTATION
7.1 CDMA Channels
Just when one grasps an understanding of the CDMA carrier which is 1.25 MHz
wide, someone talks about "traffic channels" and confuses the issue. The fact is
that with CDMA, the path by which voice or data passes is the entire carrier, as
described previously.
CDMA traffic channels are different: they are dependent on the equipment
platform, such as Motorola's SC products, on which the CDMA is
implemented. Motorola designates channels in three ways: effective traffic
channels, actual traffic channels and physical traffic channels.
The number of "Physical" traffic channels includes the Pilot channels, the
Sync channels, the Paging channels, the Soft Handoff Overhead channels
and the Effective (voice and data) traffic channels.
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CDMA uses the terms "forward" and "reverse" channels just like they are used in
analog systems. Base transmit equates to the forward direction, and base receive
is the reverse direction. ("Forward" is what the subscriber hears and "reverse" is
what the subscriber speaks.)
7.2 CDMA Forward Channels
Pilot Channel
The pilot channel is used by the mobile unit to obtain initial system
synchronization and to provide time, frequency, and phase tracking of signals
from the cell site.
Sync Channel
This channel provides cell site identification, pilot transmit power, and the cell
site pilot pseudo-random (PN) phase offset information. With this information
the mobile units can establish the System Time as well as the proper transmit
power level to use to initiate a call.
Paging Channel
The mobile unit will begin monitoring the paging channel after it has set its
timing to the System Time provided by the sync channel. Once a mobile unit has
been paged and acknowledges that page, call setup and traffic channel
assignment information is then passed on this channel to the mobile unit.
Forward Traffic Channel
This channel carries the actual phone call and carries the voice and mobile
power control information from the base station to the mobile unit.
7.3 CDMA Reverse Channels
Access Channel
When the mobile unit is not active on a traffic channel, it will communicate to
the base station over the access channel. This communication includes
registration requests, responses to pages, and call originations. The access
channels are paired with a corresponding paging channel.
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Improved call quality: CDMA will provide better and more consistent
sound as compared to AMPS. Cellular telephone systems using CDMA
should be able to provide higher quality sound and phone calls than
systems based on other technologies.
Increased talk time and standby time for portables: Because of precise
power control and other system characteristics, CDMA subscriber units
normally transmit at only a fraction of the power of analog and TDMA
phones
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have been studied and CDMA based cellular systems are now in use in USA and
Korea and will hopefully start in Turkey by 2005. These third generation cellular
systems known as IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications System
2000) in USA and UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) in
Europe will bring many superior services as compared to narrowband systems
such as GSM.
Wideband cellular systems have many objectives to achieve which will be
summarized next.
8.1 The objectives of IMT-2000
1. Obtaining higher bit rates as:
Full coverage and mobility for 144kbps (ISDN Basic Rate),
preferably 384kbps (ISDN Primary Rate)
Limited coverage and mobility for 2Mbps
Hovewer market demand will determine the actual data rates. Figure 5
shows the data rates, different cellular systems offer at different mobility levels.
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We will start with explaining how the CDMA system serves multiple users.
Suppose there are N transmission sources which share the common air interface.
Any of these sources ,say source i, intends to send narrowband information Sni.
Sni in Figure 6 represents the narrowband signal. A spreading operation i()
turns the narrowband signal at point a into a wideband signal at point b which is
the antenna output of the transmitter. In the channel, the wideband signal Swi is
mixed with the other N-1 wideband signals and also with noise. A despreading
operation i() at the receiver turns the wideband information Swi into
narrowband signal Sni and keeps the other wideband signals still wideband. The
portion of these wideband signals spectrum and noise spectrum in the
information bandwidth adds up as interference to Sni.
Sni
i( )
Sw
channel
n(t)
inv{ i ( )} = i( )
i(t)
S
n
In the channel, all the wideband signals make the total wideband signal
Swk
k
th
Swk = k(Snk),
k:
k user in the same frequency band
k
k
k : spreading operation of user k.
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Spreading
Sc(t)
Bipolar Data
Sn(t)
Data Modulator
(BPSK,QPSK,M
SK,...)
Sw(t)
C(t) = +-1
Carrier
Generator
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Figure 3 : Spread Spectrum Transmitter Block Diagram
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r(t)
Despreading
Data
DeModulator
C(t) = +-1
Code
Synch/Tracking
Code
Generator
Sn(t) + I(t)+n(t)
Carrier
Generator
If there are multiple users in the channel, then there will be many DS signals
overlapping in both time and frequency. Provided that crosscorrelations between
the code of the desired user and others are small, the interfering power at the
receiver output will be much smaller than the desired information power.
An example of multiple access capability under the light of the previously
described DS-CDMA technique is shown in Figure 10.
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9. FEATURES OF CDMA
CDMA and WiLL
For many years now, India has been a GSM subscriber. In 1999, when MTNL
decided to provide the CDMA-based WiLL(Wireless in Local Loop) service in
India, quite a few eyebrows were raised. The biggest reason why mobile
operators opposed the entry of WiLL is that it is uncertain to allow mobility in
the local loop.
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Will CDMA be the path towards 3G The world seems to be divided on this.
While the standard choosen by Reliance-CDMA2000 1x-is the 3G avatar of
CDMA, the restrictions imposed by the TRAI(Telecom Regulatory Authority of
India) doesnt let it explore the 3G realms. Plus, some Wide CDMA
supporters(W-CDMA) arent helping the situation by claiming CDMA 1x is not
3G. Third-generation applications includes WCDMA, 1x and High Data Rate
(HDR).
10. GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications: originally from Groupe
Spcial Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile telephony systems in the
world. The GSM Association, its promoting industry trade organization of
mobile phone carriers and manufacturers, estimates that 80% of the global
mobile market uses the standard GSM is used by over 1.5 billion people across
more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity enables
international roaming arrangements
between mobile
network
operators,
providing subscribers the use of their phones in many parts of the world. GSM
differs from its predecessor technologies in that both signaling and speech
channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a second generation (2G)
mobile phone system. This also facilitates the wide-spread implementation of
data communication applications into the system.
The ubiquity of implementation of the GSM (Global System Market) standard
has been an advantage to both consumers, who may benefit from the ability to
roam and switch carriers without replacing phones, and also to network
operators, who can choose equipment from many GSM equipment
vendors. GSM also pioneered low-cost implementation of the short message
service (SMS), also called text messaging, which has since been supported on
other mobile phone standards as well. The standard includes a
worldwide emergency telephone number feature (112).
Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original
GSM system. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data
capabilities by means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99
introduced higher speed data transmission using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM
Evolution (EDGE).
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CDMA on he hand really does let everyone transmit at the same time.
Conventional wisdom would lead you to believe that this is simply not possible.
Using conventional modulation techniques, it most certainly is impossible. What
makes CDMA work is a special type of digital modulation called "Spread
Spectrum". This form of modulation takes the user's stream of bits and splatters
them across a very wide channel in a pseudo-random fashion. The "pseudo" part
is very important here, since the receiver must be able to undo the randomization
in order to collect the bits together in a coherent order. If you are still having
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trouble understanding the differences though, perhaps this analogy will help you.
This my own version of an excellent analogy provided by Qualcomm:
Imagine a room full of people, all trying to carry on one-on-one conversations.
In VDMA each couple takes turns talking. They keep their turns short by saying
only one sentence at a time. As there is never more than one person speaking in
the room at any given moment, no one has to worry about being heard over the
background din. In CDMA, each couple talk at the same time, but they all use a
different language. Because none of the listeners understand any language other
than that of the individual to whom they are listening, the background din doesn't
cause any real problems.
Voice Encoding
At this point many people confuse two distinctly different issues involved in the
transmission of digital audio. The first is the WAY in which the stream of bits is
delivered from one end to the other. This part of the "air interface" is what makes
one technology different from another. The second is the compression algorithm
used to squeeze the audio into as small a stream of bits as possible.
This latter component is known at the "Voice Coder", or Vocoder for short.
Another term commonly used is CODEC, which is a similar word to modem. It
combines the terms "COder" and "DECoder". Although each technology has
chosen their own unique CODECs, there is no rule saying that one transmission
method needs to use a specific CODEC. People often lump a technology's
transmission method with its CODEC as though they were single entities. We
will discuss CODECs in greater detail later on in this article.
Voice encoding schemes differ slightly in their approach to the problem. Because
of this, certain types of human voice work better with some CODECs than they
do with others. The point to remember is that all PCS CODECs are compromises
of some sort. Since human voices have such a fantastic range of pitch and tonal
depth, one cannot expect any single compromise to handle each one equally
well. This inability to cope with all types of voice at the same level does lead
some people to choose one technology over another.
All of the PCS technologies try to minimize battery consumption during calls by
keeping the transmission of unnecessary data to a minimum. The phone decides
whether or not you are presently speaking, or if the sound it hears is just
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Spectral Efficiency
Channel capacity in a TDMA system is fixed and indisputable. Each channel
carries a finite number of "slots", and you can never accommodate a new caller
once each of those slots is filled. Spectral efficiency varies from one technology
to another, but computing a precise number is still a contentious issue. For
example, GSM provides 8 slots in a channel 200 kHz wide, while IS-136
provides 3 slots in a channel only 30 kHz wide. GSM therefore consumes 25
kHz per user, while IS-136 consumes only 10 kHz per user.
One would be sorely tempted to proclaim that IS-136 has 2.5 times the capacity
of GSM. In a one-cell system this is certainly true, but once we start deploying
multiple cells and channel reuse, the situation becomes more complex. Due to
GSM's better error management and frequency hopping, the interference of a cochannel site is greatly reduced. This allows frequencies to be reused at closer
range without a degradation in the overall quality of the service.
Capacity is measured in "calls per cell per MHz". An IS-136 system using N=7
reuse (this means you have 7 different sets of frequencies to spread out around
town) the figure is 7.0. In GSM we get figures of 5.0 for N=4 and 6.6 for N=3. It
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was hoped that IS-136 could use tighter reuse than N=7, but its inability to cope
with interference made this impossible.
Computing this figure for CDMA requires that certain assumptions are made.
Formulas have been devised, and using very optimistic assumptions, CDMA can
provide a whopping 45 users per cell per MHz. However, when using more
pessimistic (and perhaps more realistic) assumptions, the value is 12. That still
gives CDMA an almost 2:1 advantage over the TDMA competition.
In-building Coverage
Now let's deal with another issue involving CDMA and TDMA. In-building
coverage is something that many people talk about, but few people properly
understand. Although CDMA has a slight edge in this department, due to a
marginally greater tolerance for weak signals, all the technologies fair about the
same. This is because the few dB advantage CDMA has is often "used up" when
the provider detunes the sites to take advantage of this process gain.
Buildings come in many configurations, but the most important aspect to their
construction is the materials used. Steel frame buildings, or those with metal
siding, shield their interiors more thoroughly than building made of wood. Large
window openings allow signals to penetrate more deeply into buildings, so malls
with glass roofs will generally provide better service than fully enclosed ones.
More important than the type of building however, is the proximity of the nearest
site. When a site is located just outside a building, it can penetrate just about any
building material. When a site is much further away however, the signals have a
much harder time of getting past the walls of a structure when it comes to
distance, remember that signals are subject to the "distance squared law". This
means that signals decrease by the square of the distance. A site at 0.25
kilometers away will have 4 times the signal strength of a site at 0.50 kilometers
away, and 16 times that of a site 1.0 kilometers away. Distance squared however,
is the rate of signal reduction in free space.
Recent studies have shown that terrestrial communications are usually subject to
rates as high as "Distance cubed", or even "Distance to the 4th". If the latter is
true, then a site 1.0 kilometers away will actually be 256 times weaker than a site
0.25 kilometers away.
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they think the current TDMA air interface is inadequate for its purpose. Future
standards are being built around high speed data.
TECHNOLOGYWISE MARKET SHARE IN INDIA
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M-commerce :
A CDMA doesnt have a SIM card, which makes m-commerce difficult.
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images
horoscopes
Real time stock quotes :
of different stock exchanges
Text Communication :
Chat
instant messaging
SMS
e-mail
message board
member search
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Airtel
Reliance
Tata Teleservices
Idea Cellular
Vodafone
Uninor
Aircel
virgin
videocon
Mobile operators
Airtel
Vodafone Essar
Reliance
Tata Indicom
Aircel
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Idea
Loop Mobile -
Ping Mobile - CDMA Mobile service from HFCL, operates only in Punjab
In India, only Reliance and Tata Teleservices (thus, Virgin Mobile too) offers
dual mode operations, i.e. CDMA & GSM services. Now HFCL & Videocon as
per brand sharing agreement they have dual mode operation in Punjab.
3G Operators
MTNL
BSNL
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(GSM), S Tel, Tata Teleservices (Tata Docomo), Vodafone won licenses for 3G
services. No operator won pan India 3G license.
16. CONCLUSION
After these wonderful particulars of CDMA technology I arrive at the conclusion
as follows:
Voice Quality :
CDMA reduces background noise and cross talk, ensuring better voice
quality, which is further enhanced by the microprocessors inside the phones.
Call Security :
By design, CDMA is more secure against evasdropping.
Talk Time :
A CDMA phone consumes very little power, and has a longer talk time.
Bandwidth :
CDMA 2000 1x offers 144kbps, which makes it capable for multimedia
tasks.
Weight :
CDMA phones due to their low-power requirements can do with smallersized batteries, which decrease the overall weight of a CDMA phone.
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17. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Websites :
www.cdg.org
www.umts.org
www.palowireless.com
www.ieee.org
www.yahoo.com
www.google.com
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