Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
MIDDLE AGES
Hans
H. Hofstatter
ABRAMS
The
first
final
styled
period
in
the
in
lle-de-France
the
new
style
the
until
built
systems
of
center of
its
civic pride
it
of
its
high-
with countless
works
of art
book-most
of
them
works.
color-only a
Stained glass and frescoes, panel paintings and
illuminated manuscripts, tapestries and jeweled
reliquaries, sculptured tombs, carved and painted
in full
same
in all their
splendor,
and
this
volume, with
coverage,
is
Gothic age;
unprecedented pictorial
introduction to an under-
its
the ideal
art.
"
HER TITLES
igy
IN
THIS SERIES
'
BOSTON
BOOK AND ART SHOP
Boolii on Tine
BOSTON
16.
MASS
MIDDLE AGES
Text by
HARRY
N.
HANS
ABRAMS,
H.
HOFSTATTER
INC.
Publishers
NEW YORK
German by Robert
Erich
Wolf
All
Bound
in the
Netherlands
Contents
Introduction
(page 6)
Bibliography
(page 253)
Chronological Tables
European painting from 1350
Index
Photo
\^\
(page 254)
and painting
(page 260)
credits
(page 264)
Introduction
THE PERIOD. The Late Middle Ages is one of those terms that needs to be defined right from the
outset. As with almost all designations that historians use for the various epochs of art, here too the
term is no more than a loose but convenient label. From a sociological standpoint, the period began
when
It
the city dwellers, the bourgeoisie or burghers, started to play a part in cultural development.
ended with the advent of modern times, when there came about the new humanistic awareness of the
nature of man and his world, to which has been given the
the preceding and following periods, since every age must perforce develop
start
all
of
and
finish
overlap
cultural mani-
its
which arose long before. With the decline of the earlier Middle Ages, whose
society was predominantly feudalistic and whose art was what is called Romanesque, a much vaster
make
its
presence
in
felt at
among
the
townsmen
and peasantry there began to develop a clearly defined awareness of their identity as a class, and this
was encouraged by the fact that they too came to have a share in the chief tasks of their time, both civil and
religious. In the cities, artisans
much
political influence.
To a
very
greater extent than ever before, both city and country dwellers were offered the possibility of
improving
sitions
their lot
and
through education. Even sons of craftsmen and peasants could aspire to high po-
dignities,
now
in this
still
The growth of
initiated
by
all
and of an
and the cultural
cities
authority, but very soon the burghers themselves took over and, on their
siders the
from
development of the Gothic; the question of how the Gothic period gradually liberated
diversified
in the
to
show
itself
made
many means
of ex-
pression and to point out the problems connected with the development of various themes and subjects
wliich maintained their continuity despite all the historical changes in style. If the result gives the im-
it is
of art does not obey abstract schemes. Art follows organic laws of growth, dipping backward
in
time
or plunging ahead into the future, often turning up with what seem to be very similar solutions in
in
influx of
all
the folk
themselves, which either clashed or blended with the traditional aristocratic notions of art, created
a picture of the greatest diversity, and over and over again they opened up new horizons of the utmost
historical significance. This introduction can
do no more,
most
art
had
It
leadership
is
less
in
the Gothic
period was
church and
all
more than
the other
ai-ts,
a matter of building
and monstrances
in architectonic
is
more,
in
all
the
Even more,
frames which resembled architectural structures. In the thought of the time, the Gothic church had
a significance beyond the fact that
and to
listen to the
Heaven
itself.
cathedrals.
It
The
was
sermon:
it
it
propounded
of this
Ground
set
to participate in the
Mass
development of this notion actually precedes the period of the building of the great
first
down by
conception
came
as a consistent idea
122.
As
Jerusalem as
faithful
is
to be found
in
Antique
c.
Roman
a.d. 300
civil
architecture as
Ground
of Diocletian which
still
watchtowers encloses a
which form a
The
ruler.
The
cross.
From
great street
city area
is
main gate a long arcaded street leads to the audience chambers of the
which crosses the main street is similarly arcaded and connects the two side gates.
the
is
very similar to
this.
Like a
angels, prophets,
and
city walled
is
a long
whose open sky is replaced by cross vaults which, in fact, were usually painted blue with
The main street is crossed by another, the transept, and leads to the throne room of the
Eucharist, the choir. According to John's vision on Patmos, this city must be imagined as soaring in
the air, with walls not of solid stuff but of precious gems which cast their own light. Such an impression
arcaded
gold
street
stars.
will
in
in
balanced
suspension those lines of force which strain upward and the opposite lines which bear downward,
with the result that the entire structure appears to be reduced to no more than those essential lines of
force.
The effect of walls of glowing gems was achieved by reducing the stone walls to a minimum and
them with large, varicolored stained-glass windows, whose thousands of pictures of sacred
replacing
its
The notion of
transcendental character.
the sunlight
The eye can scarcely take in all the wealth of figurative decoration that was
The entire range of theological and secular knowledge of the time was given
be looked at but, even more, simply because
as are the
many
it
lavished on a cathedral.
visual form, not just to
right.
Superabundant
The
was subject
to
much
is
being begun
is
St.
John wrote,
in the
it."
But
it
first
all their
massive weight, on the entire span of the walls of the nave. The walls
form
galleries.
make
use of
all
to channel the thrust and weight of vaulting into stone cross-ribbing so that they would be displaced
onto the four impost points of the ribbing. At those four points the thrust
pendicular force which
At
same
the
transmitted directly
is
downward, so
is
is
around the exterior of the building. Thus, from the standpoint of construction,
four corner points of each unit of vaulting, that
minimum
lie
this
by substituting large
rows of arches. In
is,
all
windows
itself
and
light
air,
and
virtually
diaphanous. Since, in this system, the succession of vaults in the longitudinal axis of the church
is
Hke-
wise held in equilibrium, and no longer needs to be propped up by massive interior structures functioning
as abutments, the interior of the church can be laid out in a
in
Romanesque
architecture;
and
this
entire interior
much more
was possible
could be conceived differently from
unified design than
much lower
side aisles.
it
The
was modified
cathedrals in France, in their determination to unify completely the whole interior, rejected
components
doing, they
made
it
appear that the roof vaulting of the nave and choir was,
all
and the
like the
structural
crypt. In so
ground
of the regular rhythmic progression governing the total internal area of the church.
this
to create
The
level,
part
diffusion of
Gothic architecture to every corner of Europe, and the variations and reinterpretations which
underwent as
it
it
Compared with
and the
It
of salvation.
activities
body of secular knowledge of the time was brought into relationship with the divine plan
A cathedral, with its sculptural decoration and stained-glass windows, became a virtual
of
men
Old and
New
all
the
appropriate to the seasons and months, and even historical events. There were con-
since
in
form
entire
encyclopedia in images.
and
visual
tradition, as an
to the elaborate
and thirteenth
the French
mysticism, added no
all
new themes
schemata of
new
all
rival
in stone,
monarchs
claims of the
to this repertory of
character of personal
devotions fixed the attention on single incidents which were isolated out of the great body of religious
imagery and set before the eyes of the believer as separate statues or pictures. Thus various types of
devotional image were singled out for special treatment: statues of the
Madonna,
crucifixes, represen-
Elevation
of
the
nave,
Chartres
Cathedral
tations of Christ's Passion, the Pieta. These were conceived independently of any predetermined location
in
which they were to be shown, and unlike cathedral sculpture were not related to the environment
but also
in
They could be
tells
set
up
in
churches or chapels,
were meant for private devotions, not for veneration by entire congregations.
The narrowing of subject matter that mysticism brought with it was succeeded, in the fifteenth
century, by a new insistence that images should be large enough to be seen easily by the multitude,
though works of
art
remained independent rather than part of extensive cycles as had formerly been
As
a result, a
were constructed
with side wings which could be changed according to the liturgical cycle of feasts. Their construction
followed the rigorous rule of changeable and fixed parts, exactly as in the Mass
texts are
framework
rising
above the
altarpiece.
The
views; and in
some
in the
In
10
predella, in
and
which
which some
itself,
altarpiece
itself in
feast.
may
involve
all
the various
altarpieces
mediums of
latter there
different
art:
painting
Gothic sculpture there was an increasingly urgent desire to represent men themselves, not merely
hall
symbolically but also as they truly looked, and wished to look, as individuals. Initially,
tomb
sculpture
the thirteenth to the fifteenth century one can observe a steadily increasing effort to depict the
it
was more and more expected of a sculptor that he should portray men
French
art,
in all their
humanity. In
of abstraction. But in
the inner character
literal
first
time in the south portal of Strasbourg Cathedral, then in the choir screen
in the
records of what
work of
the
Naumburg Master
especially.
To
human characteristics
Naumburg Master had
to a point
where what
of the fourteenth century, Peter Parler restored to portraiture the spiritual and corporeal force which,
before him, only the
specifically
portraits.
was
on
this
down
in the unique,
this
unmistakably personal
traits
of
and, in
in
which men
spiritual
individuality. Beginning
some of them
real likenesses
or a Veit Stoss
artistic
human
but embodiments of
real portraiture
PAINTING. With the end of the thirteenth century and the beginning of the fourteenth, painting freed
itself
in the
art.
particular point.
little
was presented
artists
all
and works of
art
in
which a
in the
little
by
was more
circles
line
single
But even
by
little,
landscape came
became more
in
the servant
it
was created as an
made
of
first
in itself, its
For the
truly a spectator or even a participant in the events depicted. Painted figures acquired
a new corporeal volume which made them appear to be real figures taking up room in a real space.
A thing, an object, was comprehended as something material to be represented by the painter's means
in such a way that the viewer could immediately identify what he saw as metal, cloth, fur, gems, and
the like. Observation of real things filled the painter with a passionate concern which
new way of
particularly
is
by
side.
and
an
to be true to
settings
art
life.
When one
traits
and
the opposite
was a
is
true. It
its
all its
many
make
out, in the
12
Western
whose
art they
itself significant
and
light
rich in
the world in a
way
satisfactory to
conceptions
its
own
time,
it.
'A
'^^ >
r^u
^.
^-^^-
m^^
^^"^
^at,
-^-
The
..
vi^v/
^?m
window of
the north transept, cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris. Built by Jean de Chelles shortly after 1250 (the glass
42'4". In the center, Mary enthroned with the Christ child in her arms, surrounded by successive
Diameter
1255).
with Old Testament Prophets, Judges, and Kings in medallions radiating out from the center
rose
dates from
circles
\J8!.
c.
13
Portal
dral.
rose
and window zones, west facade, Chartres CatheBegun c. 1145, the fagade was completed by the
window
in
1210-20
by 1260
The
classical
in
France with the cathedral of Chartres. In the fagade can be seen the
between the old Romanesque tradition and the new Gothic conception. The original plan of a recessed
was abandoned around 11 50, and the portal was then laid out on the same frontal plane as the towers.
There are still marked horizontal separations between the stories, and the windows are still set in Romanesque
conflict
portal
opened up to
14
light.
window
is
and the
interior has
been
>:i:'.
*4f^
- f
f^r<
jrr-
W
-Ifl
>
^Kf.
->^'*^
/^^
q^
F^B v^^y-if^^ 'CJ
1^^^"^- -^
.
^IKSffftft^C^B^Kk
^tS
p
'
t'<
<
'"I't'u
T ;;i|iisuss>sss;SSU^uM
liflil
cw>
-.-*.-=--,
At
195-1220
bridgelike
how
whose
arches,
displace
the
it is
still
only the
is
compensated.
In the interior of Chartres Cathedral the decisive innovations of the Gothic appeared for the
even there they had not yet fully triumphed over the
abandoned and
galleries
is
arcades,
whose
piers
still
Romanesque
tradition.
For the
first
Above
first
time,
though
at Chartres.
16
These
fill
it
rises
*'l,
:^
'
1
vv''* ^B
j
1
1
i
:jk.|^:,^i;
i
,
i
1
<;^
IJ
.t|i[
!!!
Old Testament
Cathedral,
c.
figures
121
Chartres Cathedral,
12 17
c.
porch
at Chartres is
Old Testament.
sentatives of the
On
the
Mary
On
in her arms.
the
left
wall below
from
left
to right,
ham
bound
Moses
sensi-
Book
latest
tively conceived.
Christ
(left)
is
raised in
The
figure
is
on,
it
and the
in
is
carved.
On the jambs,
Statues on the portals of cathedrals are not mere added decoration but form an inseparable unity with the
structure
itself.
as
ecclesiastical
ship to architecture
is
particularly clear.
Each
figure
is
more
differentiated
individualized.
by
its
At Chartres,
there are subtle correspondences in the positions of the hands or in the flow of draperies,
tie
this relation-
same time
pressive
make
but also
clear the
ment of
asceticism, of submission to
the Saint
Theodore
is
the ideal
is
own
where he
figures
is
the product
self-determination: he
is
the procession
in
choice.
bear
feet
his
the
is
of
own
entire
is
con-
ceived
almost
statue,
speak of
fixity
as
freestanding
of purpose and
self-
confidence.
John the
c.
20
Baptist,
on
right
jamb of
central
portal,
'
/'i
'4J
\9i-'
m.'
w^
*"'-vil.
'//A
>//i
^>.N'-'
Zmu^^':^^.
Jl^""
^'^J-'
:>ii^fa
'^^^^^^yii^T
-^^
v/,
//Vvi>>/
.<Uv%V^
the western
make
first
use of stained
tympanum
over the
central portal,
hkewise glassed
window, which
is
The
in.
is
large rose
capped by a
glass
The
portal
pleted
was
built 1236-52,
main
com-
and the
were completed by
1 1
its
The north
present form
in 1427.
is
it
is
penetrate in such a
elements,
clearly expressed
This impression
its
way
in the fagade a
House of God
as a
simulacrum on earth of a
celestial prototype.
as not merely to support each other but also to intensify, to heighten, one another.
Furthermore, the separate stories interlock in a manner which makes it seem as if each new story grows
organically out of the one below. Only the lowest zone of the ground floor is precisely defined as a structure
firmly planted
on the
earth.
Above
it,
window begins
is
gables of the portals, and the same occurs with the towers, whose bases are covered by the royal gallery.
22
The nave at Reims adopts the same three-storied articulation as Chartres, but welds the divisions into a firmer
unity. The system of alternating supports is no longer used here, and instead there are round piers with
engaged colonettes, the whole bound together by a single capital. At Chartres the tall windows were still composed of three parts two lancet windows with acute arches plus a round window. Here they are combined
into a two-part window in which, for the first time, the upper part is made up of bar tracery, a motif destined
to be of great importance in the future development of architectonic decoration. The interior fagade of the
west wall is now also conceived in terms of space. It not only allows for more intense illumination but, also,
is broken up into a great number of niches, each of which holds a statue. Here too one feels how the vault
soars
upward above
its
23
by
c.
1241
View of
Reims
Cathedral
a central
work
how
stone-
com-
windows such
separate
as were
still
to
be seen at Chartres.
recognizable
Clearly
(left)
is
the
it
axis diagonally,
apse,
The
it
intersecting
ment of
carry
it
downward
the
them and
called responds
of the piers
nave.
At
thrust
is
same
the
of the buttresses.
interior
time, the
outward
which
is
is
unified
The system of
buttresses, as used in
on
sides
pillars,
and
whose
may
Reims Cathedral,
is
crowns each
carries over
perching on a
resemble a
,'i.istrade,
;
itself.
What
results
this
it
is
pier,
is
like a
symbolic character
rises
its
spire
is
a baldachin
something
hke
many-towered City of
is
a citadel. Yet,
God
accentuated by gargoyles
however much the church
and beneath
f^
'1
1
L
1
/I
r-/".
V'?#
.
*>
>
HBr\-
head of Mary
Chartres (page
by
19),
evident that,
is
it
its
architectural
setting.
ed by the pedestals below and the baldachins above. There can be no doubt
that the sculptor
that
human
shown by
is
way he
thing
also
by some-
classical
contrap-
is,
the concen-
The
is
firmly
is
free
to outline the
volumes of the
following closely
the
body.
treated the
fine folds
to the
the
new
in the
its lines.
anonymous master
figure,
What is more,
interpreted the
The two women, each embodying her own separate world, meet
sensitivity.
in a
is
youthful, almost
Roman
in its
elderly
more
woman
face of a sibyl.
of age-old
wisdom
the
Reims Cathedral,
c.
Originally
figure
intended
as
attendant on Saint
Nicasius,
the
expressive
being transferred to a
more
to
portal of
Reims Cathedral.
good tidings is
at Reims. What he attempted was not a psychological conception. Instead, by exploiting the plastic possibilities
of the physiognomy, he sought to give visual embodiment to the notion of "joy." As a consequence of the
new, subtle understanding of how all parts of the human body work together functionally, the sculptor made
of
28
this smile
as bearer of
something unforgettable.
The conception of the inner fagade of the west end of Reims Cathedral had neither precedent nor succession,
a unique artistic achievement. Earher (page 23) we saw that part of the west wall that is visible from the nave.
Here we have a detail from its lowest zone. The entire wall is covered with trefoil-arched niches, each containing a statue. Each tier of figures is separated from the next by an ornamental framework with a luxuriant
growth of plants in low relief. The flatness of the exterior surface contrasts with, and emphasizes, the seemingly
indeterminate depth of the niches themselves. Here, in a way completely novel for the Gothic, the relationship
between figures and space is unified each figure fits into its own clearly marked-off area, so that the surrounding space becomes an inseparable component of the figure itself. Giotto devised something similar in the
:
painted niches of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, thereby posing for the
in Occidental painting of the
modern
era, the
problem of the
first
...
m.^ ^
vArfciGf^^
^^^.i^jL
^^-^^szz-^m^
mMMimM
i^
The medieval cathedral was not only a metaphorical image of Heaven. It also embodied the religious reality
of the Middle Ages in the form of images which, together, make up a Scholastic encyclopedia. In the systematic
philosophy of Scholasticism, thought
activity
is
Thus, everything
laity
is
man
God-given
know was
truth,
and
to set
God,
since everything
down
in
of what they had been told in the sermon, but also, and above
reality of
it
exist,
all,
otherwise
it
so,
here, along with the sacred personages of both Testaments, the legends of the martyrs, the personifications
Quatrefoils with the signs of the zodiac Libra and Scorpio, and
the characteristic labors of the months.
West
front,
below them
Amiens Cathedral,
c.
1220-36
View
of
of men appropriate
the
right
jamb
of
Amiens Cathedral,
c.
1230
isli
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^^Bf* jf
ffi_^^^^M
Rr
uj
iK'Hr
KT
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m
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tm
Mil K Br
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Around
the middle of the thirteenth century, a significant change took place in the development of church
On
architecture.
new
cathedrals were growing so high that the ideas of the architects were
outstripping the capacities of the materials and the technical skills available, with the result that, often, vaults
which were
poHtical
insufficiently
and
social unrest
On
it
practical.
Thus,
collapsed,
in Paris,
form a
in Paris.
inlays of
opaque
glass
delicate
framework
Its
it
Interior
Dame,
is
its
Sainte-Chapelle,
Paris.
and consecrated
in 1248
mm^
III
II
ic
%\
Uttiidllii'
vu
Resurrection
tympanum
,'
o\
of Saint-tienn
34
//le
Bourges.
c.
1270-80
The representation of the Last Judgment in the tympanum above the central door of the west portal of a
cathedral stems from a long tradition with a twofold root, secular and ecclesiastical. For one thing, to enter
a church through such a portal already means that the individual has chosen between good and evil. But,
also, the
where
civil
God
in front
to civil justice.
on
were depicted nude. After judgment, the righteous were clothed again, because nudity sym-
earth, they
boHzed
its
sin, especially
unchastity
is
shown by
the console
below with
Catalan
traits
From
predominated.
the
abutment
piers
for
immense
the
single
itself,
vault
and make a
series
most
part,
is
frequent
in
it
southern
played a
the
in
event of siege.
in
Toulouse
is
like-
unorna-
Its exterior is
mented and
bare.
of
The
extensive
redistribution
interior
is
stresses.
is
until
36
1480
of Saint
transported to
it
^''
Church" which
lasted until
fourteenth centui-
made Avignon
others,
who
ItaHan Early Renaisconstituted a kind of court school of painting; and they introduced the influence of the
of Europe.
sance which was already in germination and which, from Avignon, spread to the royal courts
38
One of
ing
on
frescoes
the
Papal
Avignon,
Its
delight
marks
it
Palace
at
built in 1343.
in
nature
as a transition
Gothic and
announces the be-
to the Late
also
Renaissance
Palais
so-
Vieux,
Palace
of the Popes,
Avignon. Built under
Benedict XII (i 334-42).
articu-
of the wall by
pointed arches
lation
39
,^
View of
'>;r*
<^-
*--
The medieval fortresses which today strike us as so picturesque were the scenes of tumultuous conflicts.
They were always built at key points of a region in order to survey and defend the important approaches
and the commercial roads. The hill on which Carcassonne was built had already been the site of a GalloRoman citadel which was later occupied by the Visigoths and expanded. Stretches of wall from both those
periods were incorporated into the late-medieval fortress. In the Albigensian Crusades, Simon de Montfort
laid unsuccessful siege to the town, which later came under the French crown and was further fortified under
Louis IX and Philip the Bold. The city was protected by a massive double ring of walls whose inner ring is
much higher than the outer. An enemy who succeeded in getting across the first wall would be trapped helplessly in the broad moat between the two rings, and the curve of the walls and the overhanging round towers
made it possible to shoot at an invader from the side and even, at certain places, from the back. Inside the
city walls was the strongly fortified castle of the Count which, in extreme necessity, could serve as a final
he only access to the city is by a narrow highroad which leads through a huge fortified
place of retreat.
barbican gate, abo\ e which is set a statue of the Madonna, patroness and protectress of the city.
1
40
^C-
i^
'5.V'<W.,
i
=..
-..:
.-A>feS
LV-
?.'?>-
Tr^^;9-
West
The
Nave,
cathedral
fa(;ade
and the lower parts of the towers are RomanesqueNorman, the broad upper structure is Early Gothic
building, begun
of
twelfth century
c.
its
Norman
Saint
Peter,
Exeter.
The Gothic
Romanesque-Norman church of
1250
Through
of
c.
England made an
development of the French Gothic cathedral: already around 1104-30, cross-rib vaulting had been used
Durham
own
components,
often have
its
in
respect, the IS
'man
much wider
th^
42
is
thai
le
nave and
-ter
composed of
is
let
harmony with
Most striking is
and there
is
marked emphasis on
aisles
whose
all
in essential
exterior, this
fan vaulting, as ai
is
substructure
On
crossing who-
oration.
in
Cathedral. In the thirteenth century the influence flowed the other way, and England took from
which
typical
lie
behind
it.
"Decorated Style"
is
is
||i.f
j<y
n I^^Hriii
-k.lMJj
ml
'^M
WW.
r
ii
rl'
rai<
1H
!> ----
West
c.
1 1
and view of the crossing (facing page), cathedral of Saint Andrew, Wells. Begun by Bishop Reginald de Bohun
completed by 1239, and the upper parts of the towers added in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
front (above)
86,
Wells Cathedral
is
one of the great achievements of English Gothic. In the broad, screenhke organization
of the west front, with towers to either side of the church rather than constituting part of
there
is
openings
bearing
in
>
most English
44
it
weight of the tower over the crossing. The result was a fantastically ingenious solution which
irely
propping up
is
as in France,
over the facade, and the portals themselves are merely inconspicuous
thi-
created an
all
it
new
piers
i,
the continuou
',
from top
to bottom.
continental cathedrals,
<rizontal articulation
of the nave.
vault, cathedral
Completed
typical of
England
When
the
is
The construction
aisles.
itself is less
Norman
This
daring than
it
is
one of the
last
works
light
was
down on
from the
built to
the zenith of the lantern, a Christ set in the center of a star gazes
1330
in the
the old foundations of the tower were dismantled and an octagonal vault
From
c.
the nave.
its
in the so-called
Westminster Abbey
Henry VII
everything conspi
hanging down
piece of
what
like
is
to
callc
decoration
is
is
emphasize the Gothic principle of verticality, with the decorative elements of the vault
ilactites.
1
Its
in
There
is,
in fact,
46
Tomb
latten.
Tomb
c.
1250. Marble.
also
which
is
com-
The
much
France, though
it
statues that
influenced by
tomb
all
However,
it is
among
tombs
in
Westminster Abbey
of English knights.
"
> kj
WAViV
^V7
'.<.'
"'vi,>
ii'ix;
:<<,'
K^'T
^RS^
-i1^*
>!fi
fourteenth
relief.
Soest (Westphalia)
ter,
of fan-tracery vaulting
In the latter part of the thirteenth century, alabaster became a favorite material of English sculptors, and
on tombs were made from that stone. Nottingham was the center for alabaster sculp rs, and its alabaster wall-reUefs and carved altars with small alabaster figures were exported
all over the C' istian world, especially to northern Germany, western France, and Spain. One of the finest
even
life-si
so
is tl.
so-called
Throne of Mercy
in Soest,
51
'm^ w
^^^nU^^^^^H
MF=(=
il
m
^M
its way into Germany very slowly, resisted by the native tradition in architecture.
One of the major Gothic cathedrals was built in Magdeburg to replace the cathedral of Otto the Great which
had burned down in 1207. In its ground plan and elevation, it is clearly influenced by the Burgundian churches
late
off"
still
its
articu-
of the windows and the emphasis on strong, solid wall supports which stand out markedly from the outer
walls.
The
MUnster cathedral
also
spaciousness, the vigorous effect of the wall masses, the heavy and typically
Westphahan domical
vault.
53.
This
is
many. Designed as an
altarpiece,
Ger-
in
marks the
it
seem almost
whose soaring
behind an
with the
and in
Sankt Kunibert, Cologne. But the finely worked
frame, gilded arcades, and gold background
wall paintings in Sankt Nikolai in Soest
names of the
saints are
of the preceding
all
period,
and
it is
embossed,
Cluny Museum,
(now
in the
meant
Gold backgrounds
and even
earlier, to
is
is
the Trinity in
the
form of a
God
of Judgment
itative
is
meant
image of the
to be apocalyptic, a direct
final
pery, with
its
angular folds
in the so-called
is in contrast with the monumental rigor of the picture as a whole. Although the architectural framework is still Ron) lesque in form, the body of Christ hanging on the cross is already Gothic in its portrayal
of a body from wh- h all life has fled; and Christ is no longer the kingly victor over death as in Romanesque
century,
art.
ist
here
is
is
54
Museums, Berlin-Dahlem
55
Left:
The Blessed,
detail
of the
In Bamberg, a
and consecrated
tradition
was
still
in
1237.
after
and
it
185 on
was com-
The Romanesque
new
spirit
plain to read in
is
the Cistercian west choir and the west towers, the latter
arched embrasures.
sculptor
is
the
expressions and,
ai:
.\e all,
of self-contained vo'
finds in architecture o
56
nes
much Hke
ne time.
The Last Judgment, tympanum of the main portal (FUrstenportal), Bamberg Cathedral,
To
c.
1235-37
Judgment on the tympanum (above) are the Blessed with the Instruments of the
the Cross, Lance, and Crown of Thorns. At the far left are the human souls taken up into Heaven.
Passion
At the right, the damned souls struggle in the chains of Satan. Beneath the feet of
from their graves, and Mary and John kneel at either side as their intercessors.
57
ttf^^"'
'M
\''
Prophets,
Cathedral,
On
c.
iconographical program
two by two,
in
who surround
Bamberg
there
is
all,
the canonical
number of
the Elders
who suddenly
the draperies
and
companion. The
(page
9),
in the dialectical
artists
in
is
traits
from something
like the
but here they intensified the formal aspect by stressing the dramatic content.
59
World-famous
as
is
is still
horseman,
royal
this
of the choir,
left
a mystery.
scarcely
It
was
choir.
left
seem
it
to
of the
as if the
some change
now
made
seem exactly
to
is
probably
stands
is
rest,
Add
horseman himself
still
taking
is
weaponless, as a warrant
may
some
saintly
the Great, in
the medieval
represent
whose
and succession
tradition
to
be,
because
in
on
of Marcus Aurelius
in front
removed
tray
may
to
of the Lateran
its
present post
was believed
to por-
copied
repeatedly
Theoderic.
ever
since
the
time
of
-.!
'^'^,
'>\
--sft
^1
J-^A>rt^^^^^ iiiMiiiMWl
Naumburg Master.
The unknown
who
German
artist
the greatest of
screen at Chartres, in
Mainz
to
r/!<?
Naumburg
Naumburg. There,
for the
rood
loft
Naumburg
loft,
in
in the choir
among
on a
poem
stage.
in stone,
The sacred
events are treated in a highly individual manner. In the Last Supper, for instance, there are only six figures
The monumental repose of the Christ in the center makes Him stand out
whose eating and drinking allude to the bread and wine of the Euchfigure at the extreme right, and the larger meaning of the event is expressed
The
among
awesome event
to
is
of the table, to
is
hand tugs
whom
at the tablecloth as if to
61
Naumburg Master.
Naumburg
west choir of
Naumburg
in the
though
all
of those
traits
was even a murderer). It appears that they were intended as an example to contemporary patrons of the
church and also as a memorial to the family of the
who founded
prince-bishop
The
on
unites
them
all is
altar
up
grouped
What
the cathedral.
is
celebrated, because
Mass unto
all eternity.
in the
all
of
sacrificial
which
or singly.
good works,
man
the right to
one of
political
With
devotion.
the
sovereignty,
the
other of religious
dramatic
effect,
theatrical.
like,
and universal
portrait.
traits into
something as expressive as a
By bringing together
diverse characteristics,
his
is
Each
gesture which
above
all,
expressions
of
sums up
its
oppression,
tension,
determination,
forever in the
is
men have
teristic
true,
suggestive
form of
art.
set
down
Baden
As
Upper Rhine region between Basel and Strasbourg had become one of the
Middle Ages, and it remained so right up to the beginning of the sixteenth
century. There, in churches built out of the characteristic red sandstone of the Rhine Valley, each phase of
the
left its
mark. The minster at Freiburg, unlike most cathedrals of the time, was not
on
glass
done
virtually as
64
it
communal
parish church.
it,
The
Romantic period shows us what the city looked hke a century ago, when
had bc.-n ever since the end of the Middle Ages.
in
i>
.^
built
emblem of
painting
it
was
still
Madonna on
r.1
the triimeau of the main entrance of the porch under the west tower,
Freiburg Minster. Beneath her feet is the sleeping Jesse, the ancestor of Christ,
and from his body grows a tree whose tendrils surround the Madonna and whose
topmost branches frame the scenes from the Passion and the Last Judgment in the
great arch over the portal,
c.
1280-90
monument
had a hand
of the city
itself.
One
Although many
tower
is
later periods
a thoroughly unified
The star-shaped gallery over the square crossing of the lower structure
was joined perfectly, by a later master, to the octagon of the tower which
soars above the rooftops. If this tower has been called one of the most
beautiful towers in Christendom, no small credit goes to the openwork
stone spire. The tower changed the whole appearance of the city, and
remains its chief landmark. In 1354 the cornerstone was laid for a new,
higher Gothic choir, in the construction of which a
member of
the
Parler family
1
513.
tall
64).
>'
is
Judgment, and
its
com-
community.
and Virtues,
itself,
on the
between which
off'er
and
the
insignia of their craft. Thus, the interior of the minster represents the
and
it is
a true symbol
and
social
life.
Freiburg Minster,
Lust
is
1280-1310
c.
shame
be-
an
reassures
may
angel,
the
whose
sinners
that
smile
they
composed
all
participants
in
assemblies
the
downward,
on the congregation
as
if
is
to focus
belov/.
Among the most significant works of medieval architectonic sculpture are those
Done
at various times
testify to
was the south portal which was devoted to the Last Judgment. There, the wise judge Solomon
by the representatives of the old and the new faiths, the Church in triumph
and the Synagogue in defeat. These statues mark the birth of German Gothic monumental sculpture. When
At Strasbourg
on the central
it
pillar is flanked
Virgin,
on
Strasbourg
1280
c.
main entrance.
virtuous
portal,
heroines
somewhat
Vices
in
while
on the
right
On
the
left
overcome the
theatrical
portal
manner,
appears the
in the
and they
entered the
Head of
House of God.
Town
teenth
Hall,
Stralsund.
century.
In
the
Fourback-
West
front,
Cistercian church,
is
the
many
As
in
southern France, a distinct style of architecture using brick developed in Holstein, Brandenburg, the
bricks
made
later, in
Lombard models.
flat
broad articulation, and avoidance of complicated sculptural ornamentation. The bricks themselves
provided whatever decoration there was. Arches for windows and portals were assembled from stones rounded
off in advance.
The
flat
six-gabled facade rises high above the three-gabled building lying behind
70
it.
Mm hf
'
,
\9
i-
iL.
r
i
West
front, Orvieto
Catheby Lo-
tinued in
rose
mo-
done by various
artists
seventeenth
saics
ones
now
heavily
re-
stored)
The term "Latinized Gothic" has been applied to those Itahan buildings of the Late Middle Ages in which
came to terms with the conceptions of the French Gothic. However, Italy
never took up the design of the typical French fagade with its twin towers, because ever since the Early Middle
Nor were
Ages the
bell
in spatial
terms but rather, for the most part, as co-ordinated surfaces in which the only divisions were smaller
fields
filled in
bundle
Italy.
pillars
most
differently.
fully
The
which soar up
was
indifferent
'
alls
at transparency.
73
These churches
in Pisa
and
Assisi are
among
the
gems of Gothic
architecture in Italy.
is
They have
in
elements added as trimming. At Assisi, the open, unobstructed rectangular hall has uninterrupted
designed to hold frescoes by Cimabue and the Giotto school which are
world.
flat
walls
without
among
common
Roman
interruption into the Early Renaissance. In Assisi, especially, the elements related to those of the
French Gothic
the cross-ribbed
clear,
open basic
are
structure.
'^
*-i^
iVy-:
-">^
.A^.
\,
K^
f/^
f^'
t^A
p//
S^^^
iMMU^m
Nicola Pisano
Marble
relief
(c.
on the
1225-c.
1287).
Nativity.
1266-68.
Giovanni Pisano
(c.
sort
Apuha, the
fostered by Emperor Frederick II
consciously imitated Antique models, a classicizing trend
Roman
classical
figures reveal their debt to
province from which Nicola seems to have come. Freestanding
reUef style of ancient sarpulpits show that there was a deliberate return to the
statues,
and the
cophaguses
76
in
reliefs
on
figures
were presented
pictorially,
moving
energetically in space.
iSiSi
tmvM
roNffl
m.
CiBwsi
,-^gm
^tm?
<ij
M
B^^^^^^l H ^^^B >
1
^^'(Blto^^
'^
M^WWI^BFj^'
'mW
iMftL^
1
^Wj^^^^^r
Aii.''->^
w^
M^^
W^mM
(*
his
Hellenistic
(d. 1330),
from
lords over the marches of Verona and Treviso from 1304 to 1387, are among the
most impressive funerary monuments of medieval Italy. Beneath high baldachins set up on columns lie tb
sarcophaguses of the warlords who, themselves, appear on the roofs of the tombs, fully armed and on he
back, some attended by angels and personifications of the dead ruler's virtues, others by warrior-saint' who
Andrea
Andrea
made
As we
see
its
it
today, there
heavy
pillars
all
It
is
sense of depth.
left
in
an open
hall as
an independ-
to stand before
one of the
loveliest
80
all sides.
fill
life is
recounted in
reliefs create
reliefs
framework
a convincing
Milan Cathedral
is
ground plan
the largest
like that
which
it is
nevertheless
until modern times. For building material, marble was imported from Candoglia on Lake Maggiore,
Lombard builders were famiUar only with the bricks used locally, and over and over again their inexperience led to difficulties. As a result, outstanding German and French master masons had to be called in,
among them Heinrich Parler III, Ulrich von Ensingen, and Jean Mignot, to solve the problems connected
completed
but the
with the vaulting. Their ideas met with resistance from the local builders, and one after the other they with-
project,
we
so
much
the
more miraculous
difficulties
again
made
it
its
wonderfully
openwork buttresses. One of the later sculptors made the ultimate ironic comment on the
on one of the pillars of the fagade he carved a relief of the Tower of Babel.
history
its
it is
it
its
fihgree-
building's
Santa Maria Nascente, the cathedral of Milan. Begun before 1386. Choir, transept, and a few
bays of the nave completed by 1452. Building finally completed at end of nineteenth century
Ducal Palace,
Begun 1302
Mantua.
To understand
the diverse forms which the basic structure of a Northern Italian palace could take, one
compare the Ducal Palace of Mantua (preceding page) with the Doge's Palace
upper structure seems to mirror Venice itself in
its
inversion of
falsified.
The
level
whom some
the proportions
we
see
of the piazza has been raised, thereby covering over the lower two feet
now
all
must
is
The decoration
Matteo Raverti,
due, used similar forms in the Ca' d'Oro, one of the most
in
whence the name of "the golden palace." In Venice, with its world-wide commercial
role was played by influences from Islamic architecture Europe could offer little help
;
activities,
an important
in solving the
problems
of the relation between architecture and water, except for an occasional citadel built on an island. Here,
the total effect of the structure
is
Completed 1434
MfififffifitllR!99^^^^^^^
Giotto
(c.
1266/67-1337). Madonna Enthroned with Angels, from the church of
Ognissanti, Florence, c. 13 10. Tempera and
gilding
on panel,
\o' S^/t"
x6' j^g".
Uffizi
Gallery, Florence
The
work
of
Simone
Martini,
an
younger
contemporary
of Giotto,
is
important
more Goth-
and represents a
ic,
re-
embodied character of
Gothic
art.
carries
it
Nevertheless
on the funda-
ges-
human
feelings,
and be-
who
statues
at
stand
either
like
side,
event
is
brought out as
Simone Martini
(1284-
Lippo Memmi
(active 1317-47). The Annunciation. 1333. Tempera and
gilding on panel, c. 9' 10" x
1344)
and
ence.
both
artists,
either
side
the figures to
are
generally
Lippo Memmi.
In the gold background are
embossed the words Ave
gratia plena, Dominus tecum
(Hail, Mary, full of grace;
the Lord is with thee). The
carved and gilded frame in
Gothic architectural forms
superimposed on the
is
painting and becomes part
attributed to
of
it
86
^^M
art a
determined laws. All the accessory figures likewise lead the eye to the
picture.
Madonna
size,
overtowered by the massive contours of her head and shoulders and by the haloed head of the Christ child.
The organization of a
were both innovations. So too were the emphasis on volumes, the impression of a heavy and
lifelike
details
body,
and
art.
'
^B^HJjil^|^|i
w-""^^-
m
^l^w
f^-z
iu^%.
^-/
--ty"
_-
.^
Paolo Veneziano
1290-before 1362).
(c.
In
Venice,
painting,
mained more
like
architecture,
re-
a feeling for
The gold
lines
luster
of the
garments follow their own course, independent of any sense of depth, just as the gold
and
folds.
the
new
this painting.
reality
which
mained barren
until
re-
Masaccio, a hundred
years later.
many more
reconquest took
and Christian
its
intellectual achievements.
the final
came to be called in Spain the caminofranees, and influences flowed in both directions.
Arabic science played a great role in the French universities which were founded around 1200. Influence from
the lle-de-France
buildings reveal
and churches
is
much more
built
the influence of
in
Spain
in the
soil,
whereas other
type'^.
of
View toward
Maria
del
The
especially clearly
The
how, even
after
won back
for Christendom,
and
its
star vault
is
qo
&iiM
^
4ii"
m
H
TSJ4l,
Vj
de Cataluna, Barcelona
Gothic
it is
of the twelfth century survived well into the thirteenth. Characteristic are the
compositions and the sense of powerful movement in figures which, however, also have
broadly laid-ot
\\
ith architecture,
in
consequence,
more
is
made
itself felt in
difficult to
date on purely
stylistic
those
which
grounds.
92
iiiiH
The design of
same through
essentially the
centuries,
and so
stylistic
That
is
why
its
Monte seems
so
spirit is
on the
the exterior
and
is
stern
its
more
its
walls with
Romanesque, here
tall
plan
windows and
is
arches. In
in
such a way as to
clearly
the
new
much
make
it
shadow
its
eight
Each wall has only a small Gothic window affording a view of the countryside. Although
and forbidding, the octagonal inner court with
style,
the
its
Gothic-arched loggias
rooms
is
richly decorated
Emperor Frederick
II in
Apulia,
c.
1240
t^^^--.ta^^
The
Begun 1228/29.
Set
on a rocky
2,200 feet above sea level, the outer wall follows the irregular line of the rocks and
south and southeast fronts. At the right can be seen the cistern which
The Crusaders
is
cliff falling
is
away abruptly on
some
on the
all sides,
in Syria
Prankish colonies which survived right up to the sudden end of the Crusader domination in 1291. Their
extensive fortified settlements were built in Western fashion, the
so-called
in Syria.
fall
way of
the sea
Cyprus. Richard the Lion-Hearted had already conquered the island in 1191 when his
the techniques o; building fortifications lagged behind until the fifteenth century,
invasion had to be
when
ountered and Venetian speciahsts in mihtary architecture were called in to do a thorough'o strengthen the entire
system of defenses.
The Bellapais monastery was probably founded by Amaury de Lusignan, King of Jerusalem from 1 198 to 1205,
and provided a refuge for the monks who fled from the Holy Land at the end of the twelfth century. At the
start of the next century the monastery came under the Premonstratensian rule and was enlarged in the reign
of King
fell
Hugo
monks were
into ruin.
Cloister of the Premonstratensian monastery of Bellapais, northern Cyprus. Late twelfth-thirteenth
century
of a wall, as
earlier,
zone
were the
first
capitals
naturalistic,
with
Garden grew
Late Gothic, when the joining of the weightbearing and downward-thrusting elements was
raised higher
directly out
Marburg
is
the
!^'
late
faces,
they were
first
Arcimboldo
At
us.
left
at closely, take
much
sixteenth
as in the
century when
foliage,
and
finally
whole notion to
its
its
new
a place in
to
stir,
nature
1260
q8
Magdeburg Cathedral,
demons
churches from which they were meant never
spiritual needs, assigning to the old
demons and
pagan
past.
Heinrich Parler
99
Portrait
reliquary of Saint
Louis of
under
life-size.
Treasury,
Crown of
c.
1260.
The Louvre,
Paris
to 1270).
and gilded;
added
later;
Museum,
Cologne
In the Early
ranked
among
works
as having in
them-
The goldsmith's
and manuscript
of the Gothic
this type
art
illumination.
impulses and,
took
itself,
inspiration
its
little
by
little,
major
arts.
its
from architecture
reworked to
it
came
it
arts, to
its
own
ends.
to be relegated
As a consequence, although
more than
reflect, in
its
was
even
still
in
own
in
other
capable, in
its
great achievements, of
we
it
borrowed into
Heavenly City. As a
hosts, the
mon-
models of
monstrance took
fields.
cathedrals and,
it
exquisite
in use
its
origin
long before.
Corpus
consecrated
from the
reliquaries
was only
It
Christi in
after the
1264 that
monstrances became
turn,
is
is
piers,
vessel a baldachin
and on
statuette of the
it,
in the
Madonna
crowned by a cross
as a reminder of the
appearance in
occur in Byzantine art. It made its first
the Coronation of the Virgin does not
bemg
was taken up by the French Gothic around 1200,
England in the first half of the twelfth century and
stained-glass windows.
in the arch above a portal and in
The them, of
used at
102
first
In the last years of the thirteenth century, independent statues, as opposed to groups of figures, increased in
importance.
single figure, or
two
The new
pietistic
made up
new
its
Parisian Workshop.
tion
of the
Virgin.
teenth
centuiy.
gilded
ivory,
1 1
Corona-
End of
thir-
Painted
and
The
^''j^".
Louvre, Paris
which are
seen the sleeping guards, c. 1290.
Painted and gilded oak, 42V2 x
Monastery of
hausen (near Hanover)
2i^U".
Wien-
artistic
in
The
i>ing
of the two figures into a unity, the clasped hands, the complete surrender of the young saint as
which
sei !T)s
union
will
to contemplate
God
more than
resting
the
young
disciple
all
new concept
of
Dominican and
The German term Vesperbild vesper image derives from the contemplative prayers which refer in particular to
the events which occurred after the Descent from the Cross,
The
It
with a merciless realism designed to arouse deep compassion. The body in the agony of death
to the point of ugliness. In the
Ch /ist
06
is
men were
so
much
the
more
vitae,
It
was
disfigured
most gruesome
the tree of
life,
and
readily touched
is
details.
makes of
Europe was
it
by depictions of
suffering.
^:'-
'
-^
siSi^--
//i*^
,4h*-
Crucifix (detail).
Wood, under
First
life-size.
Cathedral, Perpignan
,h^
Tomb
(detail).
painted.
Bamberg Cathedral
More than
also.
with God.
From
this
tomb
was
mysticism
fourteenth-century
delight in
turned
human appearance of
Here the
bends in an
figure
is
succumb
is
depicted as a
weak youth
and
bliss
found
in martyr-
saint
portrayed
stir
is
the viewer to
in
becomes
contemporary
its
roots in the
same
Saint Sebastian, by a French sculptor. Middle of fourteenth century. Stone. The Louvre, Paris
1320-30.
Oak
relief,
51^U^2/[^ls"- State
Mu-
seums, Berlin-Dahlem
The
from
smooth
Holy Land
in
1248.
religious
purposes,
Lawrence
in the
altar
of Saint
sculptor
It is
let
because his
is
tomb of Christ
in Jerusalem,
no
in contrast, clings to
her husband,
and
task in
life.
Her smile
is
her
recalls that of
on the
of her
Saint
(on loan)
t^i?>
the
Heidelberg
The manuscript assembled by Riidiger Manesse (died 1304), a town councilor of Zurich, and his son Johannes
(died 1297), which was later embellished with 138 full-page miniatures, is the most precious collection of
Minnesinger poems known. The poems are impregnated with the spirit of the age of mysticism, aristocratic
and worldly but, at the same time, spiritual in content. This love poetry is by no means a naive expression
of spontaneous feeling. Rather, its poetic images and formulas belong to a highly formalized court tradition.
The poet and his lady play their roles according to rigorous conventions which were transmitted from Arabic
Spain to Provence, where they were given a highly
artistic
if
his lady,
even
formulation.
he be a great sovereign.
He
and
veneration to the love of an unattainable great queen, places his hfe at her service, but never attains the fulfillment of his desires. His love concerns only himself, never his beloved.
ing,
an ideal
woman
remote from
all
earthly concerns.
For
all its
She
is
adhered to the rules of the game with passion and tenderness, with
spirit
and
art.
View of Prague showing the Charles Bridge, Hradcany Castle, and the cathedral of Saint Vitus.
The cathedral was begun by Mathieu d'Arras in 1344, continued by Peter Parler in 1353, and not
fully completed until the twentieth century. The bridge was begun by Peter Parler in 1357 and completed in the fifteenth century
^\
II
iw
^^:
and triforium
Peter Parler
-78).
(active
1330
Portrait Bust of
Lower
triforium,
Em-
1375-93.
Prague
Cathedral
it
artistic center,
first
and new
artistic
impulses
middle of the century there was a decisive return to the High Gothic principles of the preceding
French
was begun by Mathieu d' Arras in 1344, and after his death in 1352, a German architect and
sculptor from Schwabisch Gmiind, Peter Parler, carried it forward on his own plans. His new conception
of a solid corporeality which aimed at an impression of definable space was opposed to the mannered, ex-
century.
striking
example of
cathedrals. It
is
is
apparent
in his architecture
and sculpture
new and
115
II
ifitf.t^^-^^-'S'
M
Chapel of the Holy Cross, Karlstejn Castle. Decorated
c.
Near Prague,
in the
Bohemian
set high
on an
too was
easily
forests,
1365
difficult
of access,
defended rock surrounded by valleys. There the King kept the royal treasures, and there
still
the
monarch could retreat if the castle were attacked. The decoration of the
good state, and has a sumptuousness recalhng Byzantine and
survives in
Oriental interiors. Deep, gilded depressed Gothic arches frame walls which are entirely covered with pictures.
The
richly
is
and agate, wh; h seem to be placed haphazardly but, in fact, are grouped to form crosses. Italian and Central
European artisi
ere responsible for the decoration. Tommaso da Modena and his follower Theoderic of
Prague, whose C
fixion crowns the wall above the tabernacle, created here a new style which was soon to
spread to the
Wes
11
118
Brod (Hohenfurt).
Nativity.
After
1350.
Tem-
Resurrection
Christ, c. 1380.
of
Tempera on
Gallery, Prague
Comparison between two Bohemian painters makes the development clear. With the Master of Vyssi Brod
there is a synthesis of traditional French Gothic and Byzantine elements, though with a new feehng for
organization in which each detail is given a clear rhythm within a strophic grouping. On the other hand,
the Trebon Master's thinking transcends the figures as such and proceeds not from details but from
the over-all organization: pictorial space and pictorial image are one. The forms are not laid out in
juxtaposition but interpenetrate and are intensified to
space, Christ rises
up above His
still-sealed
become something
dark
his place
artists
and Gothic
we have
Master, with Theoderic Italian influences entered into Bohemian painting. The lesson
it
just seen
artist's
by the new conception of physical volumes which had prevailed since Parler. In the powerfully foursquare
portrayal of a Father of the Church, a painterly, concentrated, broad massiveness of form
for the effect.
to the
No
longer
is
it.
The
is
what
is
responsible
120
ii>^4
Apse of
bisch Gmiind.
The
hall churches, as
developed
in
Germany
southern
how
the
in particular,
new conception
differs
appears as a unified, compact mass, no longer broken up by flying buttresses and no longer having a high
aisles.
A common
its
all
of
flat
View of the nave, Sankt Martin, Landshut. Choir begun before 1392 by Hans
von Burghausen (d. 1432); nave begun
before
1407,
Stethaimer
View of
in
The
church
interior of a hall
is
from that of a
basihca-type cathedral. The nave
unified differently
is
all
without
capitals,
earlier distinction
that
so
between weight-
is
the
abandoned. The
mem-
aisles are
As a
rigorous em-
consequence,
the
of the interior
Impressive
result
from
is
transverse
this,
soaring upward
and the
relaxed.
relations
effect
in space,
at in earlier churches,
is
of
aimed
trans-
As can be
Nuremberg, the uniform height of all the vaults brought about new static
Extreme measures were no longer required to support the thrust and strain
of the building, because the vaults maintain an evenly distributed equilibrium more readily
on the exterior
than in the
In Sankt
(70
there
22
3') in the
is
iKca-type cathedrals.
M
1
an epitap
Landshut (facing page), we have a long hall without transept, with slender, very tall piers
d, at the sides, nichelike chapels which enliven the walls. On the exterior of this church
iv,-
^^1
n.
m
"
JlJJJJ
mmmftlaesfm
n
^^'^
[^
yH^B
tf:^" vlg:^
We know
in the
its
He
city,
virtually
of observation of the
has looked at his subject with utter objectivity and then, with the aid of geometry, sought to set
is
124
is
is
an Allegory of Good and Bad Government, has led some writers to see in
of modern times. In this picture of an imaginary city, Gothic constructivism is
activities in
so
much
style
artist.
down what
more
striking
Vir-
Fresco.
1315-21.
the
gates,
city
ap-
communal
in
who were
espe-
is
oftheMadonr
interrelation
'~ne sensitive
o>
>ietails
a Gothic beauty
gests
been
iie
that Simone
influenced
sugViave
b,
miniature painting.
126
in
cnch
Even
when
means of depicting
its
Its rejection
reality,
Long
continued to use
gold backgrounds and to reject modeling of figures after nature. Moreover, the small format was preferred,
It
di
Paolo
who
expressed most
Bonaventura which
bride.
Two
tells
how
with Poverty looking back at her spiritual husband. The scene of the legend,
Mount Amiata,
is
sisters,
clearly defined.
128
A Giovanni
(c.
di Paolo
Expulsion
1403-82).
Lehman
Collec-
New York
Stefano
di
Giovanni
34V8 x
20V8".
While
this
Madonna
as a
whole
is
in
pery
still
Gothic
the
characteristic
emphasis on the
clear
new
has
folds, the
ideal of beauty
duced
in the
reflects the
which was
1368).
(detail).
ii^ji".
intro-
Early Renaissance.
(active 1349-
Wood, height of
The Louvre, Paris
full
figure
5'
Andrea Pisano
(c.
270/90-before 1358).
Baptism of
Christ.
relief
131
One
of the most significant themes in the practical theology of the Middle Ages was the fear of Hell. In the
who worked on
1,
Hell
is
the
damned on Judgment
of the ideal goals of the Church. In fifteenth-century painting the theme was depicted with even more painstaking detail than in cathedral sculpture, and
relli's
light
it
even
instilled
art, as
Signo-
motion and of a
istic in
attest
clear definition
orientation,
and yet the denigration of physical beauty, the emphasis on human emotions and on the
demoniac creatures, show how opposed to the new Renaissance conceptions were such
Enguerrand Charonton
(c.
(also
known
as
Quarton)
we
see
two ages
in coUision.
LucA SiGNORELLi
Hell
(detail).
On
seem
portraits.
Its
vast
iconographical
Mount
of Calvary crowned
Claus Sluter
The
clearly influenced
by the scenes of
and
plants, he created an
trees
Bohemian
artist (detail).
'1^ 'y^
^.ffi
TT
Vi
ilSl
;:
lH
f
-'^
N
H
;
Claus Sluter, of Haarlem in Holland, was the foremost sculptor of the period around 1400. His chief works
were done for the court of Burgundy. In his tomb for Philip the Bold he created a new iconographical tradition
which continued
in
tomb
sculpture until the end of the fifteenth century: freestanding statues of monks,
Weeping monks (pleurants) from the architectural frieze on the tomb of Jean sans Peur and Margaret of Bavaria, now in the
Mus6e des Beaux-Arts, Dijon. Begun 1443 by Juan de la Huerta (d. c. 1462) and completed by 1470 by Antoine le MoituRiER (c. 1425-c. 1494)- Alabaster, height isVs to leVs". The pleurants were done in imitation of those on the tomb of Philippe
le Hardi which was begun around 1384 by Jean de Marville, continued by Claus Sluter in 1404, and completed in 1410 by
Hennequin de Prindale and Claus de Werve
Antoine le Moiturier
(c.
5'
1" x
Tomb
8' 8".
of
The
Louvre, Paris
137
Madonna and
Stone,
c.
c.
1410-20.
velopment
of a
style
which
dominated
therefore,
lations
between
is
art
called,
Close re-
Bohemia
and
southern
Germany,
tiful
finest
is
the gentle
Madonnas
at the
same
volumes
still
oak half-timbering, lead ornaments on the gables, and glazed tiles on the roofs. The nuns who staffed it came
from Malines, and the covered porch running along the building permitted them to get about in bad weather
and reach the sickrooms which are accessible only from the
examples of medieval secular architecture.
on an almshouse
in the sanctity
reflect credit
Its finely
on the wealthy,
exterior.
The
hospital
is
among
aristocratic benefactor
who,
in
The Sibyl Agrippa, on the tomb of Philibert the Handsome, Saint-Nicolas, Brou (Eure-et-Loir). FrancoFlemish. 1516-22. Marble
Head of
c.
Saint
Fortunade.
By a French sculptor,
Church of Sainte-
life-size.
Fortunade (Correze)
The French
much
like that
of the
whose Madonnas
loveliness
became almost
sibyls.
tomb
in
^Tj.l/K
#iE
1:
3
li
^m
\\
^7
>
-^
ih'
w1
'
!
;*iM
'fl^l^l
"^
'
"
IKi
I'M
\
'
V*
Broederlam
Melchior
merited
(docu-
381-1409). Presentation of
Jesus
the
in
The
Limbourg
Brothers. The
of Eden, in Les Tres
Riches Heures du Due de Berry.
Garden
141 3-16.
Miniature,
ii^j^x?^j^".
In this miniature
(left),
a wall
Garden from
the mountains and the ocean.
separates
the
under a monstrance-
Inside,
of Life.
In
God
Adam
the
Fountain
right
fore-
ground,
unites in mar-
riage
and
Eve
and
His commandments. At
the
left,
Eve
tempted to
is
Tree of Knowledge
taste of the
by the serpent
in
woman's
Eve leads
Adam
the
they
right
into sin.
expelled
are
As
Renaissance
tions.
in Italy
ceptions of painting.
of
and
The Burgundian
Italy.
territory
It
marked
Gothic
ties
gol-
in the Netherlands,
had close
At
in
both direc-
new con-
with Flanders, Paris, Prague, and, through Avignon, with the courts
realistic
concept
of nature, and this was fostered by the medieval philosophical theory as to the reality of ideas. The small
format, and the fact that commissions
ment
in the depiction
taken up and exploited in the larger forms of panel painting. Broederlam's altarpiece shows
how
the traditional
formulas for depicting landscape, which had been inherited from the Byzantines, gradually came to absorb
the
142
in
143
While religious
art
came
it
was to accept
toward
For the first time, miniaturists were commissioned to illustrate nonreligious books, whose
subject matter was drawn from men's notions of the universe. In the Book of Hours of the Duke of Berry,
the miniatures make up a calendar in which the daily activities of men are shown in association with the
course of the seasons and planets as set into motion by God. For all the cosmic significance of these miniatures,
the primacy of ideas as opposed to reality, secular art quickly
first
work
time appears the Flemish delight in narration, the native feeling for real things, for landscape,
that
men do
144
Hcures
16.
dii
Diicde Berry. 1 4 1 3-
Miniature.
MuseeConde,
work the
Chantilly. Peasants
fields
while
citizens
stroll
145
146
Ms.
ii78x8V4"-
miniature,
9471,
lat.
c.
f-
Is
Given
1418-20. French
I59-
Bibhoth^que
Nationale, Paris
Transitoriness of Life,
height
Ivory,
1450.
c.
by a French
Bayerisches National-
sV/'-
museum, Munich
in the
reminded that
man
avail. To
that
is
end
at the
mortal and
it is
enough
and
memento mori,
no
how
seriously this
night. Literature
death,
lies
all his
understand just
was meant,
warning
and plagues
snuflf
out
human
life in
life.
commend
man's
soul,
how
the dying
man
should
147
^Lf
M.
In
c.
360. Fresco.
Campo
Santo, Pisa
Triumphs and Dances of Death, the Late Middle Ages gave symbolic expression
to the inevitability of
comes
in
all
accompanied by dialogued inscriptions with pleas for mercy and refusals. Among the most
famous of such representations of the Dance of Death in the Late Middle Ages are those in La Chaise-Dieu,
pictures were
Basel,
and
their tradition
in
woodcuts by Holbein
others.
Dance of Death, c. 1450-70. Fresco, height 55". North side of cloister, abbey church, La Chaise-Dieu
(Haute-Loire). Drawing of frieze after Gonse. Facing page: detail of the original fresco
^-
y/
T*^i
:r
t
y^
Pieta,
in the Livre
which
were given a powerfully emotive form
In the expressive art of the Late Gothic, symbols of death
French painting, this appears with the theme of the
the accent was placed on the lamentation of the living. In
the fourteenth century, when this theme first
Pieta of Mary's mourning over the dead Christ. In contrast to
viewer by means of the martyred
became prominent, the artist no longer strove to arouse the emotions of the
sorrow. The body of Christ is dead,
body of Christ, but instead concentrates the entire attention on Mary's
was taken down from the Cross; Mary is
drained a cast-oflf mortal shell, rigid and immobile as when it
from the Netherlands, this painting grew out
frozen in uncomprehending grief. Despite certain influences
the abstractionist tendencies of the Sienese Gothic
of the tradition of Simone Martini and remains bound to
the emphatic poses and gestures of the figures.
in its use of the gold background, large haloes, and
150
As never
lives
saints,
and the
saints
began to play an ever more important role as personal intercessors. All social classes aUke venerated them.
Where
Not only
the clothing
bound
if
us
tell
saintly
to a board, her hair pulled out, her teeth ripped out of her
image
in
convincingly impressive. (The miniature below depicts a scene from a Mystery play.)
152
Coat
of arms
Duke of
two
of
the
Berry, held by
tury. Section
glass
of a stainedBourges
window,
Cathedral
The painstaking precision of manuscript illumination, which is more like goldsmiths' work than painting,
became a model for other arts, even for finely worked tapestries and stained-glass windows. Not only the
new realism but also the attention to the finest details set a new standard for art. Thus, painters of stained
glass no longer worked only with bits of colored glass held together by lead mounting, but now coated the
glass with black lead
and then
carefully scraped
it
away
to
model
and garments of
the figures.
153
iM^^^$
<-
M Unknown
Lady
known
as the
Pierre
10'
155
The conviction
that
all
sensual delights were merely transitory led not only to their mortification but also
to their intensification, to an
unconcerned and hearty play with eroticism. The nude was portrayed as an
with no need of some theological allegory as an excuse, and so we find it in a baker's
object delighifiil in
itself,
mold or
was, in
156
in the >:oat
fact,
in the
life
and asceticism
ish
teenth
century. Terra-cotta
gingerbread mold, diameter
c.
678".
Schweizerisches
Landesmuseum, Zurich
register
of
157
To
Wood, height
Bamberg Cathedral
After 1350.
\^U".
rhythm of the nature-oriented, ascetic-mystical currents of the time, the International Gothic style
of around 1400 brought a special accent. This style, known in Germany as the "soft style," substituted a new
the
lyrical
style.
One
itself
was
new approach
embodiment
in art.
a prostrate humanity,
From
essentials.
a Gothic edifice at the side, the Saint himself looks out contemplatively on the terrible scene unroUing
before him.
158
is
Bohemia,
Silesia, the
Madonnas" because of
The
is
childlike
charm of these
in
line.
lovely statues
life
of their
of folds, though
by plunging cascades
lines
all
are rigorously
directions,
solved by
is
opposite
then
re-
head of the
Madonna
at the Infant.
There
is
as she looks
down
another contrast:
is
is
forcefully
160
in
"Beautiful
am
Chiemsee.
and
gilded
c.
1430.
wood,
Polychromed
42V2 x SS'/s"-
Bayerisches Nationalmuseum,
Munich
161
62
gilding
can be found
in this
in real objects
Mary
among
is
and
sits
itself,
first
time in
German
this wall
are trees with birds fluttering back and forth across the
wall. The garden is watered by the Fount of Life, and
there
is
ium.
At
Mary
is
intent
Even
if
we do
means of
of the
the
its
the
included on the
speaks to us by
artist in the
way
itself
all
many
precisely
in
formed
a
details
have been
harmony undisturbed by
Pieta,
museum, Munich
Even
long as
is
it lies
Gothic
;-.
ReaUsm
arm of Mary both serve to inMother's fragile weakness. The vesper image
who
of mourning
style.
is
lyrical.
Pieta,
nut,
height
2>A^U".
haus, Frankfurt
Liebig-
am Main
more closely attached to the mystical tradition of the fourteenth century, and
it
was
in
had been portrayed with stark realism. The desiccated body, stiff in the rigor of death, is
hnked with the figure of Mary, seems so much more her son, and the legs fall across the down-
suffering Christ
more
tightly
much an
165
c.
GermanischesNationalmuseum,
Nuremberg
The
is
figure of Saint
Bartholomew
(left)
Gothic
style as practiced in
Nuremberg,
dense
flow
sculptors
models
these
in
terra cotta,
became
For the
Although
of drapery.
first
Nuremberg
in
statues in their
own
right.
shown
hand
The
altarpiece by
and the
closely related
are both set in a closed, idyllic space, Bertram's altarpiece went far
in the
Madonna
in the
it
was done
earlier.
This fragment of landscape, a stage prop to symbolize the third day of Creation, has more coherence than
many
landscapes done
later.
shows
his
mastery
in the
The
entire setting
is
taken in at a glance.
is
not overpowered by
them
in
life.
its details,
and
between
and His creation. Here one can trace influences from Giotto by way of the Bohemian school,
It is
directly.
i68
"The
it
whom no one excelled, began the work, Jan who was second in art completed
on the 16th of May." So reads the proud inscription on the great altarpiece in Ghent.
that the work and its authors ushered in a new epoch in Western painting which led, without
What is
certain
interruption,
is
which
carries over
To
modern
from the
side wings.
to
Adam
Above
God
is
an indisputable over-all
unity, even
it
from
is
all sides, in
a procession
angels,
far views
still
alternate.
With almost
inexplicable sureness, the individual areas of color are subordinated to a total coloristic plan. Every detail
is
nature in
in this
all
of Western painting.
new
Adam
vision
Stefan Lochner
The Madonna
Tempera and gilding on oalc
1978^1574"- Wallraf Richartz Museum, Cologne
Rose Garden,
c.
(active 1410-51).
1440.
in the
panel,
Hubert
169
7'
of
a
left
wing.
lunette
in
7'
3'
gamba beneath
The technique of binding local colors into an over-all tone, precision in the rendering of the smallest and
most subtle details such as plants and jewelry, intensification of the newly discovered world of things into
something precious and, in consequence, sacred all these were achievements of the Van Eyck brothers.
They were made possible by new technical discoveries, and their influence was felt for centuries. After laying
out the main features in drawing and shading as an underpainting, the final painting was done in resinous oil
colors, that is, with tempera enriched by the addition of fatty, soft resinous substances. By this means, the
undercoat of paint was not dissolved as previously, when the most that could be done in the way of overpainting was a few fine brush strokes applied with utmost prudence. Instead, it now became possible to work in
broad surfaces and to deepen and saturate the color by successive glazes of paint laid on layer upon layer.
Moreover, in the new technique, the brush stroke retained its original linear vitaUty, making possible a previously unknown precision in the rendering of the finest details such as hairs, leaves, or reflections of Ught
on precious stones. The new realism was, nevertheless, balanced by a deep religiosity. If the Mother of God
is made more immediately real to the suppliant, the eye is led into a remote far distance which makes of the
sacred a world apart from the profane.
172
Van Eyck.
Ghent Altarpiece
\M.
'k
SQ^
^^
Lamb of God,
^'
..riAlty
of his
known
may
He portrayed
own time, and
tower
probably identical
as
the Master of
Flemalle,
Eyck.
is
The
is
attribute of her
which
in
room
Saint Barbara in a
was
she
martyrdom
No
the
imprisoned
if
is
by
halo sets
One might say that everyhas been made secular, but the
her environment.
thing here
views
artist
the
newly
set
down
discovered
all
reality
the allusions to
fire.
its
place,
its
function,
its
own
shadow
casts,
an
obvious meaning.
In such works as the
later in the
Van Eyck
Madonna
created the
first
portraits
which
The details of physiognomy were observed in and for themselves, as unique traits
to be found in no other person, and the artist
employed his creative objectivity to unite the
itself.
A Robert
""^^
v^
/^
The
who
Van Eyck
woman
173). In Rogier's
176
new
more
the
left
(page 175)
scheme of
abstract,
all
values.
the face of
The
artist's
Among those who followed Van Eyck, Hugo van der Goes was the greatest pioneer in
tradition,
above
all in
longer laid out parallel to the picture surface but emerge from the depths and intersect with other diagonals, and
all
of these lines lead to the Christ child as the central point of the composition as well as of the veneration
of the various personages. The figures are given a convincing corporeal reality by color and contrasts in
The
animals
in equilibrium,
is
contrasted with the noble spirituality of the angels. Unreal and real are held
ideas to reveal to us
how
light.
the Middle
reality
of
Hugo van
Altarpiece.
der Goes (1440-82). Adoration of the Shepherds, central panel of the Portinari
1475-76. Oil and tempera on panel, 6'9"x9' 10". Uffizi Gallery, Florence
c.
Hl^iS^
c.
1440-45.
The landscape
is
(page 173).
It
as symbolic as that
two banks of the river, at the moment of realization that it was the Creator of the World that
he was carrying on his shoulders. The setting sun
figures.
To
against
the red
projects
image
the
forward.
cliffs
The
cramped,
contrasts with
of water.
in the
followed
it
settings are
style
which
His
rafters casting a
shadow on
all
on
Mary
The
light
are not
symbols
in
fall
on
rather,
all
*il^
^j^as*
(c.
1448-90/91), attributed.
Munich
^^'
"^^
#%
21
/.
/>J
^m
'^^.Ji
LuKAS MosER
t1
(slightly
the
but Lukas
Moser,
altarpiece
in
his
lyrical
still
change. Everything
the
is
idealized in
background soaring up
the
vessels,
crisp
and
fine
gradations
in the distance
the
shape
as a
filling
rudderless
a city
power-
ship
seilles
where,
hostile
pagans were
legend
on,
floats
Mar-
says,
first
the
convert-
ed by these saints.
Lake Geneva.
Konrad Witz
which portrayed a
real place,
No longer does the artist compose with traditional pictorial formulas, but observes
The
same
The Master of the Annunciation of Aix reflects the influence of Netherlandish art in France. The setting of
a church interior recaUs the Washington Annunciation by Jan van Eyck in its adherence to the old notion that
a church is an image of heaven. Even the diff'erentiation in architecture is justified symbolically: the Angel
is placed under a narrow baldachin decorated with statues of the prophets on the pillars and with winged
creatures of the night in the spandrels, while behind
the uniform
rhythm of the
full
Mary
volumes of
their bodies,
and
their
sumptuously
each other.
^'
ifi-
ma
%i
nCHf'
^.
WM
xj^^Bj
!'
t^M
r^H
111
mSiR'.:
iiBIiiml
HI'
'
;
pHHrJ
^^Ih iWM
'
^P^'^'IH"
K^Wi n:
H^H^vy
'
i^H,
^i.
'^
.J
^%^
3f^^^%^
isr
fy^^^
:*
f/^
ii
*WM
^
*<
'i
m:'.
^A
'
ift
'
:^v*fi;
^n-.
\.>^^h:
^N,^.
The
Women
a tapestry
berg,
c.
made
1460.
Ever since the Apocalypse of Angers (page 158) and the Unicorn
making
more modern
traits,
to
spatial elements
fact,
of tapestry
when
the attempt
was made
in the six-
in range,
field
uniformly.
183
Hans Multscher
1400-67).
(c.
'<^;'-
new
Man
of
Wurzach
of uncompromising realism.
On
with
all
moment. Bystanders
mock
the
Holy
Women
following the
Cross and form a thick wall along their way. In the foreground,
children throw stones at the
gauntlet
of the
mob's
condemned
fury,
Christ
Man
The beam of
who
is
runs the
intimidated,
Him
in the air
toward the
right.
is
only at beauty.
Mi i
JOHANN KOERBECKE
91).
(aCtivC I446-
and tempera
on oak panel, 60 x 83". Landesfifteenth century. Oil
museum
Miinster (Westphalia)
left,
whose
portal
heraldic
is
es-
is
centurions
hold
up
side.
the foreground,
stands
support
the
Mary, behind
whom
Mary Magdalen
gazing
fainting
up
Women
Holy
Below, in
At the upper
the Entombment, and
at the Cross.
right
is
below
it
was a pecuharity of
German and West-
events
North
populated
heavily
scenes
of
wooden
carved
Memling's
altarpieces.
paintings
of
the
many
motifs in Koerbecke's
Calvary
suggest
nection with
cially,
with
some con-
him and,
the
espe-
Master
of
Flemalle.
187
:nA\\
V.
in
I,
I
After the International Gothic period, representations of the Virgin changed greatly.
childHke
shown
sweetness.
broad
homely,
with a plain,
in
Multscher's
Once
the reahstic
as
face,
was
she
Instead,
woman
as a forceful
T'l
Madonna was
tahty, and many
the
given a
new monumen-
reahstic
were
details
In the Dangolsheim
the
hand of a powerful
pic-
means of heightening
the force of an image, and in this he turned
his back on the new realism and took up
torial effect
and
as a
Ma-
the right,
plumb
become almost a
line.
This
is
on
long, straight
peculiar
to
many
is
given
yond realism
this
work
restless striving to
there
go be-
in order to arrive at a
new
classicism.
^:
'Il
.-^M
X-
\.
J^
-^-wa
Martin
Schongauer
(c.
1475-80.
Oil
Shepherds,
1 4^/4
The
c.
Adoration
1430-91).
of the
oak panel
and tempera on
ti
art of the
Upper Rhine
realism into a
new
idealism, as
we have
seen in the
Dangolsheim master,
recalls
even
more
the Saint
was executed
is
on a dress
be made
is
used to
is
effect
in a flowered pattern
of the face
is
the
who worked
training in
German
treatment
altar.
remained
Schongauer,
faithful to the
drawing he received in
his
father's
by
color, as with
hne. Schongauer
do
The excitement of
all
c.
1480. Painted wood, height
Obersimonswald, near Freiburg im Breisgau
Saint Catherine,
c.
SsVz"-
v
\
c.
1430.
Woodcut,
artist,
Peter
with
17^4
xmVs"-
Germanisches
Nationalmuseum,
Nuremberg
medieval glass painting (see also page 205). Characteristic are the
figures, the
up
as naturalistic branches
their
and
relieflike,
leaves.
over with black lead which the artist then scraped away to create lines and
was a widespread popular belief that to look at his picture protected the believer from sudden death for that
entire day, and this accounts for the wide diff"usion of such images.
192
**
"
" y.Myv
^^^,
'^'''^T^''*.
laaM^attafc^ij
^w *v-*.
MBtia^jMBHPMtnH
Tff
rnwl
gimitrfnejnanttnoitXawtJ
xfgadeca^tc^prQejSinit
tm mm- ca'ipiialQfl
^l)a geHIfequHkutHTneraf- a5
misA
niair^ire^tfrad (conaria^r
bino perptobl\5ijnt bired
mei
OfflaeFjaivbhn ftdlSmmto
bi)rtin9 rawc(Hniana;:TUf aly
otb^ fohitahnr 5u iii tmfi fSttifi
^iiematiafttUaqnepteUefilfc
tufmie^pliahiruaramra
tapo r^irt-fu^gablltJff*
line qutlrm ihr nata rft -rafu
madaongiMenitpejnqgteflafO
Woodcut from
the Biblia
woodcut book
The development of
woodcuts and printed books went side
by
side.
which
In the books,
were
widely
middle
of
the
teenth century,
and
cut
illustrations
into
the
woodblock. At
books were
restricted to religious
and didactic
texts
fif-
text
were
same
first,
such as the Ars moriendi (The Art of Dying) and the Bible
of the Poor. The latter was an expression of medieval typological thinking, in which scenes from the New
Testament were juxtaposed to others from the Old Testament which were believed to prophesy, symbolically,
woodcut from the Biblia pauperum, an architectural framework unites the various
of Mary; at the left, the Tree of Jesse; at the right, Balaam's ass, which spoke
and prophesied the sacred events; above and below, Old Testament prophets who foretold the Redemption.
the later events. In this
194
private use.
The woodcut technique involves cutting away the wood from around the Hnes to be printed, so
The copperplate technique, on the other hand, is related to goldsmith's
work,
in that
extremely fine lines are incised into the plate and then
filled in
mi
The Master of the Housebook was active between 1480 and 1490 in the Middle Rhine region, most hkely
in Mainz. Along with the Master of the Playing Cards, the Master E. S., and Martin Schongauer, he was one
of the most influential copperplate engravers before Diirer. With dispassionate objectivity he observed the
daily life of his time and set it down in his so-called Housebook in the form of sketches which have a remark-
And
yet, just
be, they
Book of Hours of
the
Limbourg
brothers,
employed
in copperplate engraving.
are always set into their place in the vast cosmic order which governs the acts of men. Across the sky gallops
the planet Venus,
earth, those
sign of Taurus, the Bull, to that of Libra, the Balance. Venus' children
sign, give
196
is
on
its
an invaluable source of information about the culture and customs of the time.
The morris dance came from Moorish Spain and quickly spread
as a
198
form of
social entertainment. It
Erasmus Crasser
(c. 1450-1518). Morris Dancfrom the banqueting hall of the old town hall
in Munich, c. 1480. Painted wood, heights ranging
from 257/' to SiV/'- Stadtmuseum, Munich
ers,
German
symptoms
199
rA.
M^4
<
1489.
in sculpture in the
Parler excepted.
The
to us,
and the
fact that
it
^^^^^^^^^
^^^^^^^^Bi^
B^^/^
^^
is
and
its
message might
be.
our basis
specific
traits
in
the
general
With
came
generalized
though
to
predominate
characteristics
their
and remained
of
over
the
the
period,
development
of their time.
Saint Mary
(c.
1 470- 1 540/41).
Magdalen, also called "La belle Allemande." c. 1500.
Painted wood, height 678"- The Louvre, Paris
Gregor Erhart
Death Disguised as a Monk. End of fifteenth century. Limewood, height 4V8"- Badisches Landesmuseum, Karlsruhe.
Facing page:
detail
Realism here
is
of the skull
head under
its
as
an isolated work.
Probably
a
J^
was made
>tj*
i^m.
'mm
25
S^fiiF^^
/(^.^
f^-}
^-Tsr,
V^
X^
>
'X,
<^
r^j...,iu\
!>'
i/i^i
T.v;<i
>e^-->\
liyl
r"^^
M^
^"J-
i\
/>A
jrr-
I1Qg
h
\
Christopher
Saint
Child,
Christ
high
altar
with
the
detail
of the
the
parish
in
HuBER?).
c.
1490.
CN^
Wood,
approximately
life-size
i^ /^^*
In the facial expression,
with
its
intense gaze of
from
remoteness
world,
the
the
of
sculptor
on
spiritual significance to
iMs:
^^^>v;
t'm
of the Palatinate,
at
window,
36*/8
.^'
^^^mm
mim
5'
iVi" x
9'
is
most
named
after his
masterwork
his contact
city,
was the
fore-
He may,
in fact,
have
of that
important than
in the cathedral
Italy,
artists, especially
Hugo
van der Goes. Monumental treatment of the figure, bold coloring, and the contrast between large groups
and an almost miniature-iike atmosphere in the remote landscape all combine to achieve an impressive,
206
soaring solemnity. In contrast to the central panel, the side wings have an intimate character with their
portraits of the donors,
still
who
conceived with the objectivity of Netherlandish portraits, though they also reveal the master's striving
after fidelity to nature. In their turn, these realistic portraits are contrasted with the angels
The
soariii
Madonna (it
light radiating
childlike grace,
which form a
who
is because of them that the artist is also designated as the Master of the Angv^Ls).
from the Madonna's aureole illuminates the faces of these angelic maidens of almost
if
207
"World Chronicle,"
with something like two thouSchadel's
sand
compendium of woodcuts of
the fifteenth century. As both
history
and
geography,
its
already reflects
the
(like
that
of
Basel
first
below)
attempts
and systematic topography. Nevertheless, occasionally the same view is used for
several cities, and this is evidence that the old medieval typological approach had not yet been abandoned,
as are also the woodcuts of the Dance of Death which appear in the course of and at the end of all the
made
to arrive at a precise
historical chapters.
209
Santa Maria da
Second half of fifteenth century. The Manueline stonework
decoration seen here is attributed to Diogo
Royal
Cloister,
abbey
of
Boitac
(d. c. 1522,
leaving the
work
unfinished)
dated 15 15
architecture of the end of the fifteenth century once again changed in character, not in
general structural principles but, rather, in an organic prohferation of the individual architectonic elements.
The Manueline
elements.
210
style to the
style
is
is found above all in Portugal, where the Islamic tradition heightmost elaborate sumptuosity, especially during the reign of Manoel I (1495-1521).
^/
<(^*
526).
c.
Presumed
(c.
Tomb
1445"
self-portrait,
The personal
develop out of the tradition of funeral monuments which showed the dead
When
transformed the
sitter into
something
like a
still
life.
it
man
was
as he
it
began to
had appeared
in
life.
its
movement in space, was able also to capture the spiritual vitality of the subject. Remarkably
on the tomb in SigUenza the dead man is presented as in life, in an unaffected pose seemingly
creates a sense of
early in date,
more of an
212
if it
As Durer was
left
to demonstrate
is
expressed even
some outward
were only an inclination of the head, heightens the expression of the subject's
^r&=i
stall.
somewhat
Ulm
self-portrait
under
on a
Wood,
1469-71.
life-size.
Cathedral
NicoLAUs Gerhaerts of
Leiden (d. 1473)- Selfportrait, c. 1467. Sandstone.
Cathedral
Museum,
Stras-
bourg
Hid
-^:
m-
.1^/-$
0\
W
-t-ji^i*
^M:^-.
JiSSt;
.:-'v_
^^m
\'Ll
i'*
Hans Stethaimer
architect
(doc.
1441-59)
c.
(?).
Portrait of the
life-size.
A Anton
Pilgram.
(c.
5.
Stone,
under life-size. On the base of the pulpit, cathedral of Sankt Stephan, Vienna
217
i-
^''v-
:-''^^--
-;:
1^
(c.
"Gray Passion"
Church, Augsburg. Shortly before 1499. Oil and tempera on panel, 35 x 3474"Fiirstlich Fiirstenbergische Gemaldegalerie, Donaueschingen
Michael Pacher
(c.
life-size.
near Bolzano
219
TiLMAN RiEMENSCHNEIDER
(c.
I46O-I531).
(detail),
Mainfrankisches
Mu-
Agony
in
the Garden.
Above
The Wiirzburg
and wood carver Tilman Riemenschneider achieved the first high point of his career
in the Altarpiece of the Holy Blood in Rothenburg. Earlier than other wood carvers, he replaced the traditional
polychrome and gilding of the figures with a sensitive treatment of the surface textures of the wood, and
sculptor
wood
falls
was
still
customary to
which
his appropriate
individual figures in
Thus, the dialogue and action involve the entire table of the Last Supper and create a setting in depth
is
echoed by the concave space of the chapel-like structure of the scene; and
miniature repetition of the glassed-in church choir in which the altarpiece stands.
220
up
that, in turn, is a
kind of
TiLMAN RiEMENSCHNEIDER.
Head of
TiLMAN RiEMENSCHNEIDER.
Lamentation over the Dead
Christ,
altarpiece.
1519-23.
Gray
sandstone,
9872 x
Former Cistercian
^sVz"church, Maidbronn
In his last work, the altarpiece at Maidbronn, Riemenschneider simplified his means greatly, restricting
himself to what was most essential. Without action, dialogues, or secondary groupings to distract the eye
of the viewer from the central event, the altarpiece
is
entirely concentrated
on a
below the stone shrine, and only by directing the gaze to that point do the foreshortenings and perspective
relationships of the three crosses
become
intelligible.
As
from the
in
until, in
Each head is
Even Mary's gaze
other.
is
related to
is
directed
Empty
neighbors only by the common bond of an exbeyond her dead Son. At either side of the group,
its
an extraordinary stroke of imagination, a woman turns away to hide her weeping. What Riemenschneider
us here, at the end of his creative life, was a mournful lamentation impregnated with resignation.
left
225
Veit Stoss
of
field
(detail).
(c.
the
1520-23.
of altarpiece
Cathedral
14'
Wood,
9"xc.
dimensions
total
9' 10".
Bamberg
detail of an altarpiece.
wood. Church of the
Though
had
its
artist,
to settle in
The heads of
Cracow
Madonna. His
Nuremberg
and
all
Painted
creative genius
final perfection
German
was of the
of Gothic
art.
art,
human
traits, differentiated in
character
and full of individual personality. He returned to Nuremberg in 1496, and his last altarpiece was carved for
Bamberg. The pathos of his work in Cracow was muted in the Bamberg altar, and the composition is rigorously
its
diversity.
226
who look
?l
v^l
'N
^jm^
,-.^^^
*^^
(li
WSSI
TlLMAN
RiEMENSCHNElDER.
detail
With Veit
or nervous determination.
229
Hieronymus Bosch
modern
one of the most fascinating exponents of the radical change from the Middle Ages to
that came before him seems to point the way to his innovations. His roots lie in Nether-
is
times. Little
human
self-awareness.
He
until the
advent of psychoanalysis.
Hieronymus Bosch
Garden of Delights,
(c.
1450-1516). The
triptych. 1503-4.
Cen-
Paradise (detail of
Brought
tral
to
panel)
Adam
existence.
To man's
^^*^^^w
'^^i^iJ^l*
f
(Y^'fi
^^^^^^MP
^P^^^BI^^B
wKmm
p^p^^l^pi
rmr
i^
^^WP^LS--^1
^a^P-^.'^V^ajp^
^^4
?^
'
Matthias Grunewald
(c.
1470-1528).
The Isenheim
mum
7'
7V2" X
c.
(maximum
2'
6"
width).
each
26^8" x
predella
1
1
'
2 1/4"
iJ
^^^
.ft
^
With the wings closed we
see:
:5
the central
Mary Magdalen,
the sacrificial
lamb with
arm
crescere
234
me
is
the
inscription
left
the
and
whose
chalice
at
Ilium
oportet
^11
235
^
The
^4
has at the
left
a Gothic bal-
To
the
is
toward
the
meant
to represent
right,
Mary
bench
in
in
right
may
be
Eve as the
precursor of Mary. At the
sits
on a stone
an open landscape,
in
her.
is
in
shreds, recalling
Entombment
predella. To the left
on the
above
reveal
God
opens to
the Father in a
^//^^
236
M*^
Throughout
to the shepherds.
symboHc
ri^
without
God, and
garden,
the
the like.
Opened
center,
statue
group
Anthony enthroned,
have at the
saints Anthony
on
page
the hermit-
left
239),
and
at
the
of Saint
moniac motifs
in
the
recalling those
paintings
of
Bosch
and Schongauer.
237
Matthias Grunewald.
The Isenheim Altarpiece,
wing of the second
right
the Resurrection, in
which
8'
body
Christ's
appears
transfigured.
not
fully
shown
here)
X4'8V4"
\
V*
Matthias Grunewald.
The Isenheim Altarpiece,
left
view,
wing of the
third
seen
here,
is
self-
/^W
real
name of
has entered art history as Matthias Griinewald. His masterpiece was painted for the high altar of the church
in the
at Isenheim. It
is
observation of nature, and the expressive power in figurative and coloristic composition which
unique to
this painter.
His work
is
in
entirely
is
them
entirely
on the
He made
and
landscapes interpenetrate in a wholly unrealistic manner, as in the household objects seen in the Nativity.
Light
is
used not as a means of illumination but as a mystical revelation. Inspired by the visions of Saint
made
at the
transformation of the
human body
of Christ as
and
it
in part with
it,
light.
As a
down
direct
in paint
'^J^-<.
I;.
V.^^
In the same
him
(see
way
page 242), in the sculpture of the beginning of the sixteenth century there also arises the question
workshop
in Breisach
German
works shown
art.
more
intellectual
many German
centers
and
Gothic traditions.
crisis
Romantic
light.
Workshop of Master H.
240
To
around 1500, German art found its separate way. It returned to the intricate
of the Germanic ornamental style with its highly complex interlacing patterns and these seem also
to anticipate the
of
humanism of
In this period of
linearity
the early-sixteenth-century
the
Workshop of Master H.
L. Altarpiece on the high altar, Sankt Michael, Niederrottweil (Breisgau). 1525-30. Polychromed
carved wood. The subjects on the wings are related in crisscross fashion: on the upper left is Saint Michael weighing souls on
Judgment Day, and on the lower right is the repudiation of the damned souls; on the lower left is John the Baptist baptizing
Christ, and on the upper right the beheading of John at the instigation of Salome. In the predella are Christ and the Apostles
(detail
on facing page)
241
w
Master of Messkirch
tive c.
est
2d
s^
-Y
Child,
from
panel
of
Altarpiece.
the
1530-40. Oil
Fiirstenbergische
Gemaldegalerie,
eschingen
t-v.
^r
v^
/
Christ
left-hand
Falkenstein
the
c.
(ac-
1545). Saint
1500-C.
Donau-
The wood
vermann
carver Heinrich
created
one
Dou-
of
the
Lower Rhine
in his Altarpiece
rootHke
scrolls
breast of the
in their coils
recall ancient
tic
whose deco-
"Gothic root
style,"
rative motifs
appeared on tomb-
stones
century,
was
six-
exploited
itself,
to create
Heinrich
Douvermann
(active
Jesse,
1510-44),
height
Xanten
c.
SiV'/'-
244
'i*^'
'^:
^Mi>\
-n
.ti
HansBruggemann(c. 1480-1540).
Lute- Playing Angel, probably from
the tabernacle in the Marienkirche,
Bernt Notke
(c.
1435/40-1509).
Saint George and the Dragon with
the
Princess of Libya.
Completed
Stockholm
Dragon (facing page) the princess whom legend says the Saint rescued
looks across at the combat. This monumental work was commissioned from the Liibeck sculptor by the
In the group of Saint George and the
-""^
^-*-.
WoRKSHOf
Castulus.
c.
Hans Leinberger
.)!
'''
-1531/35)15
Collegiate chur
248
t.
Martyrdom
Wood relief,
Moosburg
(c.
1480
of Saint
46V2 x 41 V4".
among
the exponents of a
typically
striking use
is
seen in
of architectonic and
landscape elements
and
also
is
in
the
from which
him
Danube School of
so-called
to the
painting.
and contours of
his figures
are crinkled in a
way
that
seem as
itself
were about to
if
the
form
makes
it
decompose.
the
town
hall
of Moosburg.
c.
to
1519.
Dahlem
249
by the introduction
of the
before,
in
Southern
architectural
is
clearly articulated
remains to
recall the
style
*''
'"^1^"^
.^^-T
f
*
'
^^^^^MFI^^jiriHw'''^^
'
.^""rrrrt^-
Km
|^^^^^|yp^^q,0i..
J^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
r/',
4m
In
Germany,
Renaissance were
made
difficult
in
it
much more
all
in fact,
native
which
human
all
of these would
around
take on a
life
make
century.
Wood, height
Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg
252
c.
1530.
series
lo^i".
Bibliography
GENERAL LITERATURE
SCULPTURE
AUBERT,
AUBERT,
New
York, 1966
FRANKL, p.. The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpretations
through Eight Centuries, Princeton, i960
HUiziNGA, J., The Waning of the Middle Ages, New York, 1954
JANTZEN, H., High Gothic, New York, 1962
LEFRAN^ois-PiLLiON, L., L' Art du quatorziemc siecle en France,
Paris, 1954
MALE,
L'Art allemand
E.,
et
1940
MALE,
E.,
L'Art religieux de
la fin
du moyen-age en France,
Paris, 1949
TOESCA,
WEiSE,
p., //
G., Italien
und die
in Italy:
an
1250-1400, Baltimore,
1966
New
in Gothic,
York, 1964
ARCHITECTURE
AUBERT,
BAUM,
J.,
German
Cathedrals,
Booz,
in Britain:
La
M.,
DURAN SANPERE,
JANTZEN,
zig,
H.,
1925
JANTZEN,
H.,
KATZENELLENBOGEN,
A.,
PINDER,
Conn., 1955
STONE, L., Sculpture
in Britain:
1955
viTRY, P., French Sculpture during the Reign of St. Louis:
1226-12J0, Florence and New York, 1929
PAINTING
AUBERT, M., and others, Le Vitrail frangais, Paris, 1958
BAKER, J., English Stained Glass, New York, i960
COLETTi, L., I Primitivi, Novara, 1941-47, 3 vols.
MARCHINI, G., Italian Stained Glass Windows, New York, 1956
MARLE, R. VAN, The Development of the Italian Schools of
Painting, The Hague, 1923-38
MATECJEK, A., and PESiNA, J., Czech Gothic Painting, Prague,
1953
PANOFSKY,
E.,
Early
Netherlandish
Painting,
Cambridge,
PORCHER,
POST, c.
J.,
R.,
1954
RING, G.,
STANCE,
A.,
1938-60,
Vols. 3-10
THOMPSON,
Painting,
D. v..
New
253
60
1350
Low
1520
to
80
70
90
Countries
20
ID
1400
(Jan d. 1441)
France
Germany and
Andre Beauneveu
1350
1330-1406
H
Jacquemart de Hesdin
Jacques Coene of Bruges
Melchior Broederlam doc. 1381-1409
SinKJ
Jes
Limbourg Brothe
Brod Altarpiece
Central Europe
c.
Weyd
Madonna
c.
Italy
Andrea Orcagna
active 1343-68
Tommaso da Modena
Agnolo Gaddi
d.
14 10 Garden of Paradii
Masaccio 1401-28
1396
Andre
i22s/26-'jg
Altichiero active
c.
1369-90
-Fra Angelico 1387-145
Domenic
h
Sassetta
c.
1400-145
PisanelU
Jacop(
Style:
254
1350
60
70
80
90
1400
10
20
"
'!
40
30
70
80
90
_l_
_l_
_l_
60
50
_l_
H-
13997-1464
Dirck Bouts the Elder 1415/20-75-
Marmion
Nicolas
1489
1420-after 1477before 1417
Henri Bellechose d. 1440/44
Fouquet
d.
d.
c.
H
Master of Moulins doc. 1475-c. 1500
active 1409-34
Martin Schongauer
Multscher
20
10
1435-84
c.
I-
Moser
Froment
1500
c.
c.
1430-91
1400-67
Michael Pacher
c.
1435-98
Altarpiece
I-
A. Pollaiuolo 1431/32-98
Castagno 1423-57
Verrocchio 1435-88
Paolo Uccello 1 397-1475
del
H
H
Michelangelo
I-
475-1 564
Veneziano 1410-61
H^Vittore Carpaccio
c.
1455-1525
II-
Botticelli 1444/45-1510
Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519
Luca
H h
1395-1455
Bellini c. 1400-70
c. 1450-1523
Perugino c. 1450-1523
Raphael 1483-1520Giovanni Bellini c. 1425-1516
Andrea Mantegna 1431-1506
h
Fra Bartolomeo 1472-1517
Signorelli
Andrea
Giorgione
c.
1478-1510
H
Titian
c.
1488-1576
High Renaissance
"T
"T"
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1500
10
20
255
France
13th C.
u
u
3
a.
3
O
00
Cathedral Sculpture:
Chartres, north and south porches, c. 12 17
Paris: Portal of the Virgin, 1210-20; Last Judgment
Portal (in original form), 1225-30; Porte Rouge, 1270
Reims: north portal, c. 1220-30; west portal,
c. 1236-52; Master of St. Joseph, c. 1240; west inner
c. 1255 on
Amiens: west portal,
c.
wall,
c.
c.
1270
Tomb
active in
Regensburg
c.
a.
14th C.
u
3
3
60
fi.
I5th-i6th C.
c.
c.
c.
U-l
ca
4>
o.
<"
o
o
o
=^ -
'^H O
.= :::.
oj
nJ
a. 2
t.
o
u.
60
C
c
-z
2"a
o
cu
256
Bourbon
C/5
3
u
C/3
c.
1400,
1320,
Manesse Codex
Madonna
of Glatz
Master of Vyssi Brod
active 1359-69, Master Theoderic
1380 on. Master of Tfebori
c. 1345-1415, Bertram of Minden
1
350,
after 1350,
Hans Multscher
Nicolaus Gerhaerts of Leiden
c. 1425-93, Jorg Syrlin the Elder
c. 1435-98, Michael Pacher
c. 1435/40-1509, Bernt Notke
c. 1450-1518, Erasmus Grasser
c. 1445-1526, Niklaus von Hagenau
c. 1445-1533, Veit Stoss
c. 1455/60-1508/9, Adam Krafft
c. 1460-after 1 515, Anton Pilgram
c. 1460-1531, Tilman Riemenschneider
active 1513-30, Hans Leinberger
active 1523-30, Master H. L.
c. 1480-1540, Hans Briiggemann
c.
1400-67,
d. 1473,
England
Italy
c.
c.
1291-93, London,
Westminster
Eleanor of Castile
Abbey,
c.
c.
c.
1248-after
Cambio
Giovanni Pisano
tomb of Queen
c.
Berlinghiero Berlinghieri
c. 1235-c. 1250, Giunta Pisano
active
1266/67-1337, Giotto
1272,
Cimabue
1278-13
Nottingham, alabaster
19,
in
Rome
Duccio
in
Siena
reliefs
tomb of Edward II
1340, London, Westminster Abbey, tomb of John of Eltham
1348-50, Oxford, tomb of Elizabeth Montagu
1330-35, Gloucester,
c.
c.
Bernardo Daddi
c.
1
1
EARLY RENAISSANCE
See Renaissance and Mannerist Art in this series
257
Architecture
Century
13th
France
Caen,
Bayeux, 1200-1300.
Reims
(choir
Chartres
1224-60. Saint-Denis
Sainte-Chapeile, 1243-48.
1247-75 (collapsed in 1284, after
(transept
1231-81.
Beauvais (choir),
(nave),
fagades),
Paris,
which supplementary
piers
were added)
c.
14th
Magdeburg
Maulbronn
(choir),
Oppenheim
Prague,
cathedral
5th- 6th
1
collegiate
work
258
England
Italy
Peterborough
Durham
1245-60
eter (choir),
Lincoln (Angel Choir), 1 256-1 320. Exc. 1 280-1 300. York (nave),
Siena,
Siena,
1291-C. 1324
pleted
80.
'
Elsewhere
(transept),
com-
Arezzo, cathedral,
1259.
Orvieto, founded 1290.
1277 on.
c.
crossing),
1297.
begun 1334
Lichfield (choir),
1330.
Wells (crossing), 1338 on.
Gloucester
(cloisters),
Canterbury
(nave),
Canterbury
1351-77.
begun
(cloister), c. 1400.
c.
1379
Oxford,
Spain:
Alcobaga (old
1158-1223
Low
Cistercian
abbey),
Countries:
Ut-
Cathedrals
in
Brussels
(choir),
1225; Ghent (choir), c. 1228;
Ypres (St. -Martin), 1221-70
c.
Sweden:
Linkoping,
c.
1260.
Uppsala,
begun 1287
Low
Countries:
Palma de Mallorca,
1306 on. Gebegun 1316. Barcelona, Santa Maria del Mar, 1329-83
Win-
1346-75.
chester (nave), begun c. 1350
Europe
Spain
c.
1330-40.
Exeter (west front),
in
rona
(choir),
EARLY RENAISSANCE
See Renaissance and Mannerist Art
in this series
1500
Portugal
Batalha (Royal Cloister), late 15thearly i6th century. Belem, monastery church,
1502-19.
Tomar
(south portal), 1515
Spain:
:
259
Index
Abraham,
i8,
29
Acre, 94
Adam,
Lamb,
i69ff.
Marie-Madeleine, 182
Alabasters, 50, 257
Albi, cathedral, 36, 90, 258
Alcobaga, abbey, 259
Altarpiece of
Amelsbiiren,. 187
Falkenstein, 242
Ghent, i69ff.
Grabow, 166
Isenheim, 10, 234ff.
Kefermarkt, 205
Maidbronn, 225, 229
Niederrottweil, 240 f.
Ognissanti, 86
Orsanmichele, 80
Ortenberg, 255
Portinari,
177
Quedlinburg, 256
Soest, 54 f.
The Adoration of the
Mystic Lamb, 169!?.
The Adoration of the
Shepherds, 191
The Annunciation, 182
The Coronation of the
Virgin, 132
The Gray Passion, 219
Amiens, cathedral,
258
Sculpture, 30, 61, 256
Amsterdam, Oude Kerk,
259
Andrea del Castagno 254
Andrea del Sarto, 255
Andrea di Clone, see
Orcagna
Andrea Pisano,
243 ff.
The Virgin in Glory,
206 f.
Tfebon, 119, 254
Vyssi Brod, 119, 254
Wurzach, 184
Altarpieces, 10
Altdorfer, Albrecht, 255
Altenberg, cathedral, 258
Altichiero, 254
260
73, 131,
257
Angelico, Fra, 254
Angers, cathedral, 158
"Angular style," 158
Annaberg, Annenkirche,
258
Anne,
206 f.
Anne of Beaujeu, 2o6f.
Annunciation, 28, 80, 86,
130, 178, 182, 236, 250
Anthony Abbot, St., 235,
237 ff.
Antiquity, 27, 74 ff., 98
Antwerp, cathedral, 259
Apocalypse, 7f., 59, 158
Apocalypse of Angers,
St., 18,
158, 183
259
Aubusson, Pierre
Augsburg, 252
d',
155
226 ff.
30,
sculpture, 33
Avignon,
142, 250
135,258
Babel, 83
Baghdad, 8
Baldung Grien, Hans, 255
Bamberg, cathedral, 56,
158, 226
Choir screen,
256
11, 59,
f.,
Baptism of Christ,
256
131,
241
Barbara, St., 174
Barcelona, cathedral, 259
Santa Maria del Mar,
90, 259
Bartholomew, St., 166
Bartolomeo, Fra, 255
176, 258
i6of
189, 191,
256
Beauvais, cathedral, 32,
258
Belem, monastery, 259
Bellapais, monastery, 95
Bellechose, Henri, 255
Bellini, Giovanni, 255
Bellini, Jacopo, 254
Benedict XII, Pope, 39
Berlinghieri,
Berlinghiero,
257
Bernard de Castanet, 36
Berry, Jean,
Duke
of,
I42ff., 153
237, 255
Sandro, 255
Bourbon family, 206
Bourges, cathedral, 33, 153
ff.,
Botticelli,
Sculpture, 33
Boussac, chateau, 155
Bouts, Dirck, the Elder,
255
Bouts, Dirck, the Younger,
178
Brabant, 209
Breisach, 240
Broederlam, Melchior,
142, 254, 256
Brou, Saint-Nicolas,
140,
250, 258
Briiggeman, Hans, 246,
256
Brussels, Sainte-Gudule,
259
Burgos, cathedral, 89 f.,
259
Burgundian architecture,
66, 89, 139
Byzantine
art,
ii9f.
Catherine,
St., 191
Cavallini, Pietro, 257
Cecilia, St., 163
Celestial City, see Heavenly
Jerusalem
256
Charles VIII, King of
France, 206
Charonton, Enguerrand,
132
Chartres, cathedral,
14,
i6ff.,
7,
22ff.,
250, 258
Choir screen, 250
10,
61,
256
Chevalier, Etienne, 152
Chorin, Cistercian church,
46, 50, 57,
61, 66, 69, 87, loiff.,
109, 119, 150, i64f.,
8, 10, 18,
104, 109,
Christopher,
St.,
256
178, 192,
205, 242
Church Triumphant,
69,
257
173
Constantine the Great,
Emperor, 60
8,
44,
9,
io6fT.,
135
Crucifixion, 116, 234, 239
Crusades, 94,
Cyprus, 94 f.
no
Dangolsheim Madonna,
i89ff".,
226
Dante, 132
239. 255
Durham, cathedral, 42, 259
St.,
163
Douvermann, Heinrich,
243 ff.
Duccio, 257
Edward
70, 258
Christ,
II,
259
King of
England, 257
Edward, the Black Prince,
48, 257
Ekkehard, 63
Eleanor of Castile, Queen
of England, 257
Elizabeth, St., 27
Ely, cathedral, 46, 259
Engravings, 191 ff"., I95ff".
Entombment of Christ,
234 ff".
Entry into Jerusalem, 220
Erhart, Gregor, 201
Eve, 140,
i69ff".,
Tomb
Gurk, 256
Haarlem, 137
"Hard
129, 142
Heavenly Jerusalem,
7f.,
Campanile, 259
Cathedral, 259
Ognissanti, 86
Orsanmichele, 80
Palazzo Vecchio, 259
Santa Croce, 259
Santa Maria Novella,
73. 259
Fortification, 36, 40, 93 f.
Fortunade, St., 140
Fount of Life, 135, 163
Fouquet, Jean, 152, 255
7f.,
St.,
229, 234
Jonah, 59
Juan de la Huerta, 137
Judges, Old Testament, 13
ff".
Kampen,
259
Kantara,
Sint Nicolaas,
citadel,
Karlstejn, castle,
94
n6
Kefermarkt, Sankt
Wolfgang, 205
collegiate
church, 106
Kings, Old Testament, 13
Koerbecke, Johann, 187
lOI,
182
Hemmel
Flight into Egypt, 142
Florence, baptistery, 131
Kempten,
220, 231,
236
Johannes of Cologne, 89
John, King of England, 257
John of Eltham, 257
John the Baptist, St., 20,
234,239,241
England, 46
Hereford, cathedral, 257
Hohenstaufen dynasty, 9,
53, 60, 93
Holbein, Hans, the Elder,
219,255
Holbein, Hans, the
Younger, 255
Huber, Jorg, 205
church, 148
Lake Geneva,
Dead
181
Christ, 225
12,
n8,
135,
163,
166,
178,
Landscape,
I42ff".,
i8of., 239,
249
Landshut, 249
Heiliggeist church, 258
Laon, cathedral, 56
Last Judgment, 8, 33 f.,
54,
76,
93
Freiburg im Breisgau, 64
Minster, 64ff"., 256, 258
Friedrich von Hohenlohe,
Leaf masks, 98
Leinberger, Hans, 248 f.,
256
Le Mans, cathedral, 258
Francis,
St.,
Frederick
II,
128
Emperor,
130,
138,
140,
158,
189
Isaac, 18
259
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 257
Giorgione, 255
Giotto,
Giovanetti, Matteo, 38
Giovanni di Paolo, 128
f.
Le Moiturier, Antoine,
137,256
Leonardo da
Vinci, 206,
255
Levericus, Bishop, 257
Liberal arts, 9, 30
259
Linkoping, 259
Lippi, Filippino, 255
Lippi, Filippo, 255
Lochner, Stefan, 169, 255
Lombard architecture, 70
261
London, Westminster
Abbey, 257, 259
Chapel of Henry VII,
Chevalier, 152
46, 259
Temple Church, 48
"Long-line style," 189
Longespee, William, 257
Ambrogio,
Lorenzetti,
Robert de
124, 257
Lorenzetti, Pietro, 257
Lisle,
257
Louis, 256
St.
Madonna,
loi,
Marseilles, 180
St.
Iiof.
86f.,
126,
130,
Martha,
Martin,
Mae Sta,
Magdeburg, cathedral,
53,
Maidbronn, Cistercian
church, 225
Mainz, 61, 196
Maitani, Lorenzo, 73, 257
Malines, 139
13
Man
of Sorrows, 184
f.
Manuscripts
Apocalypse of
St. Albans, 257
Breviary of Belleville,
256
Breviary of Philip the
Fair, 256
Gospel Lectionary of the
Sainte-Chapelle, 256
Hist or ia Angloriim, 257
Le Livre dii Coeur
d'Amour
epris, 155
d'vreux, 256
262
8, 18,
8,
18,27,54,57, 126,
see also
178,
Madonna
Mary Magdalen,
180,
St.,
Naumburg,
Moosburg,
iif.,
61
collegiate
church, 248
Town
30
Mary,
98, 258
163
257
Martini, Simone, 38, 86,
I26ff., 150, 257
Martyrs,
126
Rudiger,
St.,
St.,
hall,
249
Mystic Marriage of
St. Francis of Assisi,
I28f.
If.,
220, 256
Joseph, 256
the Angels, 207
St.
182
the Erminold Tomb, 256
the Golden Panel, 255
the Hours of Rohan,
147, 150
les-Avignon, 150
the Playing Cards, 196
the Triumph of Death,
148
Neckarsteinach, 205
Nicasius, St., 28
Nicola Pisano, 76, 257
Niederrottweil, Sankt
Michael, 240 f.
Niklaus von Hagenau, 212,
237, 256
Nino Pisano, 130
Nithart, Mathis Gothart,
see Griinewald
Norman
architecture, 8,
42,46
Notke, Bernt, 246, 256
Nottingham alabasters,
50,
257
Noyon,
cathedral, 61
Nudes, 34
Nuremberg, 166, 183, 252
Nassau House, 258
Sankt Lorenz, 122, 226,
258
Oppenheim, Sankt
Katharina, 258
Orcagna, Andrea, 73, 80,
254. 257
Orvieto, cathedral, 73, 132,
259
Otto the Great, Emperor,
53
Palma de Mallorca,
cathedral, 259
Paolo Veneziano, 89
Paradise Garden, 96, 142,
163, 166, 254
Paris, 12, 142, 206
Cathedral of Notre-
Dame,
13,
100,
32,
256. 258
Louvre, 145
Saint-Severin, 258
Sainte-Chapelle, 32, 96,
258
Paris,
Matthew, 257
201, 258
Passau, 205
Passion, 10,
50, 57,
I05f., i84ff., 191,
66,
2i9f., 226
Patinir,
Patmos,
Joachim, 255
8
Patriarchs, 8, 135
Paul the Hermit, St., 237 ff.
Perpendicular Style, 46
Perpignan, cathedral, 107
Perreal, Jean, 206 f.
Perugino, 255
Peter, St., 206 f.
Peterborough, cathedral,
259
Phdbus, Gaston, 144
Philibert the
Handsome,
Duke of Savoy,
Philip IV, the Fair,
of France, 256
140
King
Rome,
Duke of
Capitol, 60
Lateran Palace, 60
"Root style " 243
Konrad, 122
Rothenburg, Sankt Jakob,
246
Roritzer,
220
Saint-Ouen, 258
Bourbon, 206 f.
Pierre de Montreuil, 32
Pieta, 10, 105, 150, i64f.
Saint-Denis, monastery,
259
cathedral,
Salisbury,
74, 259
Pisanello, 254
Giovanni, Giunta,
Nicola, Nino Pisano
Pleurants, 137
Pollaiuolo, Antonio, 255
Portraiture, loff., 63, 100,
i74fF., 2o6f., 2i2ff.
7,
258
257,
259
Salome, 241
Salzburg, Franciscan
church, 258
Samuel, 18
Sandrart, Joachim, 239
San Galgano, 259
San Martino al Cimino,
abbey, 259
Santiago de Compostela,
89
Sassetta, Stefano di
Giovanni, 128 f., 254
Scaliger family, 79
Schadel, Hartmann, 209
70
Unicorn
Town
70
Strasbourg, 64
Cathedral, 11, 69, 212,
256, 258
hall,
Suger, Abbot, 7
256
TahuU, 92
Tapestries, I53ff., 183
Tarragona, cathedral, 259
Testament, New,
8f.,
30,
135
212
Venice, 84
Ca' d'Oro, 84
Villeneuve-16s-Avignon,
40, 150
Fort Saint-Andre, 40
Hospice, 132
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene, 40
Virtues, 30, 66
Visitation, 27
Wechselburg, crucifix
256
Well of Moses, 135
of,
Scholasticism,
76
Schongauer, Martin, 191,
195,237,255
Schwabisch Gmiind, 115
Minster, 121 f., 258
Schwarzach, monastery,
174
Tiefenbronn, Sankt Maria
Magdalena, 180
Tino da Camaino, 257
Titian, 255
Toledo, cathedral, 259
189
Sebastian,
Tomar, Convento do
254
Wienhausen, monastery,
Tommaso da Modena,
Wilhelm of Komburg, 63
Raphael, 255
Raverti, Matteo, 84
Regensburg, cathedral,
256, 258
Reginald de Bohun,
Bishop, 44
Reims, cathedral, 22 ff., 96,
258
Sculpture, 27 ff., 256
Reliquary, 7, 100, no, 220
Renaissance, 6, 12, 98, 132,
9,
30, 34,
109,
St.,
163,
235
Seeon
am
Chiemsee, 161,
164
Sibyls, 8, 27, 140
259
San Francesco, 259
Sigmaringen, orphanage,
104, 109
Signorelli, Luca, 132, 255
250, 252
Siguenza,
Rene d'Anjou,
155
236ff.
94
Riemenschneider, Tilman,
220ff.,
225,
229,
256
Rolin, Nicolas, Chancellor
Romanesque,
98
256
Soest, 256
18, 42,
212,
259
12,
cathedral,
6, 8f.,
i4fT.,
54 ff., 66, 92
f.,
Stained glass,
32,
66,
192, 205
8f.,
102,
13,
22,
i53ffM
259
Werve, Claus de, 137, 256
Weyblingen, Hieronymus
von, 157
der,
174, 176,
103, 109
255
I92ff.,
209
Worcester, cathedral, 257,
259
Works of Mercy, 9, 30
Wiirzburg, chapel of the
Virgin, 220
258
Troubadours, 113
Troyes, cathedral, 258
Uccello, Paolo, 255
Ulm, minster, 184, 214,
258
Ulrich von Ensingen, 83
9, 30,
144
258
263
Photo
Hans H.
229, 239, 250. E. Bauer, Bamberg, p. 56, 57, 58, 59, 98 upper, 108, 122, 159, 188, 224, 225, 227. Klaus G. Beyer, Weimar, p. 98
lower. J. Blauel, Munich, p. 162-63. E. Bohm, Mainz, p. 112, 165, 197, 205. Photo BuUoz, Paris, p. 87, 150, 177, 201. Burkhard
Verlag, E. Heyer, Essen, p. 82. Dr. H. Busch, Frankfurt am Main, p. 70. S. Ewald, Stralsund, p. 71, 230. R. Friedrich, Berlin,
Giraudon, Paris, p. 13, 100, 109, 130, 136, 138, 140 upper, 142, 152, 153, 155, 169, 170, 171, 172, 208. Gundermann,
A. Held, ificublens, p. 92, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 143, 149, 181, 206, 207. HoUe Verlag, Baden-Baden,
p. 23, 38, 72, 99, 100, 102, 104, 131, 145, 173, 176, 190, 211, 232, 233, 240, 241. A. Huck, Strasbourg, p. 214. Dr. M. Hiirlimann,
Zurich, p. 17, 96 lower. M. Jenni, University Library, Basel, p. 157. A. F. Kersting, London, p. 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 94,
95. E. E. Kofler, Lucerne, p. no upper. Landesbildstelle Wiirttemberg, Stuttgart, p. 121. J. A. Lavaud, Paris, p. 135, 158, 182.
Foto Marburg, Marburg, p. 26, 31, 44, 52, 60, 61, 62, 63, 68, 69, 73, 96 upper, 204, 226. E. Meyer, Vienna, p. 160, 216. J. Miiller,
Soest, p. 51. A. Ohmayer, Rothenburg ob der Tauber, p. 220, 222-23. K. H. Paulmann, Berhn, p. in, 196, 249. Preiss & Co.,
Ismaning, p. 178, 180. J. Remmer, Munich, p. 53, 64, 66, 80, 89, 90, 91, n6, n7, 118, n9, 120, 174, 175, 213, 219, 238, 242.
Rheinisches Bildarchiv, Cologne, p. 99, 243, 244, 245. O. Rheinlander, Hamburg, p. 103. W. Rosch, Miinster, p. 186-87. J. Roubier, Paris, p. 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 25, 29, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 97, 141, 251. Foto Scala, Florence, p. 74, 75, 81, 83, 84,
85, 86, 88, 133, 134, 148. H. Schmidt-Glassner, Stuttgart, p. n3, 114, ns. A. Schimpf, Strasbourg, p. 212. Schmolz & Ullrich KG,
Cologne, p. loi, 105. M. Seidel, Mittenwald, p. 18, 27, 28, 30, 33, 106, 123, 147, 161, 164, 198, 199, 200, 210, 218, 231, 234-35,
236-37, 240. Service Archives Photographiques, Paris, p. 22, 107. W. Steinkopf, Berlin, p. 185. K. H. Steppe, Landshut, p. 217.
Stober, Freiburg im Breisgau, p. 65, 67, 191. Ulm Travel Bureau, p. 184, 215. ZFA, Diisseldorf, p. 24. The following illustrations
were kindly supplied by the museums in which the objects are located: p. 54-55, no lower, 144, 146, 151, 154, 156, 166, 167, 179,
p. 189, 246.
Wurzburg,
p. 221.
264
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