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CONTEXTUAL OUTLINE:
Because all living things have a finite life span, the survival of each species depends
on the ability of individual organisms to reproduce. The continuity of life is assured
when the chemical information that defines it is passed on from one generation to the
next on the chromosomes.
Modern molecular biology is providing opportunities to alter the information
transferred from one generation to the next in technologies such as cloning and in the
production of transgenic species.
The segregation and independent assortment of the genetic information within a
species provides the variation necessary to produce some individuals with
characteristics that better suit them to surviving and reproducing in their
environment. Changes in the environment may act on these variations. The
identification of mutations and their causes becomes important in preventing
mutations and in identifying and potentially nullifying the effects of mutations in living
organisms.
Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of:
The above reasons illustrate that organisms must have evolved according to the
conditions they faced at the time. Fossil evidence has shown many changes which
indicate a change in the environment. One key Australian example is the evolution of
the eucalypt. Australia was once covered by lush beech forest. As Australias climate
changed so to did its vegetation. The soils became drier and the rainfall dropped. This
in turn led to the evolution of the eucalypt.
Therefore, it is evident that changes in the physical environment have led to the
evolution of plants and animals.
Competition for resources:
Competition for resources usually results in the extinction of a species or a species
occupying another niche. There have been many cases whereby competition for
resources has led to the evolution of another species. One Australian example is the
flycatcher. Due to this species having the same diet there has been diversification of
the species. A whole new species has evolved to occupy a different niche. The leaden
flycatcher catches its prey around trees while the restless flycatcher catches its prey
just above the ground by emitting a call that disturbs the insects. This example shows
that if the flycatcher had not evolved, occupying a separate niche, there would have
been competition for resources and in turn the species may have become extinct.
Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the
following areas of study:
biogeography
comparative embryology
comparative anatomy
- biochemistry
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Underline key words
- How would you go about answering this question
Outlined below are specific examples which support the theory of evolution:
Palaeontology, including fossils that have been considered as transitional
forms:
Palaeontology, the study of fossils is a specific example that accounts for the theory of
evolution. Fossils are formed under strict circumstances and include such traces as
bones, teeth, footprints and faeces. There are many reasons as to why fossils aid in
the theory of evolution. Firstly fossils can be compared structurally. This can lead to
evolutionary relationships and explain an evolutionary pathway. Secondly through
carbon dating fossils can be dated as to when they formed/existed. Knowing how old a
fossil can determine evolutionary relationships. Thirdly knowing the type of rock the
fossil formed in can indicate the time the fossil was formed. Comparing this fossil to
another fossil found in the same rock helps scientists make comparisons between the
two fossils. Fourthly transitional fossils support the theory of evolution. Archaeopteryx
is a transitional fossil that illustrates the relationship between dinosaurs, reptiles and
birds. The lobe fin fish is a transitional fossil that illustrates the evolutionary pathway
of fish to amphibians.
Therefore from the above evidence palaeontology supports the theory of evolution as
it illustrates evolutionary relationships between organisms.
Biogeography:
Biogeography supports the theory of evolution in many ways. Firstly Darwin and
Wallace, through their studies identified that there were striking similarities between
current organisms from differing countries. (As well as fossils.) This eventually led to
the fact that continental drift affected evolution. This is supported by:
Pincushion coneflower (South Africa) VS Holly Leaved Banksia (Australia)
Opossum in South America and its closest relative in Australia.
The above evidence suggests that these landforms were previously much closer
together. Over time these continents drifted apart causing the organisms of that
continent to evolve according to its environment.
Comparative embryology:
Comparative embryology supports the theory of evolution. The embryos of the fish,
salamander, tortoise, chicken, pig, rabbit and human are all very similar in embryonic
stage. These organisms then evolve with each structure having a different specialised
function, supporting the theory of evolution.
Comparative anatomy:
Comparative anatomy supports the theory of evolution in a number of ways. It is
evident that the fore limb also known as the pentadactyl limb supports the theory of
evolution. The limb has a similar structure in many organisms; however the organism
has evolved to use that limb for a specialised function such as swimming or flying.
Biochemistry:
Biochemistry supports the theory of evolution including evolutionary relationships and
evolutionary pathways. Virtually all organisms use cytochrome C, a protein, for
energy. Through studies of this protein scientists can compare the similarity between
organisms. A change in DNA leads to a different amino acid sequence which in turn
produces a different organism. The study of biochemistry therefore supports the
theory of evolution.
Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- What is natural selection?
- What is isolation?
- What does account mean?
Background info:
NATURAL SELECTION: is the process by which an organism will adapt to its
environment due to natural pressures such as the environment or competition. This
leads to desirable characteristics being passed on from one generation to the next.
Also known as survival of the fittest. e.g. Peppered moths in England.
ISOLATION: is the process by which a group of organisms is isolated from the original
species. This new group usually undergoes natural pressures such as environmental
change. This leads to mutation and natural selection which in turn produces a new
species. e.g. The apple maggot fly and the Hawthorn maggot fly.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION: the process by which an organism adapts to its niche over
millions of years.
Darwin and Wallaces theory of natural selection and isolation accounts for divergent
evolution. For example when a species is occupying a certain environment it will be
exposed to those environmental pressures. This organism will adapt and continue to
evolve over thousands and millions of years, according to these environmental
pressures, (natural selection.) However, this same species may become separated or
isolated due to flood waters, mountain ranges or even deserts, (isolation.) This then
means this organism, due to its new environmental pressures evolves according to its
new niche, (natural selection.) Evolution of this species continues to occur until the
species become two separate species and are no longer able to reproduce with one
another. This is known as divergent evolution. (A species diverges from its original
species.)
Darwin and Wallaces theory of natural selection and isolation accounts for convergent
evolution. Convergent evolution is the process by which organisms with different
ancestors have acquired the same characteristics according to the similarity of their
niche.
Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an
environmental change can lead to changes in a species.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- Underline key words
- Ensure you use an example to show how environmental change can lead to changes
in the species. e.g. Red kangaroo
A chief example of an environmental change that lead to a change in a species were the
peppered moths in England. Peppered moths are either pale in colour or dark in colour. In
an unpolluted area the pale moths are well camouflaged by the lichen on the surrounding
trees, while the darker moths are much easier to see. The birds within the ecosystem prey
on the darker moths as they are much easier to see. This then equates to the paler moths
occupying the ecosystem and passing on the desirable characteristic of the pale colour.
However, due to an environmental change the darker moths have flourished. Due to
industrial pollution the trees within the area have darkened in colour. Consequently the
darker moths have greater camouflage compared to that of the paler moth. This in turn
means that paler moths are picked off by the bird population; therefore the darker moths
through years of natural selection have a higher survival rate in a polluted area.
STRUCTURE/FUNCTION
Crocodile
Human
Bird
Bat
PICTURE
Whale
Frog
Be succinct
HISTORY:
The main constituents of evolutionary theory were Darwin and Wallace. Darwin, a
naturalist is recognised mostly for his work in South America. Darwin sailed to the
Galapagos Islands in the 1830s on his ship called the beagle to observe the local flora
and fauna. What he discovered was the beginning of his theory on natural selection. In
Darwins observations he noticed that depending on the island and the habitat certain
finches, from a common ancestor, portrayed different physical characteristics. The
main characteristic Darwin concentrated was the shape of the finchs beak. He
noticed that the finches had acquired a certain shaped beak according to their niche.
Darwin concluded that:
All these finches came from a common ancestor.
The finches then occupied individual niches.
These niches had an abundance of food.
Over time the finchs evolved a beak according to the food they ate.
Darwin concluded by calling his theory, The Theory of Natural Selection.
At the time of Darwins research another scientist by the name of Wallace was
completing similar research in Indonesia. In Indonesia it has been documented that
Wallace collected 125 660 species, producing over one thousand new species to
science. Through his research he was coming to similar conclusions to that of Darwin.
He sent his research and documentation to Darwin, who in turn subsequently
produced the book The Origin of Species.
Darwin and Wallace have both been attributed with the theory of natural selection.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE:
Darwins book caused uproar among certain English social and political groups. People
could not believe in the theory of evolution because at that time it seemed completely
impossible and a threat to religious, social and political beliefs.
However, through further scientific research and support the theory of natural
selection has become more accepted in social and political groups. This is evident in
the 1860s where groups borrowed the ideas of Charles Darwin and transferred them
to the social domain. They proposed that societies could evolve just like plants or
animals. This view was known as social Darwinism and was proposed by Herbert
Spencer. This theory rose to prominence in the late 19th and early 20th century.
Spencer suggested that life was a struggle an only the people who were the fittest
would survive (not documented). This directly had an impact on social and political
influences.
Social Darwinism is outlined below:
Struggling for existence within society was part of evolution.
This meant only the fittest members of society would survive.
Weakest members would fail.
State Reforms were said to interfere with evolution. (Welfare)
Social classes were natural.
Also influenced political groups. The stronger/fitter groups would run the nation.
Governing over the weaker.
War was a positive as it was seen to eliminate the weakest.
Subsequently through common sense biological evolution no longer is applied to
social groups. E.G. poverty can not be attributed to laziness.
Therefore, it is evident that Darwins/Wallace theory of natural selection did have an
impact on social and political groups.
Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognised until
some time after it was published.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Underline key words
- Use scientific language
There are many reasons as to why Mendels work was not recognised until some time
after it was published. Firstly he only presented his work to a small group of scientists.
These scientists may not have understood his research as it was a new concept or
they understood his work but did not realise the significance of it. Secondly Mendel
was not a famous scientist. He was an Austrian monk who worked in a small team
within his monastery. He worked quietly with his team and then produced and
published his results from obscurity. This may have been one reason as why his work
was not received with open arms.
Biological research began to evolve in the 1900s where Mendels work became
recognised. Subsequently through his research Mendel became known as the father of
genetics.
Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using Mendels
explanations.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- What is a monohybrid cross?
- Ensure you include Mendels explanations in your answer.
Monohybrid crosses are crosses which involve only one specific characteristic. These
characteristics could include eye colour, hair colour or in Mendels case the height of
pea plants. When performing a monohybrid cross we need to obtain certain
information. Information necessary to produce a cross includes whether or not the
cross is between homozygous or heterozygous pairs and whether or not the
characteristic is dominant or recessive. For example Mendel crossed a homozygous
tall pea plant (TT) with a homozygous short pea plant (tt). We know that the tall gene
is the dominant gene because the first generation of plants were all tall. Some of the
first generation, although all tall, would have been carrying a short gene. This in turn
was shown in the second generation whereby the short gene was expressed in the
ratio of 3 tall plants to 1 short plant. Through simple monohybrid crosses scientists are
able to determine the dominance of a gene as well as hypothesise what the outcome
could be between certain crosses involving certain characteristics.
HETEROZYGOUS
GENE
Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using
examples.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words
- Be succinct
When considering phenotypes we need to keep in mind whether or not certain alleles
are dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles dominate over other alleles and are
always expressed. When expressing dominance in a cross the letter is always written
as a capital. Recessive alleles are rarely expressed in an offspring. The only occasion
when recessive alleles are expressed is when there is an absence of a dominant gene.
Dominant and recessive alleles can be linked to the phenotype of an offspring. The
phenotype of the offspring is the actual physical characteristic that is being
expressed. For example, a dominant black haired person (BB) produces offspring with
a recessive blonde hair person (bb).
B
B
b Bb Bb
b Bb Bb
As indicated by the punnet square above 100% of the offspring will have the
phenotype of black hair. This is represented by all the alleles containing a capital B
(dominant) and a lower case b (recessive).
Perform an investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees, trace the inheritance
of selected characteristics and discuss their current use.
Things to consider:
- What does perform mean?
- What does discuss mean?
- Underline key words
- Understand what the question is asking before you complete the question.
the nature of the disease and knowing that no other member of the
family had the disease it would also be accurate in saying that there
was 0% chance of the next child having the lung disease.
(c)
Due to the disease being a recessive disease the probability that
the next child will have the disease is 0%.
(d)
JEN
L
l
BOB L
LL Ll
l
Ll ll
L = Healthy lungs
l = The recessive gene for the lung disorder
The following are the possible genotypes of the parents and their offspring.
Jen = Ll
Bob = Ll
Sue = LL or Ll
Sean = LL or Ll
Marina = ll
(e)
If I was providing genetic counseling for Jen and Bob I would tell
them that it is extremely rare for them to conceive another child with
the disease. It is almost a zero percent chance that there next child
would have the disease. I would also tell them that there other healthy
children; Sue and Sean could possibly be carrying the recessive gene
for the disease based on probability.
(f) If I was providing genetic counseling to Mark and Su Chi I would tell
them that it would be extremely rare that they would have any
offspring that would have the disease. Based on the family tree Mark is
highly unlikely to be carrying the recessive gene.
(g)
Genetic counseling is a process undertaken by professionals
whereby a family pedigree is assembled and assessed according to the
parents genetic variations. All variables such as certain diseases and
hereditary problems are discussed with the parents. Parents are
informed of the chances of whether their offspring will have a certain
disease or not. The genetic counselor then offers advice on community
programs or a plan of care for the child. This is often passed onto the
family physician. This type of information is similar to the advice I
gave. However, a plan of action was not discussed nor the probability
of other diseases.
c
Cc
cc
Genotypes = Cc
Phenotypes = 3 curly wing : 1 straight wing
(c)
C
c
C C
Cc
C
c Cc cc
Genotype = CC : Cc : cc
1:2:1
25% : 50% : 25%
Phenotype = Curly : Straight
3 : 1 (75% : 25%)
3. (a) The green pod must be dominant as it mask the yellow pod gene in the
heterozygous peas
G G
g G G
g
g
g G G
Genotype = Gg : Gg
g
g
100% Gg
Phenotype = All green pods
(b)
G
G G
G
g Gg
g
G
g
gg
Genotype = GG : Gg : gg
1:2:1
25% : 50% : 25%
Phenotype = Green : Yellow
3 : 1 (75% : 25%)
B
B
B BB BB
b Bb Bb
Genotype = BB : Bb
2:2
50% : 50%
Phenotype = Brown eyes
4
100%
B
b
B BB Bb
b Bb bb
Genotype = BB : Bb : bb
1 : 2 : 1
25% : 50% : 25%
Phenotype = Brown : Blue
3:1
75% : 25%
Therefore the only possible chance that two brown eyed parents have a blue eyed
baby is if both there genotypes are Bb. This means that the parents have a 25%
chance of having a blue eyed baby.
(b)
B
b
b Bb bb
b Bb bb
Genotype =Bb : bb
2:2
Phenotype = 2 brown : 2 blue
The chance of having another blue eyed child is 50%
5. A test cross is when you cross your unknown with a homozygous recessive to
test if there your unknown has a hidden recessive gene.
The brown guinea big you are testing could be homozygous brown or heterozygous
brown. This answer depends on the phenotypes of the parents. Consider all possible
phenotypes:
BB x bb
Bb x bb
B
B
b Bb Bb
b Bb Bb
Genotype = Bb
1
100%
Phenotype = Brown
1
100%
B
b
b Bb bb
b Bb bb
Genotype = Bb : bb
2:2
50% : 50%
Phenotype = Brown : White
2:2
50% : 50%
DNA MOLECULE
http://www.biologycorner.com/resources/DNA-colored.gif
NUCLEOTIDE:
blended. For example roan cattle is the result of both genes being expressed
separately without blending. (White and red).
http://www.ccs.k12.in.us/chsteachers/BYost/Biology
%20Notes/CH11notescoincompletedom_files/image004.jpg
Sex linkage and co dominance do not produce simple Mendelian ratios. This is
largely due to the fact that Mendel started with pure breeding parents. Mendel then
interbred the offspring which limited the genetic pool, causing a steady ratio of plants
with certain characteristics. Ratios from other situations like sex linkage and co
dominance will not conform to Mendels ratios because Mendel did not study these
complicated forms of inheritance.
Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Ensure you learn Morgans work as scientists are constantly referred to in the
HSC.
Morgan first discovered sex linkage through his work with the Drosophila fruit fly.
Morgan had been breeding Drosophila and one day he noticed a male white eyed fly
within the population of red eye Drosophilas. This was an odd characteristic as all
Drosophilas were meant to have red eyes. Morgan investigated the problem further.
He bred the male white eyed fly with a red eye female. The resultant offspring all
had red eyes. Morgan then interbred the first generation of offspring. The resultant
second generation contained white eyed Drosophilas. All of these offspring with
white eyes were males. Morgan then hypothesised from these results that the white
eye characteristic was sex limited. Morgan suggested that sex limited,
characteristics were carried on the X chromosome by the female. The result from this
experiment is known as sex linkage.
Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the
resulting phenotypes in examples of co dominance.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Link answer to co dominance.
- Be succinct.
Firstly homozygous genotypes are expressed by either capital letters or lower case
letters showing either dominant or recessive genes. In comparison heterozygous
genotypes are expressed by a capital and lower case letter.
to consider:
does solve mean?
is co dominance?
is sex linkage?
Identify data sources and perform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect
of environment on phenotype.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- What is phenotype?
- Ensure you perform an accurate and reliable experiment and record all relevant
results.
For example, we constructed an experiment involving tomato plants. These plants
were placed in 3 environments. Environment 1 the plant was placed in the garden.
Environment 2 the plant was placed in the house. Environment 3 the plant was
placed in the garden shed. All the plants received 20mL of water per day. As
environment 1 was outside it also received water in the form of rain.
Your task:
- Describe the physical appearance of each plant and relate this to the
environment in which the plant was exposed to.
- Suggested activity is to observe the effect of light on the growth of plants. Start
by watching Clickview: The Scientific Method (15 mins). Design an experiment to
test the hypothesis plants need light to grow.
Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance.
Things to consider:
- What does describe and explain mean?
- Be succinct.
DNA is unique in the sense that it is the building blocks of all life forms but it is also
capable of replicating itself exactly. This is possible because of the double helix
structure being able to unwind. The process of DNA replication or copying takes place
in meiosis and mitosis.
The process of DNA replication is outlined below:
- DNA replication begins with the two strands separating. The bonds break
between the bases so that the two strands of DNA unzip. (Binding proteins
prevent the strands from reattaching to one another)
- A complimentary copy of each strand is constructed from new sugar phosphate
base units. This process is catalysed by the enzyme DNA polymerase.
Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of
polypeptides.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Underline key words
- Be succinct
Polypeptides:
Is a chain or link of amino acids.
DNA controls the production of polypeptides in a process known as protein synthesis.
This involves the following steps:
- A gene on the DNA strand contains information required to build that specific
polypeptide. This is in the form of a specific codon. (3 base sequence.)
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) a special type of RNA carries the information from
the DNA in the nucleus, to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the ribosomes to help build the
polypeptide. There are over 20 types of tRNA each carrying a different type of
amino acid. Each tRNA contains complimentary bases to that of the mRNA.
- Ribosomes act as the site for the synthesis of polypeptides. Ribosomes
contain three active sites, one site to hold the mRNA strand and the other two
for the tRNA. These sites temporarily bind these molecules in order for amino
acids to link up and produce a polypeptide chain.
- Enzymes also aid in catalysing the process. (Speed it up.)
Explain the relationship between polypeptides and proteins.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Illustrate your answer by showing how polypeptides relate to proteins.
Proteins are large complex molecules which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. These large complex molecules are made up of smaller molecules called
amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of all proteins. There are only twenty
known types of amino acids. These amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
eventuating into a polypeptide bond. (POLY = many)
Explain how mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Refer answer to DNA and alleles.
Mutations in DNA can lead to the generation of new alleles. Firstly a mutation is a
change in a gene. It is an alteration in the DNA of a certain gene. It may be a
substitution whereby a base is substituted for another base. It may be a deletion
whereby a whole base or bases are deleted completely from the sequence or it could
be an insertion where an extra base or bases are added to the sequence. If this
mutation takes place in a specific location on the gene it may alter the production of a
specific protein. This alteration also effects the production of polypeptides, which in
turn affects the gene. An example of a mutation that occurs in humans is sickle cell
anaemia. This mutation occurs when there is one substitution in the DNA sequence
resulting in the disease.
Mutations cause variation within an organism. Mutations may lead to the generation
of new alleles in an organism. This would result in changes to the information carried
by the DNA on the chromosome. Most mutations are lethal and the cell ultimately
dies. However if the cell survives it increases the variation within a population of
organisms. Mutation can occur during meiosis, consequently the mutation gets passed
on from the parents to the offspring. Therefore it is evident that mutations can lead to
the generation of new alleles.
Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation.
Things to consider:
- What does discuss mean?
- Ensure you support your answer with relevant cases as well as statistics.
Mutagen Environmental factors that induce mutation.
During the 20th century there has been increasing evidence to suggest that radiation
has mutagenic qualities. For example ultraviolet radiation from the sun, ionising
radiation from atomic bombs (Hiroshima), nuclear accidents (Chernobyl) and simple x
rays have all been linked to causing mutations within a population.
Sunlight is a known mutagen. U.V. light causes a deletion of certain bases in the DNA
strand. Another known effect is that thymine bases begin to link together. This
subsequently causes the DNA not to replicate and the cell to die. Mutation rates such
as skin cancers have increased over the years due to the increase in U.V. light. It is
known that due to an increase in pollution the hole in the ozone is getting larger. This
has led to a higher rate of skin cancers in those people who are regularly exposed to
U.V. light.
Atomic bombs such as the one in Hiroshima have shown the mutagenic nature of
radiation. The ionising radiation in atomic bombs can break strands of DNA or even
whole chromosomes. The atomic bomb of Hiroshima supports the mutagenic nature of
radiation as many people died from leukaemia from years following the attack as well
as descendents of people effected have displayed mutations.
The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 caused many deaths. However the full extent of the
disaster has not been fully realised. Over 9 million people have been exposed to the
radiation through food, soil and water contamination. It is believed that the life span
of the people in the area will dramatically drop due to radiation induced cancers. The
effects of the disaster can also be seen in that in every 3 calves that were born in the
area 2 were still born. (First 5 years.)
X rays have also been linked with causing mutations within patients. In the 1950
and 1960s X rays were used to measure feet, resulting in early induced cancers.
Nowadays X rays are only used under strict circumstances by doctors, dentists and
scientists.
Analyse information from secondary sources to outline the evidence that led to
Beadle and Tatums one gene one protein hypothesis and to explain why this was
altered to the one gene one polypeptide hypothesis. (Page 314/Internet)
Things to consider:
- What does analyse, outline and explain mean?
- There are two parts to this answer. Ensure you explain why their hypothesis was
changed.
The following evidence supports Beadle and Tatums one gene one polypeptide,
hypothesis:
- Beadle and Tatum performed their experiments on bread mould (Neurospora)
- The bread mould was grown on a medium of sugar, salts and the vitamin biotin.
- These were the minimal requirements for the bread mould to grow. (Minimal
medium.)
- They suggested that these substances must be converted by the mould into
amino acids and that enzymes were responsible for this metabolism.
- To test this Beadle and Tatum exposed the spores to X rays to cause
mutations.
- They then grew the mould on the minimal medium. If it grew it was discarded if
it did not grow it was kept for further testing.
- The mould that did not grow was then exposed to a variety of media containing
a different amino acid.
- They found that if they supplemented the minimal medium with a particular
amino acid the mould would grow.
- This suggested that the mutants had lost the ability to produce particular amino
acids because they lacked certain enzymes.
- This means that a mutant that required tyrosine to grow lacked the enzyme
tyrosine.
- From this experiment Beadle and Tatum hypothesised that each gene coded for
a particular enzyme, which was firstly known as the one gene one enzyme
theory.
- The theory was changed to one gene one polypeptide because genes code
for proteins and not enzymes, many proteins are made of more then one
polypeptide and each gene codes for a polypeptide.
Process information to construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA
sequences can result in changes in cell activity (Internet)
Things to consider:
- What does process and construct mean?
- Explain the flow chart so it makes more sense to you.
Changes in the DNA sequence can result in changes in cell activity. For example if
there is a substitution, insertion or deletion of a certain base sequence this can and
will change cell activity. This is due to the fact that the change in the DNA sequence
changes the whole process of transcription and translation. A change in a base is
ultimately going to change the mRNA strand, the amino acid and the polypeptide. The
flowchart below shows the result when thymine is deleted from the DNA strand. The
deletion of thymine results in a premature stop in the formation of the amino acid.
(http://hsc.csu.edu.au/biology/core/blueprint/9_3_2/BIO934NET.htm#net10)
Cell activity, as we have learnt is regulated by enzymes. As indicated by the flow chart
above a change in the DNA sequence also effects the formation of a functional
enzyme.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to explain a modern
example of natural selection (Internet peppered moth)
Things to consider:
- What does process, analyse and explain mean?
- We have learnt about peppered moths before so you should have some
understanding on this topic.
There are three main examples which you could use to answer this question:
- Peppered moths
- Mosquitoes (DDT)
- Bacteria
Peppered Moths There were two observed varieties of peppered moths located in
industrial England, black and white in colour. The white moths were much more
common as they were well camouflaged by the lichen on the surrounding trees. As
industry within the area developed in the 19th century soot began to build up on the
trees and turn their bark a darker colour. This resulted in the white moths being eaten
by birds while the black moths began to reproduce at a higher rate to pass on their
desired characteristics. This example of natural selection was easily observable as it
occurred over a relatively short period of time.
Mosquitoes (DDT) DDT was initially used to kill off insects and mosquitoes which
affected crops and the production of food. It was initially a very successful insecticide
until a small population of mosquitoes survived. These mosquitoes then passed on
their immunity to the DDT onto further generations. This form of modern natural
selection was easily observed as mosquitoes have a high reproduction rate. When the
immunity is passed on it generates into millions of mosquitoes becoming resistant to
DDT.
Bacteria Bacteria much like mosquitoes have become resistant to antibiotics. This
is due to the fact that antibiotics are over prescribed or the patient does not complete
the course of antibiotics. Much like the mosquitoes the bacteria that survive the
chemicals in the antibiotics reproduce. Their desirable immunity is passed on from
generation to generation resulting in the antibiotic have little to no effect on the
bacteria. This is an example of modern day natural selection as it is easily observable
in patients as well as the fact that scientists/doctors are constantly upgrading different
antibiotics to become effective in the fight against resistant bacteria.
Process information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the relative
importance of the work of:
James Watson
Francis Crick
Rosalind Franklin
Maurice Wilkins in determining the structure of DNA and the impact of the quality
of collaboration and communication on their scientific research. (Internet
research, page 192 - 194). DVD Secret of Photo 51: History of Rosalind
Franklin and the Double Helix (52mins) Excellent!
Things to consider:
- What does process, describe and analyse mean?
- Ensure you can link their work to current technologies that involve DNA.
- Learn these scientists and their names as scientists are regularly tested on in
the HSC.
James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins all played a pivotal
role in determining the structure of the DNA molecule. However it has been publicised
that they did not all work together cooperatively and there is still some debate over
who should be accredited with the discovery of the DNA double helix.
Watson and Crick both had a passion for science, in particular the DNA molecule. They
began their research together at Cambridge University in England. They bonded
almost straight away and became a formidable research team. In contrast Rosalind
Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were also researching the structure of DNA. Unlike
Watson and Crick these two scientists did not get along. They despised each other.
Watson and Crick also admitted to having a patronising attitude towards her. This was
largely due to the fact that Rosalind Franklin was a female in a male dominated area
of work. Franklin had few opportunities to express her ideas and to develop a positive
working relationship with Wilkins.
Watson and Crick worked together as a team. They used the ideas of other scientists
to solve the puzzle that was DNA. Ideas from other scientists that manipulated Watson
and Cricks ideas included:
- Linus Pauling showed that proteins are arranged in a shape of spring coil.
- A talk by Franklin in 1951 illustrating DNA images produced by X ray
crystallography initially causing Watson and Crick to produce an inaccurate
model of DNA.
- Erwin Chargaffs work on nitrogen bases enabled Crick to suggest that these
nitrogen bases were complimentary to one another (A T, C G). This was
firstly rejected by Watson until he came up with the idea that these pairs might
be the rungs of the ladder.
While Watson and Crick were manipulating their ideas surrounding the structure of
DNA, Franklin had discovered from her X ray diffraction pictures the double helix
nature of DNA in 1953. However, Franklin did not announce her findings. Unknown to
Franklin, Wilkins shared these images with Watson and Crick showing the structure of
the DNA molecule. Subsequently Watson and Crick produced a 3 D model of the DNA
structure as well as a theory surrounding the DNA double helix. In 1962 Watson, Crick
and Wilkins were all accredited in determining the structure of DNA and were awarded
the Nobel Prize.
Ultimately Watson and Crick are the two main scientists accredited to discovering the
DNA structure.
Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic
composition of a population: (pages 218 to 223)
- artificial insemination
- artificial pollination
- cloning
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- Address each heading.
- Be succinct
Artificial Insemination is the process by which sperm is collected and inserted
into the vagina of the female. The sperm then swim to the egg, which becomes
fertilised. Artificial insemination has the potential to alter the genetic composition of a
population. If the same female or same male is constantly being used this may limit
the genetic variability of the population. This then decreases biodiversity within the
population increasing the susceptibility of the population to disease and infection.
Artificial insemination could also be beneficial for the population as desired
characteristics are the main reason for artificial insemination. These desired
characteristics could enable the population to be strong, fit and healthy.
Artificial Pollination is a similar process to that of artificial insemination but this
time with plants. The plant breeder will brush the pollen from the anther (male) onto
the stigma (female). The plant is then covered to prevent cross pollination. This
results in the desired plant to grow. This reproductive technique may alter the genetic
composition of the population in many ways. Firstly it will affect the genetic diversity
of the plant. Secondly this will affect the biodiversity of the plant and thirdly if the
plant is susceptible to a specific disease as all plants are alike they have the potential
to be wiped out.
Cloning is the process in which an exact copy is made of an organism (Dolly).
Cloning can have an adverse affect on a population. As clones are exacts copies of
one another there is a total lack of genetic variation. If a disease kills one clone it will
more then likely kill the rest of the population. Cloning lacks total genetic variation
and biodiversity.
Outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of
this process and reasons for its use. (pages 225 to 230)
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- What are transgenic species?
- State examples
A transgenic organism is an organism that has had a new piece of DNA spliced into a
chromosome in each of its cells. This new piece of DNA is usually inserted to produce
a new type of protein for that type of organism. The new piece of DNA may come from
a totally different species or a different organism within the same species.
The production of a transgenic species involves the following steps:
- The useful gene and the chromosome it is one are identified.
- The gene is isolated and is cut off from its DNA strand.
- Separate DNA sequences are added to the sequence to ensure the gene will
work. (This step may not be necessary)
- Multiple copies of the gene are made. (Not in all cases)
- The gene is inserted into the cell of another organism.
Once inserted the gene must become part of the genetic material of that
organism.
The organism is not a transgenic species unless it is able to pass that specific
gene on from generation to generation. This desired gene needs to be
expressed.
premature deaths of the developing sheep. It took years to develop and clone Dolly
the sheep.
Why should we stop the production of these organisms if they increase the
production of food?
Should we tamper with the process of evolution?
Should we change the genetics of an organism for commercial gain?
The above issues are slight indications on the effect transgenic species have on
people today. People will be in constant debate on the benefits of transgenic species.