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FORM 4
THEME: Investigating the Cell as a Basic Unit of Living Things

CHAPTER

Cell Division

SPM Topical Analysis

Year

2007

Paper

Section
Number of questions

2008
3

1
3

2009

1
2

2010

1
2

2011
3

ONCEPT MAP
CELL DIVISION
Cell cycle

G1, S, G2 phases (interphase)

M stage
Mitosis

Meiosis
Differences

Definition

Definition
Importance

Importance

Stages of meiosis

Stages of mitosis
Prophase

Application:
Tissue culture
Cloning

Metaphase

Anaphase

The effects of
controlled and
uncontrolled cell
division

Telophase

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

Prophase I

Prophase II

Metaphase I

Metaphase II

Anaphase I

Anaphase II

Telophase I

Telophase II

Cytokinesis

108

COMPANION WEBSITE

Learning Objectives

 1 (a) In plants, mitotic cell division occurs

actively in the meristematic tissues of
the root tips and bud tips.
(b) Meristematic tissues are also found in
terminal buds, the vascular cambium and
cork cambium.
(c) Active cell division in meristematic tissues
allows growth and elongation of a plant to
take place at a faster rate.
2 (a) In animals, growth takes place in every
part of the body and is not just confined
to certain parts as in plants.
(b)
For example, the human skin has
Malpighian layers that undergo mitotic
cell division to produce new skin cells
to replace dead skin cells. During the
growth process, the Malpighian layers
also add to the skin surface area.

The necessity for the production of new

cells in living organisms
1 Cells in the body are continuously dividing,
growing, and dying. Dead cells need to be
replaced with new cells. All organisms grow
and change through cell division.
2 (a) New cells are produced from existing cells,
through a process known as mitotic cell
division.
(b) Mitotic cell division involves the
process of nuclear division called
mitosis, followed by a cytoplasmic
division called cytokinesis.

The meaning and significance of mitosis

Mitosis is the process of nuclear division which
results in the formation of two genetically identical
daughter nuclei.
The significance of mitosis

(a) Mitosis replaces dead cells. For example, skin cells can live for only two weeks, after which

new cells are formed through mitosis.

(b) It allows damaged cells to be repaired, replaced, or even regenerated, for example, liver cells

can regenerate themselves following an injury through the process of mitosis to replace the
damaged or lost part.

(c) It is the basis of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms such as Amoeba sp. The

daughter cells produced are genetically identical to the parent cell. This type of cell division,
which produces two new organisms, is also known as binary fission.

(d) It increases the number of cells in all living organisms, thus, allowing growth and development
in multicellular organisms.
In multicellular organisms, the zygote divides and grows into two cells, then four, eight and
eventually into millions of cells that make up a multicellular organism.
All the cells that are formed are genetically identical. This means that all the cells in our body
have the same genes; be it a cell in the liver, a cell in the skin or a cell in the brain.
(e) It results in the formation of two daughter nuclei which are genetically identical to each other
and to the parent nucleus. Each nucleus contains the same number of chromosomes and the same
genetic material as the parent cell.

Refer Form 4, Chapter 2, Unit 2.2

109

Cell Division

The types of cells that undergo mitosis

Mitosis

CHAPTER

5.1

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Chromosomes and chromosomal number

1 The cells in a sexually reproducing organism
can be divided into
(a) somatic cells
(b) reproductive cells or gametes
2 (a) Somatic cells comprise all the cells in an

organism, except for the reproductive cells.
(b) Somatic cells are formed through mitosis.
3 Reproductive cells are formed through
meiosis.
4 Every cell has thread-like structures in its
nucleus called chromosomes.
5 The number of chromosomes present in the
cells of each species of an individual organism
is constant. This number is referred to as the
chromosomal number of the species.
6 (a) All individuals of the same species have
the same chromosomal number but the
cells of individuals of a different species
have a different chromosomal number. For
example, onions have 16 chromosomes
while the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster,
has eight chromosomes.
(b) Since chromosomes in the nucleus exist
in pairs, the chromosomal number is said
to be diploid and is designated as 2n.
Therefore, for the onions, 2n = 16 and for
Drosophila melanogaster, 2n = 8.
7 The gametes contain only half the number
of chromosomes or only one of each pair
of chromosomes, that is, a single set. The
chromosomal number is said to be haploid,
and is designated as n. Therefore, in an onion,
n = 8 and in a Drosophila melanogaster, n = 4.
8 (a) All somatic cells in the human body have
46 chromosomes.
(b) Each gamete only has 23 chromosomes.
(c) Red blood cells do not have nuclei, and
consequently no chromosomes.
9 All somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes:
one set inherited from each parent. Therefore,
one set of the chromosomes is of paternal
origin, whereas the other is of maternal
origin.
10 The presence of two sets of chromosomes in
the nucleus of a cell is known as the diploid
number of chromosomes (2n).
11 In humans, one set of chromosomes consists
of 23 chromosomes. Hence, our somatic cells
have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs
or 2n = 46 while each gamete only has 23
chromosomes.
12 The two chromosomes in each pair have the
same structural features and are referred to as
homologous chromosomes. Each member
of the pair is called a homologue.
Cell Division

13 Both chromosomes of each pair carry genes for

the same trait (for example, eye colour) at the
same location.
14 Cells with two sets of homologous chromosomes
SPM are called diploid cells (for example, somatic
09/P2
cells) while cells which contain only one set
of chromosomes are called haploid cells (for
example, sperm and egg cells).
15 Of the 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
in humans, one pair is the sex chromosomes.
Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
while males have an X chromosome and a Y
chromosome (XY).
16 Each of the gametes or reproductive cells
contains only one set of chromosomes or
one of each kind of chromosome found in a
somatic cell. Therefore, each human gamete
only contains one set of 23 chromosomes or
haploid number of chromosomes (n).

Photograph 5.1 The human karyotype consists of a

total of 46 chromosomes arranged in
matching pairs

Mitosis maintains the chromosomal number

of species and ensures genetic material is
passed on to the offspring
1 (a) Each daughter cell that is formed through
mitosis receives genetic
material
inherited from the parent cell.
(b) The genetic material, the DNA, is carried
in the chromosomes.
2 The DNA consists of a double helix which
contains hundreds or thousands of genes.
3 Each gene in the chromosomes of a parent cell
is a unit of inheritance that must be passed
down to its offspring.
4 This genetic information is passed down to the
offspring when the nucleus divides to produce
two identical nuclei by mitosis.
5 Each daughter cell contains the same
chromosomal number and genetic material
as the parent cell.
6 Hence, mitosis doubles the number of cells
without changing the genetic content of the cell.
110

Refer Form 5, Chapter 5, Unit 5.3

What is a chromosome?

DNA replication

one
chromatid

the chromosome
condenses

When a DNA double helix replicates, it

becomes two DNA double helices. The
chromosome is said to have duplicated. A
duplicated chromosome consists of two
identical sister chromatids.

duplicated chromosome
in a condensed state
centromere

DNA
double helix

sister chromatids

Each duplicated chromosome contains

two identical DNA double helices.
Each sister chromatid contains a DNA
double helix.

Sister chromatids separate and

become independent daughter
chromosomes during anaphase.
Each chromatid carries an
identical DNA double helix.

Figure 5.1 Chromosome duplication and condensation

1 A chromosome consists of DNA molecule and

protein.

7 Each DNA double helix is contained within a sister

chromatid. Hence, the two sister chromatids
contain identical copies of DNA molecules.

2 DNA carries the genetic material that organisms

inherit from their parents.

8 During mitosis, the two sister chromatids separate

and each becomes an independent daughter
chromosome.

3 A DNA molecule consists of hundreds or thousands

of genes.

9 When cell division begins, the chromatin becomes

condensed, coiled and folded. At this stage, the
chromosome becomes compact and thick and
can be easily seen under the light microscope.
It has a narrow region in the centre called the
centromere.

4 When the chromosomes are not condensed and

visible as thread-like structures, they are called
chromatin.
5 During the S phase, the DNA molecule replicates,
forming two identical DNA double helices.
6 The replication of DNA produces a duplicated
chromosome with two sister chromatids.

111

Cell Division

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A chromosome which consists

of a DNA double helix.

chromosome duplication

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Thecell cycle
1 The cells of a multicellular organism progress
through a well-defined sequence of stages
leading to the division and formation of new
cells.
2 A cell cycle extends from the time a new cell
is produced until the time the cell completes a
division.
3 The cell cycle is divided into two major phases:
(a) Interphase (G1, S and G2 sub-phases)
(b) Mitotic cell division or the M phase
4 The different phases of the cell cycle are outlined
in Figure 5.2.

6 A pair of centrosomes (found only in animal

cells) is also formed in the cytoplasm. Each
centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles.
7 Each pair of centrioles will later migrate towards
the opposite poles of the cell and help in the
formation of the spindle fibres.
8 After a period of time, depending on the type
of cell and the nutrients available, the cell will
start to divide.
9 Interphase is divided into three shorter stages
or sub-phases:
(a) G1 phase (gap or growth phase 1)
(b) S phase (DNA synthesis)
(c) G2 phase (gap or growth phase 2)
10 The events that take place at each sub-phase
are detailed in Figure 5.2.

THE CELL C

Interphase
1 In humans, the cell cycle occurs gradually and
continuously for 8 to 24 hours.
2 Interphase accounts for about 90% of the cell
cycle.
3 Interphase is also the stage at which cells grow
larger and prepare for cell division.
4 During interphase, the nucleus is big and well
defined (Photograph 5.2).
5 The chromosomes are not condensed and are
visible as thread-like structures called chromatin.

What is DNA replication?

When one DNA double helix replicates, two identical
DNA double helices are formed. Each DNA double
helix has the original strand and a new strand.

Photograph 5.2 A cell at interphase

Two identical DNA double helices

Cell Division

112

During this stage, the cell begins to acquire and synthesise the materials required for cell division.
Proteins and new organelles are being synthesised.
The metabolic rate of the cell is high.
G1 is a crucial phase because during this phase, cells will decide whether or not to divide and
complete the cycle to form new cells. If the external conditions are conducive for growth, then
the cell enters the S phase.
During G1, chromosomes are extremely fine and cannot be seen under the light microscope. At
this stage, the chromosomes are known as chromatin.
SPM
11/P1

CHAPTER

G1
(growth phase 1)

SPM
05/P1

CYCLE

S phase
(DNA synthesis)
Synthesis of DNA (genetic material)
occurs.
The DNA undergoes replication.
A duplicated chromosome consists
of two identical sister chromatids.
Both sister chromatids contain identical copies of the chromosomes DNA
molecule.

G2
(growth phase 2)
The cell continues to grow and
remains metabolically active.
Enzymes and proteins are
synthesised for cell division.
The cell accumulates energy and
completes its final preparations for
division.
Figure 5.2 The cell cycle consists of G1, S, G2,
mitosis and cytokinesis

113

Cell Division

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The processes of mitosis and cytokinesis

SPM
09/P2

1 After the interphase stage, the dividing cells

enter the M phase.
2 The M phase or mitotic cell division phase can
be divided into two major parts:
(a) mitosis
(b) cytokinesis
3 Mitosis can be further subdivided into four
phases, namely,
(a) prophase
(b) metaphase
(c) anaphase
(d) telophase
4 The phases are continuous, with each merging
into the next one.
The phases of mitosis in animal cells:
PROPHASE

SPM
10/P1

METAPHASE

SPM
11/P1

spindle
fibres
nucleolus
The chromosomes
condense and become
tightly coiled.
The chromosomes
become shorter, thicker
chromosome
and visible under a
centrioles
light microscope.
centromere
Each chromosome
Figure 5.3(a) Prophase
consists of two sister
chromatids joined together
at the centromere.
In the cytoplasm, spindle fibres begin to form between the
centrioles.
Each pair of centrioles then migrates to lie at the opposite poles
of the cell.
Each pair of centrioles acts as a central point from which the
spindle fibres radiate. The central point is known as the spindle
pole.
The spindle fibres from the opposite spindle poles are attached to
the centromeres of each sister chromatid.
In plant cells the spindle forms without the presence of centrioles.
At the end of prophase, the nucleolus disappears and the
nuclear membrane disintegrates.

Cell Division

114

centromere

metaphase
plate

SPM
09/P1

spindle
fibres

sister
chromatids

Figure 5.3(b) Metaphase

The centromeres of all the
chromosomes are lined up on
the equator of the cell called the
metaphase plate.
The spindle fibres are now fully
formed.

The chromosomes are arranged
randomly at the metaphase plate.
The two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are still attached to each
other at the centromere.
Metaphase ends when the centromeres
divide.

5
CHAPTER

ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE

nuclear
membrane

cleavage
furrow

pole

daughter chromosomes

Figure 5.3(c) Anaphase

The two sister chromatids of each chromosome

separate at the centromere.
The sister chromatids are pulled apart to the opposite
poles by the shortening of the spindle fibres that
connect the chromosomes to the poles.
Once separated, the chromatids are referred to as
daughter chromosomes.
Anaphase ends when the chromosomes reach the
poles of the cell.
Since the sister chromatids are identical copies of the
original chromosomes, each pole of the cell will have
a set of complete and identical chromosomes as in the
parent cell.
115

nucleolus

Figure 5.3(d) Telophase

Telophase begins when both sets of chromo

somes reach the opposite poles of the cell.
The chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to
their extended state (chromatin) again.
The spindle fibres disappear and a new
nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes.
The nucleolus re-forms in each nucleus.
The process of mitosis is now complete.

Cell Division

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 2 Through cytokinesis, the daughter cells formed

have all the organelles, nutrients and other
components needed to survive and maintain
themselves.
3 Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasmic
division.
4 It usually begins before nuclear division is
complete, that is, towards the end of telophase.

Cytokinesis
1 Following mitosis, the cytoplasm of the cell
divides through a process called cytokinesis
to form two daughter cells, each having one
nucleus.

CHAPTER

F
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Cytokinesis in animal cells

cleavage
furrow

1
Actin filaments in the
cytoplasm contract
to pull a ring of the
plasma membrane
inwards, forming
a groove called the
cleavage furrow.

2
The cleavage furrow
pinches at the equator
of the cell.

3
The cleavage furrow
deepens progressively
until the cell separates
into two daughter
cells.

Figure 5.4 Cytokinesis in an animal cell

Photograph 5.3 The formation of a

cleavage furrow in an animal cell

Cytokinesis in plant cells

1 Although plant cells undergo the same stages of mitosis as in animal cells, cytokinesis in plant
cells occurs by a process which is different from that of animal cells.
2 After cytokinesis, the cell enters G1 of interphase, thus completing the cell cycle.
cell wall

cell plate

newly formed
cell wall

vesicles

1
Membrane-enclosed
vesicles collect at the
equator between the two
nuclei.
The vesicles join to form
a cell plate.

2
The cell plate grows outwards
until its edges fuse with the
plasma membrane.
New cell walls and plasma
membranes are formed from
the contents of the cell plate.
Figure 5.5 Cytokinesis in a plant cell

Cell Division

116

3
Eventually, the cell plate
divides the cell into two
daughter cells.
Cellulose fibres are
produced by the
cells to strengthen the
new cell walls.

The importance of controlled mitosis

1 Cells must divide in a controlled and orderly
manner and be precise in distributing an exact
copy of each of their chromosomes to the new
cells.
2 This is important because the genetic information carried by the chromosomes is necessary
for the proper functioning of an organism.
3 Mitosis ensures that the genetic content and
the number of chromosomes in the parent
cells are maintained in the daughter cells from
one generation to the next.
4 The rate and timing of cell division is im
portant for normal cell growth, development
and maintenance.
5 Different cells divide at different frequencies.
For example, human skin cells divide
throughout their lifespan while liver cells only
divide when necessary to replace damaged and
injured tissues. Nerve and muscle cells do not
divide at all once they mature.
6 The entire cell cycle and cell division is closely
regulated.
(a) Each cell has a system consisting of
specific proteins which control and direct
the sequence and progression of phases in
the cell cycle.
(b) The control system within the cells
ensures that cell division is complete and
the cell divides in a controlled manner.
(c) Certain genes are also involved in the
synthesis of certain proteins that can
stimulate the replication of chromatin
during the S phase.

The effects of uncontrolled mitosis

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(a) Normal cells

6 Cancer cells can intrude on and spread to other

tissues which then lead to the malfunction of
the tissues and ultimately death.
7 Cancer can be caused by many factors such as
(a) damage to the DNA
(b) changes in genes (mutation) that control
cell division
(c) ionising radiation, for example, X-rays,
ultraviolet rays and gamma rays
(d) certain chemical compounds like tar in
tobacco smoke
(e) carcinogenic
compounds (cancercausing com
pounds) such as formaldehyde
Table 5.1 The differences between normal cells and
cancer cells

Normal cells

SPM
08/P2

1 When a cell divides by mitosis repeatedly,

without control and regulation, it can produce
cancer cells.
2 Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled
mitosis due to severe disruption to the
mechanism that controls the cell cycle.
3 Cancer cells divide freely and uncontrollably
without heeding the cell cycle control system.
4 Cancer cells compete with the surrounding
normal cells to obtain sufficient nutrients and
energy for their own growth.
5 A cancer cell that is not destroyed will
divide uncontrollably to form a tumour, an
abnormal mass of cells (Figure 5.6).

Cancer cells

Controlled growth

Uncontrolled growth

A single organised layer

Multi-layered and
disorganised

Cells are differentiated

and carry out specialised
functions.

Cells are undifferentiated

and do not have
specialised functions.

The nuclei and number

of chromosomes are
normal.

The nuclei and number

of chromosomes are
abnormal.

The application of knowledge of mitosis

in cloning
The knowledge of mitosis is applied in cloning
and the tissue culture technique.
117

Cell Division

CHAPTER

Figure 5.6 A layer of normal cells that divide

uncontrollably to become a tumour

(b) A tumour

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Cloning

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genetic content and chromosomal number as

the parent organism. This is a common characteristic of asexual reproduction.
5 The nucleus that directs the development
of the offspring comes from a diploid cell
produced through mitotic cell division and
not through the fusion of gametes produced
by meiotic cell division.
6 The successful cloning of Dolly has demonstrated
that under the right conditions, inactive genes
of specialised adult cells can be expressed and
made functional once again.

1 Cloning is the process of producing clones or

genetically identical copies of a cell, tissue or
an organism through asexual reproduction.
2 Animal cloning involves the transfer of the
nucleus from a somatic cell to an ovum or
embryonic cell with the nucleus removed.
3 Many animals have been successfully cloned
ever since the first mammal, a sheep named
Dolly, was cloned in 1996 (Figure 5.7).
4 Cloning is a form of asexual reproduction
because the organisms produced have the same

How is animal cloning carried out?

An animal is cloned using a nucleus obtained from an adult tissue.
Dolly, the sheep, is genetically identical to the somatic cell donor.

SPM
07/P1

Dolly, which is a clone of

a somatic cell donor parent,
was born in July 1996.

1
Somatic cells (from the
mammary gland cells)
are removed and grown
in a low culture medium.
The starved cells stop
dividing and enter a
non-dividing phase.

2
An unfertilised egg
cell is obtained. The
nucleus is sucked out,
leaving the cytoplasm
and organelles without
any chromosomes.
5
The embryo is then
implanted into a
surrogate mother
(the same breed of
sheep as the ovum
donor sheep).

3
An electric pulse
stimulates the fusion
between the somatic
cell and the egg cell
without nucleus.
4
The cell divides
repeatedly, forming
an embryo.

Dolly, the cloned

sheep of the somatic
cell donor, is born.

Figure 5.7 The cloning of Dolly

Cell Division

118

 4 The main purpose of tissue culture is to

produce plant and animal cells through
asexual reproduction.
5 Each cell has the full genetic potential (just
like a zygote) to form all parts of a mature
organism. This means a single plant cell can
develop to become a complete plant.
6 Different parts of plants that can be cultured
include young shoots, meristematic tissues, leaves,
roots, seeds, embryos, cells and protoplasm.
7 In Malaysia, the tissue culture technique is
used to propagate plants such as oil palm,
rubber trees, orchids and tomatoes.

CHAPTER

1 Many types of plant and animal cells can be

extracted from organisms and cultured in a
nutrient medium outside the organisms.
2 Tissue culture technique involves the growth
of cells or tissues outside the organisms in
a suitable culture medium, which contains
nutrients and growth hormones (in vitro
methods).
3 In vitro literally means in glasses. The term
refers to experiments conducted outside the
body of an organism, namely in test tubes or
conical flasks.

Tissue culture technique

How is the tissue culture technique carried out?

SPM

06/P2
1
Small pieces of a plants leaf, shoot, bud, stem or root
tissues are cut out.
These cut out plant tissues are called explants.

2
Alternatively, enzymes are used to digest the cell walls
of tissues, for example, the mesophyll tissue from a leaf.
This results in naked cells without cell walls called
protoplasts.
3
The explants or protoplasts are sterilised and then
placed in a glass container which contains a nutrient
solution with a fixed chemical composition. A culture
medium or growth medium normally consists of a
complex mixture of glucose, amino acids, minerals and
other substances required for the growth of the tissues.
The culture medium and the apparatus used must be in
sterile conditions and free from microorganisms which
can contaminate the tissue culture.
The pH and temperature of the culture medium also
need to be maintained at optimum levels.
4
The explants or protoplasts begin to divide by mitosis.
Cell division produces aggregates of cells.
The aggregate of cells develop into a callus; an
undifferentiated mass of tissue.
5
The callus develops into a somatic embryo.
The embryo develops into a plantlet which can later be
transferred to the soil for growth into an adult plant.
All the plantlets produced this way are genetically
identical. Therefore, all the adult plants that develop
from them share the same traits.
119

SPM
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isolated
cells

Explant

Protoplasts

3 Explant/protoplasts

in a culture medium

4
aggregates
of cells

callus

5
plantlet

somatic
embryo

Figure 5.8

Cell Division

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8 Through the tissue culture technique:

(a) thousands of new young plants or cloned
plants with desirable characteristics and
traits such as strong resistance towards
diseases can be produced from somatic
cells taken from the parent plant.
(b) thousands of identical young plants, all
having the same characteristics and genetic
content as the parent plant can be produced.
(c) a large number of identical plants can
be grown or propagated for commercial
purposes.
9 With the latest developments in genetic
engineering, the genes of a plant can be altered
and engineered to produce higher yields.
10 These transgenic plants carry a foreign gene
that has been introduced into their genetic
constitution so that they possess new and
different traits.
11 Transgenic plants have improved food quality.
These plants can be propagated through the
tissue culture technique.
12 Transgenic crops like wheat, soya bean and
cotton which are resistant to herbicides, pests
and diseases have been successfully created by
biotechnologists.

(f) The insulin is then purified and used in the

treatment of diabetes mellitus.
(g) The problem with this method is that it is
costly and the amount produced cannot meet
the demand for insulin.
(h) Today, through genetic engineering, the gene
that codes the synthesis of human insulin is
inserted into the bacterias genome.
(i) The genetically modified bacteria are then
grown on a large scale.
(j) The bacteria multiply rapidly by binary
fission, and the human gene replicates
together with the bacterias own genes.
(k) The bacterial clones or transgenic bacteria
that are being produced are identical
because each clone contains the gene to
synthesise insulin.
(l) The bacterial cells are then lysed so that
insulin can be extracted. Because bacteria
multiply rapidly and can be grown in large
numbers, insulin can be produced on a
large scale for commercial purposes.
(m) Insulin produced in this way can be made
in large quantities, is less expensive and
more readily available.
3 (a) Plants that reproduce from seeds take
a long time to grow and produce fruits.
Cloned plants, however, can produce
flowers and fruits within a shorter period.
(b) Furthermore, as clones reach maturity in a
shorter period of time, less time and effort
are needed to properly supervise them in
the earlier stages.

Advantages of cloning
1 Cloning allows biotechnologists to multiply
copies of useful genes or clones.
(a) For example, the bacterium Escherichia
coli has been genetically manipulated to
produce bovine growth hormones.
(b) The clones of these bacteria can synthesise a
large amount of the hormone.
(c) The hormone can then be injected into
cows to increase the quality of their milk.

4 Many transgenic crops like wheat, soya bean

and cotton which are resistant to herbicides,
pests and diseases have been created.
(a) Plants are also engineered to produce better
quality yields. For example, a gene from
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
is transferred to the cotton plant to create
a new transgenic cotton plant which is
resistant to the Bt larvae. This gene codes
the synthesis of the Bt protein which kills
the larvae that feed on cotton plants.
(b) Delayed ripening in tomatoes is another
example of the beneficial traits possessed
by transgenic plants. This type of tomato
appears fresh and firm and has a longer
shelf life (Photograph 5.4).
(c) Transgenic plants can be cloned using
the tissue culture technique to produce
thousands of plantlets (clones) with similar
resistance to pests and diseases. Farmers are
now planting many of these genetically
modified (GM) crops.

2 Clones can be produced in a shorter time and

in larger numbers.
(a) In medicine, for example, the Escherichia
coli strain can be cloned to produce insulin.
(b) Insulin is a hormone that lowers the level
of blood sugar by converting excess glucose
into glycogen in the liver.
(c) Insulin is produced by the pancreas. A lack
of insulin can cause diabetes mellitus.
(d) People with diabetes mellitus require a
constant supply of insulin.
(e) In the past, insulin was obtained by
extracting it from the pancreas of
animals such as cows after they had been
slaughtered.
Cell Division

120

5 (a) Cloning and tissue culture techniques

involve vegetative reproduction which
does not need pollinating agents.
(b) Thus, propagation can take place at any
time without the need for pollination.

Disadvantages of cloning
Disadvantages of cloning
Many ethical and moral issues regarding cloning have been raised. Many religious groups and
organisations have questioned and strongly opposed cloning. Among the issues raised are as follows:

1 The long-term side effects of using

genetically modified viruses and bacterial
clones in various fields such as medicine
and industries are not yet known.
For example, many vaccines, antibodies
and hormones are produced by genetically
modified bacteria. The period of use and
their side effects on humans have not been
established.

4 All clones have the same level of

resistance towards certain diseases. If a
new disease or pest emerges, then all the
clones may be eliminated, as they are not
resistant to the new diseases or pests.

5 New clones may undergo natural mutations

which can endanger mankind, as well as
the environment. They may also disrupt the
natural equilibrium of an ecosystem.

2 The long-term effects and safety aspects

of releasing bacterial clones to the
environment to solve problems related to
the environment such as pollution are not
yet known. These organisms may mutate
and become dangerous to the environment
and other living organisms.

6 Certain transgenic crops contain genes that

are resistant to herbicides. These genes
may be transferred to weeds through
viruses. These weeds could then become
resistant to herbicides.

3 Clones do not show any genetic variations.

For example, certain plant clones have
adapted to the current environment.
However, if a drastic change to the
environment should occur in the future, the
clones may be wiped out entirely, as they
would be unable to adapt to the changes.

7 For reasons still unknown, cloned animals

have a shorter lifespan. Research is
currently underway to find a solution to
prolong the lives of cloned animals.

121

Cell Division

Photograph 5.4 A delayed-ripening tomato (left)

does not rot when compared to a

normal tomato (right) which rots

after being kept for two weeks.

CHAPTER

6 Certain transgenic bacteria can be used to

control environmental pollution.
(a) For example, the gene for the synthesis of
lipase is isolated from animals and inserted
into the bacterial genome to create a new
strain of bacteria that can clean up oil spills
in the ocean.
(b) There are also some bacterial clones which
are able to break down toxic waste materials
and help clean up toxic waste dumps.
(c) For example, one such bacterium is able to
remove sulphur from coal before it is burnt.
(d) Therefore, transgenic bacteria are able to
help humans overcome pollution by cutting
down the time and cost of cleaning required
for the removal of oil spills and toxic
wastes.

F
O
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M
4

5.1
1 Give the definition of mitosis.

3 Describe the process that takes place during the S

phase.

2 State two reasons why mitosis is important in

living organisms.

5
CHAPTER

F
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5.2

4 State two advantages of applying the tissue culture

technique.

Meiosis

The diagram shows a cell at one particular stage of

mitosis.

The significance of meiosis

1 Mitosis produces daughter cells that have
exactly the same number of chromosomes as
the original parent cells.
2 If mitosis is the only means of nuclear division,
then each gamete produced by the reproductive
organs would contain a complete set of
chromosomes, that is, each gamete would
have a diploid number of chromosomes (2n).
3 This means that each offspring formed through
the fertilisation of the male and female gametes
would have twice the chromosomal number
of the parent cell.
4 Hence, in order for the offspring to possess the
same chromosomal number as their parents,
the reproductive organs that produce the
gametes must undergo meiosis.
5 The number of chromosomes in the nucleus
of some organisms is given in Table 5.2.

Which cell is produced by the cell division?

A
B
C
D

Comments
The stage shown in the diagram is prophase. The
number of chromosomes in the cell is 4. At the end
of mitosis, the number of chromosomes is also 4,
consisting of 2 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
Answer B

Table 5.2 Diploid chromosomal number of some

organisms

The necessity for the production of haploid

gametes

Chromosomal
Organism

number
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)

32

Zea mays (corn)

20

Felis domesticus (cat)

38

Gallus gallus (chicken)

78

Lycopersicon esculantum (tomato)

24

Musca domestica (housefly)

12

Orvis aries (sheep)

54

Equus caballus (horse)

64

Homo sapiens (human)

46

Cell Division

SPM
Clone

09

1 Meiosis is a process of nuclear division that

reduces the number of chromosomes in
daughter cells to half that of the parent cell.
2 Meiosis produces haploid gametes. Gametes
SPM are called haploid cells (n) because they
04/P1
contain half the genetic material or half the
number of chromosomes of the parent cells
(diploid cells, 2n).
3 As each gamete receives only one chromosome
from every pair of homologous chromosomes,
this means, in humans, the gametes contain
only 23 chromosomes or haploid number of
chromosomes (n).
4 During sexual reproduction, the fusion
of two gametes (the sperm and the ovum)
122

 5 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are still

present.
6 In animal cells, a pair of centrosomes is also
formed in the cytoplasm. Each centrosome
consists of a pair of centrioles (Figure 5.9).

restores the complete number of chromo

somes and genetic material, forming a diploid
zygote with 46 chromosomes. This means
the offspring inherits traits from both parents
to ensure a continuation of life.
5 If human reproductive organs divide by mitosis,
then the resulting daugther cells (gametes) would
be like somatic cells, having 46 chromosomes
(2n = 46). Fertilisation of two gametes would
then bring the number of chromosomes to
92. If this happens the offspring would not be
human anymore!

chromatin

The types of cells that undergo meiosis

nucleolus

1 In animals, meiosis occurs in reproductive

organs, that is the testes (in males) and
ovaries (in females).
2 In plants, meiosis occurs in the anthers and
ovaries of flowers.

Figure 5.9Interphase

The process of meiosis

SPM
Clone

08

The diagram shows a pair of homologous

chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.

1 Meiosis consists of two separate nuclear

divisions:
(a) meiosis I, which consists of prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I.
(b) meiosis II, which consists of prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II.
2 Meiosis I begins with a single diploid parent
cell. At the end of meiosis II, four haploid
daughter cells are produced, each genetically
different from the others and from the parent
cell.
3 In meiosis, even though the cell undergoes two
nuclear divisions, the DNA of each chromo
some only replicates once.

What is P?
A Synapsis
B Chiasma
C Bivalent
D Crossing over
Comments
Synapsis is the process when homologous
chromosomes pair up.
A bivalent consists of a pair of chromosomes,
one is of paternal origin, the other is of maternal
origin.
Crossing over is the process in which
non-sister chromatids exchange segments of
DNA.
The point at which segments of chromatids cross
over is called a chiasma.
Answer B

The stages of meiosis

Interphase
1 The cell replicates its DNA and duplicates its
chromosomes.
2 After replication, each chromosome consists
of two identical sister chromatids, held
together by a centromere.
3 The cell now has twice the amount of genetic
material, but the same number of chromo
somes as before.
4 Chromosomes are not condensed and therefore
are not visible under the microscope.
123

Cell Division

CHAPTER

centrosomes
(with centriole
pairs)

nuclear
envelope

F
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4

Meiosis I:
Separates homologous
chromosomes

visible.
4
Homologous chromosomes
come together to form pairs
of bivalents through a process
called synapsis. One of the
chromosomes is of paternal
origin, whereas the other is
of maternal origin.
Each bivalent consists of a
four-part structure called a
tetrad. A tetrad consists of
two homologous chromosomes, each of which
is made up of two sister
chromatids.
Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA in
a process known as crossing
over.
Crossing over can occur
at any locations or several
locations on the chromosome at the same time.
Crossing over results in new
combinations of genes on a
chromosome.
The points at which segments of chromatids cross
over are called chiasmata
(singular, chiasma).
At the end of prophase I,
the nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear.
The two pairs of centrioles
migrate to the opposite
poles of the cell. Each
pair of centrioles acts as a
central point from which the
spindle fibres radiate.

Cell Division

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

Telophase I
And
Cytokinesis

SPM
08/P2

F
The chromosomes
begin
O
to condense. They
become
R
shorter, thicker
M and clearly

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

Prophase I
F
O
R
M

SPM
10/P2

chiasmata

sister
chromatids
remain
attached

spindle
fibre

cleavage
furrow

sister
chromatids

metaphase
plate

Metaphase I

homologous
chromosomes
aligned at the
metaphase
plate

centrioles

homologous
chromosomes
separate and
pulled to the
opposite poles

SPM
04/P1

The spindle fibres pull the tetrads to the middle of the cell.
Pairs of homologous chromosomes align themselves at the metaphase
plate (equator of the cell).
The homologous chromosomes are lined up side by side as tetrads.
One chromosome of each homologous pair is attached to fibres from one
pole while its homologue is attached to fibres from the opposite pole.
The centromere does not divide.

Anaphase I

SPM
11/P1

The spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes apart from one
another and move them to the opposite poles of the cell.
Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids which move as a
single unit.
This means that each member of the homologous chromosomes is attached
to spindle fibres that pull them towards the opposite poles.
At the end of anaphase I, each pole has only two chromosomes (each with
two sister chromatids).

Telophase I
The chromosomes arrive at the poles.
Each pole now has a haploid daughter nucleus because it contains only
one set of chromosomes.
The spindle fibres disappear.
The nuclear membrane reappears to surround each group of
chromosomes.
The nucleolus then reappears in each nucleus.

124

Anaphase II
sister chromatids
separate

T elophase II
A nd
C ytokinesis
F
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4

nuclear
membrane

Metaphase II

CHAPTER

Prophase II

SPM
08/P2

CHAPTER

Meiosis II: Separates sister chromatids

haploid daughter
cells forming

two haploid
daughter cells

1. Cytokinesis usually occurs

simultaneously with telophase I, resulting in two
haploid daughter cells. Each
daughter cell receives one
chromosome from a homologous pair.
2. In some organisms, the newly
formed daughter cells undergo
a short interphase. However,
for most organisms, there is no
interphase between meiosis I
and meiosis II.
3. In both situations, DNA replication does not take place
and the chromosomes remain
in a condensed state.
4. The events which take place
during meiosis II are identical
to those of mitosis.

four haploid daughter cells

Prophase II
The nuclear membrane
disintegrates.
The spindle fibres re-form
in each daughter cell.

Metaphase II
The chromosomes, each
still made up of two
sister chromatids, are
positioned randomly at
the metaphase plate.
Each sister chromatid is
attached to the spindle
fibres at the centromere.

125

Anaphase II
The centromeres of the sister
chromatids separate.
The sister chromatids of each
chromosome are now individual
chromosomes.
Each individual chromosome moves
towards the opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase II
Finally, the nucleoli and nuclear
membranes re-form.
The spindle fibres break down.
Cytokinesis follows and four haploid
daughter cells are formed. Each
haploid cell contains half the number
of chromosomes and is genetically
different from the parent diploid cell.
These haploid cells become gametes.

Cell Division

F
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4

The differences and similarity between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis

Meiosis
Similarity

The process of cell division in which DNA replicates only once.

Differences

CHAPTER

Mitosis
F
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Aspects/events

Meiosis

All somatic cells

Type of cell

Cells in the reproductive organs

Produces new cells for growth and repair

Role

Produces gametes for sexual reproduction

Pairing of homologous chromosomes

(synapsis) does not occur.

Synapsis

Homologous chromosomes pair up

(synapsis) to form bivalents.

Crossing over between non-sister

chromatids does not occur during prophase.

Crossing over

Crossing over between non-sister

chromatids occurs during prophase I.

The individual chromosomes are arranged

randomly at the metaphase plate.

Metaphase of mitosis
Metaphase I of
meiosis

Homologous chromosomes line up side

by side at the metaphase plate.

Sister chromatids separate to move to the

opposite poles.

Anaphase of
mitosis
Anaphase I of
meiosis

Homologous chromosomes separate

to move to the opposite poles.
The sister chromatids still remain
attached to each other.

One

Number of cell
divisions

Two

Two daughter cells.

Number of
daughter cells
produced at the
end of the division

Four daughter cells (gametes).

Diploid (2n) or the same number of

chromosomes as the parent cell.

Genetically identical to the parent cell and

to one another.
There is no genetic variation in any
generation.

Cell Division

Chromosomal
number of the
daughter cells

Haploid (n) or half the number of

chromosomes of the parent cell.

Genetic content

Different from the parent cell and from

one another.

Genetic variation

There is genetic variation from one

generation to the next.

126

haploid gametes (n = 23)

ovum (n)
sperm (n)

Meiosis
Fertilisation
ovary

testis

Mitosis and
development
diploid zygote
(2n = 46)
multicellular diploid
adults (2n = 46)

Figure 5.10 The human life cycle

5.2
1 State two differences between meiosis I and
meiosis II.

Meiosis increases the genetic variation of the

population. The diploid cell of an organism which
undergoes meiosis can produce 2n different
chromosomal combinations, where n is the haploid
number. In humans, the number is 223, which is more
than eight million different combinations.

2 Identify the event that occurs during prophase

I which brings about genetic variation in the
daughter cells being formed.
3 Explain what will happen if the cells in the
reproductive organs do not divide by meiotic cell
division.
Refer Form 5, Chapter 6, Unit 6.2

127

Cell Division

CHAPTER

(b) During metaphase I, each pair of

homologous chromosomes is arranged inde
pendently and randomly (independent
assortment) at the metaphase plate of
the cell. The paternal or maternal chromo
somes or homologues may be oriented to
face either one of the poles.
3 Both these events produce gametes with
different combinations of chromosomes. The
events that occur during meiosis I and the
random fertilisation of an ovum by a sperm
results in genetic variation in a population of
organisms that reproduce sexually.

1 In species that reproduce sexually, meiosis

ensures that the diploid number of
chromosomes is maintained from one
generation to the next (Figure 5.10).
2 Meiosis provides for genetic variation which
occurs from one generation to the next. Meiosis
leads to genetic recombination in two key
events which occur during meiosis I.
(a) During prophase I, the process of cross
ing over results in the exchange of genetic
material between non-sister chromatids of a
bivalent. This results in the formation of new
combinations of genes on a chromosome.

The importance of meiosis

F
O
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M
4

formed would later become abnormal. For

example, Downs syndrome is the result of an
extra chromosome 21, so that each body cell
has a total of 47 chromosomes instead of 46.
The affected individuals have certain charac
teristics which include small build and mental
retardation.
6 (a) Certain environmental agents such as
radiation and certain chemicals are
known to be carcinogenic and can disrupt
the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

(b)
Food
that
contains
preservatives
such as sodium nitrite, benzene and
formaldehyde are also known to change
the structure of DNA molecules.
7 Ways of preventing cancer would be to avoid
contact with these substances as well as
adopting a healthy lifestyle and a diet rich in
fruits and vegetables.

Appreciating the Movement

of Chromosomes during
Mitosis and Meiosis

1 The ability of organisms to reproduce ensures

the continuity of life on Earth.
2 Whether the organisms reproduce through
mitotic cell division or meiotic cell division,
the ultimate aim is to ensure the survival of
each species from one generation to the next.
3 Asexual reproduction
through mitosis pro
F
duces offspring
that are identical to the
O
R reproduction through meiosis
parent; sexual
M
produces genetic variability in the offspring.
4 Both processes
are regulated in a precise
4
manner.
5 If meiosis does not occur properly, the gametes
formed will have an abnormal number of
chromosomes. As a result, the zygote that is
CHAPTER

CHAPTER

F
O
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M

5.3

(d) Telophase The chromosomes reach the

opposite poles of the cell.
8 Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm
is divided into two daughter cells, each with a
nucleus.
9 Cloning is the process of producing clones or
genetically identical copies of a cell, tissue or an
organism through asexual reproduction.
10 Tissue culture involves the growth of cells or tissues
outside the organisms in a suitable culture medium,
which contains nutrients and growth hormones.
11 Meiosis is a process of nuclear division that reduces
the number of chromosomes in daughter cells to
half that of the parent cell.
12 Meiosis consists of two separate nuclear divisions:
(a) Meiosis I:
(i) Prophase I Crossing over which results
in new combinations of genes on a
chromosome.
(ii) Metaphase I Pairs of homologous
chromosomes align themselves at the
metaphase plate.
(iii) Anaphase I Spindle fibres pull the
homologous chromosomes apart from
one another and move them to the
opposite poles of the cell.
(iv) Telophase I and cytokinesis Each pole
now has a haploid daughter nucleus. Two
haploid daughter cells are produced.

1 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division which

results in the formation of two genetically identical
daughter nuclei.
2 Somatic cells (formed through mitosis) comprise all
the cells in an organism except reproductive cells.
3 Reproductive cells are formed through meiosis.
4 The cell cycle is divided into two major phases:
(a) Interphase (G1, S and G2)
(b) Mitotic cell division or the M phase
5 Interphase is the stage at which cells grow bigger
and prepare for cell division. The three sub-phases
are:
(a) 
G1 phase Proteins and new organelles are
synthesised.
(b) 
S phase Synthesis of DNA occurs. DNA
undergoes replication where duplication of
chromosomes occurs.
(c) 
G2 phase Enzymes and proteins are
synthesised.
6 The M phase can be divided into mitosis and
cytokinesis.
7 Mitosis is sub-divided into four phases:
(a) Prophase The chromosomes condense and
become tightly coiled. Spindle fibres begin to
form.
(b) Metaphase The chromosomes are arranged
at the metaphase plate.
(c) Anaphase The two sister chromatids separate
and are pulled apart to the opposite poles.

Cell Division

Refer Form 5, Chapter 5, Unit 5.2

128

 (b) Meiosis II:

(i) Prophase II Spindle fibres re-form.
(ii) Metaphase II Individual chromosomes
are positioned randomly at the metaphase
plate.
(iii) Anaphase II The centromeres of the

sister chromatids separate. The sister

chromatids move to the opposite poles.
(iv) Telophase II and cytokinesis Spindle
fibres break down and four haploid
daughter cells are formed.

5.1

Mitosis

1 Stages K, L, M and N in Diagram 1 occur during mitosis in a cell.

SPM
Clone

08

CHAPTER

Multiple-choice Questions

CHAPTER

F
O
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5
4 Diagram 4 shows the process of
SPM
cloning a sheep.
Clone
07

Diagram 1

Which of the following shows the correct sequence of mitosis?

A K, L, M, N
C M, K, L, N
B N, K, M, L
D N, M, K, L

ovum

diplod cell

2 Diagram 2 shows a type of cell division.

embryo

surrogate
mother

Diagram 2

Which cell undergoes this type of cell division?

A Skin cell
C Secondary oocyte
B Red blood cell
D Embryo sac mother cell

offspring Z

Diagram 4

3 Diagram 3 shows the phases in the cell cycle.

SPM
Clone

Prophase

06

Anaphase

Which of the following is the

offspring Z?
A
C

Diagram 3

Which statements about the chromosomes at stages P and Q are correct?

Stage P

Stage Q

A Each chromosome consists of

two sister chromatids.

The homologous chromosomes

form pairs of bivalents.

B The chromosomes condense

and become tightly coiled.

The sister chromatids separate

and move to the opposite poles.

C The chromosomes duplicate to

form sister chromatids.

The chromosomes are long

and not visible.

D The chromosomes line up at

the metaphase plate.

The chromosomes reach the

opposite poles of the cell.

129

5 If the chromosomal number of

an organism is 12, what is the
chromosomal number of gamete
cells, somatic cells and embryonic
cells of the organism?
Cell Division

F
O
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4

Gamete Somatic Embryonic

cells
cells
cells
12
12
12
A
6
12
6
B
6
12
12
C
12
6
12
D

10 At which stages of the cell cycle do these events occur?

6 G1, M, G2 and S are the phases of

SPM
Clone a cell cycle in an organism.
S

5
CHAPTER

G2

Prophase

Prophase

Anaphase

Interphase

Anaphase

Metaphase

Interphase

Prophase

Anaphase

Interphase

Interphase

Anaphase

Human cells

Which sequence of the phases

during the interphase is correct?
A G1 S G2
B G1 G2 S
C M G1 G2
D M S G2
7

G1

Diagram 5

Chromosomal

A Red blood cells

number
0

B Ova

23

C Intestinal cells

46

D Skin cells

8 The diploid chromosomal number

SPM
Clone (2n) of an animal is 42. If one of
08 the homologous chromosome
pairs does not separate
during meiosis I, how many
chromosomes can be found in
the gametes?
A 19
C 21
B 20
D 42

12 Diagram 7 shows a cell at

metaphase during mitosis.

Cell Division

D
Diagram 7

What is the chromosomal number

in the daughter cells after cell
division is completed?
A 2
C 8
B 4
D 16
13 Diagram 8 shows the different
stages of mitosis.

15 If mitosis continues to occur without
cytokinesis, the daughter cells will
A lack nuclei
B grow unusually big
C have more than one nucleus
D not undergo interphase
16 Which phase in the interphase is
SPM
responsible for the synthesis of
Clone
11 DNA?
A G1
C S
B G2
D M

5.2

09

Diagram 6

After mitosis After meiosis

9 Diagram 6 shows an animal cell

SPM
Clone undergoing mitosis.

What is the stage of the mitosis?

A Prophase
B Metaphase
C Anaphase
D Telophase

14 Which of these illustrates the

condition of a somatic cell and a
reproductive cell of an insect after
undergoing mitosis and meiosis
respectively, if the number of
chromosomes in a diploid cell is 4?

23

Nuclear membrane
disintegrates.
Spindle fibres are formed.

During which phase in mitosis do
the events take place?
A Interphase C Metaphase
B Prophase D Anaphase

Division of
centromere

11 Which of these human cells

do not have the correct
chromosomal number?

05

F
O
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Breakdown of nuclear
membrane

DNA replication

Diagram 8

What are the correct sequence of

stages?
A P, Q, R, S C Q, R, P, S
B S, R, P, Q D S, R, Q, P

130

Meiosis

17 Which sequence of meiosis I is

SPM
correct?
Clone
11
A Prophase
I Anaphase I
Metaphase I Telophase I
B Metaphase I Telophase I
Prophase I Anaphase I
C Anafase I Metaphase I
Telophase I Prophase I
D Prophase I Metaphase I
Anaphase I Telophase I

 18 Crossing over occurs between

A two different kinds of
chromosomes
B two different kinds of bivalents
C sister chromatids of the same
chromosomes
D non-sister chromatids of a
bivalent

21 Diagram 10 shows a sequence of

SPM
stages during meiosis.
Clone
04

24 During which stage of meiosis

do hormologous chromosomes
separate?
A Prophase I C Prophase II
B Anaphase I D Anaphase II
25 Diagram 11 shows a stage during
cell division.

19 Which diagram represents

metaphase I?
A

D

20 Diagram 9 shows the different
SPM
stages of meiosis in a diploid cell,
Clone
07 2n = 4.

II

III

IV
Diagram 9

Which is the correct sequence of

the stages?
A III, II, IV, I
B I, III, IV, II
C III, IV, II, I
D II, IV, III, I

22 If an insect species has a diploid

SPM
number of chromosomes,
Clone
04 2n = 12, in each of its nuclei,
which is true?

III

Number
Number of
of nuclear
chromosomes
division
in gametes
during IV
after meiosis
meiosis

12

23 During which phase of meiosis

are chiasmata formed?
A Prophase I
B Metaphase I
C Anaphase I
D Telophase II

131

CHAPTER

During stage P, the homologous

chromosomes
A become condensed and
thickened
B pair up and crossing over
occurs
C separate and move towards
the opposite poles
D arrange themselves randomly
at the metaphase plate

II

Diagram 10

Diagram 11

Which of these statements are

true about the cells?

I Four chromosomes are
present in each daughter cell.

II Homologous chromosomes
separate and move towards
the opposite poles of the cells.

III The number of daughter cells
produced at the end of the cell
division for each cell is 8.

IV Sister chromatids are attached
together at the centromere
and move as a unit.
A I and III
C I, II and III
B II and IV
D II, III and IV
26 Which statements explain the
importance of meiosis?

I Haploid cells are produced
during meiosis.

II The chromosomal number is
reduced to half in the daughter
cell.

III The chromosomal number
is maintained after each cell
division.

IV Causes genetic variation from
one generation to the next.
A I and II
B III and IV
C I, II and IV
D II, III and IV

Cell Division

F
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4

Structured Questions
1 Diagram 1.1 shows part of the stages of meiosis in an animal cell.
SPM
Clone

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

F
O
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M

08

Stage K

F
O
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M

Stage L

Stage M

Meiosis I

Stage N

Stage O

Meiosis II
Diagram 1.1

The chromosomal behavior during stage N is not

shown.
(a) Name the structure labelled P.

2 Diagram 2.1 shows the nucleus of an animal cell.

[1 mark]

nuclear
membrane

(b) Diagram 1.2 shows process X which takes place

during stage K.

Diagram 2.1

(a) (i) Name the structures seen inside the nucleus

in Diagram 2.1.

(ii) What is the chromosomal number of the
nucleus in Diagram 2.1? [2 marks]

Diagram 1.2

(i) Draw the chromosomes at the end of

process X.

(b) When one nucleus divides, what is the normal

number of daughter nuclei formed from this
nucleus as a result of division by

(i) mitosis?

(ii) meiosis? [2 marks]

(c) Within the outlines of the nuclei in Diagram 2.2,

[1 mark]

(ii) Name process X. State one importance of

process X to an organism. [2 marks]

(c) (i) In Diagram 1.1, complete the diagram to

show the chromosomal behaviour during
stage N. [1 mark]

draw the correct number of chromosomes of the

nucleus shown in Diagram 2.1, as they would
appear
(i) after mitosis
(ii) after meiosis

(ii) Explain the behaviour of chromosomes

during stage N. [1 mark]

(d) Cancer cells are formed after normal cells are

exposed to several factors.

(i) Explain the formation of cancer cells.
[2 marks]

(ii) State two factors that cause the formation of

cancer cells. [2 marks]

(iii) State two ways to prevent the development

of cancer cells.
[2 marks]

Cell Division

Nucleus of a
cell produced
after division
by mitosis

132

Diagram 2.2

Nucleus of a
cell produced
after division
by meiosis
[4 marks]

(d)
Diagram

2.3 shows two homologous

chromosomes and the loci of two genes.
Q

4 Diagram 4.1 shows two cells, X and Y, undergoing cell

4
division.
SPM
Clone
05

Q
P

Diagram 2.4

cell X

[4 marks]

cell Y

Diagram 4.1

(a) (i) Name the structures labelled P and Q.

[2 marks]

3 Diagram 3.1 shows three stages of meiosis, K, L and

SPM
M, in an animal cell.
Clone

(ii) State the stages of division of cells X and Y.

[2 marks]

07

(b) If cell X undergoes three consecutive cell

divisions, how many daughter cells are
produced?
[1 mark]

(c) (i) Cell Y undergoes the first nuclear division.

Complete Diagram 4.2 to show the chromosomes in the daughter cells produced.

[2 marks]

Diagram 3.1

(a) Name the stages K, L and M in Diagram 3.1.

[3 marks]
(b) Explain what happens at stage M.

[2 marks]

(c) State the chromosomal behaviour at the

following stages:

(i) stage K
(ii) stage L
[2 marks]
(d) Explain the role of mitosis in the cloning
technique.
[3 marks]

Diagram 4.2
F4/28

(e) Diagram 3.2 shows a cell at a certain phase.

If chromosome P is not separated, draw the
diagrams of the two daughter cells which will be
formed in the next phase in the space provided.

(ii) State the number of chromosomes in each

daughter cell. [1 mark]
(iii) State one organ where cell Y can be found.

133

[1 mark]
Cell Division

CHAPTER

F
O
Diagram 3.2 R
[2
marks]
M

If crossing over occurs between the allele Q

and allele q, and between the alleles R and r,
complete Diagram 2.4 to show four possible
gametes formed at the end of meiosis.

CHAPTER

Diagram 2.3
F
O
R
M
4

(iv) If the number of chromosomes in a somatic

cell of an insect is 14, what is the number
of chromosomes in the daughter cells
produced at the end of the type of cell
division shown by cell Y ? [1 mark]

(e) A farmer plans to produce a large number of

bananas within a short period of time.

(i) Suggest the best technique that can be
employed by the farmer.

(ii) State one aspect that must be considered
before he chooses to use this technique.

[2 marks]

(d) Explain how radiation can stop the growth of

cancer cells. [2 marks]

Essay Questions

5 (a) Diagram 5.1 shows the process of mitosis.

CHAPTER

F
O
R
M

Diagram 5.1

Explain the significance of mitosis. [4 marks]

6 (a) Explain the principles used in the cloning

technique.
[3 marks]

(b) Explain the similarities and differences between

mitosis and meiosis.
[6 marks]

(b) Diagram 6 shows how animal cloning is carried

out.

(c) Diagram 5.2 shows a tissue culture technique

used to clone or propagate carrot plants.

Step 1

egg

Step 2

black-faced sheep

explant

Step 4

explant in
culture medium

egg fused
with cell

Step 3
white-faced sheep
callus

somatic cell

embryo

Step 5

surrogate mother
somatic
embryo

plantlet

offspring P

somatic
embryo

Step 6

Step 7

Diagram 5.2

Diagram 6

Based on Diagram 5.2, explain how the process

is carried out.

Explain the advantages of using this method of

reproduction compared to growing plants from
seeds to a fruit grower. [10 marks]

(c) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the

cloning technique to mankind.
[10 marks]

Cell Division

134

Based on Diagram 6, explain how the cloning of

offspring P is carried out.
[7 marks]

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