Passivating and Electropolishing Stainless Steel Parts

August 2007

By John H. Magee, Specialist Stainless Alloy R&D

and Robert K. Mohr, Manager, Regional Metallurgy
Carpenter Technology Corporation
Wyomissing, PA, USA
Parts and components machined from stainless steels must be
passivated to maximize their essential corrosion resistance.
Good passivating practice can make the difference between
satisfactory performance and premature failure. Poor practice
Two small instruments for orthopedic
can actually cause corrosion.
surgery made from Carpenter Custom
The process of passivation is sometimes misunderstood. It is 455 stainless and Custom 630 stainless.
not a scale removal treatment, nor anything similar to a coat of Each bright electropolished instrument
paint. It is a post-fabrication method of maximizing the inherent contrasts with identical instruments
corrosion resistance of the stainless steel from which the
covered by brown oxide from prior heat
workpiece was made.
treatment. Control of finish between bright
and dull can be maintained by judicious
Not everyone agrees on the precise mechanics of how
use of abrasive wheel and fine glass bead
passivation works. It is certain, however, that a protective oxide blasting. (Photo courtesy of Troy
film exists on the surface of passive stainless steel before it is Innovative Instrument, Inc., Middlefield,
fabricated. This invisible film is extremely thin, about 100,000 OH)
times thinner than a human hair!
Clean, freshly machined, polished or pickled stainless steel parts automatically acquire this protective film
from exposure to oxygen in the atmosphere. Under the best conditions, this oxide film covers all part
surfaces.
The need for passivation arises when parts are fabricated, either by cold forming or machining.
Contaminants such as shop dirt or iron particles from cutting tools may be transferred to the surface of the
stainless steel parts during fabrication. These foreign particles can reduce effectiveness of the original
protective film. If they are not removed, corrosive attack may begin.
Under certain conditions, rust spots may appear on machined parts. This is actually corrosion of foreign
particles from the tool steel, not the parent metal. Sometimes the crevice at the embedded tool steel
particle or its corrosion products may cause attack of the part itself.
Likewise, small particles of iron-containing shop dirt may stick to the stainless part surface. Although the
metal may appear shiny in the as-machined condition, the invisible particles of free iron can cause rusting
on the surface after exposure to the atmosphere.
Exposed sulfides, if ignored, also can be a problem. They derive from the addition of sulfur to stainless
steels to improve machinability. Sulfides improve the alloys ability to form chips that break away cleanly

from the cutting tool during the machining process. If the part is not properly passivated, sulfides can act as
initiation sites for corrosion on the surface of the fabricated product.
A two-step procedure can provide the best possible corrosion resistance. First is cleaning, a fundamental,
but sometimes overlooked procedure. Second is passivating treatment in an acid or electrochemical bath.
Cleaning
Grease, coolant or other shop debris must be thoroughly cleaned from the surface to obtain the best
possible corrosion resistance. Machining chips or other shop
dirt can be wiped carefully off the part. A commercial degreaser
or cleanser may be used to clean off machining oils or
coolants. Foreign matter such as thermal oxides may have to
be removed by grinding, or by methods such as acid pickling.
Occasionally, a machine operator might skip the cleaning,
falsely assuming that by immersing a grease-laden part in an
acid bath, both cleaning and passivating will take place at the
same time. That doesnt happen. Instead, the contaminating
grease reacts with the acid to form gas bubbles. These
bubbles collect on the surface of the workpiece and interfere
with passivation.

High strength, pin-like surgical instruments

made from Carpenter Custom 455
Even worse, contamination of the passivating solution,
stainless just removed from
sometimes with high levels of chlorides, can cause flash
electropolishing tank. After a deionized
attack. Instead of obtaining the desired oxide film with a shiny, water rinse, the instruments will have a
clean, corrosion-resisting surface, the flash attack produces a lustrous finish. (Photo courtesy of Troy
heavily etched or darkened surface. This is a deterioration of Innovative Instrument, Inc., Middlefield,
the very surface that passivation is designed to optimize.
OH)
Martensitic/Precipitation Hardened Stainless Grades
Parts made from martensitic stainless steels (Type 410, 420 and 440 series) are magnetic, with moderate
corrosion resistance and high yield strengths. These alloys are hardened at a high temperature, then
tempered to obtain the hardness and mechanical properties desired.
Precipitation hardenable (PH) stainless steels (Custom 630, 450, 455 and 465stainless) offer a better
combination of strength and corrosion resistance than the martensitic alloys. These PH grades are rough
machined, aged at lower temperatures, then finish machined.
Workpieces made from the preceding stainless steels must be thoroughly cleaned with a degreaser or
cleanser to remove any traces of cutting fluid before heat treating. Otherwise, cutting fluid remaining on the
parts will cause excessive oxidation. This condition can result in undersize parts with a pitted finish after the
scale is removed by acid or abrasive methods. If cutting fluids are left on parts that are bright hardened, as
in a vacuum furnace or protective atmosphere, surface carburization may occur, leading to a loss of
corrosion resistance.
Passivating Nitric Baths

After the stainless steel parts or components are thoroughly cleaned, they are ready for immersion in a
passivating bath. More corrosion-resistant, chromium-nickel stainless steels can be passivated in a 20% by
vol. nitric acid bath (Fig. 1).

As shown in the same table, less resistant stainless grades straight chromium, high carbon-high
chromium and precipitation hardened martensitic grades can be passivated by adding sodium dichromate
to the nitric acid bath to make the solution more oxidizing and capable of forming a passive film on the
surface.
Another option is to increase the concentration of nitric acid to 50% by vol. The sodium dichromate addition
and the higher nitric acid concentration both reduce the chance of undesirable flash attack. It should be
understood here that the 50% nitric acid concentration is more oxidizing and therefore less aggressive to
stainless steels than 20% nitric acid.
Free-Machining Stainless Steels
The procedure for passivating free-machining stainless steels (Fig. 1) is somewhat different from that used
with non-free-machining stainless alloys. That is because the sulfides of sulfur-containing free-machining
grades are partially or totally removed during passivation in a typical nitric acid bath, creating microscopic
discontinuities in the surface of the machined part. Even normally efficient water rinses can leave residual
acid trapped in these discontinuities after passivation. Unless this acid is neutralized or removed, it can
then attack the surface of the part.
To effectively passivate the free-machining stainless steels, Carpenter has developed the A-A-A (alkalineacid-alkaline) process which neutralizes trapped acid. This passivation method can be done in less than
two hours, as follows:

(a) After degreasing, soak the parts for 30 minutes in a 5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 160F to 180F
(71C to 82). (b) Rinse the parts thoroughly in water (c) Immerse the parts for 30 minutes in a 20% by vol.
nitric acid solution containing 3 ounces per gallon (22g/liter) of sodium dichromate at 120F to 140 (49 to
60C). (d) Remove the parts from bath and flush with water. (e) Immerse the parts in the sodium hydroxide
solution for another 30 minutes. (f) Water rinse the parts again and dry them, completing the process.
The benefits of using the alkaline-acid.alkaline method are demonstrated in Fig. 2. The left test cone clearly
shows the improved surface and resistance of free-machining stainless steel when passivated by the A-A-A
method. The visible result of conventional passivation can be seen in the right test cone.
Fig. 2 Left test cone is passivated using the A-A-A method. Results of conventional passivation shown on
right. Both were exposed to salt spray.

Passivating Citric Baths

Citric acid passivation has been gaining favor with fabricators who wish to avoid the use of mineral acids or
solutions containing sodium dichromate, and elude the disposal problems and greater safety concerns
associated with their use. Citric acid is considered environmentally friendly in every respect. It is on the
GRAS (Generally Regarded As Safe) list compiled by the FDA as a material that is safe for people to
handle.
While citric acid passivation offers attractive environmental advantages, shops might want to continue the
course if they are having success with mineral acid passivation and are having no safety issues. There may
be no compelling need for those fabricators to change if they have a clean shop, well maintained and clean
equipment, coolant free of iron-containing shop dirt and a process that yields good results.
Passivation in citric acid baths has been found useful for a large number of stainless steel families,
including several individual stainless grades (Fig. 3). The conventional nitric acid passivation methods from
Fig. 1 are included for convenience. Observe that the older nitric acid formulations are in volume percent,
while newer citric acid concentrations are in weight percent. It is important to note that, in implementing
these procedures, a careful balance of immersion time, bath temperature and concentration is critical to
avoid the flash attack described earlier.

The passivation treatment varies depending on chrome content and machinability characteristics of the
grades in each family. Note the columns referring to Process 1 or Process 2 in Fig. 4. Process 1 includes
five steps: clean and degrease, rinse, passivate, rinse and dry. Process 2 includes seven steps: clean and
degrease, rinse, passivate, rinse, neutralize, rinse and dry.

Laboratory tests have indicated that citric acid passivating procedures were more prone to flash attack
than nitric acid procedures. Factors causing this attack included excessive bath temperature, excessive
immersion time and bath contamination. Citric acid products containing corrosion inhibitors and other
additives (e.g. wetting agents) are commercially available that reportedly reduce sensitivity to flash attack.
The ultimate choice of passivation will depend on the acceptance criteria imposed by the manufacturer for
whom the parts or components are to be made. For more information, refer to ASTM A 967 Standard
Specification for Chemical Passivation Treatments for Stainless Steel Parts. The specification can be
accessed at www.astm.org
Electropolishing
Electropolishing is an electrochemical process used to polish a metal surface by removing a microscopic
amount of material from the workpiece. It is a frequently used method that more accurately conditions,
rather than passivates the surface of a part. A part that has been electropolished requires no subsequent
passivation.
This is the process of choice for parts and components that must have a very smooth, lustrous, mirror finish
such as that required for surgical instruments. For bright-finish parts that reflect too much glare as in the
surgical suite glass beads or a fine abrasive buffing pad may be used to tone down the surface finish.
Electropolishing is accomplished by creating an electrochemical cell in which the material to be polished is
the anode (stainless steel part). A cathode is formed to duplicate the geometry of the part surface. The
anode and cathode are submerged in a heated electrolyte bath. For stainless steels, a variety of mixed acid
solutions is suggested for the electrolyte bath, including glycolic, phosphoric and sulfuric. When a DC
current is applied, an electrical charge dissolves metal ions from the part surface.
Since electropolishing removes surface material and contaminants, it improves the corrosion resistance of
stainless parts so processed. In addition, electropolishing deburrs as it polishes the surface. Finally, the
improved microfinish reduces product adhesion and contamination buildup.
Testing Treated Parts
Tests can be performed to determine how effective passivation has been in removing free iron and other
exogenous matter from treated surfaces. These tests can be used on electropolished surfaces as well.

Each of five test methods are described in detail in the previously mentioned ASTM A 967 specification.
They are known as: A water immersion test, B high humidity test, C salt spray test, D copper sulfate
test and E potassium ferricyanide-nitric acid test.
It is essential that the test method employed is matched to the grade to be evaluated. A test that is too
severe may reject perfectly good material, while one that is too lenient may accept unsatisfactory parts.
The 400 series precipitation-hardening and free-machining stainless steels are best evaluated in a cabinet
capable of maintaining 100% humidity (samples wet) at 95F (35) for 24 hours. The cross section is
usually the most critical surface, particularly for free-machining grades. One reason for this is that the
sulfides, elongated in the direction of working, intersect this surface.
Critical surfaces should be positioned upward, but at 15 to 20 degrees from the vertical to allow any
moisture to run off. Material that has been properly passivated will be virtually free of rust, although it may
show some light staining.
Austenitic, non-free-machining stainless steels also may be evaluated by means of a humidity test. When
so tested, liquid droplets of water should be present on the surface of samples, revealing free iron by the
presence of rust formation.
A faster method is available using a solution from ASTM A380, Standard Recommended Practice for
Cleaning and Descaling Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment and Systems. This test consists of swabbing the
part with a copper sulfate/sulfuric acid solution, maintaining wetness for six minutes and observing whether
there is any plating of copper.
Alternatively, the part may be immersed in the solution for six
minutes. Copper plating occurs if iron is dissolved. This test
should not be applied to surfaces of parts for use in food
processing. Also, it should not be used for the martensitic or
lower-chromium ferritic stainless steels of the 400 series
because false-positive results are likely.
Historically, the 5% salt spray test at 95F (35C) also has been
used to evaluate passivated samples. This test, too severe for
some alloys, generally is not necessary to confirm that
passivation has been effective.
To help you with the passivation process, here is a checklist of Stainless steel components for the handle
good procedures and a second list of potential mistakes to be of a surgical instrument after they have
been heat treated and passivated in this
avoided.
citric acid-base solution. (Photo courtesy
Best Practice
of Troy Innovative Instrument, Inc.,
Middlefield, OH)
1. Clean first, removing all particles of oxide or heat tint before
passivating.
2. Assign certain machines to fabricate stainless steels only. Stay with the same preferred coolant to cut
stainless steels, to the exclusion of all other metals.

3. Rack parts individually for treatment to avoid metal-to-metal contact. This is especially important with
free-machining stainless steels where free flow of passivating and rinse solutions is needed to diffuse away
corrosion products from sulfides and avoid pockets of acid.
4. Avoid chlorides which, in excess, can cause harmful flash attack. When possible, use only a good grade
of water containing less than about 50 parts per million (ppm) of chlorides. Tap water is usually adequate,
and in some cases up to several hundred ppm chlorides can be tolerated.
5. Replace baths on a regular schedule to avoid a loss in passivation potential that can result in flash attack
and ruined parts. Baths should be maintained at proper temperature because out-of-control temperature
may allow localized attack.
6. Maintain very specific schedules for solution replacement during high production runs to minimize the
possibility of contamination. Use a control sample to test the baths effectiveness. If the sample is attacked,
it is time to change the bath.
Mistakes to Avoid
1. Do not passivate stainless steel parts that have been carburized or nitrided. Parts so treated may have
their corrosion resistance reduced to the point where they are subject to attack in the passivating tank.
2. Dont use tooling with iron content (floor, equipment, coolant, etc.) that is not exceptionally clean. Steel
grit can be avoided by using carbide or ceramic tools.
3. Dont forget that attack can occur in a passivating bath if parts are improperly heat treated. High-carbon,
high-chromium martensitic grades must be hardened to become corrosion-resistant. Passivation is
frequently performed after a subsequent temper using a temperature that maintains corrosion resistance.
4. Dont overlook the nitric acid concentration in the passivating bath. It should be checked periodically
using a simple titration procedure below.
5. Dont passivate more than one stainless steel at a time. This discipline can prevent costly mixups and
avoid galvanic corrosion.

Cleaning and Passivating Carpenter Stainless Steels

Cleaning Processes
Practically all finishing operations require that fabricated stainless parts be subjected to some type of
cleaning operation. These include painting, enameling, electroplating, metallizing, buffing, and polishing. It
is generally necessary to clean after welding, brazing, and machining operations. Heat treating often
requires cleaning both before and after that operation.

The specific method of cleaning to be employed depends primarily upon the surface contamination present.
However, there are other considerations such as design, subsequent operations, cleaning equipment
required, shop operating conditions, production volume, cost, and some special precautions.
The following methods can be used to clean stainless steels depending upon the surface contamination:

Soak alkali cleaning

Soak emulsion cleaning
Soak acid cleaning
Machine cleaning
Electrocleaning
Barrel cleaning, tumbling
Steam cleaning
Petroleum spirit cleaning
Vapor degreasing
Acid pickling
Electrolytic pickling
Salt bath cleaning, descaling
Blast cleaning
Brushing

Scale or Foreign Contamination

Cleaning operations can generally be divided into two categories: (1) methods for removing foreign
contamination such as lubricants, paints, shop dust, polishing compounds, etc., and (2) methods for
removing surface oxide or scale resulting from forging, heat treating, welding, etc.
The principles and methods used for removing foreign contamination from stainless steel are similar to the
methods used for other metals. Space does not permit a description of all the metal cleaning methods.
However, this section does describe some of the methods used for removing scale and oxide. Carpenter
has developed most of this information in its own mill through experience with descaling and pickling
processes.
Excellent information has been published by the A.S.T.M. as shown in Standard Recommended Practice for
Cleaning and Descaling Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment, and Systems, Designation A-380. Topics
covered in detailed include descaling, pickling, and passivating processes.

Descaling
Both mechanical cleaning and molten salt baths can be used for removing heavy scale from stainless
steel.
Mechanical cleaning methods include dry blasting with cast iron grits, metal shot, cut wire or sand. Wet
blasting will provide a better finish but is applicable mainly to small parts or when a light scale is to be
removed. Brushing and tumbling might also be included as mechanical descaling methods.
Salt bath descaling methods have been found most advantageous for removing scale from large production
lots of stainless steel. These methods involve molten salts operated at temperatures ranging from
approximately 700 to 900F (371 to 482C). The sodium hydride caustic soda process is quite versatile;

scale is removed by a reducing process so that base metal is not removed. Alternatively, the Hooker and
Kolene processes oxidize the scale to a form in which it is more easily removed by acid pickling.

Acid Pickling
Most descaling methods must be followed by acid pickling for the complete removal of surface oxide.
Perhaps the most versatile acid bath for removing scale from all types of stainless steel is a solution
containing 10% by volume sulfuric acid, with or without an inhibitor, operated at approximately 150 to
180F (66 to 82C). Following a descaling treatment, this sulfuric acid pickling bath will effectively remove
scale from most stainless steels, although it will react somewhat slowly with the austenitic stainless grades.
A 50% by volume solution of hydrochloric acid (all acids are mixed with water), with or without an inhibitor,
operated at 150 to 160F (66 to 71C), will clean all stainless grades considerably faster, although closer
control is required.
Sometimes a two-bath operation is used with the austenitic stainless grades. Either the sulfuric or
hydrochloric acid pickling solutions are followed by a bath consisting of approximately 10% by volume nitric
acid and 2% by volume hydrofluoric acid, operated up to 120F (49C). The nitric-hydrofluoric pickle bath is
used to remove the last traces of scale retained after sulfuric acid pickling processes.
After descaling and between each pickling tank, a water rinse is always used. This may be in the form of a
water blast to remove traces of scale and prevent contamination from one bath to the other.
Nearly all pickling operations impart a dark "smutty" surface on stainless steel, which can be removed in a
cold 20% by volume nitric acid bath. This final pickling process both brightens and passivates the stainless
steel surface.

Acid Brittleness
Pickling can cause "hydrogen brittleness" or "acid brittleness" because of hydrogen absorption. Some hard
and highly stressed parts are susceptible enough to suffer cracking during the pickling process. While hard
but not highly stressed parts will seldom crack in the acid bath, they may crack in service when subjected to
stress. Consequently, steels should not be "overpickled." Hardened articles should receive a stressrelieving temper before pickling and "bake" after pickling. The baking process consists of heating the part to
about 300 to 400F (149 to 204C) for several hours to remove hydrogen and restore ductility.
Examples of pickling techniques most likely to cause cracking are hot hydrochloric acid and electrolytic
techniques, which liberate large amounts of hydrogen. When employing these methods, high-strength
grades such as Type 420 or the 440 series and the precipitation hardenable martensitics should not be
exposed for long periods.

Passivating
The non-rusting properties of stainless steels are attributable to a very thin, invisible oxide film that
completely covers the surfaces of the parts and prevents corrosion from taking place. Theoretically, a

freshly machined, polished or pickled part will acquire this film rather quickly from the atmosphere. In
practice, however, such fabricated parts may be contaminated with small particles of foreign matter, which
must be removed to impart full stainless properties. As an example, a slight amount of material worn off the
cutting tools may be transferred to the stainless parts during machining. Under certain conditions, a thin
coating of rust may appear on the part. This is corrosion of the tool steel and not the parent metal.
The primary purpose of a passivating treatment is to remove surface contamination, usually iron, so that
the optimum corrosion resistance of the stainless steel will be maintained. Passivation is not a scale
removal treatment.
Basic procedure in passivating consists of cleaning the work with a commercial degreaser or cleanser,
immersing it in a solution containing nitric acid, rinsing and drying it. The importance of cleaning prior to
acid bath immersion cannot be over-emphasized. In some instances, this step is omitted, assuming the
acid bath will give the necessary cleanness. Cleaning should not be skipped because the acid might not
remove all of the residual cutting fluid, resulting in possible chemical reactions with the residual cutting fluid
known as "flash attack." These unwanted reactions may cause serious deterioration of the surfaces that
passivation is designed to protect.

After degreasing and thorough water rinsing, passivation of the stainless steels should take place according
to the following table:

Passivating Stainless Steels

Grades
- Chrome-Nickel Grades (300 Series)
- Grades with 17% Chromium or
more (except 440 Series)
- Straight Chromium grades (12-14%
Chromium)
- High CarbonHigh-Chromium
Grades (440 Series)
- Precipitation Hardening Stainless

Passivation
20% by vol. nitric acid at 120/140F
(49/60C) for 30 minutes.

20% by vol. nitric acid + 3 oz. per

gallon (22 g/liter) sodium dichromate at
120/140F 49/60C) for 30 minutes
OR
50% by vol. nitric acid at 120/140F
(49/60C) for 30 minutes.

The addition of sodium dichromate or use of 50% nitric acid solution increases the "passivating potential" of
the bath so that undesirable local attack is less likely.

The free-machining grades differ from the regular grades of stainless steels because they contain a large
number of nonmetallic inclusions throughout their microstructures which create microscopic discontinuities
in the machined part surfaces. Even normally efficient water rinses can leave residual acid in these
discontinuities after passivation. This acid can then attack the surface of the part unless it is neutralized or
removed. Work in Carpenter's research and development laboratory has shown that the following
passivating procedure for free-machining grades will produce resistance to subsequent superficial rusting.
This procedure is known as the Alkaline-Acid-Alkaline, or A-A-A, passivation method.

Passivation for Free-Machining Stainless Steels

(including AISI Types 420F, 430F, Type 203, Project 70+ Type 303, and
Project 70+ Type 416)
1.
2.
3.

5% by wt. sodium hydroxide at 160/180F (71/82C) for 30 minutes.

Water rinse.
20% by vol. nitric acid + 3 oz. per gal. (22 g/liter) sodium dichromate at
120/140F (49/60C) for 30 minutes.
4.
Water rinse.
5.
5% by wt. sodium hydroxide at 160/180F (71/82C) for 30 minutes.
6.
Water rinse.

Other Important Considerations

Maintain an effective passivating solution to prevent localized attack. Tap water is usually adequate for
diluting the acid, although high chloride contents (greater than several hundred ppm) could be deleterious
in a borderline situation. Nitric acid concentration should be checked periodically using a simple titration
procedure, which can be provided upon request.
When high production rates cause a heavy flow of material through a passivating bath, it is probably best to
maintain a definite schedule for replacing the bath to avoid a significant decrease in the "passivating
potential," which can result in corrosive attack of the work piece. You should also use a control sample of
the same composition as the material to be passivated to test the bath. If the sample is attacked, it is time
to change the bath before additional parts are passivated.
The temperature of the bath should be within the specified temperature range. A room temperature bath
has a lower "passivating potential" than a warm bath and is, therefore, more likely to cause local attack.
It is good practice to passivate only one grade of stainless steel at a time. Not only can mix-ups be
prevented but you can avoid galvanic reactions.
Parts that were improperly heat-treated may lead to attack in a passivating bath. Furthermore, high-carbon,
high-chromium grades must be hardened to render them corrosion resistant. Stainless steel parts that have

been carburized or nitrided should never be passivated. These surface treatments lower the corrosion
resistance of stainless steel, thus opening the way to attack in the passivating tank.
New Ideas for Machining Austenitic Stainless Steels

April, 2002
By Robert S. Drab and Humberto L. Raposo
Carpenter Technology Corporation
Reading, PA
USA
For shops machining stainless steel parts and components, there may be unrecognized opportunities to
improve performance and bottom line results. Any useful idea, new or forgotten, could benefit the plant
typically coping with pressures to increase productivity, reduce part costs, achieve closer tolerances,
produce better finishes, machine more difficult parts, get consistent performance, run work problem-free for
long periods, deliver on time, manage costs, maximize use of existing equipment, minimize downtime and
enjoy satisfactory margins.
This discussion will focus on improvements possible when machining the austenitic stainless steels, which
are the most widely used stainless alloys. However, their relative value may be better understood by
comparing them briefly with the four other classifications of stainless steels that are universally machined.
Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic and have lower alloy content than the austenitic grades; because of
this, they possess a lower level of corrosion resistance. The ferritic family includes grades such as Type
430, Type 430F, 430FR, Type 434, Chrome Core 12 alloy, Chrome Core 18-FM stainless, etc.
If parts productivity is a major goal, use nothing less than a machinabilityenhanced austenitic stainless. These parts were made from free-machining
stainless Types 303 and 304. The martensitic stainless steels are magnetic
and offer more strength than the austenitic alloys, but they too are less
corrosion resistant. Commonly used grades in this category include Type
410, Type 416, Type 440C,Type 420, 420F, 440F-Se, TrimRite stainless,
etc.
Precipitation hardenable stainless steels combine high strength and good
corrosion resistance. Frequently used PH stainless alloys include 15Cr-5Ni
stainless, Custom 630 (17Cr-4Ni) stainless,Carpenter Custom 450
stainless, Custom 455 stainless and Custom 465 stainless.
The duplex stainless steels resist corrosion from specialized chemicals that
cannot be handled successfully by the regular 18Cr-8Ni austenitic stainless
steels. The most common duplex grades are 7-Mo stainless and 7-Mo PLUS stainless.
Popular Austenitics

In general, the austenitic family of stainless steels offers the best combination of corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties. The most commonly used austenitics, covered by this discussion, are Type
303, Type 304 and Type 316 stainless.
Type 303, designed expressly for machining, contains 10 times more sulfur than Type 304 stainless. This
sulfur additive will enhance the machining characteristics of the alloy, but will have a negative effect on
corrosion resistance and weldability. Type 304, with very little sulfur, is capable of providing a smoother or
brighter surface finish than Type 303. Type 304 can cause more tool wear and produce stringier chips
because it lacks the sulfur additive. This can result in birdnesting around the cutting tool or part during the
machining operation. The chips produced by stainless Type 316 can be tougher than those from Type 304,
thus harder to break. More machine horsepower is required to cut Type 316 product.
What's the Objective?
Most shops want to machine it faster, better and with greater precision. But for what purpose? To reduce
part costs? Increase productivity? Shrink cycle time? Improve quality? Establishing a specific objective may
have a bearing on the stainless bar stock most suitable for the job. For example, an ordinary stainless steel
that meets industry specifications can restrict productivity. If productivity is the goal, think of a stainless
grade that is designed for higher machining rates. Consider the importance of product consistency
facilitated by controlled melting and manufacturing procedures. Think of alloys formulated with higher
speeds and feeds in mind.
A growing number of "lights out" machine shops have been running work around the clock with minimum or
no supervision. This practice works fine so long as machine operators come to work in the morning and find
a bin full of parts and not a bunch of broken tools and/or machine damage. Could such operations hope to
succeed without demanding absolute consistency in the stainless bar stock being machined, as well as an
extremely high level of consistent performance from their machines and cutting tools?
When the surface finish is important, the time to tell the steel supplier is before placing the order. If a shiny
surface finish is needed, for instance, and fully annealed material is purchased, the shop may not be able
to obtain the finish desired without incurring the unexpected time and expense of a secondary operation.
The softer materials tend to smear and tear.
The importance of stating specific needs cannot be overestimated. The stainless producer, for example,
can increase the hardness or refine the grain size of the stainless by varying manufacturing procedures.
They can produce stock that will perform better with advanced tooling materials or coatings. But only if they
know about the machine shop's specific requirements!
Tight Tolerances
Not too long ago, machine shops were required to meet dimensional tolerances of 0.001" on some critical
parts and components. Today, a precision standard of 0.0005", or better, is commonplace. If one applies
the downstream principle and suggestions of the machine builders, shops coping with tighter-than-ever
dimensional toleranced parts should seek closer OD dimensional tolerances on the stainless bar they
machine. Bar ends should be chamfered also to help feed the bar through the bar feeder and into the
machine. This chamfering becomes more critical for smaller diameter bar stock and for bars run on more
automated machines. Both requirements could be critical on long running jobs.

Many machine shops, especially Swiss shops, still exercise tolerance control of the bundle by hand mikeing
their cold finished stainless bar stock and sorting their bars into different lots based on the size of the
collets or bushings that will be used to support them. This practice can be expensive in terms of cost, time
expended and quality lost.
If the bar tolerances of the bundle(s) vary, the machine may not maintain control of the machining process.
Just about anything can happen, and none of it is good. If the bushing or collet is too big, the machining bar
will slop around loosely, making it impossible to meet part tolerances. If the bushing is too tight, the bar
could jam in the bushing. Both the bushing and bar could burn. The stock held could even seize or weld in
place.
Hardness Control
Since the hardness of all austenitic stainless steels can vary depending on manufacturing, shops should
routinely indicate what hardness or tensile range they want in their machining bar. Higher hardness or
tensiles, most shops know, allows for a better surface finish. Hardness can also be specified by the ultimate
tensile strength, which is probably a better and more accurate measure of bar hardness.
The right level of hardness can, it should be noted, provide a good combination of drillability and surface
finish. Excessive hardness, on the other hand, can increase tool wear when parts are machined.
Tool Coatings
Coated carbide grade technologies enable shops to enhance cutting tools when used to machine stainless
steel parts. The coatings most frequently used are made of titanium nitride (TiN), titanium aluminum nitride
(TiAlN), titanium carbo nitride (TiCN) and alumina oxide (Al203).
Coatings can be applied by two processes - Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) or Chemical Vapor
Deposition (CVD). PVD coatings are applied to the carbide substrate at lower temperatures. This preserves
edge strength and permits coating of sharp edges. PVD coatings have a relatively smooth surface that
generates less frictional heat, allows lower cutting forces and resists edge build-up that can lead to insert
chipping.
CVD coatings are applied to the carbide substrate at higher temperatures. This causes interdiffusion of the
coating with the substrate to assure a strong bond. The CVD process also permits deposition of multi-layer
coatings that can suppress both crater wear and flank wear, thereby expanding the range of tool
application. CVD is currently the only coating process that can efficiently apply alumina (Al203), which
permits higher cutting speeds.
Cermet grades consist of mostly carbonitride (TiCN). Cermets are used most successfully for high-speed
finish machining of most stainless steels.
For more specific coating selection recommendations, refer to the section entitled "Tooling/Coatings
Selection Guide" at the bottom of this article.
Better Thread Finishes

Better thread finishes may be achieved by noting the special parameters desired on orders for stainless
machining stock. A material with finer grain size can produce smoother finishes and more defined peaks
when cutting or rolling threads. At the same time, the more suitable material can minimize, if not eliminate
tearing when thread cutting. A higher material hardness can also achieve the same results for cutting
threads.
Easier Drilling
Drill wear can be reduced substantially with good drill design. In a typical scenario, for example, a shop
using a standard jobbers drill may suffer drill and work piece problems after penetrating the stainless stock.
With this drill design - use of the conventional jobbers point is a common cause of drill failure - the material
is mechanically pushed from the center of the drill tip to the outer cutting edge of the drill. This pushing
action work hardens the material at the drill point. That, in turn, hardens the material at the drill point,
causing excessive drill wear and "hard spots" in the stainless.
One solution to a problem like this one is to use a split point (providing cutting edges at the drill point) drill
with a 130 to 140 included angle. Drill makers utilize the more common split point, and even have their
own special designs to accomplish the cutting of material at the drill point. This design greatly reduces
pushing of the material in the center of the drill, and also requires less drilling force. The shallower angle
extends drill life and allows for a straighter hole.
Tool materials can improve drill life as well. Using an M42 tool steel for the drill material (this is also referred
to as a cobalt drill) increases the drill life over M2 alloy, which is the more common high speed drill material.
The M42 alloy is designed to exhibit higher hot hardness, thus resisting softening from the higher cutting
temperatures common in machining stainless. The use of carbide drills extends life one step better, but the
cost of carbide can become an issue.
Another solution is to use a softer stainless steel. The chemistry of some stainless grades offers a lower
work hardening rate than can be normally expected with conventional austenitic stainless steels. Such
alloys offer significant potential for easier cutting and lower drill wear.
Surface Finish
The traditional method of getting a better surface finish by increasing speeds and reducing feeds still
applies for screw machines. With multiple-spindle machines, however, increasing spindle speeds could be
tricky. It is easy to forget that increasing the speed for just one operation will adversely affect everything
else. In such event, failure to achieve a good surface finish could be the least of the problems caused.
Higher hardness in a stainless steel can also improve surface finish, but it tends to reduce the life of tools
made from conventional tool steels. This obstacle may be overcome by the use of alternate tooling
materials such as carbide, ceramics or powder super high speed steels such as Micro-Melt Maxamet
alloy. The harder materials will produce more heat in the cutting zone, thus breaking down the tooling
components. The use of high pressure coolant systems and/or coolants with more cooling ability can also
help.
Better Tolerances

The achievement of close and better tolerances on parts not only starts with better starting material
tolerances, but also with stable material. Thin section parts or parts with multiple contrasting features can
move due to stresses in the material. If distortion is an obstacle, think about stress relieving.
There are cases where the 300 series austenitic stainless steels should be stress relieved or annealed,
especially when the shop is machining thin sections. It is important to keep stress relieving at temperatures
below 900F to preserve essential mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Stress relieving above
900F causes carbide precipitation, which has an adverse effect on corrosion resistance. Carbide
precipitation is a phenomenon where the carbon in the material ties up the chromium. This formulation
equals rust!
Form A Partnership
No matter how skilled and well equipped they are, most machine shops can use all the outside help they
can get to prosper in today's competitive environment. In general, the more demanding and economically
sensitive the application, the more it may pay to bond with the machining bar supplier. What could be more
cost- and quality-effective than combining the shop's machining expertise with the steel producer's
knowledge of the alloy metallurgy and product application experience?
It behooves the shop to really know its stainless machining bar manufacturer. Does it provide technical
service? Shop-floor assistance with the machining application? Advice on alloy selection and fabrication?
What is the producer's record for making bar stock with minimum or no variation from heat to heat, order to
order, bar to bar? How much does the manufacturer invest in research and development, and in
capital/process improvements?
Also, how freely has the shop shared information with its stainless supplier? Has the supplier been told
about the specific application requirements? The reasons for desired conditions such as finish and
hardness? The special challenges or problems experienced or anticipated by the shop? This may not be
the time for true confessions, but it certainly should be considered the time for mutual trust and confidence.
***
For additional information about this subject or these and other Carpenter alloys, you may access the
companys technical database at www.cartech.com.
Carpenter Technology Corporation, based in Reading, Pa., is a leading manufacturer and distributor of
specialty metals, including stainless steels and titanium, and various engineered products.
Tooling/Coatings Selection Guide
The following turning selection system from Kennametal can serve as a guide in selecting tooling materials
and coatings for machining stainless steels. Kennametal qualifies its recommendations with the claim that
its PVD coating process enables it to coat sharp-edged and high positive-rake inserts for cleaner cutting
action and lower cutting forces.
For finish machining, lighter depth of cuts and slower feedrates, consider carbide KC5010 and cermet
KT315 turning grade featuring a new PVD TiCN coating. Operating speeds for the KT315 grade are 500 to
1,000 sfm.

For semi-finishing most stainless steels, consider KC5010, a carbide substrate grade with a PVD TiAIN
coating over a very deformation resistant unalloyed substrate to provide excellent resistance to heat and
wear. Operating speeds for KC5010 are 375 to 825 sfm.
For medium-to-roughing machining, consider KC9225 grade.It has a cobalt-enriched substrate that
combines toughness and wear resistance. Its polished, multi-layer K-MTCVD coating provides extended
tool life at higher cutting speeds (350-900 sfm).
For tough applications at moderate speeds and medium-to-high feed rates, consider KC9240, a CVD/PVD
coated grade. This grade offers an excellent combination of toughness, built-up-edge resistance and wear
resistance for difficult-to-machine stainless steels.
For tough, cast stainless steel machining applications, KC9245 is a candidate material. This is an
engineered, K-MTCVD coated carbide grade. Its substrate withstands heavy interruption, while its polished
surface resists build-up even at slow speeds. In addition, its wear-resistant coating resists the microchipping common when machining austenitic stainless steels.
Toughness Index for Alloy Comparisons
May 2007

Paul M. Novotny
Carpenter Technology Corp.
Wyomissing, Pennsylvania

An overall Toughness Index can provide important insights during the materials selection process.

In todays universe of specialty materials, designers must consider toughness along with strength and
fatigue resistance when comparing alloys. Toughness can be measured in different ways, such as Charpy
V-Notch Impact Energy, Plane Strain Fracture Toughness, Unnotched Izod Impact Energy, da/dn Crack
Growth rate, Area Under the Stress-Strain Curve, and others. Unfortunately, these options can be time
consuming and lead to mixed results.

In practice, for example, a single toughness property for an alloy is often considered after strength and
fatigue resistance comparisons have narrowed the field. Other toughness measurements that could be
important might be ignored or used only as tie-breakers.

Such drawbacks demonstrate the need for a single, overall toughness measurement that could function in
combination with strength and fatigue resistance to aid in materials comparison and selection. An ideal
toughness measurement would have to be easy to calculate and must fully represent the overall toughness
of each alloy.

This article discusses a new overall Toughness Index that combines three measures of toughness into a
single parameter that can graphically compare alloys.

Goodman diagrams

Although today computers can simplify the selection of alloys, graphical comparison methods are still
useful. One of the more helpful graphical methods that evolved in the late 19 th and early 20th centuries was
the Goodman diagram, in which tensile and rotating bending fatigue data served to illustrate a safe design
envelope, as shown in Fig. 1. Goodman diagrams for several different alloys could be drawn on top of each
other; the alloy with the largest safe design envelope would be chosen for the application.

Note that the Goodman diagram does not include any measure of toughness. Thats because prior to World
War II, toughness was a qualitative assessment. Ductility as measured by either the elongation or reduction
of area in the tensile test, was used along with strength to give a qualitative measure of the toughness of
the alloy. A material with high ductility and high strength was considered tougher than a lower-strength
material with the same high ductility. However, as a result of research that started during World War II with
the Charpy V-Notch Impact Test, the measurement of toughness became an important design parameter.

Toughness measures

Toughness is characterized generally as the amount of damage a material can withstand before fracture,
and this is defined as the area under the stress-strain curve of a tensile test. A simple approximation to the
area under the stress-strain curve is given by:

Area Under the Stress-Strain Curve = % Elongation x ((YS + UTS)/2)

In effect, this measure indicates the toughness of an alloy with no flaws, under static loading conditions.

However, in the real world toughness is measured in different ways depending on loading conditions (static,
dynamic or impact), and the kind of damage the part needs to withstand (flaws or notches). When dynamic
conditions and the effects of flaws or cracks must be considered, Charpy V-Notch Impact Energy (showing
effects of notches and impact loading) and Fracture Toughness (indicating the critical crack size that alloys
can tolerate) are often considered.

Toughness Index

Now, we have developed a new Toughness Index that effectively combines the three generally accepted
measures of toughness:

The area under the stress-strain curve

Charpy V-notch toughness
Fracture toughness, KIc

This single index is effective because it measures the overall toughness of an alloy under a variety of
loading conditions, with and without flaws.

The Toughness Index incorporates different measures of toughness. It is useful because (a) it does not
overly weigh one toughness measure over another, and (b) it is relatively easy to calculate from readily
available data.

Furthermore, it satisfies the first criterion of balance by essentially normalizing all toughness measures
included in the toughness index to approximately the same value. In this way, it avoids overly weighting one
toughness measure over another.

The normalizing procedure

The normalizing procedure emerged from an analysis of the mechanical properties of Carpenters AerMet
100 alloy. This alloy is considered to be a benchmark alloy because it has a superior combination of
strength and fracture toughness for a structural steel. As shown in Table 1, AerMet 100 alloy has been
averaging 246 ksi yield strength, 287 ksi ultimate tensile strength, and 16.1% elongation with a fracture
toughness of 120 ksiin. CVN impact energy at this strength is also outstanding at 35 ft-lb.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of the AerMet alloy family compared

with maraging, titanium, and 4340 alloys

AerMet Family

Property

900F Aged

875F
Aged

Marage Family

AerMet

AerMet

Marage Marage Marage

AerMet 100

AerMet
100

310

340

250

300

350

Y.S. (ksi)

246.0

258.0

275.0

314.0

249.9

281.6

336.4

U.T.S. (ksi)

287.0

302.0

315.0

352.0

258.6

291.0

343.6

Elong. (%)

16.1

14.2

14.5

11.3

10.7

8.6

6.1

R.A. (%)

67.3

63.8

63.0

55.2

51.1

40.8

22.2

KIc (ksi in. 1/2)

120.0

98.7

65.0

31.5

91.5

67.7

38.5

CVN I.E. (ft-lb.)

35.0

30.0

20.0

10.8

20.5

18.5

10.0

Modulus (psi x 106)

28.2

27.9

27.9

27.0

27.5

27.0

Density (lb./in.3)

0.285

0.285

0.288

0.284

0.289

0.289

0.292

4291

3976

4278

3763

2720

2462

2074

137

137

150

143

110

128

112

103

89

69

43

67

57

36

Area Under StressStrain Curve

27.9
(est.)

Fatigue Stress (ksi)

at 107 Cycles
(Runout)
(R = -1, Kt = 1)
Toughness Index

Specific Strength
(U.T.S./density)

1007

1060

1094

1239

895

1007

1177

Longitudinal orientation

AerMet Family
900F
Aged

875F
Aged

AerMet
100

AerMet
100

310

Y.S. (ksi)

246.0

258.0

U.T.S. (ksi)

287.0

Elong. (%)

Ti Alloys

AerMet AerMet

4340 Family

340

Ti 102-3

Ti 6Al4V

4340

300M

275.0

314.0

174.5

162.0

225.
0

243.0

302.0

315.0

352.0

185.0

173.5

269.
0

287.0

16.1

14.2

14.5

11.3

8.5

12.5

12.0

9.8

R.A. (%)

67.3

63.8

63.0

55.2

17.5

52.0

40.0

35.0

KIc (ksi in. 1/2)

120.0

98.7

65.0

31.5

49.6

39.1

70.0

50.0

CVN I.E. (ft-lb.)

35.0

30.0

20.0

10.8

22.0

18.5

18.0

18.0

Modulus (psi x 106)

28.2

27.9

27.9

27.9
(est.)

16.0

16.0

30.0

29.0

Density (lb./in.3)

0.285

0.285

0.288

0.284

0.168

0.160

0.28
3

0.283

Area Under Stress-

4291

3976

4278

3763

1528

2097

2964

2597

Property

Strain Curve
Fatigue Stress (ksi)
at 107 Cycles
(Runout)

137

137

150

143

120

102

79

85

103

89

69

43

46

45

61

52

1007

1060

1094

1239

1101

1084

951

1014

(R = -1, Kt = 1)
Toughness Index
Specific Strength
(U.T.S./density)
Longitudinal orientation

The three toughness values for AerMet 100 alloy obviously vary considerably in magnitude. Compare the
values mentioned for CVN impact energy and fracture toughness with the area under the stress-strain
curve of 4291 (calculated as (16.1) x [246 + 287]/2). It is clear that simply multiplying these three values
together, or arithmetically averaging the values to form a toughness index, would allow the area under the
stress-strain curve to dominate.

After examining the data for AerMet 100 alloy, it appeared that the CVN impact energy and the area under
the stress-strain curve could be normalized to be approximately the same as the fracture toughness by
simple multiplication or division as shown by the following calculations:

CVN I.E. x 3 = Normalized CVN = 35 x 3 = 105

Area Under the Stress-Strain Curve / 50 = Normalized Area = 4291/50 = 85.8
Fracture Toughness = 120 ksiin (no normalizing needed)

Note that the normalized measures are now of the same magnitude. They can be averaged to get an
average toughness value. However, fracture toughness dominates the arithmetic average of the three
normalized measures because it is the highest value in the range of the three numbers.

Taking the cube root of the product of the three normalized values would be calculating the geometric mean
of the product. A geometric mean is defined as the nth root of a product of n terms:

Geometric Mean = n X1 x X2 x X3 x .Xn

A geometric mean is often used to calculate averages for measures of geometric growth. The population
growth of a town is an example of geometric growth. If the population grows significantly over a ten-year
period from 250,000 to 500,000, the average population in year five can be calculated as the arithmetic
average of 375,000. However, the geometric mean would be the square root of (250,000 x 500,000), or
353,553. This is a lower but more realistic number in this example.

The geometric mean of the three normalized toughness measures would help equalize weighting of each
normalized toughness measure. Thus, the geometric mean would give a more realistic or conservative
value for the overall toughness of an alloy. Consequently, it could act as a Toughness Index. In addition, the
geometric mean satisfies the second criterion for an easy calculation with readily available data.

For AerMet 100 alloy, the cube root of 105 x 85.8 x 120 results in a Toughness Index of 102.6. Since
AerMet 100 alloy is a benchmark structural alloy for strength and toughness, almost all other alloys may be
expected to have toughness indices less than 102.6. Thus, this method of calculation offers an additional
advantage: the scale for the Toughness Index will be between zero and approximately 100. Figure 2 shows
how to calculate the Toughness Index.

Alloy evaluation

Table 1 contains typical mechanical properties for the AerMet alloy family, maraging alloys, titanium alloys,
and the 4340 family of alloy steels. The bottom three rows in the table contain the data that could be used
for the alloy selection process. Note the calculation of Specific Strength, which discounts density and allows
steel and titanium to be compared.

Figures 3 and 4 summarize data from Table 1 into two graphs that may be useful for alloy
selection. Figure 3, Toughness Index vs. Specific Strength, illustrates the dramatic advantage in toughness
of the AerMet family of alloys. Plotting the three data sources that comprise the Toughness Index
separately would require three graphs instead of one and would provide similar results.

The Toughness Index and Specific Strength values allow the strength, toughness, and fatigue life of ten
alloys to be compared with only two graphs. In fact, it may even be possible to compare these values in
one three-dimensional graph. For example, the Goodman Diagram in Figure 1 might be modified to include
the Toughness Index on a Z-axis. (However, that may end up being overly complicated.)

Index drawbacks

So far, the Toughness Index has only two drawbacks. First, the initial calculation has been done with
English units rather than metric units. Certainly, all the values can be converted to produce a Toughness
Index in metric terms. That will be developed in tandem with a rising tide of international interest. Until then,
the calculation can be accepted as an index without units. When the units go metric, the index could be
plotted versus a Specific Strength calculated with metric units.

The second drawback of the Toughness Index is that it now works only for graphical comparisons. With
their affinity for calculations, engineers might find the Toughness Index useful for correlating with other
properties that do not correlate well with individual toughness measures such as ballistics.

During development of the Toughness Index, no attempt was made to rationalize the units. The Index would
be difficult to use in calculations without rationalizing the units. This, too, could be done if interest warrants.

Your perspective

This article is not intended to provide the perfect solution to toughness measurement. It is designed to help
you calculate your own index based on numerical values for each of the three toughness measures in
current practice. Units for the Index have not been determined here because they would overly complicate
the basic issue of simplifying alloy comparison.

Magnetic Properties of Stainless Steels

June 2006

The magnetic behavior of stainless steels varies considerably, ranging from paramagnetic (nonmagnetic) in
fully austenitic grades to hard or permanent magnetic behavior in the hardened martensitic grades.
Stainless steels have not found widespread use solely as magnetic materials since their magnetic
capability is almost always inferior to conventional magnetic materials. However, there are circumstances
and applications where the magnetic or nonmagnetic behavior can significantly influence fabrication and
use of these alloys.
Austenitic (nonmagnetic) Stainless Steels
All austenitic stainless steels are paramagnetic (nonmagnetic) in the fully austenitic condition as occurs in
well-annealed alloys. The DC magnetic permeabilities range from 1.003 to 1.005 when measured at
magnetizing forces of 200 oersteds (16k A/m). The permeability increases with cold work due to
deformation-induced martensite, a ferromagnetic phase. For certain grades such as Types 302 and 304,
the increase in magnetic permeability can be appreciable, resulting in these grades being weakly
ferromagnetic in the heavily cold-worked condition. The susceptibility of a particular grade to becoming
ferromagnetic when heavily cold worked depends on the stability of the austenite, which, in turn, depends
on chemical composition and homogeneity. This is described in the article "Stability of Austenite in
Stainless Steels" by C. B. Post and W. S. Eberly, published in "Transactions of the American Society for
Metals," volume 39, (1947), pages 868 to 890.
The effect of cold work on magnetic permeability is illustrated for several austenitic stainless steels in
Figure 1. The relationship between ultimate tensile strength and magnetic permeability is shown in Figure
2. The rise in permeability correlates well with the increase in tensile strength or work-hardening behavior,
which is another measure of austenite stability. The differing performance between grades is a reflection of
their composition. In particular, nickel increases austenite stability, thereby decreasing the work-hardening
rate and the rate of increase of magnetic permeability. Consequently, the higher nickel grades, such as
Carpenter Stainless No. 10 (Type 384), exhibit lower magnetic permeabilities than the lower nickel grades
such as Project 70+ Type 304/304L when cold worked in equivalent amounts. The high-manganese, highnitrogen alloys, such as Carpenter 18Cr-2Ni-12Mn, are also noted for maintaining low permeability after
heavy deformation.

The magnetic permeabilities achievable in austenitic stainless steels are very low compared with
conventional magnetic materials such as silicon-iron alloys. Therefore, their non-magnetic behavior is more
of a concern. Certain uses such as housings and components for magnetic detection equipment used for
security, measuring and control purposes require that the steel be nonmagnetic. That is because the
presence of even weakly ferromagnetic parts can adversely affect performance. Unless the austenitic
stainless steel parts are used in the annealed condition and are not subjected to deformation during use, a
higher nickel grade would be a prudent choice assuming it offered the appropriate corrosion resistance and
strength.
For a given grade, the magnetic permeability can vary significantly depending on the chemistry and degree
of cold work of the steel. Often a particular lot of an "unstable" grade such as Type 304 can perform
satisfactorily. If the magnetic permeability of an austenitic stainless steel is of particular concern, it can be
measured by relatively simple means as described in ASTM Standard Method A342.
Ferritic Stainless Steels
Ferritic stainless steels are ferromagnetic and have been used as soft magnetic components such as
solenoid cores and pole pieces. Although their magnetic properties are not generally as good as
conventional soft magnetic alloys, they are successfully used for magnetic components which must
withstand corrosive environments. As such, they offer a cost-effective alternative to plated iron and siliconiron components. In addition, the relatively high electrical resistivity of ferritic stainless steels has resulted in
superior AC performance.

Soft magnetic properties, i.e., high magnetic permeability, low coercive force (H c) and low residual
induction (Br), depend strongly on alloy chemistry, particularly impurities such as carbon, sulfur and
nonmetallic inclusions, and stresses due to cold working. Magnetic permeability decreases and the
coercive force increases. That is, the behavior is less magnetically soft, with increasing amounts of
impurities and stress. As a result, well-annealed, high-purity alloys yield optimum magnetic performance.
Carpenter produces two grades of ferritic stainless steel, Carpenter Stainless Type 430F Solenoid Quality
and Carpenter Stainless Type 430FR Solenoid Quality, for consideration in soft magnetic alloy applications.
These two grades are melted and processed for consistent magnetic properties while offering corrosion
resistance similar to that of Type 430F.
Even if a ferritic stainless steel is not being used as a magnetic component, its magnetic behavior can be of
significance to fabrication and use. Annealed ferritic stainless steels exhibit soft magnetic behavior, which
means they do not have the ability to attract other magnetic objects when removed from an externally
applied magnetic field. Cold working, however, increases the coercive force (H c) of these steels changing
their behavior from that of a soft magnet to that of a weak permanent magnet. If parts of cold worked ferritic
stainless steel are exposed to a strong magnetic field such as occurs in magnetic particle inspection, the
parts can be permanently magnetized and, therefore, able to attract other ferromagnetic

objects. Apart from possibly causing handling problems, the parts would be able to attract bits of iron or
steel which will, if not removed, impair corrosion resistance. It is therefore prudent to either electrically or
thermally demagnetize such parts if they have been subjected to a strong magnetic field during fabrication.
Magnetic properties of some ferritic stainless steels are listed in Table 1.
Martensitic and Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steel
All martensitic and most precipitation hardenable stainless steels are ferromagnetic. Due to the stresses
induced by the hardening transformation, these grades exhibit permanent magnetic properties if
magnetized in the hardened condition. For a given grade, the coercive force tends to increase with
increasing hardness, rendering these alloys more difficult to demagnetize. Although not used as permanent
magnets to any significant extent, the previously mentioned potential difficulties of hardened ferritic
stainless steels also apply to these steels. Magnetic properties of some martensitic steels are also shown in
Table 1.
Table 1 - Magnetic Properties of Some Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steels

Maximum
Conditio
n

Rockwell

Relative

Hardness

Permeabilit
y

Type 410

B 85

(Martensitic)

Type 416

Grade

Coercive Force (Hc)

Oersted
s

A/M

750

480

C 41

95

36

2900

B 85

750

480

(Martensitic)

C 41

95

36

2900

Type 420

B 90

950

10

800

(Martensitic)

C 50

40

45

3600

B 78

1800

160

Type 430F
Solenoid
Quality
(Ferritic)

Type 430FR
Solenoid
Quality

B 82

1800

160

C 55

62

64

5100

B 85

1000

360

(Ferritic)
Type 440B
(Martensitic)
Type 446
(Ferritic)

Above data determined on round bars 0.375" (9.53 mm) to 0.625" (15.88 mm) per ASTM
A 341-Fahy permeameter.
Afully annealed
Hheat treated for maximum hardness

5 Ways Fine Austenitic Grain Size Affects Your Machine Shop

While Austenitic Grain Size is a result of chemistry (composition), the changes that it evokes in our process
are a result of material structure and properties, not just the chemical ingredients.
Steel that is fully deoxidized and grain refined is more sound, less susceptible to cracking and distorting,
and more easily controlled in heat treat. Well worth it in final performance compared to the machinists
increased tooling costs.
Here are 5 Ways Austenitic Fine Grained steels can affect your shop:
1.

Poorer Machinability than Coarse Grained Steels. (The hard oxides and nitrides resulting from
deoxidation and grain refinement abrade the edge of tools and coatings- this is one reason that you go
through more tooling on Fine Grained Steels.)

2.

Poorer Plastic Forming than Coarse Grained Steels.

3.

Less Distortion in Heat Treating than Coarse Grained Steels

4.

Higher Ductility at the same hardness than Coarse Grained Steels

5.

Shallower Hardenability than Coarse Grained Steels.

This is a look at Austenitic Fine Grain Steel.

Fine Austenitic Grain Size is a result of DELIBERATELY ADDDING grain refining elements to a heat of
steel. Because these grain refining elements have been added, the steel has a Fine Austenitic Grain Size.
In order to make steels with this Austenitic Fine Grained Structure, the steel is first deoxidized , (usually
with Silicon) and then Aluminum, or Vanadium or Niobium are added. Aluminum, Vanadium, and Niobium
are called grain refiners.
After the Silicon has scavenged most of the Oxygen out of the molten steel, the grain refiner is added. (In
this post Ill stick with Aluminum as the example.) The added Aluminum reacts with Nitrogen in the molten
steel to form Aluminum Nitride particles. These tiny particles precipitate along the boundaries of the
Austenite as well as with in the Austenite grains. This restricts the growth of the grains.
Because the deoxidation and grain refinement create hard abrasive oxide and nitride particles, they
machine and process differently than coarse grained steels.
Fine Austenitic Grain Size appears on the material test report as an ASTM value of 5 or greater. Values of
5, 6, 7, 8, or 5 and finer indicate that the material is Austenitic Fine Grained. Typically 7 or 8 was
reported for the Aluminum Fine Grain steels that I certified.
The methods for determining Austenitic Grain Size are detailed in ASTM Standard E112, Standard Test
Methods for determining Average Grain Size.

5 Ways Coarse Austenitic Grain Size Affects Your Machine Shop

Austenitic Grain Size is a material characteristic that is usually reported on test reports and certification
documents for the steel materials that we machine in our shops.
Coarse Austenitic Grain Size is a result of NOT ADDING grain refining elements to a heat of steel. Because
these Grain refining elements have not been added, the steel has a Coarse Austenitic Grain Size.

This is Coarse Grain Austenite. You like it for machining.

Typically this practice is applied to free machining grades such as 11XX and 12XX steels. These steels are
sold primarily for their ability to be machined at high production rates.
What does Coarse Austenitic Grain Size imply for the parts that you make?
1.

Better Machinability- Coarse Grained Steels are more machinable and provide longer tool life
than Fine Grained Steels. (The elements added to make the Austenitic Grain size fine create small, finely
dispersed hard abrasive particles in the steel)

2.

Better Plastic Forming- than Fine Grained Steels

3.

More Distortion in Heat Treat- than Fine Grained Steels

4.

Lower Ductility at the same hardness- than Fine Grained Steels

5.

Deeper Hardenability- than Fine Grained Steels

Coarse Austenitic Grain Size will show up on the test report as an ASTM value of 1-5. Values of 5 and
higher are called Fine Grained Steels, and are the result of additions of Aluminum, Vanadium, or Niobium in
North American commercial practice for most Carbon and Alloy steels.
The methods for determining Austenitic Grain Size are detailed in ASTM Standard E112, Standard Test
Methods For Determining Average Grain Size.
5 Facts About Manganese in Steel
The role of Manganese in steel in our precision machining shops.

Manganese ore like this comes from Turkey.

Carbon is a chemical element that is the primary hardening constituent in steel. Manganese is a chemical
element that is present in all commercial steels, and contributes substantially to a steels strength and
hardness, but to a lesser extent than does carbon.
1.

The effectiveness of Manganese in increasing mechanical properties depends on and is

proportional to the carbon content of the steel.

2.

Manganese also plays an important role in decreasing the critical cooling rate during
hardening. This means thatmanganese helps to increase the steels hardenability. Its effect on
hardenability is greater than that of any of the other commonly used alloying elements.

3.

Manganese is also an active deoxidizer, and is less likely to segregate than other elements.

4.

Manganese improves machinability, by combining with sulfur to form an soft inclusion in the
steel that promotes a steady built up edge and a place for the chip to break.

5.

Manganese improves yield at the steel mill by combining with the sulfur in the steel, minimizing
the formation of iron pyrite (iron sulfide) which can cause the steel to crack and tear during high
temperature rolling.
Manganese is an important constituent of todays steels.
Now you know a few reasons why Mn (the abbreviation for Manganese) is the second element shown on
the chemical analysis report (right after carbon).
5 Benefits of Cold Work in Steels
Here are 5 benefits of cold working of steels that make a difference to your machining operations.

1.

Increased strength

2.

Improved surface finish

3.

Controlled dimensional tolerance and concentricity

4.

Improved straightness

5.

Improved machinability.
Increased Strength
It is widely known that cold working strain changes the properties of most metals. When as rolled steel bars
are cold worked by cold drawing through a die, a significant increase in yield and tensile strength is
obtained. At the same time, The reduction in area and percent elongation are reduced.
The graph below shows the effect of cold drawing on the tensile properties of 1 inch round diameter steel
bars.

Mechanical Properties % Change resulting from % Cold Work

There are two important lessons in this graph: 1) As strength properties increase, ductility measures
decrease; 2) Up to about 15% cold reduction, yield strength increases at a much greater rate than tensile
strength. The first 5% of cold work results in the greatest increase in strength.
Improved Surface Finish
Hot rolled steel bars are finished at high temperatures, and so the surface has a hard abrasive scale made
up of various oxides of Iron. This scale is hard and abrasive ranging from 270 1030 DPH
(Vickers) microhardness depending on the type of oxide (s) formed. In order to cold draw the bars, cold
finshers typically remove the sacle by shot blasting or acid pickling. This results in the removal of the hard
abrasive scale.
By pulling the bars though the die, the surface finish is also improved, with Cold Drawn bars typically
running 50 microinches maximum and modern equipment typically working at 25-30 micro inches.
Compare this to a roughness height of 250 or more for hot rolled bars.
Controlled Dimensions
Because the bars are cold reduced at room temperature by pulling through an oil lubricated die, the
dimensional conformance of the steel is much more easily controlled. Typical tolerances for cold drawn 1

low carbon steel bars are +0.000/ 0.002. this compares favorably to +/- 0.010 for hot rolled steel of the
same chemistry and diameter. Concentricity is improved by the cold drawing operation.
Improved Straightness
The straightness of hot roll bars is generally 1/4 max deviation in any 5 foot length. In cold drawn bars,
depending on size and grade this deviation can be held to as little as 1/16 in 10 feet.
Please see our post here for a more complete discussion of bar straightness.
Improved Machinability
Improved machinability is really the synergistic result of all of the above improvements made by cold work
(cold drawing).
Higher yield to tensile ratio means the tool has less work to do to move the metal in the workpiece to its
ultimate strength when it will separate as a chip. This translates into less force on the tool and greater tool
life and productivity. Not putting hard abrasive scale and oxides into your cutting fluids nor on to your tool
because the bar has been cleaned results in longer uptime and less maintenance for tools, workholding,
and machines. More tightly controlled dimensions and concentricity means that the bars can be run at
higher speeds without creating harmful vibrations and chatter. Finer tolerances can be held by your
equipment when bars are sized properly going into the machine. Similarly, improved straightness results in
less runout and permits higher speeds in production.
Bottom line: Hot roll bars may be cheaper by the pound, but machining them will cost your company a lot
more because they lack the benefits of cold drawing:

Increased strength
Improved surface finish
Controlled dimensional tolerance
Improved straightness
Improved machinability.

Graph and data: AISI Cold Finished Steel Bar Handbook, 1968. (Out of print)
7 Causes For Quench Cracking Of Steel
Failures of steel parts in service or production occur very infrequently. However, when steel parts
fail, the consequences are dire.

Quench crack- this is not good!

Here are 7 ways that steel can fail as a result of Quench Cracking from heat treatment.
1.

Overheating during the austenitizing portion of the heat treatment cycle can coarsen normally fine
grained steels. coarse grained steels increase hardening depth and are more prone to quench cracking
than fine grain steels. Avoid over heating and overly long dwell times while austenitizing.

2.

Improper quenchant. Yes, water, brine, or caustic will get the steel harder. If the steel is an oil
hardening steel, the use of these overly aggressive quenchants will lead to cracking.

3.

Improper selection of steel for the process.

4.

Too much time between the quenching and the tempering of the heat treated parts. A
common misconception is that quench cracks can occur only while the piece is being quenched. This is
not true. If the work is not tempered right away, quench cracks can (and will) occur.

5.

Improper design- Sharp changes of section, lack of radii, holes, sharp keyways, unbalanced
sectional mass, and other stress risers.

6.

Improper entry of the part/ delivery of the quenchant to the part. Differences in cooling rates
can be created, for example, if parts are massed together in a basket resulting in the parts along the
edges cooling faster than those in the mass in the center. Part geometry can also interfere with
quenchant delivery and effectiveness, especially on induction lines.

7.

Failure to take sufficient stock removal from the original part during machining. This can leave
remnants of seams or other surface imperfections which can act as a nucleation site for a quench crack.

Finally, materials that are heat treated to very high strength levels, even though they did not quench crack,
may contain localized concentrations of high residual stresses. If these stresses are acting in the same
direction as the load applied in service, an instantaneous failure can occur. This will be virtually
indistinguishable from a quench crack during an examination, due to its brittle failure mode, lack of
decarburization on surface of the fracture, or other forensic evidence of a process failure.
When looking at quench cracking failures under the microscope, cracks and crack tributaries that follow the
prior austenitic grain boundaries are a pretty good clue that grain coarsening and or its causesoverheating or too long time at temperature- occurred. Temper scale on the fracture surface helps the
metallurgist know that the crack was present before tempering. Decarburization may show that the crack
was open prior to quenching.
What Does Ductility Mean?
The ability of a material to deform plastically without fracturing, is called ductility. In the materials
usually machined in our shops, ductility is measured by determining the percent of elongation and
the percent reduction of area on a specimen during a tensile test.

Ductility is often indicated by chip control issues in certain steels, as the chip readily deforms but
does not separate from the work piece. This can result in persistent burrs attached to the work .

Ductility arrives in our shops as indicated by burrs

Ductility can also mean long stringy chips that can form a dreaded birds nest engulfing the tool
and work piece.

Birds nest chips present a very real danger to operators. Ductility can hurt!
Long necklace chips are another sign of ductile materials in machining.

Long continuous chips resulting from ductile material can be controlled to keep them away from work piece
and tool.

Short chips curled into sixes and nines showing a bit of heat discoloration are typical of less ductile
materials and dutile materials machined at proper parameters using chip breakers and high pressure
coolant delivery.

Chips that look like sixes or nines showing a bit of heat discoloration are desired for safe practice.

In our machining practice we would prefer materials that are crisp rather than ductile.

In order to successfully deal with ductile materials, strategies such as chip control features on inserts, wiper
style inserts, through tool coolant, interrupted cuts, chip breakers, and high pressure coolant can be
considered.
Dialing in the appropriate feeds, speeds and depth of cut are crucial too.
Hardness vs. Hardenability-There Is A Difference
Dont confuse hardness and hardenability. Hardness is a material property. Hardenability is a way to
indicate a materials potential to be hardened by thermal treatment.
Hardness is resistance to penetration. Hardenability describes how deep the steel may be hardened upon
quenching from high temperature. The depth of hardening is an important factor in a steel parts toughness.
The brinell test uses a 10mm hardened steel (sometimes carbide) ball and various levels of force applied
over a specified time.

The softer the material, the deeper the penetration, the wider the impression.
The width of the impressions is measured optically and averaged. (Wider impressions mean the ball
penetrated deeper, thus, the material is less hard.) The Brinell hardness number is calculated by dividing
the load applied by the surface area of the indentation. Prior to todays direct reading instruments, the
measured indentation diameters could be looked up on a reference chart and the corresponding Brinell
hardness number given.
The Rockwell test is similar, but uses different forces and either a smaller ball indenter (Rockwell B scale )
or a diamond indenter (Rockwell C scale).
Hardenability- Jominy Test
In the Jominy test, a standard specimen is heated then water quenched from the end, and a series of
rockwell hardness tests are taken in 1/16th inch increments along the length of the specimen.

Jominy test measures potential depth steel will harden.

It is the influence of the steels chemical makeup (Carbon and Alloying elements) that determine how a
deeply a grade of steel will transform to martensite for a particular quenching treatment. This means that for
each grade being heat treated, mechanical properties are a result of cooling rate (quench). An excellent
web page on this can be found here.
So what of the difference between hardness and hardenability?
Hardness is resistance to penetration under specified conditions of load and indenter.
Hardenability is the ability of a steel to acheive a certain hardness at a given depth, upon suitable heat
treatment and quench. Hardness can be measured in steels in any condition. Hardenability presumes that
the steels will be heat treated to acheive a targeted hardness at a given depth.
One is an actual property, one is a measure of potential.
The Difference Between Accuracy And Precision Measurement In Your Machine Shop
Your QA manager can put you to sleep explaining the difference between these two terms- but you
really need to know the difference.

Accuracy describes 'close to true value;' Precision describes 'repeatability.'

Accuracy in measurement describes how closely the measurement from your system matches the actual
or true measurement of the thing being measured. It is the difference between the observed average of
measurements and the true average.
Think of accuracy as the trustworthiness of a measurement system.
Precision in measurement describes how well a measurement system will return the same measure; that
is its Repeatability.
As the targets above show, it is important to be both Accurate and Precise if you are to get useable
information from your measurement system.
But the repeatability has two components- that of the measurement system (gage) itself and that of the
operator(s). Differences resulting from different operators using the same measurement device- this is
calledReproducibility.
In our shops, we cannot tell if our measurement system has repeatability or reproducibility issues without
doing a Long Form Gage R&R study.
Gage repeatability and reproducibility studies (GR&R) use statistical techniques to identify and discern the
sources of variation in our measurement system: is it the gage, or is it the operator?
Gage error determined by the GR&R is expressed as a percentage of the tolerance that you are trying to
hold.
Typically, 10% or less Gage Error is considered acceptable. Over 30% is unacceptable; between 10 and
30% gage error may be acceptable depending on the application.
Regardless- any level of gage error is an opportunity for continuous improvement.