UNIT III: SOLID MODELING

PART A
1. Define Geometric modeling.
Geometric design (GD), also known as geometric modeling, is a branch of computational
geometry. It deals with the construction and representation of free-form curves, surfaces,
or volumes.
2. Write down the three types of Geometric models.

Line or wireframe modeling,

Surface modeling,

Solid modeling.
3. List few mass properties.

Density

Specific weight

Specific volume

Specific gravity
4. List the general features of a solid modeling.
 Extrude
 Blend
 Protrusion
 Hole
 Chamfer
 Draft
 Offset
5. Write any four solid primitives.
 Cylinder
 Wedge
 Torus
 Sphere
 Block
 Pyramid
 Cone
 Hemisphere
6. Write any two Boolean operations.
 Union
 Intersection
 Difference

7. What are the primitives of B REP scheme?

Geometric entities
Point
Curve, line
Surface

Topological entities
Vertex
Edge
face

8. List the basic entities used in surface modeling software.

 Line
 Circle
 Arc
 Polyline
 Polygon
 Ellipse
9. State Euler rule for topological checking.
The Euler-Poincar formula describes the relationship of the number of vertices, the number
of edges and the number of faces of a manifold. It has been generalized to include potholes
and holes that penetrate the solid. To state the Euler-Poincar formula, we need the following
definitions:

V: the number of vertices

E: the number of edges

F: the number of faces

G: the number of holes that penetrate the solid, usually referred to as genus in
topology

S: the number of shells. A shell is an internal void of a solid. A shell is bounded by a
2-manifold surface, which can have its own genus value. Note that the solid itself is
counted as a shell. Therefore, the value for S is at least 1.

L: the number of loops, all outer and inner loops of faces are counted.
Then, the Euler-Poincar formula is the following:
V - E + F - (L - F) - 2(S - G) = 0
10. What are the types of parametric modeling?

Parametric model: all the parameters are in finite-dimensional parameter spaces;

Non-parametric model: if all the parameters are in infinite-dimensional parameter
spaces;

Semi-parametric model: contains finite-dimensional parameters of interest and
infinite-dimensional nuisance parameters;

Semi-nonparametric model: It has both finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional
unknown parameters of interest.
11. Name the two types of feature based modeling technique.


Feature recognition

Design by features

12. Define sculptured surface.

Sculptured surfaces are used in geometric modeling to describe all sorts of bendy
things like aero plane wings, car bodies, gas-turbine blades, ship's hulls and so on that
can't be described by simple curved surfaces such as cylinders and cones.
13. What is DXF?
DXF is a file extension for a graphic image format typically used with AutoCAD
(Computer Assisted Drafting) software. DXF stands for Drawing eXchange Format
14. Define the term Feature.
Features are defined as geometric and topological patterns of interest in a part model
and which represent high level entities useful in part analysis.
15. Write down the applications of feature based models

Part and assembly design

Design for manufacturing
Process planning
Inspection planning
Finite element mesh generation

16. List any four modeling packages.



Autocad

Catia

Pro/Engineer

Solidworks

17. List the basic entities in CSG approach of solid modeling.

Cuboid

Cylinder

Sphere

Cone

Wedge

Torus

18. List any two disadvantages of surface modeling.

Interpretation of surface model is still ambiguous.

Surface models require more computational time when compared to wire frame
models.

More skill is required for surface modeling.

Mass properties such as weight, volume and moment of inertia cannot be derived
from surface models.

Surface models cannot be used as a basis for finite element analysis for stress strain
prediction.

Neither hidden lines can be easily removed nor internal sections can be easily
displayed.

19. What is meant by IGES?

The Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) is a file format which defines a vendor
neutral data format that allows the digital exchange of information among Computer-aided
design (CAD) systems.

20. What is meant by GKS?

The Graphical Kernel System (GKS) is a document produced by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) which defines a common interface to interactive computer graphics for
application programs.

UNIT III: SOLID MODELING

PART B
1. With neat sketch, explain in detail about the wire frame modeling.
Wire frame modeling is the simplest method of modeling the object.
 Wire frame models can be considered as networks of inter connected lines to represent
the edges of the physical objects being modeled.
 A typical wire frame may consist of points, lines, arcs, circles, conies and curves.
 There are two types of wire frame modeling 21/2 and 3D modeling.
 Projecting the 2D plane profile along its normal or rotating the 2D plane profile about an
axes is known as2 D projection. A simplest 2 D model is shown in fig 3.1

Fig 3.1. Simple model of 2D projection

Similarly, a simple 3D wire frame model is shown in fig 3.2

(a). Without hidden line removal

(b). With hidden line removal

Fig 3.2 A 3D wireframe model

Advantages:
1. Wire frame models are simple and easy to create, with little computer time and memory.
2. Wire frame model form the basis for surface model.
3. CPU time required to retrieve, edit or update a wire frame model is usually small compared
with surface or solid models.


Wire frame modeling can be considered as extension of computer aided drafting.

Wire frame models provide accurate information about the location of surface
discontinuity on the part.

It can be used as a basis for automatic generation of cutter paths to drive NC machine
tool to manufacture component.
Disadvantages:
1. There is always some ambiguity in visualizing the 3D model.

Fig 3.3 Interpretation of 3D wireframe model

The wire frame model shown in fig 3.3 (a) may be interpreted as a model shown in fig 3.3 (b) or
3.3 (c) i.e. 3D wire frame model can be interpreted in more number of ways.
2. Without hidden line removal object become clumsy and difficult to understand the object.
3. Calculation of section properties and mass properties are impossible.
4. It has limited use in manufacturing and analysis.
5. Presentation of circular holes and curved surfaces are poor.
6. Interference checking will be difficult.
2. With neat sketch, explain about the entities used in surface modeling.
The ambiguities of wire frame modeling are overcome with surface models. The surface
modeling takes the modeling of an object one step beyond wire frame model by providing
information on surfaces connecting the object edges. i.e., A surface model can be built by
defining the surface on the wire frame. This is analogous to stretching a thin sheet of material
over a frame work.
The surfaces generated by the surface modeling are classified into
(a) Flat surface - most basic feature of surface model.
(b) Sculptured surfaces - based on flat face mostly used in FE analysis.
(c) Sculptured surfaces based on patches.
(d) Analytical surfaces (very rarely used).
(e) Combination of the above types.


Simple and basic form of surface is flat surface.

The most general and complex surface representations are generally known as sculptured
surface.

Sculptured surface means the surface produced from combining two families of curves
that intersects one another in a cross-cross manner, creating network of inter connected
patches.

Fig 3.4 Sculptured surface

Common entities used in a surface modeling softwares are
 Plane surface.
 Ruled (lofted) surface.
 Surface of revolution.
 Tabulated surface.
 Bezier surface
 B-spline surface
 coons patch
 Fillet surface.
 Offset surface.
(a) Plane surface:
This is the simplest surface. It requires 3 non-coincident points on an infinite plane.

Fig 3.7 Surface of revolution

(b) Ruled (lofted) surface:
This is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two boundary curves as shown in
fig.

Fig 3.6 Ruled surface

(c) Surface of revolution:

This is an axis symmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects. It is generated by
rotating a planer curve in a space about the axis of symmetry for certain angle of rotation.
(d) Tabulated surface:
This is a surface generated by translating a planner curve along a specified direction as shown in
fig 3.8.

Fig 3.8 Tabulated surface

(e) Bezier surface:
The Bezier surface is generated from the basis of Bezier curve. The simple form of the Bezier
curve is shown in fig 3.9.

The curve is represented by general equation that

Polygon P is known as control polygon. The points P0, P1, P2 and P3 are known as control
points. Since there are four control points, the curve which represents a cubic curve (order of
curve is (n 1) control points). The curve passes through only first and last point P and P Using
the same concept, the simple bezier surface can be generated as shown in fig 3.10.

Fig 3.10. Bezier surface

Similar to the Bezier curve, it does not pass through all given data points. It is a general surface
that pennits, twist and kinks. The Bezier surface allows only global control of the surface.
(1) B-spline surface:
The B-spline surface is generated from the basis of B-spline curve. The simple form of the B
spline shown in fig 3.11.

Fig 3.11 B-spline curve

The general equation of the B-spline curve is in the form of

Fig 3.14. Filleted surface

(i) Offset surface:

Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape but have different
dimension.
The new surface will be created at a faster rate. For example, to create a holding cylinder, first
inner or outer cylinder can be created using a cylinder command.
Based on this surface, other cylindrical surface can be created by using offset command. This
is shown in fig 3.15

Fig 3.15 Offset surface

Application:
Surface modeling can be used generally to model exterior shell objects like sheet metal works
and thin moulded plastic parts.
Other areas of applications of surface modeling are:
1. Body panels of passenger cars, structural components of aircraft and marine structures.
2. Plastic containers, telephones, impellers of pump and turbine, development of surface for
cutting shoe leather, glass marking etc.
Advantages:
1. Unambiguitiveness in the interpretation of object is less than wire frame models by using the
provision of hidden line removal.
2. Surface modeling can be used to perform interference checking (i.e. penetration of one part
with other).
3. Surface modeling can be used to check the aesthetic look of the product (By using coloring
and shade facilities).
4. As the surface models precisely define the part geometry such as surface and boundaries, they
can help to produce NC machine instructions automatically.
5. Complex surface features like shoes, car panels, doors etc can be created very easily.
Disadvantages:
1. Interpretation of surface model is still ambiguous.
2. Surface models require more computational time when compared to wire frame models.
3. More skill is required for surface modeling.
4. Mass properties such as weight, volume and moment of inertia cannot be derived from surface
models.
5. Surface models cannot be used as a basis for finite element analysis for stress strain prediction.
6. Neither hidden lines can be easily removed nor internal sections can be easily displayed.

3. Explain in detail about the CSG technique in 3D solid modeling.

A solid modeler has a library of set of basic element shapes known as primitives like, cuboid,
cylinder, sphere, cone, wedge, torus etc (as shown in fig 3.16).

Fig 3.17 Types of Boolean operation

In this approach, the physical objects are modeled by combining these primitives by a set of
Boolean operations.
The type of Boolean operations is used in CSG are Union (U), difference and intersection (n).
These Boolean operations are explained in fig 3.17.
Here, directed graph (Binary tree) scheme is used to store the model in the data structure. The
general form of the tree-type data structure used in CSG approach is shown in fig 3.18.

Fig 3.18 General tree type data structure


Any node may have one parent node and two-child node. The root node (R) has no parent
and leaf node (L) has no children.

For example to create a model as shown in fig 3.19, four primitives two rectangular
blocks and two cylinders are required.

To create the final object following Boolean operation has to be carried out.

Fig 3.19 Tree structure of model

Advantages:
1. Since, the data to be stored are less, memory required will be less.
2. Create fully valid geometrical solid model.
3. Complex shapes may be developed relatively quicker with the available set of primitives.
4. Less skill is enough.
Disadvantages:
1. More computational effort and time are required whenever the model is to be displayed in the
screen.
2. Getting fillet, chamfer and taperness in the model is very difficult.

4. Explain in detail about the B-rep technique in 3D solid modeling.

This approach is widely used in most of solid modelers. The solid model created by using B- rep
technique may be stored in graph based on data structure system. This is illustrated with a simple
example of tetrahedron shown in fig 3.20.

Fig 3.20. Illustration of B-rep data structure of tetrahedron

The tetrahedron is composed of four vertices namely A, B, C and D.

The co-ordinate of these vertices is stored in the database.
The fig. (b) shows how the vertices are connected to form edges (a, b, c, d, e and f) and
how these edges are connected together to form the face (ABC, BCD, ACD, ABD) which
makes the complete solid of tetrahedron. These connectivities to form the solid are
popularly known as topology.
In B-rep modeler, in addition to store the topology of solid, topological consistency of the
models is also carried out in order to create geometrically valid solid models.
For topological consistency, certain rules have to be followed.
They are
(a) Faces should be bound by a simple loop of edges and should be not intersected by itself
(b) Each edge should exactly adjoin two faces and each edge should have a vertex at each end.
(c) At least three edges should meet at each vertex.

Fig 3.2 Elements of topology

(a) For bodies without holes should satisfy Eulers rule.

Even if the topological consistency is achieved, in some cases like solids having concave
faces will not give geometrically valid solid.

The B-rep scheme is more widely used because

In CSG the number of basic primitives available are limited.

The performance of B-rep scheme is very much superior to that of CSG scheme for
complex engineering models.

Conversion of CSG to B-rep is possible, but conversion from B-rep to CSG is not
possible.

Combining the wire frame and surface model is possible only through B-rep solid
representation.
Advantages:
1. Computational effort and time required to display the model are less compared with CSG.
2. Combining wire frame and surface model are possible.
3. Complex engineering objects can be modeled very easily compared with CSG.
4. Since the topology and geometry are treated separately, incorporating new geometries in the
existing model is easy.
5. It is particularly suitable for modeling part having internal symmetry.
Disadvantages:
1. The data to be stored is more and hence it requires more memory.
2. Sometimes geometrically valid solids are not possible.

5. Explain briefly about the parametric and feature based modeling.

Features are defined to be parametric shapes associated with attributes such as intrinsic
geometric parameters (length, width, depth etc.), position and orientation, geometric tolerances,
material properties, and references to other features. Features also provide access to related
production processes and resource models. Thus, features have a semantically higher level than
primitive closed regular sets. Features are generally expected to form a basis for linking CAD
with downstream manufacturing applications, and also for organizing databases for design data
reuse. Parametric feature based modeling is frequently combined with constructive binary solid
geometry (CSG) to fully describe systems of complex objects in engineering.
Another feature of modern CAD systems is the ability to create parametric models. In a
parametric model, each entity, such as a boolean primitive, a line or arc in a wireframe, or a
filleting operation, has parameters associated with it. These parameters control the various
geometric properties of the entity, such as the length, width and height of a rectangular prism, or
the radius of a fillet. They also control the locations of these entities within the model.
These parameters can be changed by the operator as necessary to create the desired part.
Parametric modelers that use a history-based method keep a record of how the model was built.
When the operator changes parameters in the model and regenerates the part, the program
repeats the operations from the history, using the new parameters, to create the new solid. There
are many uses for this type of modeling. Designers can test various sizes of parts to determine
which is the ``best'' part for their use by simply adjusting the model parameters and regenerating
the part.
Some parametric modelers also allow constraint equations to be added to the models. These can
be used to construct relationships between parameters. If several parameters always require the
same value, or a certain parameter depends on the values of several others, this is the best way to
ensure that these relationships are always correct.
These modelers allow other methods of relating entities as well. Entities can be located, for
example, at the origin of curves, at the end of lines or arcs, at vertices, or at the midpoints of
lines and faces. They can also be located at a distance or at the end of a vector from these points.
When the model is regenerated, these relationships are maintained. Some systems will also allow
geometric constraints between entities. These can require that entities be, for example, parallel,
tangent, or perpendicular.
Feature-based modelers allow operations such as creating holes, fillets, chamfers, bosses, and
pockets to be associated with specific edges and faces. When the edges or faces move because of
a regeneration, the feature operation moves along with it, keeping the original relationships. The
choices made developing these models are very important. If the features aren't referenced
correctly, they may not end up in the correct place if the model is regenerated. A feature that is
located at an X and Y offset from a corner of the face instead of at the center of the face will not
remain at the center of the face when the model is regenerated unless constraints are added to the
model that will change the X and Y offsets to keep the feature at the center of the face.

6. Classify the graphics standards. Name some important standards used in plotting and
CAD data exchange.

7. Explain briefly the GKS and IGES system

GKS System:
The main objective of the Graphical Kernel System, GKS, is the production and manipulation of
pictures (in a way that does not depend on the computer or graphical device being used). Such
pictures vary from simple line graphs (to illustrate experimental results, for example), to
engineering drawings, to integrated circuit layouts (using colour to differentiate between layers),
to images representing medical data (from computerised tomographic (CT) scanners) or
astronomical data (from telescopes) in grey scale or colour. Each of these various pictures must
be described to GKS, so that they may be drawn.
In GKS, pictures are considered to be constructed from a number of basic building blocks. These
basic building blocks, or primitives as they are called, are of a number of types each of which
can be used to describe a different component of a picture. The five main primitives in GKS are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

polyline: which draws a sequence of connected line segments.

polymarker: which marks a sequence of points with the same symbol.
fill area: which displays a specified area.
text: which draws a string of characters.
cell array: which displays an image composed of a variety of colours or grey scales.

Associated with each primitive is a set of parameters which is used to define particular instances
of that primitive. For example, the parameters of the text primitive are the string or characters to
be drawn and the starting position of that string. Thus:
TEXT(X, Y, 'ABC')
will draw the characters ABC at the position (X, Y).
Although the parameters enable the form of the primitives to be specified, additional data are
necessary to describe the actual appearance (or aspects) of the primitives. For example, GKS
needs to know the height of a character string and the angle at which it is to be drawn. These
additional data are known as attributes.
The attributes represent features of the primitives which vary less often than the form of the
primitives. Attributes will frequently retain the same values for the description of several
primitives. Once a suitable character height has been selected, for example, several character
strings may be plotted using this character height (such as the labels on the axis of a graph).
1. POLYLINE
The main line drawing primitive of GKS is the polyline which is generated by calling the
function:
POLYLINE (N, XPTS, YPTS)

where XPTS and YPTS are arrays giving the N points (XPTS(1), YPTS(1)) to (XPTS(N),
YPTS(N)). The polyline generated consists of N - 1 line segments joining adjacent points
starting with the first point and ending with the last.
The GKS function for drawing line segments is called polyline. The polyline function takes an
array of X-Y coordinates and draws line segments connecting them. The attributes that control
the appearance of a polyline are:

Linetype, which controls whether the polyline is drawn as a solid, dashed, dotted, or
dash-dotted line.
Linewidth scale factor, which controls how thick the line is.
Polyline color index, which controls what color the line is.

2. POLYMARKER
Instead of drawing lines through a set of points, we may wish just to mark the set of points. GKS
provides the primitive polymarker to do just this. A polymarker is generated by the function:
POLYMARKER (N, XPTS, YPTS)
where the arguments are the same as for the polyline function, namely XPTS and YPTS are
arrays giving the N points (XPTS(1), YPTS(1)) to (XPTS(N), YPTS(N)). Polymarker places a
centred marker at each point.
The GKS polymarker function allows you to draw marker symbols centered at coordinate points
that you specify. The attributes that control the appearance of polymarkers are:

Marker, which specifies one of five standardized symmetric characters to be used for the
marker. The five characters are dot, plus, asterisk, circle, and cross.
Marker size scale factor, which controls how large each marker is (except for the dot
marker).
Polymarker color index, which specifies what color the marker is.

3. FILL AREA
The GKS fill area function allows you to specify a polygonal shape of an area to be filled with
various interior styles. The attributes that control the appearance of fill areas are:

Fill area interior style, which specifies how the polygonal area should be filled: with solid
colors or various hatch patterns, or with nothing, that is, a line is drawn to connect the
points of the polygon, so you get only a border.
Fill area style index. If the fill area style is hatch, this index specifies which hatch pattern
is to be used: horizontal lines; vertical lines; left slant lines; right slant lines; horizontal
and vertical lines; or left slant and right slant lines.
Fill area color index, which specifies the color of the fill patterns or solid areas.

4. Text
The GKS text function allows you to draw a text string at a specified coordinate position. The
attributes that control the appearance of text are:
Text font and precision, which specifies what text font should be used for the characters
and how precisely their representation should adhere to the settings of the other text
attributes.
Character expansion factor, which controls the height-to-width ratio of each plotted
character.
Character spacing, which specifies how much additional white space should be inserted
between characters in a string.
Text color index, which specifies what color the text string should be.
Character height, which specifies how large the characters should be.
Character up vector, which specifies at what angle the text should be drawn.
Text path, which specifies in what direction the text should be written (right, left, up, or
down).
Text alignment, which specifies vertical and horizontal centering options for the text
string.
5. Cell Array
The GKS cell array function displays rasterlike images in a device-independent manner. The cell
array function takes the two corner points of a rectangle that you specify, a number of divisions
(M) in the X direction and a number of divisions (N) in the Y direction. It then partitions the
rectangle into M x N subrectangles called cells. You assign each cell a color and create the final
cell array by coloring each individual cell with its assigned color. At level 0A, cell array has no
associated attributes.

08. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of wire frame modeling technique.
Advantages:
1. Wire frame models are simple and easy to create, with little computer time and memory.
2. Wire frame model form the basis for surface model.
3. CPU time required to retrieve, edit or update a wire frame model is usually small
compared with surface or solid models.
o Wire frame modeling can be considered as extension of computer aided drafting.
o Wire frame models provide accurate information about the location of surface
discontinuity on the part.
o It can be used as a basis for automatic generation of cutter paths to drive NC
machine tool to manufacture component.
Disadvantages:
1. There is always some ambiguity in visualizing the 3D model.

Fig 3.3 Interpretation of 3D wireframe model

The wire frame model shown in fig 3.3 (a) may be interpreted as a model shown in fig 3.3 (b) or
3.3 (c) i.e. 3D wire frame model can be interpreted in more number of ways.
2. Without hidden line removal object become clumsy and difficult to understand the
object.
3. Calculation of section properties and mass properties are impossible.
4. It has limited use in manufacturing and analysis.
5. Presentation of circular holes and curved surfaces are poor.
6. Interference checking will be difficult.

09. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Surface modeling technique.
Advantages:
1. Unambiguitiveness in the interpretation of object is less than wire frame models by using
the provision of hidden line removal.

2. Surface modeling can be used to perform interference checking (i.e. penetration of one
part with other).
3. Surface modeling can be used to check the aesthetic look of the product (By using coloring
and shade facilities).
4. As the surface models precisely define the part geometry such as surface and boundaries,
they can help to produce NC machine instructions automatically.
5. Complex surface features like shoes, car panels, doors etc can be created very easily.
Disadvantages:
1. Interpretation of surface model is still ambiguous.
2. Surface models require more computational time when compared to wire frame models.
3. More skill is required for surface modeling.
4. Mass properties such as weight, volume and moment of inertia cannot be derived from
surface models.
5. Surface models cannot be used as a basis for finite element analysis for stress strain
prediction.
6. Neither hidden lines can be easily removed nor internal sections can be easily displayed.

10. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Solid modeling technique
Advantages of Solid Modeling:

Complete modeling.
Unambiguous.
Best suitable for calculating mass properties.
Very much suitable for automated applications.
Fast creation.
Gives huge information.

Disadvantages of Solid Modelling:

Requires large memory.

Slow manipulation.