AP Biology: Evolution & Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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AP BIOLOGY
EVOLUTION & HARDYWEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM
Student Packet
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Evolution & Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle states that allelic frequencies in a population will remain the same
(equilibrium) assuming that the following 5 stipulations are met:
Large population size
No migration
No mutation
No selection
No selective mating
1. A large population is a must
A large population size (the bigger the better) is necessary to reduce the likelihood that chance
occurrences have a significant impact on allelic and genotypic frequencies of a population.
What happens if the large population rule is broken?
Genetic drift is due to chance changes in populations causing genotypic frequencies to change
over time. It is very significant in small populations (like flipping a coin 10xs vs. 1x1010xs).
founder effect: increases genetic drift as a few individuals move to a new, isolated
location.
bottleneck effect: increases genetic drift due to drastic population reduction (often via
natural disaster, loss of habitat, etc.) . Modern Cheetahs for example display
exceptionally little genetic variation due to a bottlenecking event that is thought to have
occurred ~10,000 years ago. It so happens that this coincides with the last ice age.
Whats the significance of genetic drift? The new population is likely to lose less common
alleles or at least represent dissimilar gene frequencies relative to the original population.
2. No migration can occur

If individuals migrate into (immigration) or out of (emigration) existing populations the gene
frequencies of that population will change.
What happens if the no migration rule is broken?
gene flow: alleles are transferred between existing populations due to movement of individuals or
gametes
Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
3. No mutation can occur

Mutation is in essence the most direct change in gene frequency as it literally changes the genes. A
change (mutation) in the genotype will of course change gene frequencies.
4. No selection may occur
No natural or artificial selection can occur as this will also shift gene frequencies.
5.No selective mating may occur
Random mating will insure a consistent, random shuffling of genes. This is the opposite of selective
mating in which a female bird may select a male with most brightly colored feathers, etc.
Hardy-Weinberg Problems: Tracking changes in gene frequencies

The equations:
How does gene frequency change actually occur?
p+q=1
If 1 or more of the previously mentioned 5
&
2
stipulations is NOT met, then a change in gene
p + 2pq + q2 = 1
frequencies is possible. This change in gene
p = the dominant allele
frequency can be expressed mathematically with the
q = the recessive allele
equations represented at the right.
Equation #1 Why does p + q = 1?
Percentages are represented as decimal numbers in these equations (100% = 1.00, 80% =.80, etc.).
It is therefore only logical that the total number of dominant alleles (p) and the total number of recessive
alleles (q) add up to 1.00. Commit this logic to memory as opposed to simply memorizing.
Equation #2 Hint:
Once the 1st equation is known, one can derive the second by simply squaring both sides of the first
equation:
(p + q = 1)
square it
(p + q)2 = 12
Do the foil method from algebra class to arrive at equation #2
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Why have two equations?
The 1st equation is accounting for allele frequencies in isolation (p
and q).
The 2nd equation is able to represent the 3 genotypes of a genetic
cross.
Why does this the 2nd equation work? It is based on a Punnett square
cross between two heterozygotes. For example, in the parent cross of
Rr xRr note that the following genotypic frequencies are produced:
1RR : 2Rr : 1rr
How would one represent this ratio with the H-W variable listed
above?
pp + 2pq + qq = 1 or p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Special note When working H-W problems do not forget that
mathematically a heterozygote is represented by 2pq. It is a common
error to forget to multiply by 2.
Hardy-Weinberg Example Problem:

A certain population of cats is represented by 9% homozygous recessive cats with white fur.
A. What percentage of the alleles present in the population is recessive?
B. What percentage of the alleles present in the population is dominant?
C. What percentage of the population is homozygous dominant?
D. What percentage of the population is heterozygous?
E. What percentage of the population brown?
p+q=1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
What percentage of the alleles present in the population is recessive?
We know that the homozygous recessive genotype is represented by:
q2 = .09
By taking the square root of both sides, we can determine the following
q = .3 or 30%
30% of the alleles are recessive
What percentage of the alleles present in the population is dominant?

Using equation #1, we can solve for p to determine the following
p = 1 - .3
p = .7 or 70%
70% of the alleles are dominant
What percentage of the population is homozygous dominant?

Therefore each of the following conclusions can be made:
p2 = (.7)2 = .49 or 49%,
49% of the population is homozygous dominant
What percentage of the population is heterozygous?

2pq = 2(.7)(.3) = .42 or 42%
42% of the population is heterozygous
What percentage of the population brown?

p2 + 2pq
.49 + .42 = .91 or 91%
91% of the population will display brown fur
Speciation: What is a species and what are the barriers between species?
What is a species?
A biological species is the same kind breeding to make fertile offspring.
BIOLOGICAL SPECIES
How are gene pools between different species kept isolated one from another?
Prezygotic Barriers isolate gene pools of species.
Habitat isolation: Separate, non-overlapping (or rarely overlapping) habitats result in populations
that simply dont mingle with each other. If parasite A lives on host A and parasite B lives on
host B, it is not likely that parasite A and B will interact often; they are isolated from each other.
Behavior isolation: Mating rituals are often very strictly adhered to by a species. Be it a song
(birds) or a particular mannerism, the outsider is unable to follow proper protocol and is thus
unlikely to get a chance at mating with an individual.
Temporal isolation: Temporal isolation is the isolation by time. If the mating season of animal A
is in the fall and animal B in the spring, it is unlikely that animal A and B will mate with each
other. Some plants are pollinated in the daytime, some at night. This too is temporal isolation.
Mechanical isolation: Anatomically incompatible species will be unable to mate. Sex organs
may incompatible. Flowers have very specific adaptations to attract their pollinators (platforms
on which to land, specific colors, etc.)
Gametic isolation: If the sex cells cannot come into contact, reproduction will not take place.
Aquatic gametes require water for fertilization while non aquatic gametes do not. With regard to
plants, some egg protein coats are different from one species to the next
Postzygotic Barriers
If fertilization were to occur, what mechanisms might still isolate one species from another?
Reduced hybrid viability: Different species will have different genomes to some degree (large or
small). The haploid cells (gametes) from two different species are less likely to form a diploid
cell with a working genome.
Reduced hybrid fertility: If an offspring is possible, hybrid offspring are often sterile (horse +
donkey = sterile mule)
Hybrid breakdown: Over generations the ability of the hybrid to reproduce may deteriorate (1st
generation of offspring is fertile.2nd cant reproduce).
How might new species come about?

Allopatric Speciation (other homeland): new species evolve due to geographic isolation from one
another
Allopatric speciation examples:
A mountain separates previously cohabitant individuals.
A dam or wall separates previous cohabitants.
Adaptive radiation is the evolution of many diversely adapted individuals from a common
ancestor. The classic example of adaptive radiation would be island hopping (Darwins
finches)
How does each of the above result in new species given enough time? The isolation of a small
number of individuals from an otherwise large population could by chance result in a very significant
change in genetic makeup of that population (genetic drift). Some alleles might be entirely absent
from the small isolated population for example. These alleles will remain absent from the population
as the population grows in size. As the original population in habitat A and new population in
habitat B evolve separately over extended periods of time, many small changes in gene frequencies
add up to significant differences: a new species.
Sympatric Speciation (same homeland): species evolve separately even though their geography
overlaps
Sympatric Speciation examples:
Animals may select certain features in a mate. Eventually they may do this exclusively
Polyploidy: more than the normal # of chromosomes (as opposed to diploid or haploid)
-Autopolyploidy: 4n instead of 2n cells that are viable to reproduce asexual or through self
fertilization thereafter
-Allopolyploidy: 2 species combine genetics and typically reproduce asexually thereafter
How common are these polyploids? Polyploids are somewhat common in plants but are
rare in animals. Wheat in wheat bread is an allolpolyploid of wheat and wild grassalso
cotton, tobacco, potatoes, etc.
Tempo of Speciation: Gradualism & Punctuated Equilibrium
Gradualism: slow, steady change in species of

periods of time
Punctuated equilibrium: Species remain

essentially unchanged (equilibrium) for extended
periods of time. These periods of equilibrium are
punctuated by quick periods of significant change.
The environment doesnt consciously select an organism as best. Those organisms that have
adaptations that best suit them to the environment are more likely to survive to the reproductive age. If
these individuals are more likely to successfully reproduce, their genes will more likely be passed on in
the population. This is natural selection. The population will then evolve (descent with modification).
Remember that individuals are selected while populations evolve. These are the basic ideas of Charles
Darwin in modern biological language.
Evidence for Evolution

Sickle Cell Anemia & the heterozygote advantage:
Due to a genetic mutation coding for a single amino acid, the surface of deoxyhemoglobin becomes sticky resulting
in the characteristic shape of sickled cells. Those with two recessive alleles (ss) will display significant symptoms
of the disease while those that are heterozygous will display few symptoms. In addition, it just so happens that an
individual carrying any s alleles will incur resistance to malaria. Those that are SS will likely still be susceptible to
malaria. It is therefore advantageous for an individual in the tropics to be a heterozygote so as to have minor effects
from sickle cell trait, while still maintaining resistance to malaria. Because of this ancestral heterozygote advantage,
African Americans are more than two orders of magnitude more likely to have sickle cell anemia than a Caucasian.
Peppered Moths:
The classic peppered moth lends evidence that camouflage results in increased likelihood that a prey may go
undetected by the predator. Because this prey lives to reproductive age, the genes responsible for these
nonconspicuous colors will be passed on to offspring resulting in a gene frequency change in the population. The
camouflaged moth population will increase dramatically while those populations that are not camouflaged will
decrease dramatically.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria:

When a large population of bacteria is treated with antibiotics, a small number of bacteria may be resistant. These
bacteria may then pass plasmids coding for resistance to neighboring bacteria rendering them resistant (process of
transformation). If this process continues with antibiotic #2, #3, etc. there will eventually exist a population that is
resistant to all antibiotics. This process is currently being observed in hospitals. Some species of Staphylococcus
are currently resistant to all but one antibiotic, vancomycin.
Fossil record:
Much evidence for evolution can be found in the fossil record (radioactive dating, strata layers). The fossil record
consistently corroborates the chronological sequence of descent with modification (evolution).
Biogeography:
The geographic distribution of species is such that species tend to be more closely related to other species occupying
a similar niche in a different area. This is most easily recognized in island communities as many species are found
only on a particular island, but are closely related to species found on the nearest mainland for example.
Homologies:
Similarities resulting from common ancestry can be seen at many levels:
DNA & protein: Closer relatives have more similar molecules, with more similar nucleotide sequences for those
molecules. Sequences for cytochrome c (cellular respiration) and hemoglobin for example can be compared to once
again corroborate the chronological sequence of evolution. Those species that are more closely related also carry
more similar genetic sequences. In addition, it is significant that a bioluminescent gene from a jellyfish for example
can be inserted into a bacterium resulting in a bioluminescent bacterium. The genetic code itself is universal.
Homologous structures (anatomy):
Vestigial structures are those structures that no longer have significant importance to the function of the organism.
These remnants of structures from deep in the fossil record will be represented as hips in a whale, the human
appendix, eye bulbs on a blind cave dwelling grotto salamander, etc.
Multiple Choice
Questions 1-3 refer to the following evolutionary terms
(A) Adaptive radiation
(B) allopatric speciation
(C) non-random mating
(D) genetic drift
(E) polyploidy
1. The tendency of small populations to become homozygous for a trait strictly by chance
2. A great variety of diversely adapted individuals evolving from a single ancestor
3. Due to geographic isolation
4. Hardy-Weinberg states that a population will maintain stable allelic frequencies if each of the
following is true EXCEPT:
(A) there are frequent mutations
(B) there is no immigration and emigration
(C) there is random mating
(D) there is a large population size
(E) there is random reproductive success
5. Changes that occur in relatively quick bursts is a representation of which of the following?
(A) Allopatric speciation
(B) Sympatric speciation
(C) Gradualism
(D) Punctuated equilibrium
(E) Convergent evolution
6. All of the following statements would be consistent with Darwins view of natural selection
EXCEPT:
(A) more offspring are born than can actually survive
(B) individuals with traits favorable for survival are more likely to survive and reproduce
(C) traits are passed from parents to offspring
(D) mutations most often result in favorable traits that lead to increased rates of survival
(E) variations exist among members of the same species
Questions 7-8 refer to the following microbiology experiment. The agar plate represents a lawn of S.
aureus growth that was exposed to 3 disks each containing different antibiotics A, B, and C. Bacterial
growth is represented in gray. The absence of bacterial growth is represented in white.
7. Which of the following best summarizes the results?

I.
Antibiotic C is lethal to S. aureus.
II.
Antibiotics A and B display coevolution
III.
Antibiotics A and B are lethal to S. aureus.
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and II only
(E) II and III only
8. Which of the following is the best explanation of these results?
(A) Antibiotic A and B represent some of the oldest, most common antibiotics.
(B) Antibiotics A and B are both contaminated.
(C) S. aureus has become resistant to antibiotic C through natural selection.
(D) S. aureus is able to extract nutrients from antibiotic C.
(E) The above is an example of mechanical isolation.
9. A certain homozygous phenotype occurs in 16% of a specific population. Assuming that all 5 HardyWeinberg criteria are met, what percentage of the population is heterozygous?
(A) 84%
(B) 58%
(C) 52%
(D) 48%
(E) 24%
10. The frequency of a certain recessive allele in a population is found to be 0.30. What percentage of the
next generation would be expected to display the dominant phenotype?
(A) 91%
(B) 70%
(C) 49%
(D) 30%
(E) 9%
Free Response
1. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium and evolution are related concepts. In a certain population, the frequency
of a particular recessive allele (b) is 0.30.
A. Describe the overarching idea of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and explain how evolution affects
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
B. What is the frequency of each of the following?

i.
Homozygous dominant genotype
ii.
Heterozygous genotype
iii.
Homozygous recessive genotype
C. After 10 generations, the frequency of the dominant allele (B) is determined to be 0.60. What can
be concluded about this population? Justify statements mathematically and describe conditions
that may explain why this is the case.
Free Response
2. Evolution is the cornerstone of biology.
A. Choose 3 of the topics listed, describe each and explain how each provides evidence of
evolution.
i.
Sickle cell anemia
ii.
Cytochrome c
iii.
Peppered moth experiment
iv.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria
B. Describe the concepts of both gradualism and punctuated equilibrium separately. Explain what
evidence one would expect to find in the fossil record to support each of the two theories.

AP Biology: Evolution & Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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Evolution & Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

2. No migration can occur

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

3. No mutation can occur

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Hardy-Weinberg Problems: Tracking changes in gene frequencies

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Hardy-Weinberg Example Problem:

What percentage of the alleles present in the population is dominant?

What percentage of the population is homozygous dominant?

What percentage of the population is heterozygous?

What percentage of the population brown?

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

How might new species come about?

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Tempo of Speciation: Gradualism & Punctuated Equilibrium

Gradualism: slow, steady change in species of

Punctuated equilibrium: Species remain

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Evidence for Evolution

Antibiotic resistant bacteria:

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

7. Which of the following best summarizes the results?

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

B. What is the frequency of each of the following?

Evolution &Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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