BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

SUBMISSION 2

SIDDHARTH AGARWAL
32/11

The skeleton construction which has increasingly been used since the turn of the
century has inevitably given rise to new possibilities for the facade. The size, shape
and number of windows were no longer limited by structural requirements following
the introduction of curtain facades, since the loads were now primarily transmitted by
posts and columns.
DESIGN
Todays modern facades are characterized by external wall elements equal to one
floor in height and inserted
between the respective structural floors.
Non-supporting metal facades suspended in front of the building have increasingly
become established for economic reasons, particularly in high-rise construction.
The scope for design is enlarged by coloured or mirrored window panels and linings of
natural stone, ceramic tiles or brick. Almost any desired appearance can be produced.
TECHNICAL PROPERTIES
The panes are made of high-grade glass filled with noble gases or with a surface
coating that reflects infrared
light. On the inside, modern facades are highly impermeable to water and water
vapour in order to prevent damage due to moisture.
Modern facades also require a sophisticated ventilation and cooling system. The airconditioned or twin facade is a case in point. Here an additional facade of laminated
glass is arranged in front of the conventional facade, thus creating a space through
which air can circulate. More complex ventilation concepts for routing air into and out
of the building may be realized by including additional vertical and horizontal
bulkheads. Individually controlled ventilation flaps are capable of providing a more
natural and far less complex exchange of air.
PRODUCTION AND ASSEMBLY
The frames, glazing, parapet lining, sunshades and anti-glare finish, as well as thermal
insulation and sealing are all assembled into single-storey facade elements in the
manufacturers plant.
In many cases, such technical equipment parts as radiators, air outlets and the
ducting for electrical and electronic equipment are also already integrated at this
stage.
In the meantime, fixing elements can be mounted on the shell of the high-rise
building. These elements can usually be displaced in three planes to compensate the
dimensional tolerances occurring in the shell.
The facade elements as such are fitted without the help of scaffolding, thus greatly
reducing the time required for this work.
The frame profiles are assembled with labyrinthine indentations to compensate the
deformation arising in the building as a result of wind and live loads, as well as
temperature differences. Permanently elastic rubber profiles ensure that the facade
remains impermeable to air and water.

TYPES OF FACADE
UNITISED FACADE SYSTEMS
Whereas the majority of curtain wall systems are constructed on site as stick systems
with linear framing components and planar infills, unitised systems entail factory
fabrication and assembly to large panels and may include glazing. These completed
units are mounted to the primary structure of the building.
The benefits are fabrication in controlled interior environments and faster on-site
installation times. A disadvantage can be greater use of materials and greater
logistical effort. Today, large buildings or areas with high labour costs benefit the most
economically.
STRUCTURAL GLAZING
Structural -Glazing (SG) or Structural-Sealant-Glazing (SSG) describes a curtain wall
system in which the glass panes are fixed to the frame by a glue or sealant. Pressure
plates and screwed connections that press the glass panes onto the rebate gaskets
are needed.
The self-weight of the glass panes is typically transferred to the frame by hidden
mechanical devices. Glass panes can even be used to stiffen the faade
structure.
DOUBLE FACADE
A double faade or double-skin facade is a faade system that consists of two skins
placed in such a way that air flows in the intermediate cavity. Typically, insulated glass
units form the inner skin and the outer skin are made of single glass layers but other
constellations are possible.
The ventilation of the cavity can be natural, fan supported or mechanical. Apart from
the type of ventilation inside the cavity, the origin and destination of the air can differ
depending mostly on climatic conditions, the use, the location, the occupational hours
of the building and the HVAC strategy.
FRAMELESS FACADE
A frameless faade consists mainly of single glass panes or insulated glass units
without framing elements. Instead, the necessary joints between the glass panes are
closed by backfill elements and silicone sealants.
The glass panes are directly connected to structural load bearing components on the
inside or the outside.
POLYVALENT WALL

The Polyvalent Wall is a vision for a new faade type. It was intended to be built up
from different layers on top of a glass layer to act as absorber, radiator, reflector, filter
and transfer device at the same time, and needed to operate at a molecular level
rather than at a mechanical level.
It also includes sensing nodes and a local micro brain, connected to a central
processor, to assure that the faade reacts to permanently changing external and
internal conditions.

Historic curtain walls

Rolled-steel construction: The Palm House

Detail of connection between colum and main structure

Side elevation of the Palm Houset

The main structure of the faade consists of I-shaped, bent wrought-iron beams with a height of 22.8cm and a
length of 3.6m bolted together to form beams of an overall length of 12.8m. The distance of this main grid is
3.81m.
It is subdivided by wroughtiron
and cold bent mullions that follow the entire length of the quadrant shaped envelope.

Sketch of mullion, Palm House

Detailed function structure of the faade of the Palm House

Standard steel profiles: Crown Hall

The column-free space of 66m by 36m was created by a construction suspended from
a 18m grid of 36m spanning beams.
The building shows a metal-glass faade. It is not a curtain wall because it
forms an integral part of the external load-bearing structure of the building.
Its functionality is very basic compared to modern curtain walling systems. It acts as a
weather shield with a high level of transparency. The insulation capacity is very
limited and sun-shading is only provided by internal sun screens; actually separated
from the faade.
The detail shows that it is composed of standard steel profiles and glass sheets that
are fixed by putty and steel glazing beads.
The entire faade is assembled on-site and the different parts are joined by welding
and screwing.

Detailed exterior and interior views show welded connections. Only glass beads are
fixed by screws

FAADE DETAIL
The main structure is composed of I-beams, L-profiles and flat irons. These form an integral
structure.
The putty serves several functions: It allows movement, helps fixing the glass panes and seals
the system. The glazing beads are decoupled by being screwed into place; they allow the
glass panes to be exchanged in case of damage.

Contemporary curtain wall faades and components

In terms of the structural concept) defines three main areas of construction for
curtain walls:

Primary structure forming the main load-bearing structure of the

building
Secondary structure, which is the load-bearing structure for the faade
(curtain wall) and constitutes the connecting element between levels one
and three
Infill elements
The primary structure takes on the load-bearing function of the entire building and
transfers the loads from the faade to the foundation.
The secondary structure comprises the load-bearing structure of the faade. It
transfers its loads onto the primary structure.
At this interface to the interior the differing movements of the structure of the
building and the faade need to be balanced.
The structure of the building usually falls under the subcontract for concrete work
whereas the faade is assigned to the metal subcontract.
At the same time, infill elements such as glazing, panels etc. are mounted on the
secondary structure.

General layout of curtain walls, primary, secondary structure, infills and interfaces
between them

CURTAIN WALL SYSTEM

Perspective of a typical cross joint of a curtain wall

Horizontal detail section of curtain wall

Assembling a curtain wall on-site

Curtain wall with pre-assembled ladder`

UNITISED SYSTEMS
Unitised faade systems belong to the family of curtain walls but follow a slightly
different strategy. In order to be able to manufacture the faade in the workshop, it is
built in components.
Therefore, a sectional interface needs to be introduced that allows the connection of
the components on-site.

Assembling a unitised
system

The unitised approach results in a different constructional strategy:

Instead of a mullion, a more complex frame system is needed. The size of the
combined frames is usually bigger than that of a single mullion, and more material is
needed to stiffen the units during transport.
But still, especially for large and complex projects unitised systems can result in
overall cost savings.

FRAMELESS SYSTEMS
With the curtain walling system being complex and, in terms of thermal insulation, the
weakest spot in faades, frameless structures made from insulated glass units seem a
logical step. Glass panes come in limited sizes; which is a disadvantage but is also
useful in terms of handling the parts.
They need to be joined with water, wind and moisture tight connections.
These connections should also have appropriate thermal qualities.
The glass panes have to be connected to a load-bearing structure. This
connection has to allow tolerances and movement.
One type of frameless systems is the so called Frog hand or Spider
faade.
Several systems exist on the market, which include the construction of the structural
spider

and the point fixing.

The connection between spider and point fixing has to handle tolerances and
movement, and the connection is a typical slot interface. After being bolted to the
inner or inner and outer glass pane, the point fixings are integrally glued to the glass.

DOUBLE FAADES
The traditional arrangement of functions within the physical faade space is either
side-by-side, layered or a combination of both. The insulated glass unit, uses a
strategy of layering on the element level - double faades on the level of building
parts.
With double faade, the construction is extended by a second glass layer
that acts like a rain and wind shield to protect the sun-shading system. This
can be very important for high rise buildings.
Outside sun-shading systems are very efficient and will still be in operation under
high wind loads.
Double faades are also used to block traffic noise or to allow natural ventilation of
buildings. In winter, they can provide an additional thermal layer.
However, the concept brings with it several downfalls: The cavity works like a
greenhouse and needs controlled ventilation to prevent overheating.

Condensation on the inner side of the outer glass pane can occur, if windows are
opened in the inner, thermally insulated layer during cold outside conditions. Cleaning
costs are high.
This is why double faades only make sense in noisy locations or for high rise
buildings where the investment is justified.

There are different climatic strategies for double faades:

The cavity can be separated horizontally in extension of the floor slabs .

Each faade unit of the RWE Tower is individually ventilated (box faade).

The second skin of the Ramboll building forms one cavity (chimney faade) and is not
unitised.

But alternating concepts are conceivable as well. They have boxed windows in
combination with single layer areas that have direct operable parts.

View A showing horizontal and vertical wall joints and splicing layout

CONNECTION DETAILS BETWEEN LOAD-BEARING FAADES

DETAIL A

DETAIL B

Connection Details between Window Unit with Supporting Wall

DETAIL C

1.

PC window wall with beam

2.
PC wall
3.
In-situ concrete

joint
4.

Rebars from PC wall

1.
2.
3.
4.

PC beam for bay window

PC wall
In-situ concrete joint
Rebars from PC wall

DETAIL D

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN PRECAST FAADES/ WALL

PANELS AND FLOOR SLAB

The connections at the horizontal joints between precast faades/ wall panels
are often connected by means of dowel connection, particularly for load bearing
wall.

Core holes within the wall panel are formed using proprietary splice sleeve or
corrugated pipe sleeves.

These holes together with the vertical continuity bars are filled with grout after
wall installation.

As for the connection between the precast faade/ wall with floor slab, the use
of starter bars for bridging and continuity is commonly adopted as illustrated in
the following figures.

Connections between Precast Slab Panels and with Other

Supporting Structures

Connection between precast full slab panels

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PC full Slab
Bottom rebars from PC slab
In-situ joint
Top rebars from PC slab
Rebars placed on site

Connection between precast full slab panels using cast in-situ pour strip
1.
2
3.
4.

PC full slab
Rebars from PC slab
In-situ pour strip
Rebars placed on site