Biochemical and speciation aspects of

mercury

Mercury a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is also
known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum ( Greek "hydr-" water and "argyros"
silver). A heavy, silvery d-block element, mercury is the only metal that is liquid at
standard conditions for temperature and pressure. Mercury occurs in deposits
throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). Mercury is used in
thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves,
mercury switches, and other devices. It is an extremely rare element in the Earth's
crust, having an average crustal abundance by mass of only 0.08 parts per million
(ppm).

Chemistry-Mercury exists in two main oxidation states, I and II.

Compounds of mercury(I)The mercury(I) compounds are diamagnetic and
feature the dimeric cation, Hg2+. Stable derivatives include the chloride and
nitrate. Treatment of Hg(I) compounds complexation with strong ligands such as
sulfide, cyanide, etc. induces disproportionation to Hg2+ and elemental mercury.
Mercury(I) chloride, a colorless solid also known as calomel, is really the compound
with the formula Hg2Cl2, with the connectivity Cl-Hg-Hg-Cl.
Compounds of mercury(II)- Mercury(II) is the most common oxidation state and
is the main one in nature as well. All four mercuric halides are known. The form
tetrahedral complexes with other ligands but the halides adopt linear coordination
geometry, somewhat like Ag+ does. Best known is mercury(II) chloride, an easily
sublimating white solid.
Mercury sourcesAlkali and metal processing, incineration of coal, and medical and other waste, and
mining of gold and mercury contribute greatly to mercury concentrations in some
areas, but atmospheric deposition is the dominant source of mercury over most of
the landscape. Once in the atmosphere, mercury is widely disseminated and can
circulate for years, accounting for its wide-spread distribution. Natural sources of
atmospheric mercury include volcanoes, geologic deposits of mercury, and
volatilization from the ocean. Although all rocks, sediments, water, and soils
naturally contain small but varying amounts of mercury, scientists have found some
local mineral occurrences and thermal springs that are naturally high in mercury.
Methylation is a product of complex processes that move and transform mercury.
Atmospheric deposition contains the three principal forms of mercury, although
inorganic divalent mercury (HgII) is the dominant form. Once in surface water,
mercury enters a complex cycle in which one form can be converted to another.
Mercury attached to particles can settle onto the sediments where it can diffuse into
the water column, be resuspended, be buried by other sediments, or be methylated.

The exact mechanisms by which mercury enters the food chain remain largely
unknown and may vary among ecosystems. Certain bacteria play an important
early role. Bacteria that process sulfate (SO4) in the environment take up mercury
in its inorganic form and convert it to methylmercury through metabolic processes.
The conversion of inorganic mercury to methylmercury is important because its
toxicity is greater and because organisms require considerably longer to eliminate
methylmercury. These methylmercury-containing bacteria may be consumed by the
next higher level in the food chain, or the bacteria may excrete the methylmercury
to the water where it can quickly adsorb to plankton, which are also consumed by
the next level in the food chain. Because animals accumulate methylmercury faster
than they eliminate it, animals consume higher concentrations of mercury at each
successive level of the food chain. Small environmental concentrations of methylmercury can thus readily accumulate to potentially harmful concentrations in fish,
fish-eating wildlife and people. Even at very low atmospheric deposition rates in
locations remote from point sources, mercury biomagnification can result in toxic
effects in consumers at the top of these aquatic food chains.
Studies have shown that for the same species of fish taken from the same region,
increasing the acidity of the water (decreasing pH) and/or the DOC content
generally results in higher mercury levels in fish, an indicator of greater net
methylation. Higher acidity and DOC levels enhance the mobility of mercury in the
environment, thus making it more likely to enter the food chain.
Mercury and methylmercury exposure to sunlight (specifically ultra-violet light) has
an overall detoxifying effect. Sunlight can break down methylmercury to Hg(II) or
Hg(0), which can leave the aquatic environment and reenter the atmosphere as a
gas.

Enzymatic interference and Toxic EffectsHg is transformed into a form that can be accumulated in the muscle and fatty
tissue of fish. Fish advisories have been set to limit consumption of certain fish
higher up on the food web, especially for pregnant women and small children .

It has been shown that mercury rapidly depletes the immune system.
Mercury has been shown to induce auto-immune diseases. Mercury can
cause an increase in the number and severity of allergies.
Reproductive effects can occur, such as infertility, miscarriage and
prematurity.
Mercury combines with bile and can cause bile from the gallbladder to
become more alkaline, providing a favorable environment for parasites.
Mercury inhibits the effects of certain neurotransmitters:
Dopamine: controls pain, well-being
Serotonin: relaxation, sleep, well-being
Adrenaline: energy and stamina
Noradrenaline, melatonin: sleep cycles

Mercuric ion (Hg+2) binds to sulfhydryl groups (-SH) in proteins and disulfide
groups (-SS) in amino acids. These sulfur containing groups have an
important detoxification function in the body.
Mercury fights for binding sites in the kidney, another organ for which it has
a special affinity. A mineral and electrolyte balance is needed in order for the
kidney to perform its functions, and a poorly functioning kidney can lead to
edema (fluid buildup in the body).
Mercury from amalgam binds to -SH (sulfhydryl) groups, which are used in
almost every enzymatic process in the body. Mercury therefore has the
potential to disturb all metabolic processes.
One of the earliest and best known examples of environmental mercury
poisoning occurred in Japan in 1953 with the first reported cases of
'Minamata disease'. An international investigation revealed that inorganic
mercury released to Minamata Bay from a nearby acetaldehyde plant had
been converted to methyl mercury by microorganisms in the bay sediments.
The MeHg formed was bioaccumulated by fish and shellfish, a staple of the
nearby population. Symptoms of the 'disease' were typical of MeHg
poisoning, ranging from paresthesia to severe birth defects and death.